INCHOE2004 Proceedings

Third Indian National Conference on
HARBOUR AND OCEAN ENGINEERING

7 - 9 December 2004
INCHOE 2004
Dona Paula, Goa, India
VOLUME ONE VOLUME TWO
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF OCEANOGRAPHY Disclaimer

DONA PAULA, GOA, INDIA
©2004 National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa, India
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VOLUME ONE
ISBN: 81-902109-0-4
Editors Dr. S. Mandal, Scientist, NIO, Goa

Dr. V. Sanil Kumar, Scientist, NIO, Goa
Mr. S. Jaya Kumar, Scientist, NIO, Goa
Editorial Assistance Mr. S.P. Sharma, Mr. Arun Y Mahale

Production Ms. Smita G Bhandari, Mr. Shankar Subhedar,
Ms. Kirti A Naik
Printed by
Mr. Tarak Choudhury, M/s Mudran Printers, Bhuttem Bhat, Merces,Goa
Publishers
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ISBN: 81-902109-0-4

PROCEEDINGS - VOLUME ONE
Editors
S. Mandal
V. Sanil Kumar
S. Jaya Kumar
December 2004
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF OCEANOGRAPHY

DONA PAULA - 403004, GOA, INDIA
SPONSORS
Elcome Surveys, Mumbai
Gujarat Adani Port Ltd., Ahmedabad
Indomer Coastal Hydraulics (P) Ltd., Chennai
Mormugao Port Trust, Goa
National Institute of Ocean Technology, Chennai
R.K. Katadi Marine Operators & Engineering, Kakinada
CO-SPONSORS
Alkyon Hydraulic Consultancy & Research, The Netherlands
Andaman Laskhadweep Harbour Works, Port Blair
Centre for Earth Science Studies, Thiruvananthapuram
Chennai Port Trust, Chennai
DHI (India) Water & Environment Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi
Dredging Corporation of India, Visakhapatnam
Garware-Wall Ropes Limited, Pune
Gujarat Heavy Chemicals Ltd., Gujarat
Kandla Port Trust, New Kandla
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai
Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai
Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited, New Delhi
PPN Power Generating Company Ltd., Chennai
Tuticorin Port Trust, Tuticorin
iii
FOREWORD
The last 25 years have seen a dramatic increase in development of coastal waters of India:
enlargement of harbours and building of new ones; erection of offshore platforms; construction
of pipelines; etc. A major jump in these activities occurred with growth in exploration for oil and
gas in deep waters. During this time of increase in application of ocean engineering tools to
the Indian coastal region, the series of Indian National Conferences on Ocean Engineering
(INCOE) served as a place for the engineers interested in this field to meet, discuss current
issues, and plan for the future. The first INCOE was held at the Indian Institute of Technology
(IIT), Madras, in February 1981, the second at Central Water and Power Research Station
(CWPRS), Pune, in 1983, the third at IIT Bombay in 1986, and the fourth at the National
Institute of Oceanography, Goa in 1991.
Another platform that served a purpose similar to that of INCOE was the National Conferences
on Dock and Harbour Engineering. These were held at IIT Bombay in 1985, at IIT Madras in
1987, and at KREC, Surathkal, in 1989.
In 1994, the two conferences were brought together to form the Indian National Conferences
on Harbour and Ocean Engineering (INCHOE). The first of these was held at CWPRS, Pune,
and the second at Centre for Earth Science Studies, Thiruvanathapuram, in 1997. The third,
INCHOE2004, is being held at National Institute of Oceanography, Goa during 7-9 December
2004.
The proceedings of INCOE2004, with 103 papers, have been brought out in two volumes. They
bring into focus India’s contributions in the field of harbour and ocean engineering. Participa-
tion of international experts in INCOE2004 brings to the conference a wider perspective. It is
hoped that the proceedings will serve as a document useful to scientists, engineers, academi-
cians and planners interested in coastal development in general, and in activities along the
Indian coastline in particular.
Dr S R Shetye
Director, NIO, GOA
iv
FROM THE EDITORS
The proceedings of the third Indian National Conference on Harbour and Ocean Engineering
(INCHOE2004) contain 103 papers in two volumes. All the papers were reviewed by the Tech-
nical Review Committee before acceptance. Invited lecture papers are printed as received.
The effort of the Technical Review Committee members who have taken lot of pains in review-
ing the extended abstracts and the full papers, and giving their valuable comments is greatly
acknowledged. We appreciate and thank all the authors for their co-operation in submitting
the papers as well as revised versions in time. Our heartfelt gratitude and thanks are to all the
sponsoring agencies of the conference without whose support this proceedings would not
have seen light.
We are indebted to Mr. Vijaykumar Vidhyadharan and Mr. SPN Jakhi for providing help in
computer software and the conference website. We gratefully acknowledge the secretarial
assistance provided by Ms. Smita G Bhandari, Mr. Rajaram A Patil and the services rendered
by Mr. Ganesh N Naik and Mr. Tilu J Kundaikar.
We thank the INCHOE2004 Advisory and Local Organising Committee members for organising
and making this conference possible.
The staff of the Ocean Engineering Division, Publication & Reprography, Director’s office and
Administration are also thanked for their valuable help at various stages of the publication of
these volumes.
S. Mandal
V. Sanil Kumar
S. Jaya Kumar
v
ADVISORY COMMITTEE LOCAL ORGANISING COMMITTEE
Dr. R.A. Mashelkar, DG, CSIR - Patron Dr. S.R. Shetye - Chairman
Dr. Harsh K Gupta, Secy, DOD - Chairman Dr. S. Mandal - Organising Secretary
Dr. M. Baba, CESS Mr. S. Jaya Kumar - Jt. Secretary
Prof. M. Ravindran, NIOT Mr. D. Ilangovan - Jt. Secretary
Dr. P. C. Pandey, NCAOR Dr. V. Sanil Kumar - Convenor
Dr. Radhakrishnan, INCOIS Mr. K. Ashok Kumar - Treasurer
Dr. L.K. Ghosh, CWPRS Dr. M.D. Zingde
Dr. N.P.S. Varde, DST,Govt. of Goa Dr. M.R. Nayak
Prof. C. Zimmermann, Germany Dr. P. Vethamony
Prof. Terry Healy, New Zealand Mr. S.G. Diwan
Prof. Chang E Soon, Singapore Dr. Elgar S Desa
Prof. V. Sundar, IITM Dr. N.M. Anand
Dr. J.S. Moeller, Denmark
Chairman - Mormugao Port Trust
Dr. S.R. Shetye, NIO - Convenor
TECHNICAL REVIEW COMMITTEE
Prof. Datta T.K., Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi.

Prof. Deo M.C, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai.
Prof. Hegde A.V, National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal.
Prof. Mani J.S. Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai.
Prof. Ramachandran S, Institue of Ocean Management, Chennai.
Prof. Ramesh R, Institue of Ocean Management, Chennai.
Prof. Sen D, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur.
Prof. Sundar V., Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai.
Prof. Vendhan C.P, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai.
Prof. Venkataramana K, National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal.
Dr. Chandramohan P.V, Kandla Port Trust, Kandla.
Dr. Kurain N.P, Centre for Earth Science Studies, Thiruvananthapuram.
Dr. Murali K., Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai.
Dr. Nayak M.R., National Institute of Oceanography, Donapaula, Goa.
Dr. Neelamani S, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai.
Dr. Poonawala I.Z, Central Water and Power Research Station, Pune.
Dr. Prasad Rao C.V.K, Naval Physical & Oceanographic Laboratory, Kochi.
Dr. Purandare U.V, Central Water & Power Research Station, Pune.
Dr. Sannasiraj S.A, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai.
Dr. Shailesh Nayak, Space Application Centre, Ahmedabad.
Dr. Vethamony. P, National Institute of Oceanography, Donapaula, Goa.
Mr. Ilangovan D, National Institute of Oceanography, Donapaula, Goa.
Mr. Ramanamurthy M.V, ICMAM, Dept. of Ocean Development, Chennai.
Mr. Sanjeev Dhar, Consulting Engineering Services, New Delhi.
vi
CONTENTS OF VOLUME ONE
Temporal variation of upwelling during pre-monsoon off east coast of India

Rao A.D., Sujata Dash and Babu S.V. 1
Beach dynamics of an open coast on the west coast of India

Jayakumar S., Raju NSN and Gowthaman R 9
Numerical modelling of tidal circulation in the Gulf of Kachchh including Kandla creek, west coast
of India
Jena G K., Sinha P C., Rao A D and Jain Indu 17
Beach profile studies along the south west coast of India

Kunhimannu Paravath 25
Design wave prediction along the coast of India

Kudale M D., Kanetkar C N and Poonawala I Z. 31
Simulation of warm water dispersion in coastal environment

Kanetkar C N., Kothandaraman A L., Patil B M., Ranganath L R. and Manivanan R. 40
Shoreline changes along the Poompuhar and Tranquebar coasts of Tamil Nadu
Suresh P K., Panneer selvam D., Nagaraj G and Jayapalan M. 49
Mathematical modeling study of design parameters for submarine pipeline at Gulf of Kachchh
Chandramohan P., Rao D P. and Senthil Pandi P. 56
Prediction of extreme wind speed for Kuwait

Neelamani S. and Layla Al-Awadhi 64
Influence of crest width on hydraulic performance of submerged reef

Kiran G Shirlal, Subba Rao and Venkata Ganesh 73
Wave runup and rundown studies on berm breakwater with reduced armour weight
Subba Rao, Subrahmanya K., Chandramohan V R., Radheshyam B. and Balakrishna Rao K. 81
Study of littoral transport along Dakshina Kannada coast, Karnataka

Subba Rao, Kiran G Shirlal, Radheshyam B. and Mahaganesha K. 89
Modelling wave surge interactions

Sen G K. and Chatterjee M. 96
Estimation of wave characteristics during hurricane in the Hoian area, Central Vietnam
Mau Le Dinh, Sanil Kumar V., Nayak G N. and Mandal S. 105
vii
Sustainable beach protective measure along Digha-Shankarpur coast on Bay of Bengal
Bhandari Gupinath 114
Wind and climatology wave along the eastern coasts of the mediterranean
Weiss Matti and Ron Schreier 122
Coastline change monitoring : comparison of georeferenced graphical cadastry with data from
multiple sources
Ramachandran K K., Kannan M R., Rajesh K., John Mathai and Samsuddin M. 130
Deltaic shoreline evolution

Snigdha Ghatak and Sen G K. 139
Morphodynamic state of Mudga beach, west coast of India

Hanamgond P T. 148
Monitoring of a lagoon system in Kuwait

Rakha K A. and Al-Hulail F. 158
Shoreline oscillations caused by Port - Methods of assessment and evaluation

Ramanamurthy M V., Subramanian B R. and Mani J S. 165
Tidal currents as feeders of the river Indus flux into the macrotidal Gulf of Kuchchh, India
Chauhan O S., Jayakumar S., Menezes A., Suneethi J., Shradha N., Rajawat A S., Nayak S R.,
Ramanamurthy M V. and Subramanian B R. 174
Assesment of wave modeling results with buoy altimeter deep water waves for a summer monsoon
Sudheesh K., Vethamony P., Babu M T. and Jayakumar S. 184
A model for shoreline management

Ramanamurthy M V., Bhat M S., Pari Y and Subramanian B R. 193
Reliability of stiffened cylindrical shells

Radha P. and K. Rajagopalan 205
Dynamic behaviour of an external turret moored FPSO system by VALM arrangement with 2 lines
in regular waves
Rajesh Kannah T. and Natarajan R. 212
Performance of floating wave energy device with varying tidal conditions

Neelamani S., Natarajan R. and Prasanna D L. 221
Experimental p-y curves for caissons in marine clay

Darga Kumar N., Narasimha Rao S. and Sundar V. 231
viii
Reliability of offshore jacket structure with rigorous modeling of soil-pile system
Aruna Kumari G. and Rajagopalan K. 240
Influence of bulbous bow on the resistance characteristics of a catamaran

Balasubramanyam Y. and Natarajan R. 248
Slamming forces on an open sea mooring dolphin with battered piles

Neelamani S. and Bhaskaran P. 256
Computation of wave loads on floating structures

Singh S P., and Dhavalikar S. 266
Sea-keeping characteristics during initial design

Debabrata Sen, Saumya Sengupta and Subhendu Maity 274
Reliability assessment of TLP tethers under impulsive loading

Khan R A., Siddiqui N A., Naqvi SQA. and Ahmad S. 283
Experimental investigation on the takeoff performance of a WIG craft

Vimal Doss J. and Natarajan R. 291
RBSO of stiffened cylindrical shell with ring buckling mode of failure

Manorama V. 296
Reliability of offshore jacket for different bracing configurations

Ramesh Babu M. and Rajagopalan K. 305
Dynamic behaviour of coupled OTEC platform-cold water pipe system

Venkata Subbaiah A., Sundaravadivelu R. and Anantha Subramanian V 310
Offshore triangular TLP behavior under random sea using iterative frequency domain method
Chandrasekharan S., Jain A K. and Chandak N R. 315
Ternary blend concrete for marine structures

Kshemendra Nath and Charles S Jones 326
Application of geotextile and gabions for shore protection against erosion along south west coast
of India
Sundaravadivelu R., Sundar V., Nagabhushan N. and Kamesh Arun K. 334
Strength characteristics of low calcium flyash concrete exposed to marine environment

Vijaykumar V. and Jayakumar S 340
Experimental study on wave slamming forces on horizontal circular members in intertidal zone
Hariprasad V., Neelamani S. and Sundaravadivelu R. 352
ix
Diffraction analysis of a semi-submersible platform
Shashikala A P. 363
Dynamic analysis of a taut mooring system

Arshad Umar, Naqvi SQA. , Seema and Datta T K. 373
Some durability studies on silicafume - admixed marine concrete mixes

Narasimhan M C., Nazeer M., Rajeeva S V., Murthy K R C. and B. Ramesh 382
Hydrodynamic behaviour of parallel Submarine pipelines near a sloping boundary

Vijayakumari P L., Murali K . and Sundar V. 391
Correlation coefficient incorporated joint distribution model for wave heights and periods
and estimation of design wave height parameters
Praveen V K., Satheesh S P., Muraleedharan G. and Kurup P G. 398
Application of gamma and erlang statistical models for zero up-crossing and significant
wave period distributions
Jagadish Kumar V., Muraleedharan G. and Kurup P G. 409
Wave loads on a perforated circular caisson and suction pipe of a seawater intake well
Vijayalakshmi K., Neelamani S., Murali K. and Sundaravadivelu R 422
Application of interface tracking methods in ocean engineering

Behera M R. and Murali K. 434
A polar method for obtaining resonating quadruplets in computation of nonlinear wave-wave

interactions
Prabhakar V. and Pandurangan J. 443
Comparison of physical model test with numerical 3d-simulations at a movable gate of a large storm
surge barrier
Scheffermann Jens, Zimmermann Claus and Matheja Andreas 449
x
AUTHOR INDEX
A J
Ahmad S., 283 Jagadish Kumar V., 409
Al-Hulail Faisal, 158 Jain A K., 315
Anantha Subramanian V., 310 Jain Indu, 17
Arshad Umar, 373 Jayakumar S., 9, 340
Aruna Kumari G., 240 Jayapalan M., 49
Jena G K., 17
B
Babu M R., 305 K
Babu S V., 1 Kamesh Arun K., 334
Balakrishna Rao K., 81 Kanetkar C N., 31, 40
Balasubramanyam Y., 248 Kannan M R., 130
Behera M R., 434 Khan R A., 283
Bhandari Gupinath, 114 Kosyad Ruben D.
Bhaskaran P., 256 Kothandaraman A L., 40
Bhat M S., 193 Kshemendra Nath, 326
Kunhimannu Paravath, 25
C Kurup P G., 398, 409
Chandak N R., 315
Chandramohan P., 56 L
Chandramohan V R., 81 Layla Al-Awadhi, 64
Chandrasekharan S., 315
Charles S. Jones, 326 M
Chatterjee M., 96 Mahaganesha K., 89
Maity S., 264, 274
D Mandal S., 762, 105
Darga Kumar N., 231 Manivanan R., 40
Dash Sujatha, 1 Manorama V., 296
Datta T K., 373 Mathai John, 130
Debabrata Sen, 274 Matheja Andreas, 449
Dhavalikar S., 266 Mau Le Dinh, 105
Muraleedharan G., 398, 409
G Murali K., 391, 434, 422
Ghatak Snigdha, 140 Murthy K R C., 382
Gowthaman R., 9
N
H Nagabhushan N., 92
Hanamgond P T., 148 Nagaraj G., 49
Hariprasad V., 352 Naqvi S Q A, 283, 373
Narasimha Rao S., 231
Narasimhan M C., 382
Natarajan R., 212, 221, 248, 291 Sen G K., 96, 139
Nayak G N., 105 Sengupta S., 274
Nayak S R., 174 Senthil Pandi P., 56
Nazeer M., 382 Shashikala A P., 363
Neelamani S., 221, 422, 256, 64, 352 Shirlal Kiran G., 73, 89
Shradha N., 174
P Siddiqui N A., 283
Pandurangan J., 443 Singh S P., 266
Panneer Selvam D., 49 Sinha P C., 17
Pari Y., 193 Subrahmanya K., 81
Patil B M., 40 Subramanian B R., 193, 174
Poonawala I Z., 31 Sundar V., 391, 231, 334
Prabhakar V., 443 Sundaravadivelu R., 422, 310, 334, 352,
Pramod V., 130 Suresh P K., 49
Prasanna D L., 221
Praveen V K., 398 V
V. Doss J., 291
R Venkata Ganesh, 73
Radha P., 205 Venkata Subbaiah, 310
Radheshyam B., 81, 89 Vijayakumari P L., 391
Rajagopalan K., 205, 240, 296, 305 Vijayalakshmi K., 422
Rajawant A S., 174 Vijaykumar V., 340
Rajeeva S V., 382
Rajesh K., 130 W
Rajesh Kannah T., 212 Weiss Matt, 122
Raju N S N., 9
Rakha K A., 158 Z
Ramachandran K K., 130 Zimmermann Claus, 449
Ramanamurthy M V., 193, 174
Ramesh B., 382
Ranganath L R., 40
Rao A D., 1, 17
Rao D P., 56
Rao Subba, 73, 81, 89
S
Samsuddin M., 130
Sanil Kumar V., 105
Satheesh S P., 398
Scheffermann Jens, 449
Schreier Ron, 122
Seema, 373
3rd Indian National Conference on Harbour & Ocean Engineering,
NIO, Goa, December 7-9, 2004
TEMPORAL VARIATION OF UPWELLING DURING

PRE-MONSOON SEASON OFF EAST COAST OF INDIA
A.D. Rao, Sujata Dash* and S.V. Babu
Centre for Atmospheric Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi-110016
*Defence Terrain Research Lab., Metcalfe House, Delhi-110054
Abstract
A three-dimensional numerical model is developed and used to study the coastal upwelling
processes off the east coast of India. Upwelling, a phenomenon that brings subsurface waters
to the surface, may be visualized as the response of coastal ocean to pure wind-stress
forcing. The model is designed to represent coastal ocean physics by resolving surface and
bottom Ekman layers as realistically as possible. The prognostic variables are the three
components of the velocity, temperature, salinity and turbulent energy. The governing equa-
tions together with their boundary conditions are solved by finite-difference techniques. Ex-
periments are performed to investigate the fluctuations in upwelling and thermal response to
variable wind-stress. It is known from the observational study that the upwelling process is
prevalent in surface waters in May along the east coast of India. The model is forced with
satellite derived real time mean weekly wind-stress forcing of different weeks of May, repre-
senting pre-monsoon season for the year 2000. The results are found to be qualitatively in
good agreement with the satellite inferred SST imageries.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The upwelling process is initiated during pre-monsoon along the coastal waters off the east
coast of India. The possible occurrence of upwelling is evidenced by an observed reduction in
the Sea Surface Temperature (SST) by about 2-3oC near the coast. The clockwise circulation,
which is favourable for upwelling processes over the Bay of Bengal, gets established by March
itself with the weakening of northeast winds. It will be at its peak in May before the monsoon
sets in. Over the Bay of Bengal, the wind-stress associated with pre-monsoon and monsoon
winds causes mass drift of oceanic waters leading to upwelling along the east coast of India.
This is because the south-westerly wind-stress forcing lead to a circulation pattern character-
istic of Ekman-divergence induced upwelling process. The wind-stress forcing gets accentu-
ated during the peak monsoon time of July with nearly the same favourable wind direction.
However, the upwelling process is found to be inhibited because of the effect of freshwater
discharge. The paucity of data precludes one to assess and understand the spatial and
temporal variation of the physical process and upwelling phenomenon that prevails over the
region. Further, the upwelling phenomenon is a transient one over a time scale of 4 to 6 days
(Bowden, 1983). The development and application of a numerical model of the coastal ocean
helps in understanding the same.
*Corresponding author, e-mail: dash_dtrl@rediffmail.com
2.0 MODEL FORMULATION
An appropriate three-dimensional numerical model is based upon that described by Johns et

al. (1991) and further developed by Johns et al. (1992), Rao et al. (1993) and Rao et al. (1995)
in an application to wind-driven upwelling processes in the Bay of Bengal. The model is used
to investigate the dynamics and thermodynamics with parameters appropriate to the region in
which the observations are available. The governing equations and corresponding boundary
conditions are described below.
y =Ly
Paradip
x =b1(y) Puri
Gopalpur
Visakhapatnam
Kakinada
x =b2(y)
y =0 Coastline
Open-sea boundary
Bay of Bengal
Fig. 1. Analysis Area.
The model uses Cartesian coordinates in which the origin, O, is located in the equilibrium level
of the sea surface. Here x and y increasing offshore, alongshore directions respectively and z
vertically upwards. The origin, O, is taken at the mean sea level and at the coast of the
southern open sea boundary. The displaced position of the sea-surface is given by
z = ζ (x, y, t) and the position of sea-floor by z = - h(x, y). The northern and southern open
sea boundaries are situated at y = L y and y = 0. The western coastal boundary is situated
at x = b1 (y) and the eastern open-sea boundary corresponds to x = b2 (y). Fig. 1 depicts
the model analysis area.
The fluid is assumed to be incompressible. Both the Boussinesq and the hydrostatic approxi-
mations with respect to density variations are used. The Reynolds averaged components of
velocity (u,v,w) satisfy the following equations.
2
(1)
ζ
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂ζ g ∂ρ ∂  ∂u 
∂t
+u
∂x
+v
∂y
+w
∂z
− fv = - g −
∂x ρ 0 ∫z ∂x dz + ∂z  K M ∂z 
ζ (2)
∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂ζ g ∂ρ ∂  ∂v 
+u +v +w + fu = - g - ∫ dz +  KM 
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂ y ρo z ∂ y ∂z ∂z 
The continuity equation of an incompressible fluid takes the form either
∂ζ ∂ ∂ (3)
+ (H u ) + (H v) = 0
∂t ∂x ∂y
where u , v denote depth-averaged quantities and are defined as
1 1
u=
( ∫
+ h ) -h
u dz and v =
( + h ) -∫h
v dz
The linear equation of state is of the form
ρ = ρo [ 1 - α(T- To) + δ(S- So) ] (4)
The equation of thermal energy and salinity are given by
∂T ∂T ∂T ∂T ∂  ∂T  (5)
+u +v +w =  KT 
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂z  ∂z 
and
∂S ∂S ∂S ∂S ∂  ∂S  (6)
+u +v +w =  KS 
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂z 
The equation of turbulence energy density is written as
∂E ∂E ∂E ∂E  ∂ u 2  ∂ v 2  ∂  ∂E 
+u +v +w = KM    +   +  KE 
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z   ∂ z   ∂ z   ∂ z  ∂z 
g ∂ρ
+ KD -ε (7)
ρo ∂z
3
where f the Coriolis parameter, ρo is the reference density of water, ρ is the density of water,
g, the acceleration due to gravity, t, the time. Also α is the thermal expansion coefficient taken
as 2.0x10-4 oC-1, δ is the coefficient of expansion for salinity taken as 7.5x10-4 ppt-1. To and So
are reference temperature and salinity respectively. KM, KT, KS, KD and KE are the diffusion
coefficients for momentum, temperature, salinity, vertical exchange of density and turbulence
energy respectively. Boundary conditions to accompany eqs. 5, 6 and 7 are that there is no
diffusion flux of thermal energy, salinity and turbulent energy across the sea floor and the sea
surface. The coefficient of vertical diffusion for momentum, KM, thermal energy, KT, salinity, Ks
and turbulence energy, KE are given by
1 1
(8)
K M =K T = K S = K E = c 4 O E 2
The rate of dissipation of the turbulence energy, ε, in (7) and the turbulence length scale, O, in
(8) are parameterized respectively as
3 3
4 2 (9)
ε=c E
O
and
1
O=
1 1 (10)
+
λ1 λ2
in (10), λ1 and λ 2 have the form λ1 = κ( zos + z1) and λ 2 = κ( z ob + z 2) . where z1 and z2 are
the vertical distances from the sea-surface and the sea-floor respectively. K is Von Karmans
constant, zob the roughness of the sea-floor, zos a parameter related to the roughness of the
sea-surface.
The boundary conditions along the open-sea boundaries are

1
 g 2 (11)
u −  ζ =0 at x = b2 ( y)
h
1
 g 2 (12)
v−  ζ =0 at y = L y
h
1 (13)
 g 2
v+  ζ =0 at y = 0
h
At the eastern boundary, x = 0, the condition is u = 0. (14)
The numerical solution of these equations is obtained by integration ahead in time with the
prescribed wind-stress forcing given for a particular week of a month.
4
3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Numerical experiments are performed for the analysis region that extends from 15.0o N to
21.5o N and of about 200 km width along the coast. With the help of hydrographic charts, a
realistic representation of the overall bathymetry is obtained for the model. Along the x-direc-
tion the first grid point is about 1.3 km from the coastline and the grid spacing increases to
about 6 km near the eastern open-sea boundary. Along the y-direction there is uniform grid
increment of 27 km. All isotherms and isohalines in the model are horizontal before the onset
of wind-stress forcing with stratification representative of pre-monsoon with SST, 28.0oC at
Paradip and 28.7o C at Visakhapatnam. In the experiment, the integration is carried out with all
the dynamical variables initially set to zero.
Ocean winds on 0.5 X 0.5 degree grid from NASA Quik Scatterometer (QSCAT) blended with
National Center for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) are derived for the study. Bilinear/Cubic
spline interpolation is used to bring the initial data fields to the required model resolution.
Using the initial fields and the mean weekly wind-stress, the model is integrated for 4 days for
simulation of ensuing coastal circulation and the associated thermohaline fields. In a 4-day
integration, upwarping of the isotherms is confined to 75% of the cross-shelf analysis zone. It
is found that the propagation of the coastally trapped waves may cause computational prob-
lems if the model integration is beyond 4 days.
The wind-stress forcing during this period is predominantly southwesterly as shown in the Fig.
2(a) and (b), which are for the 2nd and 3rd weeks respectively of May 2000. Fig. 3(a) and (b)
show the simulated surface current for the corresponding weeks. Fig. 4(a) and 5(a) depict the
associated vertical temperature profile off Paradip for 2nd and 3rd weeks of May 2000 whereas
Fig. 4(b) and Fig. 5(b) depict the same for Visakhapatnam. The model results are validated
qualitatively with the SST information derived from TMI Imageries with a spatial resolution of
about 25 km. The three day mean imageries ending with 13th and 22nd May 2000 may be
respectively referred for validation, corresponding to the 2nd and 3rd weeks simulations. The
website for viewing the imageries is given by http://www.remss.com/tmi/tmi_browse.html
It may be seen that the upwelling at Paradip show an enhanced activity in the 3rd week
following the increase in the strength of the wind. The 26.0oC isotherm is cropping up to the
surface in the 3rd week, while in the 2nd week 26.5oC isotherm is seen at the surface. Hence
the model simulation shows a SST reduction of 1.5oC in 2nd week and 2.0oC in 3rd week,
indicating enhanced cooling of 0.5oC in the latter week. At Visakhapatnam, it may be noted
that 26.0oC isotherm outcropped to surface in 3rd week whereas 27.5oC isotherm can be seen
in 2nd week near the coast. So for this location, model simulation shows a SST cooling of
1.2oC in 2nd week and 2.7oC in 3rd week. Hence, a surface cooling of 1.5oC is noted between
the two week simulations at Visakhapatnam. Thus, the model results discussed in Table1
portray enhanced upwelling phenomenon during the 3rd week compared to 2nd at both Paradip
and Visakhapatnam.
5
1100 1100
1000
D ham ra (a) 2nd w eek 1 0 0 0 D ham ra
(b)3rd
900 900
P aradip P a radip
Distance along the coast
800 800
P uri P uri
700 700
G opa lpur G opa lpur
600 600
500 500
400 V isa kha pa tna m V isa kha pa tna m

400
300 Ka kina da 300 Ka kinada
200 0 .1 N m
-2
200 0 .1 N m
-2
100 100
0 0
-1 0 0 0 100 200 -1 0 0 0 100 200
Distance off the coast (km)
Fig. 2. Wind Stress (Nm-2) for May 2000.
(a) 2nd w eek (b)3rd w eek

Distance along the coast
Distance off the coast (km)
Fig. 3. Surface Current (cms-1) for May 2000.
6
Paradip Visakhapatnam
Depth (m)
(a) (b)
Distance from the coast (km)
Fig. 4. Thermal Field (0C) for May 2000 (2nd week).
Paradip Visakhapatnam
Depth (m)
(a) (b)
Distance from the coast (km)
Fig. 5. Thermal Field (0C) for May 2000 (3rd week).
7
This result is qualitatively in concurrence with the TMI imageries, vide the site cited above that
showed an enhanced surface cooling in 3rd week. Thus, the model could capture and also
resolve the transient nature of upwelling reasonably well on a weekly time scale.
Table 1. Temperature drop in (oC).
May 2000 Paradip Visakhapatnam

Temperature at the Temperature at the
surface surface
Initial Model Drop Initial Model Drop
computed computed
2nd week 28.0 26.5 1.5 28.7 27.5 1.2
3rd week 28.0 26.0 2.0 28.7 26.0 2.7
Net drop 0.5 Net drop 1.5
4.0 CONCLUSIONS
Numerical experiments are performed to simulate the thermal structure and corresponding
alongshore velocity field off Paradip and Viskhapatnam. The numerical model is forced with
weekly real time wind-stress of May 2000. There were earlier many studies on coastal up-
welling processes on a monthly scale, however, it is perhaps first time an attempt is made in
the study to look into the variability of the processes on a weekly scale. The computed
thermal field on weekly scales is validated with the available TMI SST imageries. The occur-
rence of coastal upwelling off Paradip is demonstrated first time through a numerical study.
The model simulated thermal structure is qualitatively in good agreement with SST imageries.
REFERENCES
Bowden, K. F. (1983), Physical Oceanography of Coastal Waters, Ellis Horwood Ltd., Halsted Press, 302 pp.
Johns, B., Rao, G.S., Dube, S.K., Sinha, P.C., (1991), An application of a wind driven coastal upwelling model in
the western Bay of Bengal, Conti. Shelf Res., 11, 3, 295-319.
Johns, B., Rao, A.D., Rao, G.S., (1992), On the occurrence of upwelling along the east coast of India, Estuarine
Coast. Shelf Sci., 35, 75-90.
Rao, A.D., Dube, S.K., Sinha, P.C.,(1995), Numerical modeling of coastal upwelling in the Bay of Bengal,
Environment International, 21, 5, 667-670.
Rao, A.D., Sinha, P.C., Dube, S.K., Chamarthi, S., (1993), Numerical simulation of upwelling off Visakhapatnam
on the east coast of India during pre-monsoon months, Proc. Of Indian Academy of Sciences, Earth Planet.
Sci., 102, 3, 465-486.
8
BEACH DYNAMICS OF AN OPEN COAST ON THE WEST

COAST OF INDIA
S. Jaya Kumar1*, N.S.N. Raju2 and R. Gowthaman1
1
Ocean Engineering Division, National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa 403004
2
National Institute of Oceanography, Regional Centre, Visakhapatnam.
Abstract
In order to study the daily beach dynamics at an open beach in Goa, field investigations were
carried out on the beach profiles, breaking wave parameters and long-shore currents for one
month each during pre-monsoon and post-monsoon periods. Three transects on the Calangute
beach, Goa, spaced about 250 m apart were selected. Pre-monsoon breaking wave heights
were observed to be between 0.4 and 1.3 m and the wave period between 5 and 11 s, whereas,
the post-monsoon breaking wave heights were between 0.35 and 1.4 m with the periods
ranging between 8 and 15 s. Pre-monsoon long-shore currents were stronger (max. 1 m/s)
and varying in direction compared to post-monsoon (max. 0.66 m/s) wherein the direction was
predominantly north. Post-monsoon foreshore slopes were found to be mild and the berms
wider compared to the pre-monsoon beaches. Inter-tidal beach sediments in the pre-monsoon
period were coarse compared to post-monsoon sediments. Average estimated long-shore
sediment transport rate in the study region indicates that the gross long-shore sediment
transport was high during pre-monsoon compared to the post-monsoon. The net transport
was southwards and about 0.013x106 m3/year during the pre-monsoon and it was northerly
and about 0.007x106 m3/year during the post-monsoon. Whereas, the average gross transport
rate was 0.02x106 m3/year during the pre-monsoon it was 0.014x106 m3/year during the post-
monsoon.
Keywords: beach profiles, long-shore sediment transport, littoral environmental observations,

beach sediments, breaking waves
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Studies on the beach dynamics provide understanding of the sediment movement and other
related parameters which in turn provide information on the erosion or deposition pattern of the
beach itself. The processes of beach erosion and accretion are seasonal and these pro-
cesses over a long period ultimately result in either building up or recession of the coastline.
Beach profile data provides information on variability of energy conditions of coastal environ-
ment.
Goa, located on the west coast of India has a coastline of about 125 km with more than
seventeen beaches. Most of these are beautiful sandy beaches that attract tourists all over
the world. These beaches are mostly used for recreational purpose. The studies related to
*Corresponding author, e-mail: jay@darya.nio.org
coastal processes and beach dynamics has been widely discussed in the literature (Veerayya,
1972; Murthy et al., 1975; Antony, 1976; Murthy et al., 1982; Wagle, 1987; Anand et al., 1991;
Chandramohan et al., 1997; Chandramohan et al., 1998). Changes in beach morphology
based on profile measurements have been earlier studied along the Goa coast by Veerayya
and Varadachari (1975), Sastry et al., (1979) and Murthy and Veerayya (1985). Earlier studies
carried out in this study region were either at micro-time scales of 30 minutes durations in a
day (Veerayya et al., 1980) or over fortnightly intervals during a month (Veerayya et al, 1982)
or over monthly intervals over a year (Veerayya et al., 1980) or once during a season
(Chandramohan et al, 1997).
For this study, measurements on the beach profiles and littoral environmental parameters at
three transects along the Calangute beach were carried out at daily intervals during February
1999 to March 1999 (pre-monsoon period) and during November 1999 to December 1999
(post-monsoon period). Detailed listing of the profiles and LEO are presented in Jayakumar, et
al. (2001 & 2002).
2.0 STUDY LOCATIONS
Three reference stations were established (S1, S2 and S3) along the beach as shown in Fig.
1. The locations of the starting points (local bench marks) of the beach profiles for different
transects are as follows: Station S1 is located at a distance of about 200 m north of the beach
entrance. The starting point of the beach profile is at the foot of a concrete pillar present on the
backshore region. Few beach shacks are present on the backshore nearer to this station.
Influence of tourists is relatively less at this place compared to that near the entrance of
beach. Station S2 is located about 50 m southwards of the entrance to the beach. The
starting point of the beach profile is at the foot of a concrete platform. As this station is nearer
to the beach entrance, this part is most visited by the tourists. Station S3 is at a distance of
about 250 m south of the entrance to the beach. The starting point of the beach profile is at the
foot of a concrete pillar. This station is not much frequented by tourists but most of the
catamaran-type fishing boats are operated from this stretch of the beach.
3.0 METHODS
Littoral environmental parameters, viz., longshore current speed and direction, breaker height,
breaker period, breaker angle, breaker type and surfzone width were observed daily following
the CERC procedure for LEO program (Schneider, 1981). Magnitude and direction of the
longshore currents were measured by releasing neutrally buoyant plate in the surf-zone. The
distance travelled in 2 minutes was measured to estimate the long-shore current speed. The
direction was taken as positive when the flow is towards the right hand side, while facing the
sea and negative when the flow is towards the left hand side.
Daily variations in the beach profiles from local bench marks on the backshore to about 1 m
10
water depth were measured using ZEISS Automatic survey level and a graduated staff. The
profile variations were measured at 5 m interval where there is little variation and at closer
interval of 1 or 2 m wherever prominent variations along transect are seen. The graduated-staff
readings along transect were reduced to the respective local benchmark and plotted with
distance on the x-axis and reduced levels on the y-axis.
Surface sediments from the foreshore were collected twice during the pre-monsoon period
and twice during the post-monsoon period. The sediments were prepared for analysis by
thoroughly washing with distilled water to remove the dissolved salts and oven dried to remove
the moisture. The sieve analysis of the oven dried sediment samples was carried out as per
standard procedures (IS: 2720 Part IV - 1975).
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Breaking waves

At all the three stations, pre-monsoon breaking wave heights were observed to be between 0.4
and 1.5 m and the breaking wave periods between 5 and 12 s (Fig. 2). Waves were breaking
mostly parallel to the coast and at times with a small angle less than 5° with respect to the
coastline. Post-monsoon observations showed that the breaking wave heights were between
0.4 and 1.3 m with the breaking wave periods ranging between 8 and 15 s (Fig. 2). The waves
were breaking almost parallel to the coast during post-monsoon period. Breaking wave angle
varied between 5° clockwise to the coast and 2° counter-clockwise to the coast was observed
during the pre-monsoon period and it varied between 2° clockwise to the coast and 3° counter-
clockwise to the coast during post-monsoon period. Plunging and spilling type breakers were
mostly observed during both the study periods at all the stations. Occasional spilling or
collapsing type breakers were observed.
Pre-monsoon breaking wave heights were observed to be constant during the first three obser-
vations and increasing during the last two observations indicating an increase in the wave
energy. During the post-monsoon observations, the breaking wave heights did not vary much.
The pre-monsoon breaking wave periods were observed to be varying compared to post-mon-
soon wave periods where it was observed that they were more or less constant.
Variations in the breaking wave angle observed during the pre-monsoon period show that the
waves were breaking clockwise to the coast during the beginning and ending of the study
whereas the waves were breaking counter-clockwise during the middle of the study period.
During the post-monsoon study period, the waves were mostly breaking counter-clockwise to
the coast except towards the end of the study where the waves were breaking clockwise for
three to four days.
11
4.2 Longshore currents
Observations on longshore current speed and direction during pre-monsoon period revealed
that the upto current speed was between 2 and 62 m/minute (0.033 and 1.03 m/s). Longshore
currents of the order of 1.1 m/s were reported earlier by Krishna kumar et al. (1989). During the
post-monsoon, the absolute current speed varied between 2 and 40 m/min for this coast
(0.033 and 0.66 m/s). The long-shore current direction was varying in either direction during
the pre-monsoon period, whereas, it was mostly towards north during the post-monsoon pe-
riod. High variability in direction and speed of longshore currents along Goa coast was earlier
reported by Murthy and Veerayya (1985) based on monthly field observations over a period of
five years. This variability in direction is due to spot observations that represent the prevailing
conditions at that moment. Anand and Chandramohan (1991), based on one year field obser-
vations, reported that the longshore current mostly persisted around 0.4 m/s and was towards
south during pre-monsoon and towards north during post-monsoon.
4.3 Surfzone width

Surfzone width at all the three stations varied from day to day. It was more or less similar on
each day of observation at all the stations. During pre-monsoon observations, the surfzone
width showed a variation between 2 and 60 m, whereas, it was observed to vary between 4 and
15 m during the post-monsoon period. Chandramohan et al., (1997) has reported that the
surfzone width along the Goa beaches was narrow (<10 m) during November to February,
which this study also more or less confirms.
4.4 Beach profiles

Typical pre-monsoon and post-monsoon beach profiles measured at stations S1, S2 and S3
are shown in Fig. 3. The pre-monsoon berms are observed to have a maximum width of 10 m
compared to 20 m during post-monsoon observations. The average width of the beach from the
local benchmark till the berm during the pre-monsoon was observed to be about 30 m whereas
it was about 50 m during the post-monsoon.
During the pre-monsoon studies at station S1, the profiles were observed to be eroding com-
pared to 17th February profile. The profiles at this station during 23rd February, 2nd March and 9th
March were observed to be stable without much change. The last observation on 17th March
showed high level of erosion compared to all other profiles. However, the foreshore slopes of
the 17th February and 17th March profiles were found to be similar.
The pre-monsoon profiles at all the stations except for station S1 show erosion and deposition
occurrence within short periods indicating that the beaches are in a transitional state. The
post-monsoon beach profiles show that the beaches are accreting in the berm region and the
slopes beyond the berm towards the water line are increasing. This is due to the occurrence
12
of short period waves during pre-monsoon and long period waves during post-monsoon sea-
son that the wave energy during the pre-monsoon period is higher compared to that during the
post-monsoon and the building up of beach is in progress.
4.5 Beach sediments

The grain size analysis showed that the median sediment size (D50) of the inter-tidal surface
sediments varies between 0.23 and 0.52 mm during the pre-monsoon period and between
0.20 and 0.27 mm during the post-monsoon. These sediments were mostly of quartz and
were sand sized particles. Surface sediments were coarse during the pre-monsoon and fine
during the post-monsoon. Significant variation in the sediment size was observed at station
S2 with D50 value of 0.195 mm during December and 0.52 mm during March. This variation is
in tune with the beach slopes where the slopes are steep during pre-monsoon and relatively
flat during post-monsoon. The sediment sizes during February are finer than those during
March. This shows that the beach is steeping due to increase in the wave climate and ap-
proach of monsoon. The sediments at all the stations were of similar size in December but
lesser than those in November indicating that the beach is flattening. This shows that the finer
fractions of the sand particles are transported offshore or are kept in suspension during the
pre-monsoon period thereby resulting in coarse sand on the beach. And the onshore move-
ment of these fractions during the post-monsoon period results in a fine sediments on the
beach.
Table 1. Beach sediments D50 values (in mm).
Season Pre-monsoon Post-monsoon

Stn. No. FEB. '99 MAR. '99 NOV. '99 DEC. '99
1 0.290 0.450 0.225 0.200
2 0.230 0.520 0.270 0.195
3 0.330 0.275 0.225 0.195
4.6 Longshore sediment transport

Using Waltons equation (Shore Protection Manual, 1984) the monthly longshore sediment
transport rated are estimated. The average estimated longshore sediment transport rate re-
vealed that the net and gross transport rates of pre-monsoon were higher than the post-
monsoon period and uni-directional at all the stations. The average net transport rate during
pre-monsoon was 0.012x106 m3/year in southerly direction and during the post-monsoon it
was about 0.007x106 m3/year in northerly direction. The reason for occurrence of higher trans-
port rate during pre-monsoon could be the effect of local environmental changes during the
study period. Earlier studies carried out by Anand, et al., (1991), based on one year obser-
vation, that the annual net transport was 0.089x106 m3/year towards south. The net transport
was about 0.039 x 106 m3/year during monsoon and during the pre-monsoon as well as the
post monsoon it was 0.014 x106 m3/year and 0.056 x106 m3/year.
13
The average gross transport rate obtained was 0.02x106 m3/year during the pre-monsoon and
0.014x106 m3/year during the post monsoon period.
Table 2. Longshore sediment transport.
Season Pre-monsoon Post-monsoon

Stn. No. Net(m3/month) Gross(m3/month) Net(m3/month) Gross(m3/month)
1 0.16x105 0.22 x105 0.081 x105 0.087 x105
5
2 0.045 x10 0.28 x105 0.094 x105
0.095 x105
5
3 0.08 x10 0.23 x105 0.104 x105
0.105 x105
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
Measurements carried out on the beach profiles, longshore currents, breaking waves and
inter-tidal surface sediments at three stations at Calangute, Goa during pre- and post-mon-
soon periods. The observations show that during pre-monsoon the wave energy was high
compared to the post-monsoon, the beaches were narrow, longshore currents were strong
and predominantly moving southwards. The sediments were coarse during the pre-monsoon
compared to post-monsoon which is also complying to the fact that the beach slopes are
steeper during pre-monsoon and flat during post-monsoon. The net transport was southwards
and about 0.013x106 m3/year during the pre-monsoon and it was northerly and about 0.007x106
m3/year during the post-monsoon. Whereas, the average gross transport rate was 0.02x106
m3/year during the pre-monsoon and 0.014x106 m3/year during the post-monsoon.
6.0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The facilities and encouragement provided by the Director, NIO are greatly acknowledged.
Authors duly acknowledge the assistance of Shri. Mohan K. Tari, Shri. Ganesh N. Naik, Late
Shri. Shantaram V. Mochemadkar and Shri. Pankaj K. Mandal during the field data collection.
NIO contribution No. 3676.
REFERENCES
Anand N. M., Chandramohan P., Sanil Kumar V., Pathak K.C. & Nayak B U, (1991), Coastal processes along the
Goa coast, Technical Report, NIO/TR/10/91, National Institute of Oceanography, Goa, 40 pp.
Chandramohan P., Sanil Kumar V. & Jena B K, (1997), Rip current zones along beaches in Goa, west coast of
India, ASCE J. Waterways ports coast and ocean engineering, vol. 123(6), pp 322-328.
Chandramohan P., Nayak B. U. & Anand N. M, (1994), Crest breaking time-lapse approach to measure breaker
angle, ASCE J. Waterways ports coast and ocean engineering, vol. 120(3), pp 318-324.
IS:2720 Part IV. (1975), Methods for tests of soils - Grain size classification, Indian Standards Institute, New
Delhi.
Jaya kumar, S., Raju, N. S. N., Gowthaman, R., Ashok Kumar K. and Anand, N. M. (2001), Daily beach profiles
14
and littoral environmental observations of Baga, Calangute and Miramar beaches during February-March
1999, Technical Report, NIO/TR-4/2001, National Institute of Oceanography, Goa. 109 pp.
Jaya kumar, S., Raju, N. S. N., Gowthaman, R., Ashok Kumar K. and Anand, N. M. (2002), Daily beach profiles
and littoral environmental observations of Baga, Calangute and Miramar beaches during November-Decem-
ber 1999, Technical Report, National Institute of Oceanography, Goa. (Report under preparation).
Krishnakumar, V., Murthy, C.S. & Heblekar A.K, (1989), Wave induced nearshore circulation along the Calangute-
Candolim beach, Goa, west coast of India, Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (Earth Planet. Sci.), 98(3), pp 265-278.
Murthy, C.S. & Veerayya, M. (1985), Longshore currents and associated sediment transport in the nearshore
areas of Kerala and Goa, west coast of India, Mahasagar, 18(2), pp 163-177.
Murthy, C.S., Veerayya, M. & Varadachari, V.V.R, (1975) Littoral and rip currents off Calangute beach, Goa
(India), Indian J. Marine Sciences, vol. 4(1), pp 1-4.
Murthy, C. S., Veerayya, M. & Varadachari, V. V. R, (1982), Morphological changes of the beaches of Goa,
Indian J. Marine Sciences, vol. 11(1), pp 35-42.
Schneider, C.,(1981), The littoral environment observation (LEO) data collection program, Coastal Engineering
Technical Aid No. 81-5, US Army Corps of Engineers, CERC, Fort Belvoir, Va., 24 pp.
Veerayya, M. (1972), Textural classification of Calangute beach sediments, Goa coast (India), Indian J. Marine
Sciences, vol. 1(1), pp 28-44.
Veerayya, M. & Varadachari, V. V. R, (1975), Depositional environments of coastal sediments of Calangute,

Goa, Sediment Geology, vol. 14(1), pp 63-74.
Wagle, B. G. (1987), Geomorphology and evolution of the coastal and offshore areas of Maharashtra and Goa,
India, Ph. D. Thesis, University of Bombay, 320 pp.
Fig. 1. Location map.
15
Pre monsoon
1.6 1.6 1.6
Post monsoon
Breaking Wave
1.2 1.2 1.2

Height (m)
0.8 0.8 0.8
0.4 0.4 0.4
0.0 0.0 0.0
16.0 16.0 16.0
14.0
Wave Period (s)
12.0 12.0 12.0
10.0
8.0 8.0 8.0
6.0
4.0 4.0 4.0
4 4 4
Breaking Wave Angle
2 2 2
(w.r.t coast)
0 0 0
-2 -2 -2
-4 -4 -4
-6 -6 -6
40 40 40
current (m/minute)
20 20 20
0 0 0
Longshore
-20 -20 -20
-40 -40 -40
-60 -60 -60
Fig. 2. Daily littoral environmental parameters off Calangute beach.
PRE-MONSOON POST-MONSOON
0.0 0.0
16 Nov.
17 Feb.
23 Nov.
02 Mar. -1.0 -1.0
Vertical height (m)
30 Nov.
09 Mar.
-2.0 07 Dec. -2.0
17 Mar.
15 Dec.
-3.0 -3.0
-4.0 -4.0
-5.0 -5.0
Station S1
Station S1
-6.0 -6.0
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
0.0 16 Nov. 0.0

17 Feb.
23 Feb. 23 Nov.
-1.0 -1.0
Vertical height (m)
02 Mar. 30 Nov.
09 Mar. -2.0 07 Dec.
-2.0
17 Mar. 15 Dec.
-3.0 -3.0
-4.0 -4.0
-5.0 -5.0
Station S2
Station S2
-6.0 -6.0
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
0.0 16 Nov. 0.0

17 Feb.
23 Feb. 30 Nov.
-1.0 -1.0
07 Dec.
Vertical height (m)
02 Mar.
09 Mar. 15 Dec.
-2.0 -2.0
17 Mar.
-3.0 -3.0
-4.0 -4.0
-5.0 -5.0
Station S3 Station S3
-6.0 -6.0
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Distance seaward (m) Distance Seaward (m)
Fig. 3. Pre- and post-monsoon weekly beach profiles at calangute.
16
NUMERICAL MODELING OF TIDAL CIRCULATION IN THE

GULF OF KACHCHH INCLUDING KANDLA CREEK, WEST
COAST OF INDIA
G. K. Jena1*, P. C. Sinha, A. D. Rao and Indu Jain
Centre for Atmospheric Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi 110 016
Abstract
A two-dimensional depth averaged numerical model having a resolution of 750 m x 750 m has
been developed to study the tidal flow in the Gulf of Kachchh. A separate 2D fine resolution
model has also been developed for the Kandla creek having a resolution of 75 m x 75 m. These
two models are coupled to compute the tidal circulation in the Gulf of Kachchh including
Kandla creek. The model dynamics and basic formulations remain the same for both these
models. The model is fully non-linear and uses a semi-explicit finite difference scheme to
solve the basic hydrodynamic equations on a staggered grid. The model neglects horizontal
diffusion and wind stress terms in the momentum equations and is applied to the gulf region.
It is a barotropic model, based on shallow water equations to simulate the sea surface eleva-
tion and circulation in the analysis area. The flow in the gulf is strong due to high tidal range.
The tide in the gulf is mainly represented by a semi-diurnal M2 constituent.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The Gulf of Kachchh is a semi enclosed water body, located between the Rann of Kachchh,
an embayment, and the Saurashtra peninsula in the central west coast of India. To study the
tidal flow in the Gulf of Kachchh, we have chosen the gulf area from Dwarka to Kandla. The gulf
is the northeastern arm of the Arabian Sea, reaching eastward for approximately 180 km. Its
widths varies between, approximately, 20 to 90 km. Its 350-km-long coastline is rimmed with
mudflats and numerous small islands are found in its waters. Semi-diurnal tide with large
diurnal inequality and varying amplitude dominates all along the Gujarat coast. The flow in the
gulf is strong with a tidal range of more than 4 m. The tide range increases from the mouth to
the head. Near the mouth, at Okha, the mean spring tidal range is 3.06 m and near the head
at Kandla, it is 5.88 m. Peak surface currents have been reported to be in the range of 0.75-
1.25 m/s at the mouth and 1.25-2.5 m/s in the central portion of the gulf (Central Electricity
Authority, 1985). In the gulf, tidal currents dominate the flow. Currents are fairly strong and
bimodal in nature having two dominant directions upstream during flood and downstream
during ebb in all encompassing oscillatory motions. The gulf is more or less homogeneous
displaying a one-layer structure. This is caused by the medium to high tidal amplitudes asso-
ciated with tidal currents and turbulence.
*Corresponding author, e-mail : gaganku@yahoo.com

Fig. 1. Map and depth contours (m) of the Gulf of Kachchh.
Historically, the Gulf of Kachchh has been one of the most active sites of the Indian maritime
industry. Its 350 km coastline had many ancient ports with extensive trade with other parts of
India and with ports on the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, the middle east, and the east and west
coasts of Africa. During the eighteenth century, the gulf was known for its shipbuilding indus-
try. In past few decades, the gulf is emerging again as an important cluster of ports. Kandla is
a major seaport on the west coast and serves as the sea gate to northwest India. In addition,
the gulf has seen a dramatic increase in petrochemical industries and ship breaking opera-
tions. The increase in the industrial activity has led to fears of marine pollution including oil
slick.
Some of the earlier works on the tides in the gulf include the studies on the effects of tidal
barrage in the Hansthal creek near Navalakhi (Vaidyaraman et al., 1987; Mitra, 1990). In the
present work a 2D numerical model has been developed for the Gulf of Kachchh. The model
equations in the depth-averaged form include the non-linear terms and the solution is obtained
by using a conditionally stable semi-explicit finite difference scheme on a staggered grid. The
computed water level compares well with the observed elevations in the gulf. The currents at
two locations are also computed by the model. While the computed value at Sikka is reason-
able, the one at Salaya is under estimated (Jena et al., 2001).
18
2.0 FORMULATION
A system of rectangular Cartesian coordinates is used in which the origin, O, is in equilibrium

level of the sea surface. Ox points towards the east, Oy points towards the north and Oz is
directed vertically upward. The displaced position of the free surface is given by z = ζ ( x , y, t )
and the position of the gulf floor by z = − h ( x , y) .
Assuming hydrostatic approximations, the resulting equations of continuity and momentum

are given by
∂ ∂ (Hu ) ∂ (Hv) (1)

+ + =0
∂t ∂x ∂y
(2)
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂ 1 g 
( )
1
+u +v − fv = −(g ) −  2 u u 2 + v 2 2

∂t ∂x ∂y ∂x H  C 
1 g
∂v ∂v ∂v ∂ζ
( ) 
1
+u + v + fu = −(g ) −  2 v u 2 + v 2 2
(3)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂y H  C 
where in equations (1) to (3), H is the total depth, f is Coriolis Parameter at 22o N, CD is drag
coefficient (= 2.8 x 10-3), g is the acceleration due to gravity, u, v are the x and y components
of depth averaged velocity.
The pressure is taken as hydrostatic and the bottom friction is parameterised in terms of a
conventional quadratic law. We neglect the surface stress terms and the horizontal diffusion
terms in the momentum equations. At the open boundary the forcing is provided only by the
astronomical tide of the adjacent Arabian Sea.
In addition to the no-slip bottom boundary conditions, appropriate condition have to be satis-
fied along the lateral boundaries of the gulf area under consideration for all times. In a vertically
integrated system, at the water land interface, the transport normal to the coastline is taken to
be zero. So, if we have stair-step coasts made up of orthogonal straight-line segments parallel
to x- and y- axes, then
u = 0 along y- directed boundaries
for t >= 0 (4)
v = 0, along x- directed boundaries
Since tidal forcing is an important feature of the present model, a realistic tidal boundary
19
condition is used to represent the tide at open-gulf boundary (Unnikrishanan et al., 1999) as
ζ = 1.1 cos(ωt + 28 0 ) (5)
The velocities at the open boundaries are assumed to be continuous and the motion in the gulf
is generated from an initial state of rest, i.e.,
=u=v=0 for t≤0 (6)
3.0 NUMERICAL PROCEDURE
The solution of equations (1) (3) is achieved by a finite difference scheme in which, after
several tidal cycles, dissipative effects eliminate all memory of the initial conditions and the
solutions become periodic. A conditionally stable semi-explicit finite-difference scheme with a
staggered grid is used for the computations. The stability is conditional upon the time-step
being limited by space increments and the gravity wave speed.
The predictive equations (1) (3) are solved numerically by considering a set of grid points
defined by
x = x i = (i − 1) ∆x , i = 1,2........m
(7)
,
y = y j = ( j − 1) ∆y j = 1,2,........n
where ∆x = L /( m − 1) and ∆y = B /( n − 1) are the grid increments. L and B are length

and breath of the analysis area, while m and n are the number of grid points in x and y
directions, respectively. In the present study L = 150 km , B = 89.28 km , m = 201 and
n = 120. As a result, ∆x = ∆y = 750 m .
The details of discretization procedure and finite difference grid selection are analogous to the
one reported by Johns and Ali (1980). A time step of 20 second is found to be consistent with
the computational stability. Oscillatory tidal solution was achieved after four tidal cycle of
integration. The results of the fifth tidal cycle are analysed.
20
Kandla *
Khori *
Fig. 2(a) Resultant flood currents (m/s) in the Kandla Creek.
Fig. 2(b) Depth-averaged resultant flood currents(m/s) in the Gulf of Kachchh.
21
Kandla *
Khori *
Fig. 3(a) Resultant EBB currents (m/s) in the Kandla creek.
Fig. 3(b) Depth-averaged resultant EBB currents (m/s) in the Gulf of Kachchh.
22
Figs. 2b and 3b show the computed depth-averaged resultant currents for flood and ebb
conditions, respectively. Maximum computed currents of 1.24 ms-1 is found at the mouth
(western open boundary) and about 2.0 ms-1 in the central portion of the gulf. In the major
portion of the gulf the tidal currents during flood varies from 0.12 ms-1 to 2.2 ms-1. The tidal
currents during ebb are found to vary from 0.1 ms-1 to 2.18 ms-1 (Jena et al., 2001). Table 1
shows the comparison between observed and computed tidal amplitudes at seven stations
(Okha, Mandvi, Salaya, Mundra, Sikka, Rozi and Kandla) in the Gulf of Kachchh. A good
agreement between the observed (Mitra, 1990) and computed amplitudes of M2 tide for the
following stations reveals that the dynamics of the tidal flow is well simulated.
Stations Observed amplitude (m) Computed amplitude (m)
Okha 1.25 0.81

Mandvi 1.25 1.27
Salaya 1.60 1.70
Mundra 1.85 1.80
Sikka 1.90 1.86
Rozi 2.05 2.13
Kandla 2.30 2.31
Table 1. Observed and computed amplitude (m) of M2 tide at various

stations in the Gulf of Kachchh
Kandla is a major seaport on the west coast and serves as the sea gate to northwest India.
The port is well sheltered from southwest monsoon and is therefore navigable in all weather.
Kandla creek has fairly good depth and stable banks. The width of the channel varies from 200
m to 1200 m. The depth along the shipping channel is generally around 10 m. Navigation is
permitted during day and night according to the draft of the ship. Necessary navigational aids
are provided to facilitate day and night navigation.
To study the tidal circulation in the Kandla creek, we have chosen the creek area from Khori to
Kandla. For this, we have considered the creek as a rectangular channel. The channel length
is taken as 14.92 km and the breadth as 1.5 km which is constant. The channel is repre-
sented by using a mesh of 21x200 grid points. A constant depth of 10 m has been taken for
this study. The model resolution taken here is 10 times finer than the coarser gulf model. In
the coarser model it is difficult to visualize the model computed results in the Kandla creek.
Hence, we have developed a separate fine resolution model and coupled with the coarser one
to capture the circulation features inside the creek. A time step of 5 second was found to be
consistent with the computational stability. Oscillatory tidal solution was achieved after 3rd
tidal cycle of integration. The results of the 4th tidal cycle are analysed. The tidal amplitude
23
computed from the coarser model was given as input to the fine resolution model. Figs. 2a and
3a depict the computed flood and ebb currents inside the channel. It may be seen that the
computed depth-averaged resultant flood currents vary from 0.01 ms-1 1.67 ms-1 while during
ebb the corresponding values vary from 0.01 ms-1 1.34 ms-1. However, the model computed
results of currents and surface elevations from the coupled model are not found to be much
different from the coarser model in the Kandla creek.
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
A 2D depth averaged numerical model having a resolution of 750 m x 750 m has been devel-
oped to study the tidal flow in the Gulf of Kachchh. A separate 2D fine resolution model has
also been developed for the Kandla creek having a resolution of 75 m x 75 m. These two
models are coupled to compute the tidal circulation in the Gulf of Kachchh including Kandla
creek. The model is capable of simulating tidal elevations and currents throughout the gulf. In
the present study no fresh water discharge from the rivers join the gulf has been considered.
In the absence of any data for the Kandla creek region, no validation of computed results could
be undertaken. A better representation of the frictional terms and inclusion of horizontal diffu-
sion in the model would be more appropriate. The extension of this study to three dimensions
has obvious advantages but it increases the complexity of the problem and the computational
requirements as compared with the vertically integrated model described here.
REFERENCES
Central Electricity Authority, (1985). Investigations and studies for tidal power development in the Gulf of Kutch,
Interim Rep. Ministry of Irrigation and Power, Government of India, New Delhi.
Jena, G.K., Pragya, Chittibabu, P., Sinha, P.C., Dube, S.K. and Rao, A.D., (2001). Tidal circulation in the gulf of
Kachchh: a numerical study, Proc. TROPMET 2001, 301-307.
Johns, B. and Ali, M.A., (1980). The numerical modelling of storm surges in the Bay of Bengal, Quart. J. Roy.
Met. Soc., 106, 1-18.
Mitra, A. K., (1990). Numerical simulation of tidal induced flow along Indian coastal Regions. Ph.D thesis, Indian
Institute of Technology, Delhi, India, 93-127.
Sinha, P. C., Dube, S. K., Rao, Y. R. and Chatterjee, A. K., (1995). A mathematical model of tidal circulation in
estuaries, Nonlinear World, 2, 257-273.
Unnikrishanan, A. S., Gouveia, A. D. and Vethamony, P., (1999). Tidal regime in Gulf of Kutch, west coast of
India, by 2D model, Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engineering, 125, 276-284.
24
BEACH PROFILE STUDIES ALONG THE SOUTHWEST

COAST OF INDIA
Kunhimammu Paravath
Harbour Engineering Department, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala 695 009
Abstract
The beaches have been in existence over a geological time scale and are moulded, eroded
and remoulded by nature. Dynamic changes have always occurred in this fragile strip of land.
There are various types of construction like major and minor ports, breakwaters and seawalls
along the coastline. To study the morphological changes, a study of beach profiles along
Kerala coast has been conducted. Ten years data on beach cross-section profiles were
available for the present study. The results of the detailed analysis and impacts of the marine
structures on the profile assessed are presented in this paper. The net loss/ gain of land was
computed.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The south west coast of India falling within the Kerala State runs north south along the Arabian
Sea and has a length of 590 km. This coast is characterized by a barrier strip of low lying land
sandwiched between the Arabian Sea and a continuous chain of lagoons and backwaters with
connections to the sea at various points. It is in this coastal strip, the industrial, agricultural
and other economic activities of Kerala are mainly concentrated (Moni, 1972). This coast is
constantly subjected to erosion and accretion phenomena. It is estimated that the erosion far
exceeds the accretion, leading to loss of valuable land of Kerala. It is found that about 320 km
length of this coast is subjected to severe erosion problems. As the coastal tract is well
developed and about 40% of the state population is living on this coast, it is imperative that
the coast has to be preserved from further intrusion of the sea. In order to protect the shore
from this severe erosion a number of measures have been adopted. There are different views
on the performance of these structures in protecting the coast. Estimates of erosion losses
also vary.
The waves along this coast are mostly from west during the monsoon period. The highest
waves average 3.20m (highest ten percent) and the wave periods of 5 to 12 seconds are
observed (Kunhimammu, 1993). The longshore currents are generally strong and southerly in
direction during the monsoon period. During the other periods, they are mainly northerly in
direction with varying speed (Kunhimammu, 1993). The mudbanks found off Kerala coast and
its impact on the shore is unique (Moni, 1970, Kunhimammu, 1993, Kunhimammu, et al.,
1997). The mudbanks affect the coastal processes and disturb the equilibrium conditions of
the coast adjacent to it (Kunhimammu, et al., 1999). Sassikumar (1997) has presented his
views on the mudbank formation. The study on sediment characteristics of mudbanks and
foreshore beach revealed that the sources of sand content to both foreshore beach and mudbank
formations are the same (Kunhimammu, et al., 1996). The predominant direction of littoral drift
along Kerala coast is understood to be from north to south (Moni, 1972, Kunhimammu, 1993,
Kunhimammu, et al., 1997 and 1999). But there is some seasonal reversal due to currents,
topographical factors, inlet interferences, coastal works etc. (Kunhimammu, 1993). The coastal
geomorphology of Kerala is also peculiar. It is in this background that an attempt has been
made to study the beach profile characteristics along Kerala coast.
2.0 STUDY AREA AND DATA BASE
For the present studies, three representative stretches along the coast are selected. These
stretches are from the south, central and northern parts of the coast. They are: Shankumugom
Panathura (south), AthunkalMararikulam (central) and West Hill Beypore (north). These
stretches selected have a length of 15 km. All the stretches identified include both protected
and unprotected reaches. The protection works are rubble mound seawalls. Fig. 1 shows the
location of study area.
Beach profile survey along the Kerala coast is conducted by the Irrigation Department once in
a quarter from the control points (CP) installed along the coast, 100 m apart. Using the
available survey data for ten years the present studies on beach profile have been carried out.
From each stretch selected data pertaining to eight points have been taken, of which four
points are from the unprotected reach and the other four from the protected reach (Fig.1).
These data belong to postmonsoon period. The details of location and database for the study
are given in Table 1.
Table 1. Details of the stretches selected and depth of profile data.
Stretch No. Stretch name Latitude and Longitude Length (km) Profile data
available for
1 Shankumugom 8º 23' 12" N & 76º 53' 42" E 15 1982 - 1986
Panathura (South)
2 Arthunkal 9º 33' 54" N & 76º 17' 24" E 15 1977 - 1986
Mararikulam (Central)
3 West Hill 11º 1042" N & 74º 45' 18" E 15 1977 - 1986
Beypore (North)
3.0 ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
Using the available data, as given in Table 1, attempts were made to draw yearly profiles with
regard to the three selected stretches. For each stretch, profiles at four points were drawn for
unprotected and at another four points for the protected area. The changes to the profiles
indicate the changes to the beach cross section. It also indicates the material loss or gain.
26
This is estimated by arriving at the area between two consecutive profiles and multiplying the
same with the dimension of length. For convenience of comparison, using the available pro-
files, computations of net material loss or gain are done for a stretch of 1 km. In the case of
stretch 1 this computation is done for 5-year interval (1982-1986) and for stretch 2 and 3
for10-year interval (1977-1986). Further, the impact of protective structures on the profiles is
also reflected. The foreshore slopes of the beach were computed from different profiles.
Fig. 1. Location map of study area.
To analyze the long-term effect on the beach profiles, the yearly profiles were plotted in the
same sheet and compared. The yearly profiles taken at A11, A12, A13 and A14 for the unpro-
tected reach of stretch 1 for the period 1982-1986 show that there is a general tendency for
deposition in 1983, followed by erosion in 1984 and then there is deposition in 1985 and
erosion in 1986. The net loss per km length in this reach is 0.19 million m3. The maximum
distance retreated during the period of observation is 25m. Fig. 2 shows the typical profiles
from the unprotected reach of stretch 1.The yearly profiles taken at B11, B12, B13 and B14 for
27
the protected reach of stretch 1 for the period 1982-1986 show that there is a general ten-
dency for erosion from 1982 to 1985, followed by little accretion during 1986. The net loss per
km length in this reach is 0.89 million m3. That is even after the protection there is consider-
able fluctuation in the profile. The maximum distance retreated during the period of observa-
tion is up to the seawall, which is about 25 m.
Fig. 2. Beach profiles from stretch 1 ( unprotected reach.)
The yearly profiles taken at A21, A22, A23 and A24 for the unprotected reach of stretch 2 for
the period 1977-1986 show that there is a general tendency for deposition from 1977 to 1983,
thereafter there is a trend of continuous erosion. The net decadal gain per km length in this
reach is 0.82 million m3. The maximum distance retreated during the period of observation is
100 m. The yearly profiles taken at B21, B22, B23 and B24 for the protected reach of stretch
2 for the period 1977-1986 show that there is a general tendency for deposition from 1977 to
1983, followed by erosion during 1985 and 1986. The net decadal loss per km length in this
reach is 9.40 million m3. The seawall in this reach was constructed during 1982, up to which
period considerable erosion is not observed in comparison. Thereafter there is considerable
fluctuation in the profile. The profile has retreated almost up to the seawall in 1986. Fig. 3
shows the typical profiles from the protected reach of stretch 2.
Fig. 3. Beach profiles from stretch 2 (protected reach).
28
The yearly profiles taken at A31, A32, A33 and A34 for the unprotected reach of stretch 3 for
the period 1977-1986 show that there is an initial tendency for deposition from 1977 onwards
followed by erosion tendencies which come to a maximum in 1981, and thereafter it again
starts slowly building up. The net decadal loss per km length in this reach is 2.90 million m3.
The maximum distance retreated during the period of observation is 100 m. The yearly profiles
taken at B31, B32, B33 and B34 for the protected reach of stretch 3 for the period 1977-1986
show that initially there is a tendency for deposition which is reversed in 1980 and maximum
erosion is noticed in 1981. The net decadal loss per km length in this reach is 1.90 million m3.
Fig. 4 shows the typical profiles from the protected reach of stretch 3. The foreshore slopes
were computed from the profiles for different stretches. The results obtained for stretch 1
range from 1in 3 to 1 in 9, for stretch 2 it is ranging from1in 4 to 1in 12 and for stretch 3 it is 1
in 4 to 1 in 20.
Table 2. Net Loss / Gain of Material During the 5 Year /Decadal Period
UR- Unprotected reach, PR- Protected reach
Fig. 4. Beach Profiles from Stretch 3 (Protected Reach)
4.0 DISCUSSIONS
Some of the general tendencies observed, based on the studies on beach profiles are listed
below:
29
i) Except for the unprotected reach of stretch 2, in all other reaches there has been net
loss of material during the 5 year/decadal period;
ii) Even after the construction of sea walls, the material loss continued and in stretch 2
the erosion accelerated after the construction of seawall;
iii) In most of the reaches the waves are directly breaking on the seawall; and
iv) The beach profile fluctuates considerably and it retreats in certain stretches up to 100
m (based on observations for 5-10 years).
The seawalls in the stretches analyzed are not found to be capable of maintaining the beach
profile (Kunhimammu, 1993). There are many reasons for the failures of the seawalls. There is
a need to plan a comprehensive protection measure in order to save the costly land in the
thickly populated and well developed coastal zone of Kerala State. The collection and analy-
sis of more data similar to this and field studies for more reaches on the coast will be highly
useful for the selection of protection measures that will attain the desired objectives most
economically. The increased population and other related activities on the coastal belt make
it often difficult to properly locate and maintain the protective structures. More studies on
beach profile changes are called for to estimate the total quantum of material lost or gained
due to the coastal processes. More studies are also called for to correlate the wave intensity
and impact of mudbank formations on the beach profile characteristics.
REFERENCES
Kunhimammu Paravath, 1993, Studies on geomorphology of Kerala coast, M.Tech Thesis, Mangalore University,
123.
Kunhimammu Paravath, James, E.J., Anitha , A. B., Venugopal, M.R., Vasu, K., Shajan Jacob, 1996, Sediment
characteristics of mudbanks of Kerala coast, paper presented in the National Workshop on Mudbaknks off
Kerala at Cochin University of Science and Technology.
Kunhimammu Paravath, James, E.J., 1997, Shoreline changes and sediment characteristics on Kerala coast,
Proceedings of Second Indian National Conference on Harbour and Ocean Engineering, Vol. 2, 1145 -1152.
Kunhimammu Paravath, James, E.J., 1999, Impact of mudbanks on the shore stability of south west coast of
India, Proceedings of Fifth International Conference on Coastal and Port Engineering in Developing Coun-
tries, Vol. 3, 1798-1804.
Moni, N.S., 1970, Study of mudbanks along south west coast of India, Proceedings of 12th International Coastal
Engineering Conference, 739-750.
Moni, N.S., 1972, Systematic study of coastal erosion and defence works in south west coast of India,
Proceedings of 13th International Coastal Engineering Conference, 1427-1450.
Sassikumar, P.K., 1997, The mudbanks of south wet coast of India, Proceedings of Second Indian National
Conference on Harbour and Ocean Engineering, Vol. 2, 1191-1204.
30
DESIGN WAVE PREDICTION ALONG THE COAST OF

INDIA
M.D. Kudale*, C.N. Kanetkar and I.Z. Poonawala
Central Water and Power Research Station, Khadakwasla, Pune-411 024.
Abstract
Ocean wave is the most important environmental parameter influencing the design and opera-
tional efficiency of marine structures. Particularly, the severe storm waves, which establish
the magnitude of the design waves, are important for designing marine structures. Underesti-
mation of extreme storm waves can lead to failure of coastal/offshore structures, whereas
overestimation results in uneconomical design. Also, it is important to consider the normal
sea wave conditions, which govern the operational efficiency of these structures. The design
and operational wave conditions are evaluated by statistical analysis of extreme wave data
and the normal sea wave data, respectively. Extreme wave analysis was carried out for various
sites along the Indian coast using the available wave data. The sources of data, methodology
adopted for analysis and the design wave conditions derived for typical sites have been pre-
sented in this paper.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Rapidly increasing maritime activities, both commercial and scientific have made man to
move far beyond the coastal waters into deeper waters. International trade and demand for
resources have progressively increased its dependence on sea. India has a coastline measur-
ing over 7500 km of which about 3000 km stretch is on the west coast; about 2700 km on the
east coast and the rest includes the coastline of Lakshadweep and Andaman Group of Is-
lands. Several storms occur on the east and west coasts of India every year, particularly
during the periods from April to June and October to January, due to typical meteorological
conditions in the oceans. The frequency of cyclones is low on the west coast (about 2 per
year), whereas on the east coast, the cyclones are more frequent (about 5 per year). Indias
investment in maritime activities involving transport, fishing and exploration is increasing every
year and is of vital national interest. The technical success and economic performance of
these activities are dependent on the reliability of the assessment of environmental param-
eters, which determine the design of maritime structures.
Marine environmental parameters such as wind, waves and currents are important for the
design of the marine structures. Out of these parameters, waves mainly decide the design
and the operational efficiency of the coastal and offshore structures. Severity of the storm
waves establishes the magnitude of the design waves, whereas the normal (day-to-day) sea
*Corresponding author, e-mail: kudale_md@yahoo.co.in

conditions are important during the construction and operation of the marine facility. The wave
climate can be presented in terms of wave statistics. The design wave conditions are evalu-
ated based on the statistical analysis of extreme wave data. There are various sources of
wave data such as visually observed data reported by ships, instrumentally recorded data and
hindcast storm wave data, which are generally used for estimation of design wave conditions.
The determination of design wave height is site specific and depends on extreme wave climate
at the site, life of the structure, risk, cost etc. Ideally, determination of design wave height
should be based on the statistical analysis of long-term wave height measurements including
extreme conditions. Since the long-term measurements of extreme wave heights, which oc-
cur during the storm conditions, are seldom available, the extreme value analysis is carried
out using hindcast storm wave data for estimating the design wave conditions.
The Indian coast is characterised by monsoon wave climate and tropical storms. The mon-
soon wave climate is less severe in comparison to storm waves. As such, in the extreme value
analysis for determining the design wave conditions for large return periods, it is necessary to
consider the storm wave climate. The India Meteorological Department (IMD) provides the
records of these storms in the form of synoptic charts (pressure distribution) and storm tracks
for moving storms. IMD also provides the ship observed wave data in their daily weather
reports, which represent the normal monsoon wave climate.
Extreme value analysis was carried out for various sites along the Indian coast using the
available wave data. The sources of data, methodology adopted for extreme wave analysis
and the design wave conditions derived for typical sites are presented in the paper. The
salient features of the extreme value analysis carried out using storm wave data as well as the
normal monsoon wave data are also presented.
2.0 WAVE CLIMATE AND SOURCES OF WAVE DATA
Wave climate refers to the general condition of sea-state at a particular location. The main
elements of wave climate are the wave height, the wave period and wave direction. Significant
wave height (Hs) is usually employed as height parameter. The period parameter is significant
wave period (Ts), peak wave period (Tp) or the average wave period (Tz). The wave direction is
expressed as sectors of bearing system i.e. NNE, SW, W etc. A wave statistics is classified
as wave climate statistics (short-term and medium-term) and extreme wave statistics (long-
term) (Goda, 1990). The wave climate statistics deals with statistical properties of individual
waves within short time duration, whereas long-term statistics deals with the extreme wave
conditions. The wave climate statistics is important for operational aspects of maritime struc-
tures while the extreme wave statistics is required for estimating design wave conditions.
Wave data of several years without significant gaps are the standard requirement for wave
climate analysis whereas the data of several decades are requirement of extreme wave statis-
tics. The common wave data sources are visually observed wave data reported by various
ships, measured wave data and hindcast storm wave data.
32
Visual observations of wave data are made from various ocean-going vessels. The ship ob-
served visual data are compiled by the India Meteorological Department (IMD) and reported in
the form of daily weather reports. Visually observed data are quite vast and cover large area of
the ocean where ships are regularly passing; however these data may not be of good quality.
The ship observed wave height is primarily a matter of personal judgment and estimation.
Moreover, these ships are usually unlikely to ply through areas of pre-warned storms, thereby
missing some of the important storm wave information. Ship based data contain the vital
information about the wave direction.
Many governmental / non-governmental agencies in the world have been conducting long-term
wave measurements or short-term project-oriented wave measurements for limited duration at
various sites by deploying equipment like Wave Rider Buoys. The quality and duration of
measured wave data varies from site to site. These instrumentally recorded data though most
accurate and reliable, are costly as compared to visually observed data. The directional mea-
surement capabilities have become available during the last 15 years. As such, most of the
earlier measured data lack the directional information. Also, these data are very site specific.
Estimation of waves generated by the storms in the past is called Wave Hindcasting. Wave
hindcasting is usually done to obtain wave data from the major storms over 30 to 50 years or
longer. Ocean waves are generated by the wind blowing over the water surface. The param-
eters, which govern the wave generation, are: 1) the wind speed, 2) the duration of wind, 3) the
distance over which the wind blows, called as fetch and 4) the distance between the point of
observation and the face of the fetch area, called decay distance. Simplified methods for
estimating wave conditions from the above parameters have been established by various
researchers. A combined empirical-analytical procedure was developed by Sverdrup and Munk,
which was revised by Bretschneider, based on empirical data. This wave prediction system is
called as the Sverdrup-Munk-Bretschneider (SMB) Method. Using the SMB method for
hindcasting of storm waves, the significant wave height (Hs) and the peak wave period (Tp)
could be predicted for a particular site. The data regarding wind speed, winds duration, fetch
length and decay distance are obtained from the storm tracks and the synoptic charts. The
wind speed is determined from the pressure gradient and the latitude of the fetch area. The
pressure gradient is determined from the isobar spacing shown on the synoptic chart. The
details of the SMB method are described in the Shore Protection Manual (1984).
3.0 EXTREME WAVE ANALYSIS
The objective of extreme value wave analysis is to provide a basis for selection of design wave
conditions. Prediction of extreme wave height over a life span of 50 years or 100 years of the
structures is required for selecting the design waves. The wave height which occurs on an
average once in 100 years, will have 100 year return period or recurrence interval (Rp). The
statistical analysis for determination of various return period wave heights from the data set
33
involves (Burcharth et al., 1994) choice of theoretical distributions for the extreme wave height
distribution, fitting of the extreme heights to the distributions, comparison of the fitting good-
ness among the distributions and estimation of wave height corresponding to a certain return
period. The commonly employed distribution functions in extreme wave analysis are Gumbel,
Weibull and Log-Normal distributions, since these distributions are applicable for the storm
wave data. The extreme wave analysis for various sites along the Indian coast was carried out
using measured / visually observed / hindcast wave data.
Measured wave data

The Central Water and Power Research Station (CWPRS), Pune has collected site specific
wave data for certain sites since 1974, using wave rider buoy systems. These data sets were
for short duration ranging from 3 months to 3 years and the data were measured at the water
depths varying from 10 m to 30 m as shown in Table 1A. In order to obtain manageably useful
data, it is a common practice to record the wave data intermittently at a fixed interval termed
as recording interval and for fixed period termed as recording period. The wave data re-
corded during the recording period is considered to be a true statistical sample representing
the sea state prevailing during the recording interval. For the above measurements, the com-
monly adopted recording interval of 3 hours with a recording period of 20 minutes was adopted.
Table 1A. Depth of water and duration for measured wave data at various sites.
Statistical analyses of these data were carried out to predict wave conditions of various return
periods (Gadre et al., 1981). The predicted wave heights from long-term analysis of these data
for the above sites are presented in Table 1B.
It is desirable to update the above estimates with additional measured wave data for longer
duration as and when they become available from different sites. Furthermore, the measured
wave data should also contain the extreme wave conditions during the storms for the reliable
prediction of design waves. The wave data being recorded by National Institute of Ocean
Technology (NIOT), Chennai from 1997 onwards by deploying the data buoys along the Indian
34
coast could be utilized for this purpose, since these buoys are permanently deployed on long-
term basis and have capability to measure extreme waves during the severe cyclones.
Table 1B. Predicted wave heights at various sites using measured wave data.
Return Period in Years

Location 10 25 50 100
Hs Hmax Hs Hmax Hs Hmax Hs Hmax
in m in m in m in m in m in m in m In m
Veraval 4.3 8.3 4.7 8.9 4.9 9.4 5.3 10.0
Bombay High 4.6 9.2 4.8 9.5 4.9 9.8 5.1 10.3
Ratnagiri 3.3 6.4 3.6 6.8 3.7 7.0 3.9 7.4
Mormugao 4.5 8.5 4.7 8.9 4.9 9.3 5.1 9.6
Karwar 2.2 4.2 3.0 5.7 4.0 7.2 5.0 9.5
Mangalore 3.1 5.9 3.4 6.4 3.7 7.0 4.1 7.8
Visakhapatnam 4.0 7.2 4.3 7.6 4.6 8.0 4.9 8.4
Gopalpur 4.0 7.2 4.4 8.3 4.56 8.6 4.8 8.3
Paradip 4.7 8.2 5.5 9.9 5.8 10.5 6.3 11.0
Visually observed wave data
The wave heights reported in the ship observed wave data are the significant wave heights. The
data are observed twice a day, so the recording interval is 12 hours. These ship-observed wave
data were analysed to predict the wave conditions at various sites on west and east coasts.
Initially the deep sea wave conditions were transformed to nearshore wave conditions in a
water depth of about 20 m. These data were then subjected to statistical analysis for predic-
tion of wave heights with different return periods. The results of these analyses are presented
in Table 2.
Table 2. Predicted wave heights at various sites using visually observed wave data.
35
Hindcast Storm Wave Data.
For the extreme value analysis of hindcast storm wave data, generally there are two kinds of
data sets: i) Largest wave heights in each year and ii) Largest wave height in each individual
storm exceeding a certain level. In the present analysis, the second method was adopted.
Storm wave hindcasting was carried out for various sites using the storm data of the past 40
to 100 years. The wave conditions in the water depths of 20 to 30 m were determined by
considering the decay distance from the fetch area. The data sets, which produced the signifi-
cant wave heights larger than 2 m were considered in the extreme value analysis. The pre-
dicted wave heights for various return periods using hindcast storm wave data are presented in
Table 3. The 100-year return period wave heights for various sites are also shown in Fig. 1.
The average wave period (Tz) for these extreme waves ranges between 9 seconds and 13
seconds.
Table 3. Predicted wave heights at various sites using hindcast storm wave data.
Return Period in Years

Location 10 25 50 100
Hs Hmax Hs Hmax Hs Hmax Hs Hmax
in m in m in m in m in m in m in m in m
Porbandar 3.3 6.3 4.8 9.1 5.8 11.0 6.8 12.9
Dahej 3.5 6.6 4.8 9.1 4.9 9.3 5.0 9.5
Tarapur 3.7 7.0 4.8 9.1 5.0 9.5 5.1 9.6
Mumbai 3.2 6.1 4.3 8.1 5.1 9.7 5.4 10.2
Mormugao 3.0 5.7 4.3 8.1 5.3 10.1 6.2 11.7
Cochin 1.5 2.9 2.8 5.3 3.6 6.8 4.5 8.5
Visakhapatnam 4.7 8.9 5.9 11.2 6.8 12.9 7.6 14.4
Gopalpur 4.4 8.4 6.1 11.6 6.8 12.9 7.4 14.0
Paradip 4.9 9.3 6.3 11.9 7.3 13.9 8.3 15.7
The predicted 100-year return period significant wave height for Paradip is 8.3 m. The hindcast
storm wave data of Paradip considered for the analysis includes super-cyclone of October
1999. The hindcast wave height off the Paradip coast during October 1999 cyclone was also
of the order of 8.3 m. As such, the October 1999 cyclone can be considered as 100-year
return period cyclone. The NIOT data buoy deployed off the Paradip coast has recorded a
maximum significant wave height of 8.44 m during the super-cyclone of October 1999.
4.0 DISCUSSIONS
The wave heights predicted using measured wave data, visually observed wave data and
hindcast storm wave data described above, are generally applicable to water depths of about
20 m, up to which the effect of refraction and shoaling are not significant. For obtaining the
36
site specific near shore wave conditions, appropriate wave transformation models are required
to be used.
It is observed that, for the smaller return periods (say up to 25 years) the wave heights pre-
dicted from the ship observed data are higher than those predicted from the hindcast storm
wave data. For the larger return periods (larger than 25 years), the wave heights predicted from
the ship observed data are smaller than those predicted from the hindcast storm wave data.
The visually observed wave data may not contain the extreme wave conditions during the
storms. As such, extrapolation of ship data over longer return periods (say 25 years) may not
be reliable. Also, the hindcast storm wave data do not contain the normal wave conditions. As
such, the prediction of smaller return period waves using hindcast storm wave data may not
be correct.
However, for some sites like Kochi, the severe storms are infrequent. As such, the estimates
of wave heights even up to return period of 50 years are governed by the normal wave data (i.e.
visually observed data). For some sites like Paradip and Visakhapatnam, which are frequently
hit by severe cyclones, the wave heights even up to return period of 10 years are governed by
the storm wave data.
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
The analysis of the visually observed, instrumentally measured and hindcast data of the waves
at typical sites along the coasts of India showed that:
• In order to determine the wave climate at any location, it would be necessary to consider all
the three types of data sets.
• The instrumentally recorded wave data are the most reliable. These data may also contain
wave conditions during the storms, which occur during the period of wave measurements.
These data are useful for computing the distribution of power spectral density with respect to
frequency. However, measured data are expensive, site specific and seldom available for long
duration.
• In order to determine the design wave conditions for marine structures, the extreme wave
climate during the storm needs to be considered. Since the storm data are available for more
than 100 years, these can be utilised to obtain the extreme wave climate for longer return
periods.
• The visually observed wave data is only the largest set of data readily available all along the
Indian coast. The visually observed wave heights closely correspond to the significant wave
height. These data are useful for evaluation of normal wave climate for determining the opera-
tional conditions, as well as for predicting design wave conditions for low return periods.
37
• At certain locations, which are not exposed to direct attack of storm waves, the normal
monsoon wave climate determines the extreme wave climate.
• Along the west coast of India, the extreme wave heights are maximum at Saurashtra coast.
The extreme wave conditions on the east coast are more severe in comparison to the west
coast.
6.0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The Authors are grateful to Mrs. V. M. Bendre, Director, Central Water and Power Research
Station (CWPRS), Pune, India for her kind consent to present this paper.
REFERENCES
Goda, Y. (1990), Distribution of sea state parameters and data fitting, Handbook of Coastal and Ocean
Engineering, Vol.1, ed. J.B. Herbich, Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, U.S.A.
Shore Protection Manual (1984), U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Vicksburg, MS: Coastal Engineering Research
Centre, U.S.A.
Burcharth, H.F. et al. (1994), On the extreme wave height analysis, Proceedings of the International Confer-
ence on Hydro-Technical Engineering for Port and Harbour Construction (Hydro-port94), Port and Harbour
Research Institute, Yokosuka, Japan.
Gadre, M.R. et al. (1981), Estimates of maximum wave heights for the west coast of India, Proceedings of the
First Indian Conference in Ocean Engineering (INCOE), IIT Madras, Chennai, India.
38
Fig. 1. Typical significant wave heights (Hs) with 100-year return period.
39
SIMULATION OF WARM WATER DISPERSION IN

COASTAL ENVIRONMENT
B.M. Patil1, A.L. Kothandaraman2*, C.N. Kanetkar1, L.R. Ranganath1, R. Manivanan1
1
Central Water and Power Research Station, Khadakwasla, Pune - 411 024
2
Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam - 603 102
Abstract
In coastal areas seawater provides an inexhaustible source of cooling water and also a sink
for disposal of heated water from power station. For optimizing the efficiency of power genera-
tion, it is essential to locate the intake/outfall to minimise the recirculation of warm water
discharge under the prevailing environmental site conditions. Moreover, if the site is in the
region of high littoral drift, adverse impact on the shoreline due to the intake/outfall should be
avoided. In order to optimise the locations of intake/outfall for the proposed nuclear power
station at Kalpakkam, mathematical model studies were carried out for dispersion of warm
water discharges under different environmental conditions. The studies revealed that the alter-
native of discharging the warm water from the power station in deep sea at about 750 m from
shore towards south of the existing MAPS outfall would be suitable for minimising recircula-
tion and its adverse impact on the shoreline.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Kalpakkam is located on the east coast of India, about 70 km south of Chennai in Tamilnadu
State. Madras Atomic Power Station (MAPS) having two units of 220 MW was established at
Kalpakkam in 1983-85. MAPS is operating on once-through cooling water system for which
the cooling water required for the power station (i.e. about 35 m3/s) is drawn from the sea
through an intake well which is located at 360 m (Fig.1) from the shore and connected to the
forebay of the pump-house by a submarine tunnel.
An approach jetty is constructed for carrying out maintenance of the intake well. The warm
water from the condensers with rise in temperature of 100C is discharged back to sea at the
root of the approach jetty. Due to warm water discharge and littoral drift prevailing at the site,
a sand-spit of about 2 km length parallel to the coast is formed (Fig.1).
There is a proposal to establish a Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) of 500 MW capac-
ity at 500 m south of MAPS. The cooling water requirement for this proposal would be 22 m3/
s and the warm water from the condensers would be with a rise in temperature of 100C. The
intake structure of PFBR is to be located in the sea at 460 m from the shoreline and 680 m
towards south from the MAPS intake structure (Fig.1). A suitable location of outfall for PFBR
was to be determined to minimize warm water recirculation through the intakes, while both
*Corresponding author, e-mail: alk@igcar.ernet.in

MAPS and PFBR projects are operating simultaneously. Mathematical model studies carried
out for this purpose are described in this paper.
Fig. 1 : Index map
2.0 SITE CONDITIONS
The field studies carried out by CWPRS indicate that at the site, tides are semi-diurnal with
maximum spring tidal range and minimum neap tidal range to be 1.22 m and 0.25 m respec-
tively. The tidal currents are quite weak and do not exhibit any correlation with the tide or tidal
phase. The currents are unidirectional. They are northerly during February to September with
magnitude up to 0.5 m/s and southerly during October to January with magnitude of the order
of 0.1. The current pattern (as well as thermal dispersion due to MAPS) at the site is also
described in Gole et al. (1975).
Due to combined action of the warm water discharge and the prevailing littoral drift of the order
of 0.5 million m3 annually towards north, a sand-spit of about 2 km length parallel to the coast
has formed. This has created a warm water channel between the shore and sand-spit. The
length of the sand spit varies seasonally corresponding to the change in the magnitude and
direction of the littoral drift.
The ambient seawater temperature varies from 270C to 320C. The field studies in the region of
the MAPS intake/outfall indicated that the thermal plume has a thickness of about 2 m from
the surface (Anup Kumar, 1994) and has a tendency to get attached to the shore. The wind
data of the site indicated that in general, during SW monsoon, wind blows predominantly from
SW with intensity of about 13-17 m/s and during NE monsoon it blows predominantly from NE
direction with the same intensity.
41
3.0 MODELING TECHNIQUES
Numerical models for simulation of hydrodynamics and dispersion of warm water in coastal
waters based on finite difference solution of the following non-linear vertically integrated 2-D
equations of conservation of mass/momentum and heat were used for determining suitable
outfall location (Danish Hydraulic Institute, 1994a & 1994b).
St + Px + Qy = 0 (1)
 P 2   PQ  gP P 2 + Q 2 1
Pt +   +   + ghS x + −
ρw
[
(hτ xx ) x + (hτ xy ) y ]
 h x  h  y C 2h2
h
− ΩQ − fVVy + ( pa ) x = 0 ( 2)
ρw
 Q 2   PQ  gQ P 2 + Q 2 1
Qt +   +   + ghS y + −
ρw
[
(hτ yy ) y + (hτ xy ) x ]
 h  y  h x C 2h 2
h
− ΩP − fVVx + ( pa ) y = 0 (3)
ρw
(hT )t + (uhT ) x + (vhT ) y = (hDx Tx ) x + (hDy Ty ) y − F h T + S (4)
where, S=surface elevation (m), P, Q = flux densities in x, y directions (m2/s), h=water depth
(m), C=Chezy resistance (m1/2/s), V, Vx, Vy = wind speed and components in x, y directions
(m/s), f=wind friction factor, Ù =Coriolis parameter, pa=atmospheric pressure, txx, tyy,
txy=components of effective shear stress (kg/m2), x,y = space coordinates (m), t= time (s). T
= rise in temperature (deg. C), u,v =horizontal velocity components in x, y directions (m/s), Dx
, Dy =dispersion coefficients in x, y directions (m2/s), S = source/sink discharge ( m3/s/m2), F
= heat decay coefficient(s-1).
As it is well known that, 2D models are depth averaged. Therefore the variation of parameters
over the vertical is not simulated. It may be noted that model simulates the far field advection-
dispersion of the warm water, which is important for determination of intake/outfall locations.
4.0 MODEL OPERATION
The region considered for the model is 2.5 km X 11 km with 50 m grid size, covering about 5.5
km on either side of the MAPS jetty and extending up to 15 m contour. The western side of
42
the model region consists of the shoreline while the remaining sides are open to sea. Before
using the model for predictive purpose, it is calibrated. Typically, Figs. 2(a) and 2(b) show the
observed/computed variation of current and temperature field respectively. Considering the
limitations of the model and observed data the comparison is considered to be satisfactory.
The recirculation temperature limit is considered to be 10C. However, it can be exceeded

provided the recirculating water temperature is less than the design inlet seawater tempera-
ture of MAPS/PFBR which is 300/ 31.50C respectively and/or duration of such increased
temperature is for a short period. With this criteria for recirculation, several cases of outfall
location were examined taking into consideration the seasonal changes in currents, length of
outfall channel/ sand spit/guided bund etc.
Fig. 2(a). Observed and computed variation of tidal level and current at
C4 (near MAPS intake).
Fig. 2(b). Observed and computed temperature field.
43
During 6-8 months (from February to September) the current direction is towards north with
magnitude up to 0.5 m/s and during 3-4 months (October to January) the current direction is
towards south with magnitude of the order of 0.1 m/s. Hence the model operation for north-
ward current up to 0.5 m/s and for southward current of 0.1 m/s was considered. Several
alternatives (Fig. 3) were considered for studies, which are described below.
4.1 Alternative A1
One of the alternatives considered for the PFBR outfall location is that the outflows from PFBR
and MAPS to be let out through a channel parallel to coastline formed by construction of a
guided bund. The channel would consist of a guided bund of 680 m length from PFBR outfall
to MAPS outfall and would extend further towards north by some length. Trials for determining
this extension were made and finally the optimum length of 500 m for the extension was
determined by the model studies. In general, the model results indicated that the temperature
plume (with temperature rise more than 10C ) is shore attached extending along the shore
towards north/south for about more than 5 km and towards south/north for about 500-600 m
from the point of outfall in the sea and the cross-shore spread was of the order of about 900
m from the shore for the northward/southward current of the order of 0.1 m/s. Increase in the
current magnitude causes increase in the longshore spread while the cross-shore spread
decreases considerably. During the period of northward current no recirculation was predicted
while during southward current some recirculation may occur.
Fig. 3 . Alternatives of PFBR outfall (schematic).
44
4.2 Alternative A2
In order to avoid recirculation during the period of southward current, this alternative is consid-
ered. The outflows from PFBR and MAPS to be let out through a channel parallel to coastline
formed by constructing a guided bund. As in the case of Alternative A1, the channel would
consist of a guided bund of 680 m length from the PFBR outfall to MAPS outfall and would
extend further towards north by 500 m. In addition, it is being extended from PFBR outfall
towards south by some suitable length. With the arrangement of gates the outflows from
MAPS and PFBR would be let out through the channel to the north side during the period of
northerly current and to the south side during the period of southerly current. The optimum
length of the southward extension was determined to be 300 m from the model studies. In this
case, care has to be taken regarding operation of the gates.
4.3 Alternative B
Another option is to take PFBR outflow along a jetty perpendicular to the coastline and dis-
charge into deep sea at some distance from the shore. Trials were made to determine the
optimum distance from the shore, which was found to be 750 m. Fig. 4 shows typical thermal
flow field for northward and southward currents of the order of 0.1 m/s. The longshore and
cross-shore spread of the plume was observed to be similar to the case of Alternative A1.
Current
Current
Fig. 4. Dispersion of warm water in Alternative B.
45
5.0 FEASIBLE ALTERNATIVE
In order to get an idea about the possibility of recirculation of warm water at the intakes, the
monthly temperature variations at the MAPS and PFBR intakes were examined (Fig. 5). It is
seen that during April and October the ambient temperature itself is more than the design inlet
water temperature of MAPS (i.e. 300 C). The maximum rise in temperature at the intakes is of
the order of 1.50 C above the ambient temperature. Therefore there is a possibility that the
water temperature at the intakes would be higher by about 1-1.50 C than the design inlet water
temperature for a short duration when the ambient temperature itself is high and the currents
are weak.
MAPS have been commissioned in the years 1983-1985. Since then the warm water from
MAPS (35 m3/s) is being discharged into the sea from the bankline. It is seen that the dis-
charge through MAPS is working as littoral barrier, obstructing free flow of littoral drift resulting
in advancement of the southern shoreline. On the north side, sand bar (of seasonally varying
length) is formed leaving a channel between sand bar and bankline, which carries the warm
water discharge to the sea. Also eroding trends are noticed on the northern coastline due to
the obstruction to the littoral drift. During monsoon months the sand bar gets elongated and
reaches up to mouth of Edaiyur creek. This present situation may aggravate due to the Alter-
natives A1/A2 in which additional water of 22 m3 /s would be discharged from the outfall
channel.
Also in case of Alternatives A1/A2, appropriate protection to the channel and the coastline
would be required. Also periodical maintenance of the protective structures as well as periodi-
cal dredging at the mouth of Edaiyur creek to keep it open would be required.
In case of Alternative B, however, since no interference of PFBR discharge with the coastline
is involved, no coastal protection measures are required. The existing scenario at the coast-
line due to MAPS outfall would remain unchanged, i.e. the existing erosion/accretion of the
sand spit formation etc will continue.
Alternative A2 has the advantage of minimum recirculation in comparison with other alterna-
tives. However, care has to be taken for operation of gates as per the current direction in
Alternative A2 while in Alternatives A1 & B operation is not a problem. In view of recirculation,
Alternative B2 is more advantageous than Alternative A1 since advection and dispersion char-
acteristics are better, thereby minimising recirculation problems. Thus, Alternative B is seen
to be more suitable from the above discussions.
46
MAPS Design inlet water temp. Ambeint Temperature Temp. at MAPS intake
PFBR Design inlet water temp. Temp. at PFBR intake Current (m/s)
33 0.6
32 0.5
0.4
31
0.3
Temp.in deg. C
<- Southward Northward ->

30
0.2
29
Current (m/s)
0.1
28
0
27 -0.1
26 -0.2
25 -0.3
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Months
Fig. 5. Monthly temperature variation at PFBR intake for Alternative B.
6.0 CONCLUSIONS
From the mathematical model studies, the following conclusions are drawn:
1. Alternative A2 has the advantage of minimum recirculation in comparison with other Alter-
natives. However care has to be taken for operation of discharge as per the current direction
in Alternative A2 while in Alternatives A1 & B operation is not a problem.
2. With the Alternative A1 & A2, appropriate protection to the channel and coastline would be
needed and periodical maintenance of the protective structures will have to be carried out.
Also, periodical dredging would be required to keep open the mouth of Edaiyur creek.
3. Alternative B has the following advantages over Alternatives A1 & A2.

· Advection and dispersion characteristics are better, thereby recirculation
problems are minimized.
· No interference of outfall water with the coastline. The existing scenario at
the coastline due to MAPS outfall would remain unchanged.
· No impact on Edaiyur creek mouth
· MAPS outfall and PFBR outfall would be independent of each other thereby
minimizing the interaction of the two.
47
Hence the Alternative B is preferable compared to Alternative A1 & A2.
4. With Alternative B the intake may be suitably designed for selective withdrawal of cold
water since the warm water plume extends up to 2 m from the water surface.
Authors are thankful to Mrs. V.M. Bendre, Director, Central Water and Power Research Sta-
tion, Pune for consent for publishing this paper. The authors are also thankful to the Project
Authority for kind permission to publish the paper. The field data used for the studies were
collected by a CWPRS team headed by Mr. V.V. Vaze, Chief Research Officer, for which
authors wish to express their thanks.
REFERENCES
Anup Kumar, B., Rao, T. S., Venugopalan, V.P. and Narasimhan, S.V. (2002), Thermal mapping in the Kalpakkam
coast (Bay of Bengal) in the vicinity of Madras Atomic Power Station, Int. Conf. on Hydrology and Water-
shed Management with a Focal Theme on Water Quality and Conservation for Sustainable Development
(ICHWAM-2002), held at JNTU, Hyderabad.
Danish Hydraulic Institute (1994a), MIKE21-HD, Coastal Hydraulics and Oceanography- Hydrodynamic Module,
Users guide and reference manual.
Danish Hydraulic Institute (1994b), MIKE21-AD, Environmental Hydraulics Advection Dispersion Module,
Users guide and reference manual.
Gole, C.V.,Tarapore, Z.S. and Parchure, T.M. (1975), Thermal discharges into the marine environment - Model
Studies for Madras Atomic Power Project, Kalpakkam. Proc. of 44th Annual Research Session of CBIP,
Publication No.123, Paper No.4.
48
SHORELINE CHANGES ALONG THE POOMPUHAR AND

TRANQUEBAR COASTS OF TAMIL NADU
P.K. Suresh1*, D. Panneerselvam, M. Jayapalan2 and G. Nagaraj
Institute of Hydraulics and Hydrology, Poondi-602 023, Tamil Nadu
Abstract
Poompuhar and Tranquebar located along East Coast of Tamil Nadu are very important places
from historical point of view. The river Cauvery empties into the Bay of Bengal near Poompuhar.
Tranquebar is famous for its ancient Danish connections .The coast is highly sensitive to
seasons. Observations of the beach width changes from 1982 were collected. Data on beach
width were compiled and analysed for different seasons. The details of fluctuations in beach
width with respect to time are detailed in the paper.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Poompuhar and Tranquebar are along East Coast in Nagapattinam District of Tamil Nadu
which are two historically important places attracting huge tourist population. The Poompuhar
is associated with the famous Silappathikaram. Tranquebar is famous for its Danish connec-
tion related historical importance. It is found out that there was a flourishing harbour in Poompuhar
about 1000 years ago, which had trade links with East. But today it is a tiny little village with
only fishing activity. The river Cauvery meets the Bay of Bengal here. Some monuments were
erected along this coast.
Tranquebar is a historical village where the Danish Country has constructed a Fort in 15th
Century A.D. to pursue their trade in South India. There is also a very old Siva temple, which
is now almost eaten away by the sea. At present this is a small town where only fishing using
Catamaran is the main activity. The Institute of Hydraulics & Hydrology (I.H.H.), Poondi has
made observations on beach width measurements at selected points along the coast of
Poompuhar and Tranquebar. As per the I.H H reports 1989,1996 and 2000, it was found that
about 3.5 acres of land was lost due to erosion along these stretches.
2.0 OBJECTIVE
Based on the historical importance of the places, it was felt that the observation on beach
width measurement would be a valuable one. Hence observation points were selected and the
monthly movement of the berm of the beach with reference to the observation points was
observed from 1978 onwards.
*Corresponding author, e-mail: suresh_pk2000@yahoo.com, 2nlmjayapalan@rediffmail.com

The details are as follows:
Sl. No. of Length of

Site Latitude Longitude
No. Pillars observation (m)
0 0
1. Poompuhar 7 1905 11 13' N 79 52' E
0 0
2. Tranquebar 4 760 11 03' N 79 35' E
2.1 Details of the observations

Seven pillars were erected in Poompuhar. Out of the seven, two pillars were on the South side
and 5 on the North side of river Cauvery. From this pillar points, the distance of berm of the
beach was measured. In this way measurements were made at all seven points.
In a similar way, the change in beach width movement along the Tranquebar Coast was
observed by erecting four pillar points (Figs. 1 and 2).
2.2 Observations and analysis

The measurements on beach width movement taken from 1982 to 2002 were analysed. Divid-
ing the data into four groups, namely, Southwest monsoon from June to September, Northeast
monsoon from October to December, Non-monsoon from January to May and Mean annual.
The changes of the beach width size with respect to seasons and annual average width of the
beach were analysed .
3.0 RESULTS OF ANALYSES
3.1 Poompuhar
Out of the seven observation points located, two points P1, P2 are on the South side of river
Cauvery and P3 to P7 on the North side of river Cauvery. The point P1 experiences erosion and
nearly 40 m beach width was lost. Since P2 and P3 are located on the mouth on both sides
of Cauvery river mouth around 50 m length of beach formation is seen. Pillars P4 to P7 were
showing a constant trend till 1994. And from 1995, P4 and P6 are showing accretion trend and
P5, P7 showing erosion trend. The coastline along the points P5 - P6 - P7 was under heavy
erosion. One reason for the erosion was the low sediment supply at Cauvery river mouth due
to low discharge in the river. In order to protect the monuments, anti-sea erosion measures
were carried out in the year 2000. It has resulted in some accretion zones along the earlier
eroding zones. At present accretion trends were seen near pillars P4 and P6 and erosion
trends near P5 and P7. But the overall net effect along P4 to P7 is showing accretion trend.
The beach undergoes a variation of 10 m to 15 m during the two-monsoon periods (Figs. 3 and
4).
50
3.2 Tranquebar
Out of the 4 pillars located, two are on the South side of a masonry wall. The coastline along
P1 - P2 was initially under erosion. But in order to protect the monuments like Dutch Fort, etc.
anti-sea erosion measures were executed in front of fort and temples in the nineties. Subse-
quently this beach has reached a stabilised stage showing some accretion. It undergoes a
fluctuation of 10 m to 20 m during the two monsoon period (Figs. 5, 6 and 7).
4.0 CONCLUSIONS
Based on the field measurements it was found out that the coastline along Poompuhar was
earlier under severe erosion posing a threat to the existing monuments. Hence a sea wall was
constructed in the year 2000 to protect the monuments and presently the coastline along P4
to P7 has started showing net effect of accretion trend even though some pockets of erosion
were noticed. Beach width of around 50 m was seen and the coastline seems to be taking a
stable trend.
The coastline along Tranquebar, which was earlier eroding, has started showing signs of
accretion near P1 to P2 and erosion from P3 to P4.The eroded temple portion, acting like a
small groyne. The above changes in trends are due to the execution of some anti-sea erosion
works undertaken. Thus the two sites, which were under heavy erosion have reached a stabilised
state. The analysis of waves from the wave atlas data indicates that the waves approach the
coast from the NE, E, SE directions during the monsoon periods and this is the reason for the
high seasonal variations of beach width.
REFERENCES
An overview of Tamil Nadu coasts for erosion and accretion from 1978 to 1988, I.H.H. Poondi Report 1989
Report on Coastal Processes, I.H.H. Poondi Report No. 15-95
Report on long term shoreline changes along Tamil Nadu coastline, Annual report 2000, I.H.H. Poondi Report no
17/2000
Report on long term shoreline changes along Tamil Nadu coastline, Annual report 2002, I.H.H. Poondi Report no
21/2002
Wave Atlas for Indian Coast (1990)
51
52
Fig. 1. Poompuhar.
53
Fig. 2. Tranquebar.
SW NE NM Annual Mean
Beach Width ( m )
250
200
150
100
50
0
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
Year
Fig. 3. The shoreline position during different seasons at pillar 4 at Poompuhar.
80
Beach Width ( m )
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
Year
Fig. 4. The shoreline position during different seasons at pillar 5 at Poompuhar.
SW NE NM Annual Mean
Beach WIdth ( m )
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
Year
Fig. 5. The shoreline position during different seasons at pillar 1 at Tranquebar.
54
Beach Width ( m ) Beach Width ( m )
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0
1978
1978
1979
1979

1980

1980
1981
1981
1982
1982
1983
1983
1984
1984
1985
1985
1986
1986
1987
1987
1988
1988
1989
55
1989
Year
1990
Year
1990
1991
1991
1992
1992
1993
1993
1994
1994
1995
1995
1996
1996
1997
1997
1998
1998
1999
1999
2000
2000
2001
2001
2002
2002
MATHEMATICAL MODELING STUDY OF DESIGN

PARAMETERS FOR SUBMARINE PIPELINE
AT GULF OF KACHCHH
P. Chandramohan*, D.P. Rao and P. Senthil Pandi
Indomer Coastal Hydraulics (P) Ltd., Chennai.
Abstract
A study was undertaken to estimate the design waves along the proposed submarine pipeline
corridor in Gulf of Kachchh. The software CEDAS was used for wave hindcast and design
wave analysis. The synoptic information on past cyclones were derived from IMD reports.
From the deep water waves, the design waves along the pipeline corridor were estimated
using numerical wave refraction study.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
A submarine pipeline is being laid into the Gulf of Kachchh for receiving the crude oil from the
offshore facility. The synoptic information during past cyclonic history were collected from
India Meteorological Department and wave hindcast was done using the software CEDAS
(Coastal Engineering Design and Analysis System, CERC, U.S. Army). The numerical wave
refraction model was carried out for the wave propagation inside the Gulf of Kachchh and the
design extreme waves were estimated along the pipeline corridor (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Study Area.

*Corresponding author, e-mail: ponpcm@yahoo.com
2.0 METHODS
2.1 Wind
The synoptic information corresponding to the occurrences of meteorological depressions,
storms and severe storm during the period 1891-1998 were extracted from India Meteorologi-
cal Department and the wave characteristics corresponding to above storm conditions were
estimated. The characteristics of the wind field needed for the simplified wave prediction
model are described in Weigel (1964). Using the pattern of isobars and spacing between
isobars, the geostrophic wind characteristics were estimated using the meteorological dy-
namic equation (Byer, 1959).
α δρ
ug = (1)
2Ω sin φ δz
where, α = specific volume of air in m3/kg; Ω = angular velocity of the earth in radian/s; φ =
latitude in degrees; δp = pressure gradient of the isobar; ug = geostrophic wind speed in m/
s.
Fetch: The fetch has been defined subjectively as a region in which the wind speed and
direction are reasonably constant. A coastline upwind from the point of interest always limits
a fetch. Frequently the discontinuity at a weather front will limit a fetch.
Duration: Estimates of the duration of the wind are important for wave prediction. Computed
results, especially for short duration and high wind speeds may be sensitive to differences of
only a few minutes in the duration. In the present study, 12 hours wind duration was consid-
ered in the offshore region.
2.2 Model
The coastal engineering application model CEDAS developed by Coastal Engineering Re-
search Centre, US Army Corps of Engineers, USA was used for hindcasting of waves. Sverdrup,
Munk and Breitschneider proposed following equations in order to estimate the wave charac-
teristics.
gH (2)
s
= 0.283 tanh(0.0125β 0.42 )
U
gT
= 1.20 tanh(0.077 β 0.25 )
2πU (3)
and,
57
gt
= 6.5882 exp [0.0161(1n( β )) 2 − 0.3692 1n( β ) + (2.2024)]1 / 2 + 0.8798 1n( β ) (4)
U
where, β = gF ; H = significant wave height in m; U = wind speed in m/s; T = zero crossing

U2
wave period in s; t = wind duration in s; F = fetch in m; g = acceleration due to gravity in m/s2.
The model CEDAS primarily solves the equations (2), (3) and (4) to obtain the significant wave
height, zero crossing wave period and wave direction. The input for the model comprises of
fetch length, gradient wind speed and wind direction. Based on the various synoptic informa-
tion, a fetch length of 300 km was considered for wave generation. The output comprises of
significant wave height, zero wave crossing period and wave direction.
2.3 Numerical wave refraction

The waves propagating in shallow water undergo changes in wave height, length, celerity and
direction of propagation primarily due to wave shoaling, refraction and bottom friction. The
numerical wave transformation model TARANGAM was used to carry out the study . For the
calculation of wave height and direction due to wave refraction, Munk and Arthur (1952) have
derived a second order homogeneous ordinary differential equation for the orthogonal separa-
tion factor (b) as,
d 2β dβ
2
+ p (t )( ) + q (t ) β = 0 (5)
dt dt
where, p(t) = -2( cos q dc − sin θ dc ) (6)

dx dy
d 2c d 2c d 2c (7)
q (t ) = c((sin 2 θ ) − (sin 2θ + (cos 2
θ )
dx 2 dxdy dy 2
ß = Kr-2 (8)
where, ß = wave orthogonal separation factor; K = refraction coefficient; t = time period in s;

r
θ = wave direction in deg; x = distance along the coastline in m; y = distance perpendicular
to coastline in m.
The refraction study was carried out for 4, 6, 8 and 10 s wave periods to represent three
seasons, viz. southwest monsoon, northeast monsoon and fair weather periods. Based on
the refraction study, the attenuated wave height and wave direction along the pipeline corridor
were estimated.
58
2.4 Design waves
Based on the hindcast annual wave characteristics and storm waves, the design waves for
various return periods were estimated using the model CEDAS. The extreme value analysis is
done using Weibull statistical distribution as described in Ochi, 1982. Based on the distribu-
tion, the design waves were obtained for the return periods of 2, 5, 10, 25, 50 and 100 years.
3.0 RESULTS
3.1 Wind
The estimated wind speed shows that it prevails around 40 km/hour during southwest mon-
soon (April to August), 20 km/hour during northeast monsoon (December to March) and less
than 10 km/hour in October and March. Strong wind prevails during southwest monsoon and
it remains relatively calm during the rest of the year. The wind direction predominantly varies
between 250° - 260° during May to October, 300° 310° during November to February and
270° - 290° during March and April.
3.2 Hindcast waves in deepwater

The typical input for the wave hindcast model CEDAS are:
Table 1
Spacing
Fetch between Direction
Year Month date
(km) isobars (deg.)
(deg.)
2000 01 01 300 4.5 310
2000 01 02 300 4.5 300
2000 01 03 300 5.0 300
… … … … … …
Table 2
Zero
Significant Wave
Surface crossing
Fetch wave height direction
Year Month Date wind wave
(km) (m) (deg)
(kmph) period (s)
2000 01 01 300 20.3 0.8 4 310
2000 01 02 300 20.3 0.8 4 300
2000 01 03 300 18.2 0.7 3 300
… … … … … … … …
3.3 Annual wave climate

The estimation shows that the significant wave heights in deepwater predominantly prevail
about 0.5 1.0 m from January to May and September, 0.5 m from October to December and
59
2 3 m from June to August. The zero crossing wave period varies around 4 s from November
to March, 6 8 s from June to September and 5 s during the rest of the year. The wave
direction predominantly prevails between 250° - 260° during May to October, 300° 310°
during November to February and 270° - 290°during March and April.
3.4 Storm generated waves

The occurrences of severe storms, storms and depressions in the vicinity of Gulf of Kachchh
during 1891 to 1998 indicate that totally 111 events had occurred with 24 severe storms , 26
storms and 61 depressions. The extreme waves estimated using the model CEDAS for the
reported storms are shown in Table 3. The estimation shows that the significant wave height
up to 12.7 m can be generated during severe cyclonic storm. The most probable direction of
waves during the cyclonic storm approaching the Gulf region will be between 260° and 270°.
3.5 Wave transformation

Based on the numerical wave refraction study, the distribution of attenuated wave height after
refraction, shoaling and bottom friction for this 6 s wave period in southwest monsoon and
northeast monsoon are shown in Figs. 2 and 3.
SW monsoon: The incoming waves having periods more than 6 s break before crossing the
Mandvi region. The transmitted waves near the pipeline corridor exist around the same height
of open sea waves for 4 and 6 s wave periods and around 0.5 times for 8 and 10 s wave
periods. NE monsoon: During the northeast monsoon (October to January), the propagation
of waves without significant attenuation was observed till the pipeline corridor. The wave heights
near the pipeline corridor remain the same as incoming wave heights for 4 and 6 s wave
periods FW period: During fair weather (February to May), waves approach the pipeline
corridor without significant reduction in height for 4 and 6 s wave periods. The wave height
near the pipeline location remains as that of the open sea for 4 and 6 s wave periods. The
divergence of wave orthogonals was observed for 8 and 10 s wave periods. The wave height at
SPM location reduce to 0.5 times of the deepwater wave height for the waves more than 6 s
wave period.
Storm period: During the storm condition the waves will arrive from the direction between
260o and 270o which will be similar to the wave direction during southwest monsoon. It was
observed that in all seasons the wave heights at pipeline corridor remain as the same order of
the open sea, for waves having period less than 6 s and get attenuated to 0.5 times for the
waves exceeding 6 s. However, at 3 km west of the pipeline corridor, there appears to be a
zone with high concentration of wave energy, wherein the wave heights increase higher than
the deepwater wave heights during southwest monsoon and fair weather period. The waves
propagating from open sea into Gulf get attenuated first at Lushington Shoal at mouth, then at
60
Gurur shoal opposite to Okha, again at Ranwar shoal off Mandvi and Chandri reef and finally at
Nora Tapu. Except a part of the waves propagating through the deeper channel at the middle
of the Gulf, the entire waves having period more than 6 s period are totally attenuated before
approaching Mudwah Point.
Fig. 2. Wave transformation during SW Fig. 3. Wave transformation during NW

Monsoon for T=6 s. Monsoon for T=6 s.
3.6 DESIGN WAVES
Deepwater
The extreme wind and wave statistics using Weibull statistical distribution was carried out for
the storm waves. The estimated design extreme wind speed and significant wave heights for
various return periods arrived using the model CEDAS are given below:
61
Table 3.
Design Design
significant maximum
Return period Extreme wind wave height wave height Wave period
(years) speed (km/h) based on based on (s)
storm waves storm waves
(m) (m)
2 75 7.12 12.82 11.11
5 100 10.19 18.34 12.62
10 114 11.98 21.56 13.50
25 130 13.98 25.16 14.48
50 140 15.31 27.56 15.13
100 150 16.53 29.75 15.73
Pipeline corridor
The extreme significant wave heights and extreme maximum wave heights along the pipeline
corridor at water depths 32, 30, 25, 20, 15, 10 and 7.5 m for different return periods are shown
below:
Table 4.
Return period Water depth (m)

Deepwa
(years)
ter
32 30 25 20 15 10 7.5
Hs 7.12 2.1 2.13 2.12 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.1
2 Hmax 12.82 3.8 3.83 3.82 3.6 3.6 3.7 3.8
θ 260 o 260 260 259 o 259 258 257 256
Hs 10.19 3.0 3.03 2.98 2.9 2.9 2.9 3.0
5 Hmax 18.34 5.5 5.45 5.36 5.2 5.2 5.3 5.5
θ 260 o 260 260 260 o 259 258 257 256
Hs 11.98 3.5 3.56 3.50 3.4 3.4 3.4 3.6
10 Hmax 21.56 6.4 6.41 6.30 6.1 6.1 6.2 6.6
θ 260 o 260 260 260 o 259 258 257 257
Hs 13.98 4.1 3.97 3.90 3.8 3.8 3.9 4.0
25 Hmax 25.16 7.5 7.15 7.02 6.9 6.8 7.0 7.2
θ 260 o 260 260 259 o 259 258 257 256
Hs 15.31 4.5 4.36 4.28 4.2 4.1 4.2 4.3
50 Hmax 27.56 8.2 7.85 7.70 7.5 7.5 7.6 7.9
θ 260 o 260 260 259 o 259 258 257 256
Hs 16.53 4.9 4.70 4.62 4.5 4.5 4.6 4.7
100 Hmax 29.75 8.9 8.46 8.32 8.1 8.1 8.2 8.5
θ 260 o 260 260 259 o 258 258 257 256
Hs - Design extreme significant wave height; Hmax- Extreme maximum wave height; θ - Wave direction
62
4.0 CONCLUSIONS
The wave climate in deep water was evaluated using hind cast model. The hind cast shows
that strong wind prevails during southwest monsoon and the wave height prevails around 2 to
3 m. The wind speed remains relatively low during the rest of the year and correspondingly
the wave height remains less than 1 m. The severe cyclonic storm can generate waves up to
12.7 m height in open sea. The extreme significant wave height along the pipeline corridor is
expected to occur around 3.59, 4.19 and 4.59 m for the return periods of 10, 25 and 50 years
respectively.
REFERENCES
Bretschneider, C.L., 1958, Revisions in Wave Forecasting: Deep and Shallow Water, Proceedings of the Sixth
conference on Coastal Engineering, ASCE, Council on Wave Research.
Byer, R.H., 1959, General Meteorology, Mc. GrawHill Company.
Chandramohan, P., Nayak, B.U., and Raju N.S.N., 1989, Wave tables for the Indian coast based on ship observa-
tions (1968 1986), NIO Technical Report-NIO/TR-2/89.
Chandramohan, P., Sanil Kumar, V., Nayak, B. U., 1991, Wave statistics along the Indian coast based on ship
observed data, Indian Journal of Marine Sciences, 20, 87-92.
Munk, W.H. and Arthur, R.S., (1952), Wave intensity along a refracted ray, Gravity waves, National Bureau of
Standards Circular 521, United States Government Printing Press, Washington, D.C.,
Ochi, M.K., 1982, Stochastic analysis and probalistic prediction of random seas, Academic Press.
Ship Weather Code, (1982), India Meteorological Department, Pune.
Shore Protection Manual, 1975, U.S. Army Coastal Engineering Research Centre. Vol I.
Subramanian, V., Mahadevan, R., Lalitha, B., Srinivasan, D., 1988, Storm surge simulation studies- A review, IIT,
Chennai.
Sverdrup, H.U., and Munk, W.H., 1947, Wind, Sea and Swell: Theory of Relations for Forecasting, Publication No.
601, U.S. Navy Hydrographic Office, Washington, D.C., Mar.
Wiegel, R. L., Oceanographical Engineering, Prentice-Hall.
Sarpakaya, T. and Issacson, M. 1981, Mechanics of wave forces on offshore structures, Van Norstrad Reinhold
Co., NY.
63
PREDICTION OF EXTREME WIND SPEED FOR KUWAIT

S. Neelamani* and Layla Al-Awadhi
Coastal Engg. and Air Pollution Dept., Environmental and Urban Development Division, Kuwait Institute for
Scientific Research, P.O. Box : 24885, 13109 SAFAT, KUWAIT
Abstract
Kuwait is a coastal country with a total of about 660 km coast. The extreme wind speed for
different return periods is essential for the design of tall structures, for extreme value predic-
tion of waves in the ocean etc. Measured wind data from 1962 to 1997 from the Kuwait Airport
is collected and used for the prediction of expected wind speeds for return periods of 50 years,
100 years etc. The analysis is carried out both for 10 minute average wind speed and gust
speed. Log Normal, Weibull, Gumbel and Fretchet distributions are used for the extreme
value predictions. Gumbel distribution is found to fit better for the measured wind speed in
Kuwait International Airport. For a return period of 50 years and 100 years, the 10 minute
average wind speed is predicted as 65.8 mph and 70.9 mph respectively. For the same return
period, the gust speed is predicted as 89.39 mph and 96.98 mph respectively. These predic-
tions will be useful for designing the land and ocean structures in the bay area of Kuwait and
for establishing the extreme rate of sand transport from the desert area into the Arabian gulf.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Wind speed and direction at a point on the earth is dominantly controlled by the seasonal
changes. Over and above this, the random unexpected phenomena like thunderstorms, hurri-
cane effects, unexpected pressure differences over the surface of the earth due to strange
atmospheric phenomena cause high wind speed and gusts. These unexpected high wind
speed and gust dictates design of many items on the earth like tall structures and towers,
power transmission lines, controlling devices for sand movements in desert areas, aircrafts,
ship anchoring systems in ports and harbors, wind power plant on land and sea, chimneys,
planning for mitigating measures for life and properties during extreme winds etc. One of the
factors for fixing the insurance premium for ships and tall towers is based on its stability for
extreme winds with different return periods say 50 years, 100 years etc. These high wind
speeds, whose probability of occurrence is very less, is also responsible for generating high
waves in the seas, which governs the design, operation and maintenance of all types of
structures in the sea. Now-a-days, the probability based concept and risk of encountering
extreme events with different return periods is the trend in the design of anything on the earth.
If a system (say a tall tower) is designed for a life of 50 years, then one should know the
maximum wind speed which is expected to act on the structure in 50 years with certain
probability of exceedence. Normally tall structures are designed for a wind speed whose
*Corresponding author, e-mail: nsubram@kisr.edu.kw

probability of exceedence is 2% (Gomes and Vickery, 1978; Milne, 1992; Kristensen et al.,
2002; Sacré, 2002; and Miller, 2003). How do we know the maximum wind speed at a point on
the earth in 50 years or 100 years? The straight forward answer is Install an anemometer and
measure the wind speed for 50 years or 100 years. One can not do this to obtain the
maximum wind speed in 50 or 100 years and use the data for design. The procedure is to use
the available past data and apply the available technology to predict the future wind speeds for
certain return periods (Gumbel, 1958; Miller, 2003). Most of the countries around the world
have the code for design wind speed and zoning systems. Kuwait does not have a code for
design wind speed. Winds are measured in many places in Kuwait in different projects (for
example, Abdal et al., 1986; Ayyash and Al-Tukhaim, 1986). It is also reported that the
hinterland areas of Kuwait has wind power potential of about 250 W/m2 which is appreciable
(Ayyash and Al-Tukhaim, 1986). The wind power is renewable, inexhaustible and pollution
free. It is especially good for island areas in Kuwait. The wind power system design, like the
turbine and the vertical mast needs the extreme wind speed. The Kuwait International Airport
collects the wind data since 1962. These data are used for extreme value prediction.
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
There are a large number of works done by many scientists around the world on extreme value
prediction of winds. Gumbel (1958) is the first who has developed a statistical method for
predicting the extreme wind speed. Recorded annual maximum wind speed for as many years
as possible, is the input for this method. Gumbel extreme value distribution is widely used by
the wind engineering community around the world, since the method is simple and robust.
The other most relevant work in this area is by Gomes and Vickery (1977), Gomes and
Vickery (1978), Mayne (1979), Cheng and Chiu (1988), Krishnasamy and Ramani (1989),
Milne (1992), Bocciolone et al., (1993), Harris (1996), Morton et al., (1997), Choi (1999),
Kristensen et al., (2000), Holmes (2001), Sacré (2002), Kasperski (2002), Miller (2003), Whalen
et al. (2004), and Payer and Küchenhoff (2004). In Kuwait, wind data is being collected at
many stations for many years. For example, Kuwait International Airport has wind data from
1962 onwards. The studies related to wind is carried out for the following purposes:
·Analysis of wind speed and direction at different locations (Ayyash and Al-Tukhaim, 1986;
.Abdal et al., 1986)
·Assessment of wind energy potential (Ayyash et al., 1985)
·Statistical aspect of wind speed (Ayyash et al., 1984)
·To estimate the wind over sea from land measurement (Al-Madani et al., 1989)
·Analysis of wind effect in the Arabian Gulf water flow field model (Gopalakrishnan, 1988)
·Height variations of wind (Ayyash and Al-Ammar, 1984)
·Prediction of wind waves (Sulisz, 1998).
Wind direction and speed are critical features in Kuwait because they are associated with
65
dust and sand storms, especially during summer. In Kuwait, NW winds are dominant. The
average wind speed in summer is about 30 to 50% higher than in fall-winter. The wind power
potential in Kuwait varies from 100 W/m2 to 250 W/m2 (Ayyash et al., 1984). Kuwait airport
has recorded a maximum wind speed of 66 m.p.h. and maximum gust speed of 84 m.p.h.
during 1968 (Climatological Summaries, Kuwait International Airport, 1983). Wind data collec-
tion is at progress in many stations in Kuwait. It is found that there is no study carried out on
extreme wind prediction in Kuwait based on the measured data, which is the motivation for the
present study.
3.0 METHODOLOGY
The measured wind data from the Kuwait International Air port for the period 19621997 is
collected. The data contains the maximum yearly wind speed and maximum yearly gust
speed. The maximum yearly wind speed is defined as the maximum average wind speed for
a period of 10 minutes over a period of one year. The maximum yearly gust speed is defined
as the extreme limit of the wind speed reached on the anemograph chart or in the digital data
recorder in a calendar year. Collection of more number of reliable past data is very important
for prediction of the extreme values with different return periods. Simiu et al., (1978) found that
the sampling error in estimating a wind speed with a 50 year return period from 25 years of
data, with a 68% confident level is about ±7%. The error in estimating the 1000 year return
period value from 25 years of data is calculated to be ±9%.
The following are the steps followed for the long-term prediction of winds:-
(a).The annual maximum wind speed (annual maximum gust speed) is picked up from the
available data for the period 1962 to 1997.
(b).The wind speed data is arranged in descending order.
(c).The plotting formula Q = m / (N+1) is used to reduce the wind speed data to a set of points
describing the probability of exceedence of wind speed, Q, where m is the rank order and N is
the total number of values.
(d).The wind speed is then plotted against a reduced variate of Q (for example the reduced
variate of Q for Gumbel distribution is y = -In [-In (1-Q)]). The theoretical extreme value prob-
ability distribution functions Lognormal, Gumbel, Fretchet, Weibull (Sarpkaya and Isaacson,
1981) are used in the present study. Based on the regression analysis, Gumbel distribution
is found to be good for the present data.
(e).A straight line is fitted by using least square principles through the points to represent a
trend.
(f).The line is then extrapolated to locate a design value corresponding to a chosen return
66
period (50 years, 100 years etc.) or a chosen encounter probability.
The data used in the present study is given in Table 1. which also provides the other statistical
information for plotting of the results.
Table 1. The details of Wind data collected from Kuwait International Airport and other details for extreme
value prediction.
Year Max. In Rank Q=m/(N+1) P=1-Q TR = E for L Y = -

Wind (U max ) r/Q = 20 In[-
Velocity, years In(P)]
U max
(mph)
1968 66 4.189655 1 0.02703 0.97297 37 0.422 3.597

1971 60 4.094345 2 0.05405 0.94595 18.5 0.671 2.889
1970 52.2 3.955083 3 0.08108 0.91892 12.33 0.816 2.47
1975 52.1 3.953165 4 0.10811 0.89189 9.25 0.899 2.168
1977 52 3.951244 5 0.13514 0.86486 7.4 0.945 1.93
1976 50 3.912023 6 0.16216 0.83784 6.167 0.971 1.732
1974 48 3.871201 7 0.18919 0.81081 5.286 0.985 1.562
1967 47 3.850148 8 0.21622 0.78378 4.625 0.992 1.412
1969 46.2 3.83298 9 0.24324 0.75676 4.111 0.996 1.276
1972 46.1 3.830813 10 0.27027 0.72973 3.7 0.998 1.155
1973 46 3.828641 11 0.2973 0.7027 3.36 0.99914 1.042
1980 43 3.7612 12 0.32432 0.67568 3.08 0.9996 0.936
1983 42.5 3.749504 13 0.35135 0.64865 2.85 0.9998 0.837
1979 42 3.73767 14 0.37838 0.62162 2.64 0.99993 0.744
1997 40.32 3.696848 15 0.40541 0.59459 2.47 0.99997 0.654
1991 40.31 3.6966 16 0.43243 0.56757 2.31 0.99999 0.568
1984 40.3 3.696352 17 0.45946 0.54054 2.18 0.999995 0.486
1963 40 3.688879 18 0.48649 0.51351 2.05 0.999998 0.406
1962 39.1 3.666123 19 0.51351 0.48649 1.95 0.999999 0.328
1982 39 3.663562 20 0.5405 0.45945 1.85 1 0.251
1964 38.3 3.64545 21 0.56757 0.43243 1.762 1 0.176
1978 38.2 3.642836 22 0.59459 0.40541 1.68 1 0.102
1981 38.1 3.640214 23 0.62162 0.37838 1.609 1 0.029
1994 38 3.637586 24 0.64865 0.35135 1.542 1 -0.045
1985 35.84 3.579065 25 0.67568 0.32432 1.48 1 -0.119
1986 35.83 3.578786 26 0.7027 0.2973 1.423 1 -0.193
1988 35.82 3.578506 27 0.72973 0.27027 1.37 1 -0.269
1989 35.81 3.578227 28 0.75676 0.24324 1.32 1 -0.346
1996 35.8 3.577948 29 0.78378 0.21622 1.276 1 -0.426
1966 34 3.526361 30 0.81081 0.18919 1.233 1 -0.51
1993 33.61 3.514824 31 0.83784 0.16216 1.194 1 -0.598
1987 33.6 3.514526 32 0.86486 0.13514 1.156 1 -0.694
1995 31.3 3.443618 33 0.89189 0.10811 1.121 1 -0.8
1965 31 3.433987 34 0.91892 0.08108 1.088 1 -0.921
1990 29.2 3.374169 35 0.94595 0.05405 1.057 1 -1.071
1992 29.1 3.370738 36 0.97297 0.02703 1.028 1 -1.284
67
Table 2 provides the gust speed data arranged in descending order.
Table. 2 Gust speed data from Kuwait International Airport.
Year 1968 1967 1978 1975 1971 1970 1974 1976 1969
Gust 84 78 74.2 74.1 74 72 70 69 67
Speed
(mph)
Year 1977 1963 1972 1983 1973 1995 1994 1993 1984
Gust 64 63 60 55.9 55 53.73 53.72 53.71 53.7
Speed
(mph)
Year 1980 1981 1985 1996 1979 1991 1964 1997 1982
Gust 53 52 51.51 51.5 51 49.2 48 47 46
Speed
(mph)
Year 1986 1987 1962 1990 1989 1988 1966 1965 1992
Gust 44.71 44.7 44 42.52 42.51 42.5 41 40 35.8
Speed
(mph)
The variation of annual maximum 10 minute average wind speed and annual maximum gust
speed from 1962 to 1997 is given in Fig.1. The variation is highly random.
Yearly 10 minute Max. Wind Speed Gust Speed
90
80
Wind Speed (mph)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Year
Fig. 1. Measured Yearly 10 minute average and Gust speed from Kuwait International Airport.
A typical plot showing the relationship between the 10 minute annual maximum wind speed
and In [-[In(P)] on a Gumbel distribution plot is given in Fig. 2. The slope and intercept of the
line is obtained based on least square technique. The correlation coefficient of 0.9838 shows
the reliability of the fitted line for the measured data.
68
4
5
4 3
y = 0.137x - 5.1127 y = 5.9442x - 21.463
3 R2 = 0.9838 R2 = 0.9844
2
- In[-In(P)]
-In [-In(P)]
2
1
1
0
0
3 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.5
20 30 40 50 60 70 -1
-1
-2 -2
Wind speed (10 minute annual average, mph) In(10 minute annual average wind speed, mph)
Fig.2 Extreme wind speed (10 minute average) for Fig.3 Extreme wind speed (10 minute average) for
Kuwait based on Kuwait International Airport data (1962- Kuwait based on Kuwait International Airport data (1962-
1997) 1997)
A similar plot for the maximum value of the 10 minute annual average wind speed on Fretchlet
distribution plot is given in Fig. 3. Regression coefficient of 0.9844 shows that Fretchet
distribution is as good as Gumbel distribution. The annual maximum gust speed is also
plotted on the Gumbel distribution plot (Fig. 4) and Fretchet distribution plot (Fig. 5) and other
probability distributions. Gumbel distribution fits best for the Kuwait international airport data
set with coefficient of correlation of 0.9721 compared to the Fretchet distribution with coeffi-
cient of correlation of 0.959. Overall, it is found that the Gumbel distribution can be used for
the extreme value prediction.
4 4
y = 0.0914x - 4.5447 y = 5.1766x - 20.14
3 3
R2 = 0.9721 R2 = 0.959
2 2
-In [-In(P)]
-In [-In(P)]
1 1
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
-1 -1
-2 -2
Annual m aximum Gust Speed, m ph In (Annual maximum Guest speed, mph)
Fig.4 Extreme Gust speed for Kuwait based on Fig.5 Extreme Gust speed for Kuwait based on
Kuwait International Airport Data (1962- 1997) Gumbel Kuwait International Airport Data (1962 - 1997)
Distribution Fretchet Distribution
4.1 Extreme wind speeds based on Gumbel distribution

The return period, TR and the probability of non-exceedence, P are linked by the following
formula:
TR /r = 1/(1-P)
where r is the recording interval or interval between the data samples, which is 1 year in the
present analysis.
According to Gumbel distribution, the wind speed and the probability of non-exceedence are
related by U = è { [ -In (-In P)]} + v / è}
69
where 1/è is the slope of the straight line equation in Fig. 2 and 4 for 10 minute average
annual maximum wind speed and annual maximum gust speed respectively and (-v / è) is the
corresponding intercept. By using the above equations together, the predicted maximum 10
minute average wind speed and the predicted maximum gust speed for different return periods
are obtained and is tabulated in Table 3.
Table 3. Predicted maximum 10 minute average wind speed and the predicted
maximum gust speed for different return periods for Kuwait.
Return Period, Predicted Predicted

TR in years Maximum 10 maximum Gust
minute average speed (mph)
wind speed
(mph)
10 53.75 71.91
25 60.67 81.95
50 65.80 89.39
75 68.78 93.72
100 70.90 96.78
125 72.53 99.15
150 73.87 101.09
175 75.00 102.73
200 75.97 104.14
300 78.94 108.44
400 81.04 111.49
500 82.67 113.86
1000 87.74 121.20
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
Measured wind speed from Kuwait International Airport from 1962 to 1997 is used to predict
the extreme wind speeds (!0 minute average and gust speeds) by using the extreme value
prediction techniques. Log Normal, Weibull, Gumbel and Fretchet distributions are used. The
Gumbel distribution is found to fit better with the measurement wind data of Kuwait Airport. 10
minute average wind speeds of 65.80 mph and 70.90 mph is predicted for return periods of 50
years and 100 years respectively. For the same return periods, the gust speeds predicted are
89.39 mph and 96.78 mph. These predicted extreme wind speeds will be useful for the design
of tall structures, offshore drilling platforms, wind power farms and for the extreme sand trans-
port into the bay area of Kuwait from the desert.
The authors wish to acknowledge the Kuwait Airport authorities for making the data available
for the present work. We thank Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Kuwait for providing
the facilities for carrying out the work for this paper.
70
REFERENCES
Abdal,Y., Al-Ajmi, D., Al-Thabia, R., and Abuseil, M. (1986). Recent trends in wind direction and speed in Kuwait.
Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Report No. 2186, Kuwait.
Al-Madani, N., Lo, J. M., and Tayfun, M. A. (1989). Estimation of winds over the sea from land measurements in
Kuwait. Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Report No. 3224, Kuwait.
Ayyash, S., Al-Tukhaim, K., Al-Jazzaf, M. (1984). Statistical aspects of wind speed in Kuwait. Kuwait Institute
for Scientific Research, Report No. 1378, Kuwait.
Ayyash,S., and Al-Ammar, J. (1984). Height variation of wind speed in Kuwait. Kuwait Institute for Scientific
Research, Report No. 1402, Kuwait.
Ayyash, S., Al-Tukhaim, K., Al-Ammar, J. (1984). Characteristics of wind energy in Kuwait. Kuwait Institute for
Scientific Research, Report No. 1298, Kuwait.
Ayyash, S., Al-Tukhaim, K., Al-Ammar, J. (1985). Assessment of wind energy for Kuwait. Kuwait Institute for
Scientific Research, Report No. 1661, Kuwait.
Ayyash, S., and Al-Tukhaim, K. (1986). Survey of wind speed in Kuwait. Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research,
Report No. 2037, Kuwait.
Bocciolone, M., Gasparetto, M., Lagomarsino, S., Piccardo, G., Ratto, C.F. and Solari, G. (1993). Statistical
analysis of extreme wind speeds in the Straits of Messina, Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial
Aerodynamics, Volume 48, Issues 2-3, pp. 359-377.
Cheng, E.D.H., and Chiu, A.N.L. (1988). Extreme winds generated from short records in a tropical cyclone-prone
region, Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, Volume 28, Issues 1-3, pp. 69-78.
Choi, E.C.C. (1999). Extreme wind characteristics over Singapore an area in the equatorial belt, Journal of Wind
Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, Volume 83, Issues 1-3, pp. 61-69.
Climatological Summaries, Kuwait International Airport 1962-1982 (1983). State of Kuwait, Directorate General of
Civil Aviation, Meteorological Department, Climatological Division.
Gomes, L. and Vickery, B.J. (1977). On the prediction of extreme wind speeds from the parent distribution,
Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, Volume 2, Issue 1, pp. 21-36.
Gomes, L. and Vickery, B.J. (1978). Extreme wind speeds in mixed wind climates, Journal of Wind Engineering
and Industrial Aerodynamics, Volume 2, Issue 4, pp. 331-344.
Gopalakrishnan, T.C. (1988). Analysis of wind effect in the numerical modeling of flow field. Kuwait Institute for
Scientific Research. Report No.2835-B, Kuwait.
Gumbel, E.J. (1958). Statistics of Extremes. Columbia University Press, New York.
Harris, R.I. (1996). Gumbel re-visited - a new look at extreme value statistics applied to wind speeds, Journal of
Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, Volume 59, Issue 1, pp 1-22.
Holmes, J.D. (2001). Wind Loading of Structures, Spon Press, London.
Kasperski, M. (2002). A new wind zone map of Germany, Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynam-
ics, Volume 90, Issue 11, pp. 1271-1287.
Krishnasamy, S.G. and Ramani, N. (1989). Design wind loads for overhead power lines accounting for wind
direction, Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, Volume 32, Issues 1-2, pp. 63-72.
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Kristensen, L., Rathmann, O. and Hansen, S.O. (2000). Extreme winds in Denmark, Journal of Wind Engineering
and Industrial Aerodynamics, Volume 87, Issues 2-3, 13, pp. 147-166.
Mayne, J.R. (1979). The estimation of extreme winds, Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics,
Volume 5, Issues 1-2, pp.109-137.
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Meteorology, Volume 61, Issues 1-2, pp. 39-53.
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seasonal point process model, Coastal Engineering, Volume 31, Issues 1-4, Pages 305-326.
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for a subsequent risk analysis for high-speed trains, Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerody-
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72
INFLUENCE OF CREST WIDTH ON HYDRAULIC

PERFORMANCE OF SUBMERGED REEF
Kiran G. Shirlal*, Subba Rao and Venkata Ganesh
Department of Applied Mechanics and Hydraulics, NITK, Surathkal,Karnataka
Abstract
In the present experimental investigation, an attempt has been made to study the hydraulic
performance of a submerged reef of height. The reef, which is a homogeneous pile of armour
units without a core, breaks the steeper waves and dissipate a major portion of their energy.
The wider reef can decrease the wave transmission further. This paper investigates the influ-
ence of varying reef crest width on the wave transmission at the submerged reef breakwater.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Rubble mound breakwaters are the structures which are meant to reflect and dissipate energy
of the wind generated waves and there-by to prevent their incidence on a water area intended
to protect. Submerged breakwater with its crest at or below still water level (SWL) can cause
substantial wave attenuation and can be effectively used in places where tidal variations are
small and only partial protection from waves is required, like harbour entrance, beach protec-
tion, small craft harbours etc.
The wave breaking over submerged breakwater causes great turbulence on lee side. Current
and turbulence together on lee side of submerged breakwater have a strong power of erosion
on a sandy bottom and can thus prevent siltation. They also offer resistance through friction
and turbulence created by breakwater interference in wave field causing maximum wave damping
and energy dissipation, minimum wave reflection and bottom scour, and maximum sand trap-
ping efficiency (Baba, 1985; Pilarczyk and Zeilder, 1996). They are also used for coastal
protection (Hunt,1959).
The submerged breakwaters are also used for protecting an already existing breakwater. It
can be used as a rehabilitation structure for a damaged breakwater which is secured from
storm waves (Gadre et al., 1989). The design of this type of combined structures requires
detailed information on hydrodynamic parameters such as wave loads on breakwater armour
units, run up and run down on breakwater slope, damage, height of submerged structure, its
crest width, its seaward location, wave transmission, armour weight, porosity etc. The hydro-
dynamic performance of this structure is investigated based upon physical model study. The
magnitude of various hydrodynamic parameters will give an indication of the suitability of this
submerged breakwater as defense structure. Run up is required to select the crest elevation
of the protected breakwater. Wave transmission at submerged breakwater gives the wave
*Corresponding author, e-mail: kshirlal@rediffmail.com
height that is going to impinge on the breakwater, which is then used to estimate the armour
stone weight. The varying geometry and seaward location of submerged structure will help in
designing an optimum structure.
The review of literature revealed that influence of the slope, crest width and depth of submer-
gence of various shapes of submerged breakwaters on wave transmission was studied by
(Johnson et al., 1951; Dattatri,1978; Khader and Rai, 1980; Dick and Brebner, 1968; Smith et
al.,1996; Pilarczyk and Zielder, 1996; and Twu et al., 2001). Some of the above authors opine
that the submerged structure is constructed in a water depth of 1.5 m to 5 m with a slope of
1:2 to 1:3 and a height exceeding 0.7 times the depth of water. A reinforced concrete smooth
submerged breakwater experimented in Russia with a seaward slope of 1:1.67 and vertical
shoreward slope gives optimum wave transmission with minimum reflection for a tidal range
less than 2 m and steepness greater than 0.075 (Baba, 1985). But there are as many opinions
as the number of investigators on what should be the crest width of submerged breakwater.
Incase of submerged structure the wave attacks on the crest and less on the seaward slope.
Hence slope angle is not the governing parameter for stability. Various investigators have
tested reefs of stone armour with steeper slopes of 1:1.5, 1:1.67 and 1: 1.75 (Ahrens, 1984;
Cox and Clark, 1992; and Cornett et al., 1993). However, better dissipation of waves, lower
reflection and easier transport of sediment over the structure were observed for submerged
breakwaters with seaward slopes ranging from 1:2 to 1:3 (Pilarczyk and Zielder, 1996). Ahrens
(1984) showed that for a submerged reef, wave reflection is less than 20% for slopes of 1:1.67
for zero freeboard which is critical.
Gadre et al. (1989) built a submerged breakwater at 80 m seaward to protect a damaged

breakwater head of west breakwater at Veraval port in Gujarat, India. Cox and Clark (1992),
based on limited study, built a breakwater defenced by seaward submerged reef structure for
protecting a marina harbour at Hammond, Indiana situated at southern tip of Lake Michigan.
They designed the breakwater with 3 ton armour at 40 m and a seaward submerged reef
constructed at a seaward distance of 4.0 m with 0 to 1 ton instead of 8 ton stone required for
a conventional non-overtopping breakwater. They could also lower the crest by 1.5 m and
saved about 1.0 million dollars. Cornett et al. (1993) after conducting experimental investiga-
tion concluded that there may be a optimum location for submerged reef of relative height h/d
> 0.6 which protects the inner main breakwater. Ahrens, 1989; Pilarczyk and Zeilder, 1996;
and Nizam and Yowono, 1996 have presented equations and graphs to calculate the armour
weight of submerged reef breakwater.
The reef is a structure which is little more than a homogeneous pile of stones whose weight is
sufficient to resist the wave attack. A submerged reef breakwater is an optimized structure to
highest degree. The reef is fundamentally built to break the steep waves and as this structure
is submerged and porous wave reflection is small and wave energy damping and wave trans-
74
mission are the significant characteristics. The important reef parameters affecting the wave
breaking and transmission are structure height, crest width and submergence. Therefore, an
experimental investigation was carried out to determine the impact of the above parameters of
submerged reef breakwater on wave height attenuation and wave transmission.
3.0 DETAILS OF MODEL SETUP
3.1 Wave flume

Physical model studies are conducted in a two-dimensional wave flume of 50 m, 0.71 m and
1.1 m in which regular waves are generated. It has a smooth concrete bed for a length of 42 m
as shown in Fig. 1. The flume has bottom hinged flap type wave generator operated by a 7.5
HP, 11 KW, 1450 rpm induction motor. This motor is regulated by an inverter drive (0-50 Hertz)
rotating at 0-155 rpm. The system can generate waves of 0.02 m to 0.24 m of 0.8 sec to 4 sec
in a water depth (d) of 0.5 m.
Fig. 1. Details of experimental setup.
3.2 Breakwater model

Fig. 2 shows the 1:30 scale model which consists of a reef of height (h) 0.25m having a crest
width (B) of 0.1 m, 0.2 m, 0.3 m and 0.4 m is placed at 33 m from the wave generator. The reef
is constructed with an armour of 30 gm.
The armour weight is selected based on the criteria given by Ahrens, 1989; Pilarczyk and
Zeilder, 1996; and Nizam and Yowono, 1996 and authors experimental work on reef stability.
The structure is of uniform slope of 1V:2H and armour units have a fitted placement.
75
1V : 2H
h
B
B
Fig. 2. Submerged reef breakwater model setup.
3.3 Instrumentation and data acquisition

The capacitance type wave probes along with amplification units are used for data acquisition.
Two such probes are used during the experimental work, one for acquiring incident wave
height (Hi) and the other for transmitted waveheight (Ht). During the experimentation, the sig-
nals from wave channels are verified with digital oscilloscope along with computer data acqui-
sition system.
4.0 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The wave flume is filled with ordinary tap water to the required depths (d) of 0.3 m, 0.35 m and
0.4 m. The wave probes are calibrated at the beginning of the work. Before starting the experi-
ment, the flume is calibrated with breakwater model in place for different water depths to find
out the incident wave heights for different combinations of wave height and wave period. Com-
binations that produced the secondary waves in the flume are not considered for the experi-
ments. One probe is positioned at 1 m seaward of the reef and another at the toe of the
breakwater. The signals from the wave probe are recorded for the incident and transmitted
wave height. Incident and transmitted wave heights are also measured manually as a
crosscheck. In the present model study, rigid bed conditions are considered and it is as-
sumed that the onshore and offshore movement of sediments does not interfere in the wave
attenuation process. The model is subjected to normal regular wave attack of height (Hi) of
0.10 m, 0.12 m, 0.14 m and 0.16 m with varying periods (T) of 1.5 sec, 2.0 sec and 2.5 sec in
different water depths (d) mentioned above.
In this section the wave transmission characteristics of the submerged reef and damage of the
breakwater are analysed in response to varying wave parameters. Mainly the influence of
change in relative reef crest width (B/d and B/Lo) on wave height attenuation (WHA) on trans-
76
mission coefficient (Kt = Hi/Ht) of the breakwater is investigated with respect to incident wave
steepness parameter (Hi/gT2), relative reef submergence (F/Hi) and relative depth of reef sub-
mergence (F/d). The results are compared with the results of various investigators wherever
possible.
5.1 Effect of steepness parameter (Ho/gT2) on wave height attenuation

(WHA)
Fig. 3 shows the trends of wave height attenuation (WHA) against varying deep water wave
steepness parameter (Ho/gT2) for a range of reef crest widths (B/d = 0.25 to 1.33). For a given
crest width the WHA increases with an increase in steepness parameter. The reason is the
reef breaks the steeper waves successfully, increasing wave damping, resulting in increased
WHA which finally reduces wave transmission. The WHA decreases with an increase in B/d.
This is because after breaking, wider reef offer friction and waves increasingly shoal over them.
The maximum WHA are 33%, 37%, 41% and 46% for the ranges of crest widths (B/d) from
0.25 to 0.33, 0.5 to 0.67, 0.75 to 1.0 and 1.0 to 1.33 respectively.
Fig. 3. Variation of WHA with the deep water wave steepness.
5.2 Variation of transmission coefficient (Kt) with wave steepness parameter

Fig. 4 shows the variation of Kt with deep water wave steepness parameter (Ho/gT2), for
different values of relative reef crest width (B/d) and all values of wave periods . It is observed
that for a given crest width the transmission decreases with an increase in wave steepness.
The reason is that reef breaks the steeper waves successfully, dissipates energy and trans-
mits smaller waves. It is also observed that the transmission decreases with an increase in
reef crest width. This is because wider reef offers friction to the broken waves and causes
increased shoaling. Kt values decrease up to 29% with an increase in the range of B/d from
0.25 to 0.33 to 1.0 to 1.33.
77
Fig. 4. Variation of transmission coefficient with wave steepness parameter.
5.3 Variation of wave transmission with relative reef crest width

The variation of maximum values of Kt with relative reef crest width (B/L0) for different values of
relative reef height (h/d) and relative reef submergence ( F/Hi and F/d) is shown in the Fig. 5.
1.1 h/d
1 0.625
0.9
0.8 0.714
0.7 0.833
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1 0.11 0.12
B/L o
Fig. 5. Effect of relative reef crest width on transmission coefficient.
From the graph, it is observed that for a given h/d, the maximum values of Kt decreases with
an increase in B/Lo. However the transmission does not reduce significantly for h/d=0.625.
This indicates that crest width significantly affects the wave transmission only if h/d>0.625.
This confirms the observation of the investigators Cornett et al., (1993). Transmission is low-
est for h/d = 0.833 and for B/L0 = 0.117. This confirms the observation of Johnson et al.,
(1951), that minimum transmission at the submerged breakwater will be at B/Lo = 0.25(ÖF/d).
78
But wider submerged reefs further reduce transmission (Johnson et. al., 1951; Dattatri et al.,
1978; Pilarczyk and Zeidler, 1996; Twu et al., 2001). The wave transmission also decreases
with an increase in the range of reef submergence (F/Hi) and (F/d). This is because as reef
submergence increases the freeboard also increases which in turn allows more waves to
overtop with less breaking. This increases wave transmission.
6.0 CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions are drawn from the present study:

• Wave height attenuation increases with an increase in Ho/gT2 and B/d. The maximum
WHA vary from 33% to 46% for the reef crest width (B/d) increasing from 0.25 to 1.33.
• Kt decreases with an increase in Ho/gT2, B/d, B/Lo and increases with an increase in F/
Hi and F/d.
• Kt values decrease up to 29% with an increase in the reef crest width (B/d) increasing
from 0.25 to 1.33.
The authors are thankful to the Director of National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal,
and Head of the Department of Applied Mechanics and Hydraulics for the facilities provided for
the investigation and permission granted to publish the results.
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Hunt, I.A., 1959, Design of seawalls and breakwaters, Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineer-
ing, ASCE, Vol. 85, No. WW 3, Sept, 123-152.
Johnson, J.W., Fuchs, R.A., Morison, J.B., 1951, The damping action of submerged breakwaters, Trans. AGU,
32/5, 704-718.
Kale, A.G., Gadre, M.R., 1989, Construction of offshore structures for beach protection, Proceedings of 3rd
National Conference on Dock and Harbour Engineering. KREC, Surathkal, 577-582.
Nizam, Yuwono, N., 1996, Artificial reef as an alternative beach protection, Proceedings of Tenth Congress of
Asian and Pacific Division of IAHR, Langkawi, Malaysia, 422430.
Pilarczyk, K.W., Zeidler, R.B., 1996, Shore evolution control and offshore breakwaters, A.A. Balkema Publishers,
Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
Smith, Day, Warner, P.S, Sorensen, R.M., Nurse, L.A, Atherley, K.A., 1996, Submerged crest breakwater design,
Advances in Coastal Structures and Breakwaters, Thomas Telford, London, 208-219.
Twu S.W., Liu C.C., Hsu W.H., 2001, Wave damping characteristics of deeply submerged brerakwaters. Journal
of Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 127, No. 2, March/April, 97-105.
80
WAVE RUN UP AND RUN DOWN STUDIES ON BERM

BREAKWATER WITH REDUCED ARMOUR WEIGHT
Subba Rao*, K.Subrahmanya, V. R. Chandramohan, B. Radheshyam and K.Balakrishna Rao
Department of Applied Mechanics & Hydraulics, National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal,
SRINIVASANAGAR 575 025.
Abstract
A step in the path of invention is always accompanied by a wish for optimization. Similarly,
breakwaters which mainly aims at breaking up of the waves for providing tranquility conditions,
in their optimizing phase has led to the evolution of Berm breakwaters. The design philosophy
of berm breakwaters aims at optimizing the structure not only with respect to wave load but
also possible yield from an armour stone quarry, which can be characterized as supplybased
design. In the present study the static stability of the berm breakwater model with berm width
of 60 cm and 20% reduced armour weight than that of conventional mound breakwater formula
has been tested. The variations of non-dimensional run up values (Ru/Ho) and the rundown
values (Rd/Ho) with deep-water wave steepness (Ho/gT2) are brought under the study area. A
decrease in wave run up and run down with increase in wave steepness has been observed.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The beauty of berm breakwaters is that they are tough and may be easily designed to with-
stand waves far above even the 100-year design wave height. Berm breakwater has a main
feature with a rather thick cover layer of stones, relatively much smaller than on a conventional
breakwater with one or two layers of cover blocks. The uncertainity in the wave climate favours
a breakwater design that is not too sensitive to the wave height with respect to stability. The
conventional rubble mound breakwaters needs very large stones in large quantities. This
design method can be characterized as a demandbased design. The design philosophy of
berm breakwaters aims at optimizing the structure not only with respect to wave load but also
possible yield from an armor stone quarry, which can be characterized as supply based
design.
Wave run up is the maximum vertical rise of wave front on the slope of the breakwater above
SWL and wave run down is the maximum vertical fall of the water front on the slope of the
breakwater below the SWL. Vander Meer(1998) proposed a design formula for wave run up.
Wave run up and run down are very important from stability point of view of any structure since
run up disturbs the stones above the SWL and the run down drags and pulls it to the toe,
(Ergin et al., 1999).
*Corresponding author, e-mail: sura@nitk.ac.in

Detailed experimental investigations were undertaken in Marine Structures laboratory of Ap-
plied Mechanics Department, National Institute of Technology, Karnataka, Surathkal to inves-
tigate the run up and run down effect on the overall functioning of the berm breakwater. The
results, discussions and conclusions based on the experiments are presented in this paper.
2.0 Details of experimental set up
2.1 Wave flume

Experiments were conducted by generating regular waves in a two-dimensional wave flume
50m x 0.71m x 1.1m as shown in Fig. 1. The range of wave height and periods that can be
generated in this wave flume are 0.02 m to 0.24 m and 0.8 s to 4 s, respectively.The flume is
provided with bottom hinged flap type wave generator. It has a smooth concrete bed for length
of 42 m. The wave generating chamber is 6 m in length. Gradual transition is provided between
the normal flume bed level and that of generating chamber by a ramp. The wave filter consists
of a series of vertical asbestos cement sheets spaced at about 0.1 m centre-to-centre parallel
to the length of the flume. The far end of the flume has a wave absorbing beach with 1:12 slope
consisting of rubble stones. Therefore, wave reflection in the flume is insignificant.
Fig. 1. Wave flume.
2.2 Breakwater structure

The tested cross-section details are as shown in Fig. 2. The structure has been designed as
statically stable non-reshaped for a 3 m wave using Hudsons formula and scaled down to
1:30 scale. The design armour weight (W) has been reduced by 20%. The model is con-
structed at a distance of 33 m from the generator flap. The primary layer divided into three
zones : crestward slope, berm and toeward slope and the units in these regions are colored
as red, white and green respectively. The cross-section of the breakwater denoting layers is
drawn on the glass panel. The core material is placed and formed to the required level and
after well compaction the secondary layer which itself functions as filter layer with armour
weight Wo/10 and primary armour layer with armour weight Wo are constructed to the marked
level. The range of experimental variables are shown in Table 1.
82
Fig. 2. Cross-section of berm breakwater model.
Table 1. Experimental variables
Sl No. Variable Expression Range

1 Wave height H 10,12,16 cm
2 Wave period T 1.6,2.0,2.6 sec.
3 Storm duration N 3000 waves
0
4 Angle of wave attack ? 90
5 Water depth d 25,30,35,40 cm
6 Armor stone weight W0 58.56g
7 Shape of the armor stone - Angular, rounded & flat
8 Crest height - 70 cm
9 Berm width B 60 cm
10 Initial slope above the berm 1:2
11 Initial slope below the berm 1:2
12 Specific gravity of armor stone Sr 2.74
3.1 Wave Runup

From the Fig. 3 it is clear that as wave steepness increases, the wave run up (Ru/Ho) de-
creases for all the water depths considered in the present investigation. This trend of variation
is similar to the trend given in SPM (1984).
The variation of non-dimensional run up is 0.5498 to 1.156 for a wave steepness variation of
0.1276x102 to 0.6874x102 for water depths of 0.25 m to 0.4 m with 0.05 m increment for B/d
ratio of 2.4, 2, 1.714 and 1.5. From the Tables 2,3,4,5 it is clear that run up is more for longer
period waves in comparison with the waves of shorter period. because the shorter period
83
waves are fatal from stability point of view for a structure, but the longer period waves are fatal
from run up point of view. Each of the shorter period wave has another wave approaching and
striking the structure so quickly that its effect is less as compared with fully developed slow
moving long period waves. Also from Tables 2,3,4,5 it is clear that as wave heights increase,
run up too increases under almost all experimental conditions. In Fig. 3 it is also observed that
variation of run up for 0.25 m depth of water is more than the run up for 0.3 m water depth. But
it may also be visualized that at lower wave steepness the run up for 0.35m depth is lower than
that for 0.4 m water depth and vice versa at higher wave steepness. At lower water depth of
0.25 m which is below the berm level the waves attack on the downward slope of the seaward
side. But for 0.3 m water depth where SWL is just around the berm level, the waves attack on
the downward slope of the seaward side and to some extent on the berm and thus effective-
ness of the berm is felt with minimum run up. Now considering the 0.35 m depth condition the
trend line remains almost horizontal. Here the entire wave breaks on the berm portion and the
wave energy gets dissipated on the berm. It is observed that the run up extent is high for 0.4
m depth. Eventhough the wave breaks on the berm portion the attack of waves onto the
upward slope is felt to be strong enough to produce higher run up. The waves are found to be
over topping to a greater extent for 0.4 m depth as compared with 0.35 m, 0.3 m, 0.25 m water
depth. The reason for such a happening is that the effectiveness of berm reduces for higher
water depth.
1.
4
1.
2
Ru/Ho
0.
8 Series1
Series2
Series3
0. Series4
6
0.
4
0.
2
0
0 0.1 0.2 0. 0.4 0.5 0.6 0. 0.8
3 2 7
Ho/gT
Fig. 3. Run up versus Ho/gT2.
84
Table 2. Experimental data.
2
WavePeriod(S) Waveheight(cm) Runup(Ru/Ho) Ho/gT Conditions
1.6 14 0.7049 0.5649 Wo/W=0.8
1.6 12 0.7402 0.4842 B=60cm
1.6 10 0.7895 0.4035 d=0.25m
2.0 14 0.8356 0.3355
2.0 12 0.8862 0.2876
2.0 10 0.9571 0.2396
2.6 12 1.0829 0.1532
2.6 10 0.9451 0.1276
Table 3
2
Waveperiod(S) Waveheight(cm) Runup(Ru/Ho) Ho/gT Conditions
1.6 13.9 0.6715 0.5752 Wo/W=0.8
1.6 12 0.6655 0.4966 B=60cm
1.6 9.8 0.5498 0.4056 d=0.3m
2.0 15.8 0.7103 0.3911
2.0 12 0.7464 0.297
2.0 9.9 0.676 0.2451
2.6 13.7 0.9053 0.1816
2.6 11.7 0.8558 0.1551
2.6 9.9 0.8849 0.1312
Table 4
2
1.6 14.1 0.9984 0.5942 Wo/W=0.8
1.6 11.8 0.6966 0.4973 B=60cm
1.6 10.03 0.8101 0.4227 d=0.35m
2.0 15.8 0.8187 0.3891
2.0 11.8 0.9121 0.2906
2.0 10.1 0.9632 0.2487
2.6 13.6 0.973 0.186
2.6 11.9 1.0008 0.1627
2.6 10 0.8293 0.1367
Table 5
2
1.6 16.1 0.6951 0.6874 Wo/W=0.8
1.6 12.09 0.7336 0.5162 B=60cm
1.6 10.13 0.9464 0.4325 d=0.4m
2.0 15.82 1.0158 0.4099
2.0 11.97 0.8889 0.3102
2.0 10.25 0.7129 0.2656
2.6 15.69 1.1557 0.2199
2.6 11.99 1.0522 0.1681
2.6 10.13 0.9067 0.142
85
3.2 Wave run down
From Fig. 4 it is clear that as wave steepness increase wave run down (Rd/Ho) decreases. It
has also been observed that the trend lines for 0.3 m , 0.25 m and for 0.35 m and 0.4 m water
depth converges at lower wave steepness with a diverging trend at higher wave steepness.
The variation of non dimensional run down (Rd/Ho) is 0.282 to 1.722 for a wave steepness of
0.1276x102 to 0.6874x102 for water depths of 0.25 m to 0.4 m with 0.05m increment. From
Fig. 4 it may be visualized that variation of run down for 0.4 m water depth trend line remains
high and almost constant for the entire range of wave steepness. From Table 6 and 7 it is
observed that the run down values remain almost same for waves with different period and
heights. Here the effectiveness of the berm cannot be justified since the water level is below
the berm level. But it has been observed in Table 8 that the run down variation is moderate and
in Table9 that run down variation is high. The reasons may be quoted as follows: Considering
the water depth of 0.35 m, it has been expected the presence of the berm produces a sort of
stilling basin which holds back the waves entirely and thus provides a system of cushion. But
for water depth of 0.4 m, the berm fails to justify its existence leading to a strong and direct
attack of waves on the structure and thus leading to higher values of run down. From Tables
6,7,8 and 9 it can be concluded that for higher values of wave run up, the run down values tend
to be lesser and vice versa. The reason for such a type of behavior may be explained as
follows: When a larger part of the wave energy has been spent on the mechanism of run up,
the run down mechanism produced by the remaining part of the wave energy naturally results
in a lesser magnitude of rundown as compared to the run up magnitude and the vice versa
process too is valid.
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
Rd/Ho
1.2
Series1
1
Series2
Series3
Series4
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0. 0.6 0.7 0.
2 5 8
Ho/gT
Fig . 4. Run down versus Ho/ gT2.
86
Table 6. Experimental data.
2
WavePeriod(S) Waveheight(cm) Rundown(Rd/Ho) Ho/gT Conditions
1.6 14 0.282 0.5649 Wo/W=0.8
1.6 12 0.4112 0.4842 B=60cm
1.6 10 0.6908 0.4035 d=0.25m
2.0 14 0.5317 0.3355
2.0 12 0.6204 0.2876
2.0 10 0.7444 0.2396
2.6 12 0.6891 0.1532
2.6 10 0.8269 0.1276
Table 7
2
Waveperiod(S) Waveheight(cm) Rundown(Rd/Ho) Ho/gT Conditions
1.6 13.9 0.5469 0.5752 Wo/W=0.8
1.6 12 0.6415 0.4966 B=60cm
1.6 9.8 0.7855 0.4056 d=0.3m
2.0 15.8 0.3258 0.3911
2.0 12 0.7035 0.297
2.0 9.9 0.832 0.2451
2.6 13.7 0.681 0.1816
2.6 11.7 0.8169 0.1551
2.6 9.9 0.9194 0.1312
Table 8
2
1.6 14.1 0.7706 0.5942 Wo/W=0.8
1.6 11.8 1.0809 0.4973 B=60cm
1.6 10.03 1.1963 0.4227 d=0.35m
2.0 15.8 0.9694 0.3891
2.0 11.8 1.2278 0.2906
2.0 10.1 1.332 0.2487
2.6 13.6 0.9649 0.186
2.6 11.9 1.1306 0.1627
2.6 10 1.3233 0.1367
Table 9
2
1.6 16.1 1.1116 0.6874 Wo/W=0.8
1.6 12.09 1.478 0.5162 B=60cm
1.6 10.13 1.7215 0.4325 d=0.4m
2.0 15.82 1.2483 0.4099
2.0 11.97 1.3688 0.3102
2.0 10.25 1.1149 0.2656
2.6 15.69 1.1852 0.2199
2.6 11.99 1.2621 0.1681
2.6 10.13 1.4365 0.142
87
4.0 CONCLUSIONS
1 As deep water wave steepness increases, the run up decreases. For B/d=2, i.e., water
depth of 0.3 m the magnitude of run up is found to be minimum in comparison with
0.25 m, 0.35 m and 0.4 m water depths.
2 As deepwater wave steepness increases, the run down decreases.
3 The mechanism of high run up magnitude may lead to less run down magnitude and the vice
versa too may be justified.
The authors wish to thank the Department of Applied Mechanics and Hydraulics, N.I.T.K
Surathkal for the facilities provided during the course of the work done.
REFERENCES
Ergin, A, Gunbak,Yanmaz, (1999), Rubble mound breakwaters with S-shape design, Journal of Waterways,
Harbors and Coastal Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol.115, No.5, Paper 23845, 579-593.
Hegde, A.V., Kamma, R., (2002), Stability of berm breakwater models Influence of berm width and armour,
Conference on Hydraulics, Water Resources and Ocean Engineering, Hydro 2002, 292-295.
Subba Rao, Balakrishna Rao, Pramod C.H., (2003), Stability analysis of berm breakwater with reduced armour
stone weight, Proc. International Conference on Coastal and Ocean Technology, 2003.
Vander Meer, J., Vis, F.C., Conceptual design of berm breakwaters,Delft University of Technology, B179- B189.
Shore Protection Manual, (1984), U.S.Army Coastal Engineering Research Center, Department of the Army,
Corps of Engineers, U.S.Govt. Printing Office, Washington, DC, USA. Vol. 1 and 2.
88
STUDY OF LITTORAL TRANSPORT ALONG

DAKSHINA KANNADA COAST, KARNATAKA
Subba Rao*, Kiran G. Shirlal, Radheshyam B. and Mahaganesha K.
Department of Applied Mechanics & Hydraulics, National Institute of Technology Karnataka,
Surathkal, Srinivasnagar 575 025
Abstract
The area selected for the present study is the coast along the Dakshina Kannada district. It
contains the natural features as well as manmade structures. The natural features are river
mouths and open coasts. The manmade structures are the New Mangalore Port (NMP) break-
waters, breakwaters at river mouths of Netravathi-Gurupur and Udyavara. The sediment accre-
tion and erosion pattern adjacent to these breakwaters are analysed. The sediment grain size
analyses of the beach sand near the river mouths and along its open beaches are conducted.
The sediment trend matrix analysis was also carried out and sediment movement paths are
drawn. After analysing all the above it can be concluded that littoral drift along the Dakshina
Kannada coast is negligibly small and the chances for any major problems of coastal stability
influenced by littoral drift are remote.
1.0 STUDY AREA
The study area in the present investigation is southern coast of erstwhile Dakshina Kannada
(D. K.) district (Fig. 1). The main features of this coast include mouths of Nethravathi-Gurupur,
Mulki-Pavanje and Udyavara rivers, open beaches and manmade breakwaters at Nethravathi-
Gurupur rivermouth, New Mangalore Port (NMP) and Udyavara river mouth.
2.0 EVIDENCES AT RIVER MOUTHS
It is an observed fact that the inlets where the river joins the sea, migrates in the direction of
the littoral drift. But, the inlets along the D.K. coast show no particular migration trend over a
period of time. It seems to follow a cyclic tendency with a migration to the north for a few years
and then to the south for a few years as shown in Fig. 2 (Netravati - Gurupur river mouth near
Mangalore). Further, the Bengre sand spit at Mangalore is oriented to the south, while the
adjacent Pavanje sand spit at Mukka, Mulki is oriented to the north. The NITK experts (KREC
Study Team, 1994) feel that if littoral drift was responsible for the growth of the sand spits, then
such reversals over a short distance is not possible. From these evidences, it is very clear that
these coastal geomorphological formations at the river mouths are formed due to the interac-
tion of river discharge (both water and sediment) and wave action, and not due to the littoral
drift.
*Corresponding author, e-mail : sura@nitk.ac.in
Fig.1. Location map showing points chosen for sediment analysis.
Fig.2. Shoreline changes around NethravathiGurupur river mouth (1905 2003)
90
During the monsoon period the river discharges in the west coast rivers are so high that the
inlets will have their maximum cross-sectional areas at this time and the migration of the sand
spit is also high. In the post-monsoon season, the discharge reduces drastically and the tidal
prism keeps the river mouths open. This could not be possible if the littoral drift is significant
in this area, as is observed in the Ennore creek, Tamilnadu. This also justifies the view that the
littoral drift in these areas is negligibly small.
3.0 EVIDENCES AT BREAKWATERS
The best way to establish the magnitude and direction of littoral drift is through the analysis of
the sediment deposited at any complete littoral barrier (SPM, 1984; Pilarczyk and Zeidler,
1996). The New Mangalore Port breakwaters which extend up to - 5 m contour (570 m from the
shoreline) provide a complete littoral barrier as they extend well beyond the littoral zone
( Dattatri and Kamath, 1997). The depth contours in the vicinity of entrance channel do show
variation from year to year but do not show any long-term trend. Visual observations from 1985
to 1997 have clearly shown that the shoreline in the vicinity of the breakwaters is in a more or
less stable position and shows only minor changes due to differences in the wave climate
from year to year (Dattatri and Kamath, 1997).
The breakwater at Malpe has been constructed with the primary purpose of confining the river
flow such that the higher velocities will flush out the deposited sediment and keep the channel
open for safe navigation. It is functioning fairly well and there is no noted evidence of littoral
drift, otherwise these breakwaters would have caused severe erosion on the down drift coasts.
In Fig. 2, historical evidence showed the trend of northward migration of the Nethravathi-
Gurupur river mouth from 1905 to 1968. During this period there was severe erosion of the
northern (Bengre) spit and accretion on the southern (Ullal) spit. To arrest this trend breakwa-
ter was constructed during 1993-94. After this the southern spit started eroding while northern
spit accreted, which is clear from the figure. This has been found due to a complex circulation
phenomena existing off the mouth and not due to littoral drift (Subba Rao, 2002).
4.0 SEDIMENT GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS
Sediment sampling was done extensively in the study area. The sediment grain size analysis
of Ullal area (Fig. 3a) shows considerable similarities over different locations and the sedi-
ments are comparatively coarser than that at open beaches of D.K. coast, indicating that
these sediments are brought by the rivers Nethravathi and Gurupur. To confirm this, sediment
samples were taken from the estuary (Fig. 3b) and comparison was done. The sediment grain
size analysis indicates that the sediment in this deposit is brought by the rivers and there
were clear evidences in the form of shoals to indicate that the sediment brought by the rivers
are moving around the breakwaters and getting deposited on the beaches on the northern side
of Bengre breakwater and southern side of Ullal breakwater.
91
To study whether the sediments on the Bengre breakwater are deposited by the littoral drift,
sediment samples were collected and analysed (Fig. 3c). The sediment grain size is com-
paratively coarser than that to the north of it. If it is littoral drift that is getting trapped at
Bengre, then this sand must be slightly finer or at least the same as the sand to the north of
it. So this gives a clear indication that the sand is not deposited by the littoral drift. The
sediment samples further north is given in Fig. 3d, which is comparable with that of open
beaches of D.K. coast. To understand the effect of NMP breakwaters, sediment samples at
the TannirbaviSasihithlu area were analysed (Fig. 3e). The size distributions are identical and
compare very well with those on the open beaches, and indicate insignificant role of NMP
breakwater on sediment dynamics, and the littoral drift is minimum in the area.
Fig. 3f shows the grain size distribution for the sediment samples on either side of the Malpe
fishing harbour. This indicates that the median size of these sand samples are almost similar
to those on the open beaches as given in the Fig. 3e.
Based on these facts, the following conclusions may be drawn:-
· The sediments on most of the open beaches of the D.K. coast have considerable
similarities.
· The beaches on either side of the river mouths are more controlled by the sediments
brought by the rivers, and
· The littoral drift on the D. K. coast is negligibly small and therefore the insignificant
influence of NMP on the equilibrium of the coasts neighbouring it.
% coarser
% coarser
Cum ulative
Cum ulative
Particle size Particle size
Fig. 3(a) Ullal beach. Fig. 3(b) NethravathiGurupur river mouth.
92
Cumulative % coarser
Fig. 3(c) Bengre - Tannirbavi. Fig. 3(d) Tannirbavi.

Fig. 3. Sediment Grain Size Analysis for Various Locations.
5.0 EVIDENCES FROM SEDIMENT TREND MATRIX ANALYSIS OF

BEACH SAND
Sediments were collected and analysed along the D. K. coast at the locations shown in Fig.
1, the map of study area (Khan,2000).
The sediment trend matrix analysis was done using the Patric Mc Larens Method (Patric,
93
1981). His study reveals that the changes in grain size distribution follow clearly identifiable
trends from source to deposit. The characteristics of a deposit are inherited from its source
and are dependent on the sedimentary processes as defined by (i) winnowing, (ii) selective or
partial deposition of the grain size distribution in transport and (iii) total deposition of the grain
size distribution in transport. These trends indicate a transport path for sediment movement
which may suggest a model identifying the environment of deposition. The grains size charac-
teristics used to identify sediment trends in this study are of mean size, standard deviation,
and skewness. Interpretation of relative textural changes between the deposit and its source
requires the following three assumptions according to Patric (1981):
i) A deposit is the product of single sediment source.

ii) The probability of sediment transporting processes moving fine (light) grains is
greater than the probability of moving coarse (heavy) grains.
iii) There is a greater probability of coarse grains being deposited from sediment in
transport than fine grains.
After the analysis, the sediment travelling paths are drawn for the post- and pre-monsoon
season as shown in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 respectively. The sediment movement along D.K. coast
is predominantly towards south during the post-monsoon season, which may be due to effect
of waves. The sediment trend matrix and sediment travelling paths (Fig. 4) show that the
movement of sediment is towards south. But during the post-monsoon season the predomi-
nant sediment movement direction is towards the north along the D.K. coast, which may be
due to the prevailing wave direction. The sediment trend matrix and sediment travelling paths
(Fig. 5) show that the movement of sediments is towards north (Khan, 2000). This clearly
indicates that there is very little net littoral drift along this coast.
Fig. 4. Sediment travelling paths along D.K. coast (post-monsoon).
94
Fig. 5. Sediment travelling paths along D.K. coast (pre-monsoon).
6.0 CONCLUSIONS
The evidences at river mouths and breakwater together with sediment grain size analysis and
sediment movement paths prove that littoral drift along D.K. coast is negligible. The sediment
trend matrix and sediment travelling paths clearly shows that the littoral drift along D.K. coast
is seasonal.
REFERENCES
Dattatri, J and Kamath, M.M.(1997), Littoral drift and maintenance dredging at new Mangalore port, Proceedings
of II Indian National conference on harbour and ocean engineering, Thiruvanathapuram, pp. 578-585.
Habeeb Khan, (2000), Sediment trend matrix analysis of beach sand along Dakshina Kannada coast, M. Tech.
Thesis, KREC, Surathkal.
KREC study team, (1994), Study of coastal erosion (Dakshina Kannada District), Input to environmental master
plan study, Dainida-Dee, Mangalore. K.R.E.C., Surathkal, 234 pp.
Pilarczyk Krystian W. and Zeidler, Ryszard B. (1996), Offshore breakwaters and shore Evolution control, A. A.
Balkema, Brookfield.
Patric Mc Laren, (1981), Introduction of trends in grain size measures, Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, pp.
611-622.
Shore Protection Manual, (1984), U.S. Army Corps. of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Centre, U. S.
Govt. Printing Office, Washington D.C.,vol. 1, pp. 4.1-4-208.
Subba Rao, (2002), Study of coastal erosion along Karnataka Coast, ISH Journal of Hydraulic Engineering,
The Indian Society for Hydraulics, CWPRS, Pune, Vol. 8(2), pp. 23 - 33.
95
MODELLING WAVE SURGE INTERACTIONS

G.K. Sen1* and M. Chatterjee2*
1
School of Oceanographic Studies, Jadavpur University, Kolkata 700 032
2
Basanti Devi College, Kolkata 700 029
Abstract
A mathematical model has been used for simulating wave surge interactions along the West
Bengal Coast, during storm surge events following cyclonic storms. Model outputs include
ocean currents and sea surface elevations and wave height at each grid point.
The amplified waves due to the surge wave interactions cause maximum damage to the
coastline: increasing coastal erosion, damaging embankments, imposing additional risk to
harbours and ports. In this context, particularly, for coastal zone management excercises, the
study undertaken is very relevant.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The abnormal piling up of ocean water due to the landward movement of a tropical cyclone is
known as a Storm Surge. The meteorological and other driving forces responsible for generat-
ing the surge include the wind field, the pressure anomaly, the size and speed of motion of the
system, the bottom topography near the storms landfall point, and the astronomical tides.
The most important factor, however, in determining the maximum storm surge heights is the
maximum wind speed which in turn is closely related to the minimum sea-level pressure.
Storm surges may be as little as 1 m or less if only a few of the factors are making their
maximum contribution, and 5 m or more if all the factors are making the maximum possible
contribution to the total deviation of the sea surface. For such a storm, the associated surge
may affect as much as 160 km of the coastline for a period of several hours, with the inland
penetration of the saline surge water covering 15 30 km.
The Indian coastal zones, particularly those adjacent to the Bay of Bengal, are subject to the
ravages of tropical cyclones several times each year. Storm surges associated with landfalling
cyclones, the accompanying heavy precipitation and extreme winds are the most destructive
impacts of these cyclonic storms on the low lying coastal regions. Incursion of saline water
inland during a storm surge event significantly affect coastal ecosystems and marine re-
sources, make previously cultivable land temporarily uncultivable and cause surface aquifers
to become contaminated with saline water. The force of the surge, accompanying high winds
and rain cause considerable coastal erosion, flatten buildings and severely damage the foun-
dations of walls and structures located in the areas of impact.
*Corresponding author, e-mail :mcgks@vsnl.com
96
In West Bengal , the coastal parts of the Bay of Bengal from Digha to the Sunderbans are
susceptible not only to cyclones and associated surges, but these impacts are considerably
magnified when surges amplify further on interaction with tides.In Digha vast coastal embank-
ments were totally washed away presumably due to strong tide - surge interactions in 1997.
Digha and its adjoining Shankarpur, being the only coastal resort in West Bengal, this has
become a socioeconomic threat to the vast number of people engaged in tourism and related
industries and also those engaged in fishing. In the Sundarbans, the intrusion of saline water
to nearly 60 km inland due to strong tide-surge interaction has caused destruction of signifi-
cant portions of the more interior forests and the rapid erosion of some of the islands belong-
ing to its estuarine island system, thus displacing thousands of inhabitants, ruining them
socially and economically. A detail review of the problem of storm surges in the Bay of Bengal
is given by Das (1994), Murty et al., (1986), Dube et al., (1997).
Although forecasting of and issuing of timely warnings of approaching cyclones through the
IMD network of storm detection radars established along the Indian coasts has significantly
reduced the loss of human lives, the economic losses are still considerable and the State and
Central Governments annually face the expenditure of crores of rupees for rehabilitation and
relief. The economic losses are mainly due to the rapid increases in :a) Concentration of
population in the coastal areas and the associated property development, b) Tourism activi-
ties, c) Fishing activities and d) Harbour developments.
The threat of a potential future global warming due to natural and anthropogenic factors is of
grave concern since it is expected to bring about changes in the mean sea level, storm
intensity and frequency. Consequently, impacts of the storm surges are also expected to
change. An idea about the future extent of the zones exposed to storm and storm surge
related hazards under these circumstances is highly essential in order to help relevant pre-
cautionary measures being taken. Such estimates can also be used by policy makers to
decide on future land use patterns and the type of development that could be permitted in
these areas.
The main motivation behind the present paper is therefore, the identification of the regions of
the coastal zones that would be directly affected by a future global climate change mani-
fested through a global warming, sea level rise, changes in cyclone intensities and frequen-
cies and extreme wind impacts. Emphasis will be on wave surge interaction which is respon-
sible for bringing worst impact on the coast.
2.0 STUDY AREA
The area of interest (Fig. 3) is the Bay of Bengal between 16o 22oN and 86o - 92oE. The
impact of storm surge on coast will be looked into the Digha-Shankarpur region (21.705oN ,
87.64oE to 21.7423oN, 87.647oE ) of West Bengal coast. The model domain is divided into a
120 x 120 Arakawa C-grid with a grid spacing of 5.5 km along both the latitudinal and longitu-
97
dinal directions. The simulation of the storm surge and the effect of wave surge interaction has
been performed for the cyclone of 2425 May, 1988 which ultimately went to Bangladesh and
caused surges of 23m height in the north-east corner of the Bay (Flather and Khandekar,
1993).
3.0 METHODOLOGY AND ANALYSIS
The mathematical model used for the above purpose has, as the governing equations
(Hubbert et al., 1990):
1. the two dimensional non-linear depth integrated equations of motion:
(1)
(2)
and
2. the equation of continuity expressed in Cartesian space coordinates in the plane of a

Lambert Conformal map projection on the undisturbed sea surface:
+F (3)
F is the forcing term where wave contribution will be incorporated.
The model is driven by :
1. the surface wind stress acting on the ocean surface:
, (4)
98
, (5)
2. the atmospheric pressure gradients acting on the ocean surface
3. the sea level heights at the lateral boundaries due to the wind forced and tidal circulations
4. the bottom friction:
, (6)
5. Additional forcings such as the effects of a mean sea level rise.
The wind and pressure fields due to the cyclone which is required to force the storm
surge model are derived using the analytical wind profile model of Holland (1980) :
(7)
(8)
where, is the surface pressure at a radial distance r from the eye of the cyclone,
is the atmospheric pressure outside the cyclones influence,
is the core pressure and
R is the radius of the cyclone.
For well documented cyclone tracks, we have also used Jelesnianskys (1992) formula for
wind:
99
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
Where, is the velocity of the cyclone centre, and are the radius
and magnitude of the maximum wind velocity.
The surface wind is then derived from a model which takes into account the dynamics of the
marine boundary layer (Chatterjee, 1994; Chatterjee et al., 1996; Sen et al., 1998;) and can
determine the complete meteorological fields in the vicinity of the storm system with reason-
able accuracy.
At present, for the sake of simplicity, fixed boundary conditions are prescribed at the lateral
boundaries as follows :
At coastal boundaries :Outward normal component of ocean current set to zero or a constant
value.
At open sea boundaries: Outward normal component of ocean current computed from sea
level elevation and total water depth at these points
100
(15)
Another open boundary condition that has also been used is:
(16)
The sea surface elevation at open boundaries is given by :
(17)
where the elevation due to the astronomical tide is :
(18)
where, , the elevation due to meteorological effects is calculated over a coarse grid or
computed from :
(19)
where, is the mean sea-level pressure.
The wave model is a partly analytical model and elaborate discussion of this model can be
obtained in (Mukhopadhyay et al., 1997). For this model the input required is the wind field
adjacent to the sea surface which is taken from atmospheric reanalysis data. The contribution
of the wave is incorporated into the computation of the surge through the pressure perturbation
term as well as forcing term for wave contribution mentioned earlier.
For numerical integration, an Arakawa C-grid with equally spaced grid points was used on the
undisturbed sea surface and the finitedifferenced forms of the governing equations the (FDEs),
integrated forward in time using a splitexplicit scheme consisting of three explicit steps:
1. The Adjustment Step in which the FDEs and the appropriate boundary conditions are
integrated forward in time using a forward-intimebackward-in-space scheme.
2. The Advective Step in which the FDEs are integrated using the Euler forward scheme for
every odd time step and the Matsuno scheme for every even time step.
101
3. The Physics Step in which the forcing terms: surface wind stress, bottomfrictional stress
and atmospheric surface pressure and wave forcing are integrated using same scheme as in
adjustment step.
4.1 Model outputs

a) The storm surge model are : ocean currents and sea surface elevations at each grid point.
b) The wave model : Wave height at each grid point
The model is flexible enough for the following improvements to be easily incorporated:
1. Wave setup: The action of breaking waves produces a shoreward momentum flux in the
wave breaking zone leading to an increase in the water level. This effect will be parametrized
and included as an extra forcing term in the horizontal momentum equations.
2. Movable boundary conditions simulating flooding and ebbing of the surge
Prescribing the surface wind with a more detailed atmospheric model.
Fig. 1. Model result displaying the sea surface elevation after 36 hours of integration.
102
Fig. 2. The variation of surge height at three locations near the
DighaShankarpur coast.
Interaction of wave on surge has been shown in Fig. 2, at different locations starting from
Digha, Junput and Sagar Island for specific position of low pressure system (Cyclone) over
Bay of Bengal.
Fig. 3. Area under Study for Wave Surge Interaction impact.
103
5.0 CONCLUSION
In this paper impact of wave surge interaction on estimation of relative water level has been
considered for investigation. Numerical experiment on the basis of information about cyclones
have been carried out to understand the changes in surge level due to coupling with the
waves.
During storm surge events, the amplified waves due to surge wave interactions cause maxi-
mum damage to the coastline : increasing coastal erosion, damaging embankments, impos-
ing additional risk to harbours and ports. In this context, particularly, for coastal zone man-
agement excercises, the study undertaken is very relevant.
REFERENCES
Chatterjee, M.,(1994): Evolution of the boundary layer over the southern Ocean Proc. Ind. Nat. Sci Acad.60 (A)
, 12/132.
Chatterjee, M., Sen, G.K., and Sinha, D.K., (1996): Understanding the turbulent structure of the atmospheric
boundary layer : A diagnostic approach. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 105, 63/80.
Das, P.K., (1994) : Prediction of storm surges in the Bay of Bengal , Proc. Ind. Natn. Sci. Acad., 60, 513-533.
Dube, S.K., Rao, A.D., Sinha, P.C., Murty, T.S. and Bahulayan, N. (1997) : Storm Surges in the Bay of Bengal and
Arabian Sea : The Problem and Prediction. Mausam, 48, 283-304.
Flather, R. A. and Khandekar, H., (1993): The Storm surge problem and possible effects of sea level changes
on coastal flooding in the Bay of Bengal, In Effects of Changes in Stratospheric Ozone and Global Climate,
Vol. 4 : Sea Level Rise ( Editor : J.G.Titus ) UNEP/EPA, 229-245.
Holland, G.J., (1980): An analytical model of the wind and pressure profiles in hurricanes. Mon. Wea. Rev., 108,
1212-1218.
Hubbert, G. D., Leslie, L. M. and Manton, M.J., (1990): A storm surge model for the Australian
region.Quart.J.RMet.Soc., 116, 1005-1020
Jelesnianski, C.P. et al., (1992). SLOSH: Sea, Lake, and Overland surges from Hurricanes, NOAA Technical
Report NWS 48, 15-21.
Mukhopadhyay, P.S., Mandal, G.K., Sen, G.K., Sinha, D.K.,(1997): A simple model to study wave surge interac-
tion. Mausam, 48, 323328.
Murty, T.S., Flather, R.A. and Henry, R.F., (1986) : The Storm Surge Problem in the Bay of Bengal, Prog.
Oceanog. 16, 195-233.
Sen, G.K., Chatterjee, M., Sinha, D.K., (1998): Dynamical Initialization of Boundary Layer Data. Bound. Layer.
Meteorol., 87, 509-514.
Sen, G.K., Sinha, D.K., (1986): On nonlinear interactions between water and tidal waves vis-a-vis evolution of
a solitary wave. In: Mathematical Aspects of Nonlinear Studies In Oceanic Sciences. D.K. Sinha (Ed).
South Asian Publishers, New Delhi.
104
ESTIMATION OF WAVE CHARACTERISTICS DURING

HURRICANE IN THE HOIAN AREA, CENTRAL VIETNAM
Le Dinh Mau1, V. Sanil Kumar2*, G.N. Nayak3 and S. Mandal2
1
Department of Marine Physics, Institute of Oceanography, Nhatrang, Vietnam
Ocean Engineering Division, National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa403004
2
3
Department of Marine Sciences, Goa University, Goa403 206
Abstract
The data of hurricanes crossed the coastline from 140N to 170N, in the vicinity of the Hoian
coastline, from 1945 to 2003 were extracted from the National Weather Service, USA. The
features such as velocity of forward motion and wind speed were considered. Radius of maxi-
mum wind speed was estimated using the Saffir-Simpson scale. The maximum significant
wave height within the storm and its associated spectral peak period were estimated using
the Youngs model. Empirical expressions relating wave height, maximum wind speed and
wave period during hurricane were derived. The computed results from Youngs model were
compared with the hurricane wave prediction techniques of SPM (1984). The design wave
height for the hurricane condition for different return periods was obtained by fitting a two-
parameter Weibull distribution. The study indicates that in all, 69 hurricanes occurred in the
vicinity of the Hoian coastline during 1945 to 2003 (with an average of 1.2 times a year),
among which include 36 typhoon with maximum wind speed (Vmax)>33 m/s, 20 tropical storm
with 17 m/s< Vmax <33 m/s, and 13 subtropical storm with Vmax<17 m/s. Occurrences of hurri-
canes were mostly in September (26.1%), October (30.4%) and November (13%). In general,
radius of maximum wind speed of all hurricanes was 34 km. The design wave height was 11.7
m for 1 in 100 year return period.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Hurricane/storm generated waves play a significant role in the design of almost all coastal and
offshore structures in tropical and semitropical regions. SWAMP (1985) gives a comparison of
various wave prediction models and also the merits and demerits of each model. The compli-
cated wave generating processes within hurricanes make estimation of the wave conditions
associated with a given storm difficult. A more realistic estimation of wave height and period
during hurricane can be done using the Youngs model, which considers the moving wind field
(Young, 1988). The Youngs model was developed based on the concept of the equivalent
fetch and the standard JONSWAP fetch-limited growth relationships (Hasselmann et al.,
*Corresponding author: email: sanil@darya.nio.org
105
1973). This model was applied to the cyclones crossed the Indian coast (Kumar et al., 2003).
Extreme wave conditions occur in the Hoian area during severe tropical hurricanes, which are
frequent during the beginning of the northeast monsoon (September to November). The severe
impacts of typical hurricanes on erosion, deposition and changes of the coastline in the
Thubon river mouth region in recent years: 1989, 1997 and 1999 was carried out by Trinh
(2000). The objectives of the present study are as follow.
- Analyses of the hurricane data taken from the National Weather Service, USA during
1945 to 2003 (www.weather.unisys.com/hurricane).
- Estimation of the wave characteristics based on the hurricanes which crossed the
Hoian coastline.
- Derivation of empirical expressions relating wave height with maximum wind speed and
wave period during hurricane.
2.0 METHODS
2.1 Data analyses

The Hoian coastline is not only affected by the hurricanes crossed but also subjected to the
impact of hurricanes, which crossed in the vicinity region. The coastline from Binhdinh Prov-
ince to Quangtri Province (140N to 170N) was selected to extract the hurricane data (Fig. 1).
The radius of maximum wind speed, R, is required for estimation of deep water wave charac-
teristics. The R values were as a function of the Saffir/Simpson hurricance scale (Hsu et al.,
1998).
2.2 Estimation of the wave characteristics

The Youngs model (Young, 1988) was used in the estimation of wave characteristics for the
hurricanes considered. The input parameters to the model were the radius of maximum wind
speed for the storm, R, together with the maximum wind speed, Vmax, and the speed of forward
motion, Vfm and the output were the maximum significant wave height (Hs) and spectral peak
period (Tp) within the storm. The JONSWAP fetch-limited growth relationships (Hasselmann
et al., 1973) given below are used in the Youngs model.
0.5
gH s  gF 
= 0.0016 2 
 V max 
2
Vmax (1)
0.33
gTp  gF 
= 0.045 
2 
2πVmax  max 
V (2)
106
where, Vmax = the 10-m wind velocity (m/s), g = the acceleration of gravity (m2/s) and F = the
fetch length (m)
The speed of forward motion, Vfm are extracted from the data set. The equivalent fetch, F is a
function of Vmax , Vfm and R.
For given Vfm , Vmax , and R, an effective radius R can be defined using parametric model as
follows:
R= 22.5 x 103 log R 70.8 x 103 (3)
where both R and R have units of meters. Using R, V , and V , the equivalent fetch F is
fm max
determined as follows:
F = aV 2 +bV V +cV2 +dV +e V +f (4)

max fm fm max fm
max
R’
where, a= -2.175x10-3; b = 1.506x10-2; c = -1.223x10-1; d = 2.190 x10-1; e =6.737 x10-1;

and f = 7.980x10-1
According to SPM (1984) for a slow moving hurricane, the deep-water significant wave height
(Hs) and period (Ts) are given by,
H = 5.03 e
R∆P
 0.29αV fm  (5)
4700 1 + 
 
s
 U R 
T = 8.6 e
R∆P
 0.145αV fm  (6)
s
9400 1 + 
 U 
 R 
where, Ts = the corresponding significant wave period (s), UR = the maximum sustained wind
speed (m/s), α = 1.0 (for a slowly moving hurricane)
∆P = Pn − P0 , where Pn is the normal pressure of 760 mm of mercury, and P0 is the

central pressure of the hurricane.
3.0 RESULTS
3.1 Features of hurricane in the Hoian area

In all, 69 hurricanes occurred in the vicinity of the Hoian coastline during 1945 to 2003 (with an
average of 1.2 times a year), among which include 36 typhoon with maximum wind speed
(Vmax)>33 m/s, 20 tropical storm with 17 m/s< Vmax <33 m/s, and 13 subtropical storm with
Vmax<17 m/s (Table 1). The hurricanes crossed the Hoian coastline is shown in Fig. 1.
107
The Yearly distributions of hurricanes in the study area were not regular. The years of 1964,
1972 and 1995 each have 4 times of occurrences (Fig. 2), especially during 13 to 27/9/1964,
3 hurricanes crossed the Hoian coastline.
Table 1. Classification of hurricanes based on Saffir-Simpson p

scale.
Typhoon Tropical storm Subtropical storm Sum

Numbers of 36 20 13 69
occurrence
Percentage (%) 52 29 19 100
Occurrences of hurricanes were mostly in September (26.1%), October (30.4%) and Novem-
ber (13%), (Table 2).
o
24 :Considered
coastline CHINA TAIWAN
o : Hoian coastline
22
HANOI Hongkong
o 0 1 2 (x100km) Haiphong
20
19 96
Hainan 19 84
o
18
1999
Dongha 1982
o 1955
16 Danang 19 72
HOIAN MANILA
Quangngai 1957
o BANGKOK
14
Quinhon 15
/9/
196 1986
4 1952
195
o 1997 27/9/1964 6
12 PHNOMPENH Nhatrang
1989
1970
o Gulf of HCM. CITY
10 Vungtau 197
1
AN
A
Thailand
O
SE
LA
PA
NA
8o
HI
C
TH
6o
U
SO
o
CUALALAMPUA
4 BRUNAÂ
Y
2
o XINGAPO
o XUMATÔRA CALIMANTAN
0 o
o o o o o o o o o o o
99 101 103 105 107 109 111 113 115 117 119 121
Fig. 1. Tracks of hurricane crossed the Hoian coastline.
108
Table 2. Monthly distribution of hurricanes.
Fig. 2. Yearly distribution of hurricane during 1945 to 2003.
In general, radius of maximum wind speed of all hurricanes was 34 km. Thirty five (51%)
hurricanes were formed inside the South China Sea and 34 (49%) hurricanes were formed
outside the South China Sea (west Pacific Ocean).
3.2 Comparison of estimated wave characteristics based on Youngs and

SPM methods
The significant wave height and wave period estimated using the SPM method (Eqs.5 and 6)
is found to deviate from the value obtained using the Youngs method (Eqs.1 and 2) as shown
in Fig. 3a and 3b. The reason for the deviation is due to the fact that SPM method is for a slow
moving hurricane, whereas the average speed of hurricanes in the present study is 6 m/s.
109
: SPM method
: SPM method
(a) (b) : exact match line
10 : exact match line 13
Spectral peak period (s)

Estimated significant 9 12
wave height (m)
8 11
7 10
6 9
0 2 4 6 8 10 4 6 8 10 12 14
Significant wave height estimated Spectral peak period estimated
using Young method (m) using Young method (s)
(a) Significant wave height (b) Wave period
Fig. 3. Correlation between wave characteristics estimated based on

Youngs and SPM methods.
3.3 Comparison of estimated data with measured data

The computed wave height and wave period using Youngs and the SPM model have been
compared with the observed ones at station (150 53.852 N, 1080 30.033 E) during hurricane
Fritz (September 1997) and is presented in Table 3. In general, the comparison shows a good
agreement between the values computed using Youngs model and observed wave character-
istics.
Table 3. Comparison between computed and measured significant wave height (Hs) and wave period (Tp)
during hurricane Fritz (9/1997) off Hoian coast.
3.4 Significant wave height and peak period

Significant wave height and peak wave period estimated for different hurricanes that crossed
the Hoian coastline along with the input parameters are given in Table 4.
110
Table 4. Estimated significant wave height (Hs) and peak wave period (Tp) for
maximum wind speed of hurricane crossed the Hoian coastline.
Sl Time of Maximum Speed of Fetch Significant Peak
Longitude( E)
Latitude ( N)
0
No. occurrence Wind forward wave wave
0
speed, motion, height, period,
Vmax Vfm F Hs Tp,
(m/s) (m/s) (km) (m) (s)
1 18h/30/10/1952 15.7 108.5 20.6 5.7 187.6 4.6 9.4

2 12h/08/10/1955 15.7 108.6 12.9 3.7 149.5 2.5 7.4
3 18h/14/04/1956 15.3 109.0 10.3 5.2 119.2 1.8 6.4
4 6h/12/10/1957 15.5 108.5 33.4 5.2 264.8 8.8 12.4
5 0h/15/9/1964 15.7 108.3 38.6 6.4 281.5 10.5 13.3
6 0h/27/9/1964 16.1 108.0 20.6 6.2 180.3 4.5 9.3
7 6h/25/10/1970 15.7 108.3 28.3 4.7 240.6 7.1 11.4
8 6h/23/10/1971 15.6 108.2 38.6 6.0 284.7 10.5 13.4
9 0h/04/9/1972 15.4 108.9 36.0 3.9 272.5 9.6 12.9
10 12h/06/9/1982 15.7 109.0 31.0 6.2 245.1 7.8 11.8
11 6h/27/09/1984 15.5 108.6 12.8 5.2 138.5 2.4 7.2
12 18h/21/10/1986 15.2 108.8 25.7 4.7 226.6 6.3 10.8
13 18h/24/5/1989 15.8 108.6 36.0 3.1 263.5 9.4 12.7
14 18h/21/10/1996 15.5 108.8 13.0 3.6 150.3 2.6 7.5
15 0h/25/9/1997 15.5 108.8 38.6 3.1 271.9 10.3 13.2
16 0h/19/10/1999 15.6 108.8 23.2 5.8 203.4 5.3 10.1
The variation of the storm parameters with time for a typical hurricane (October 1999) is shown
in Fig. 4. The low pressure was formed on 15.10.1999 at 6 hrs at 11.20N, 127.70E (west Pacific
Ocean) and crossed the Philippines Island. It slowly moved in the northwesterly direction and
then moved towards the west. It was a tropical storm on 19.10.1999 at 0 hrs at 15.60 N,
109.60E when crossed the Hoian area. The maximum significant wave height was 5.3 m and
peak wave period was 10.1 s at 0 hrs on 19.10.1999.
3.5 Derivation of empirical expression

A regression analysis was carried out between the wind speed and significant wave height and
it was found that the following empirical relation holds good for the hurricanes considered in
the present study with a correlation of 0.9 (Fig. 5a) when the wave height was more than 2 m.
H = 0.314 V 1.91 (7)

s max
Spectral peak period, Tp can also be estimated using the empirical relation given below (Eq. 8)
from known value of significant wave height, Hs (Fig. 5b).
T = 4.7 H 0.45
(8)
p s
111
12
Speedof forward
(a)
10
motion(m/s)
8
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90
24
(b)
Maximumwind
speed(m/s)
20
16
12
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90
6.0
(c)
Significant wave
5.0
height (m)
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90
12
(d)
aveperiod
10
8
(s)
6
W
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90
Time (hrs)
Fig. 4. Storm variables and wave parameters for October 1999 Hurricane.
(a) (b)
12 14 0.45
Hs = 0.314 Vmax - 1.91 Tp = 4.7Hs
Significant wave height (m)
Spectral peak period (s)
10 12
8 10
6 8
4 6
2 4
0 2
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Maximum wind speed (m/s) Significant wave height (m)
Fig. 5. Correlation between (a) significant wave height and wind speed
(b) peak wave period and significant wave height.
112
3.6 Design wave
Since the hurricanes have not occurred at regular intervals, a Weibull distribution to the esti-
mation of design wave height would not be realistic. However, for design purposes, wave
height for different return periods are required. The design wave heights estimated by fitting a
two-parameter Weibull distribution are 5.1, 7.1, 9.1, 10.5 and 11.7 m for return periods of 5,
10, 25, 50 and 100 years respectively.
4.0 CONCLUSIONS
• The study indicates that in all, 69 hurricanes occurred in the vicinity of the Hoian coast
line during 1945 to 2003 (with an average of 1.2 times a year), which include 36 typhoon
with maximum wind speed (Vmax)>33 m/s, 20 tropical storm with 17 m/s< Vmax <33
m/s, and 13 subtropical storm with Vmax<17 m/s.
• Occurrences of hurricanes were mostly in September (26.1%), October (30.4%) and
November (13%).
• The radius of maximum wind speed of all hurricanes was 34 km.
• Significant wave height can be estimated using the empirical Eq. (7) from the known
value of maximum wind speed, also the wave period can be estimated using the empiri-
cal Eq. (8) from the known value of significant wave height. The design wave height is
11.7 m for 1 in 100 year return period.
REFERENCES
Hasselmann, K., Bernett, T.P., Bouws, E., Carlson, H., Cartwright, D.E., Enke, K., Ewing, J.A.,Gineapp, H.,
Hasselmann, D.E., Kruseman, P., Meerburg, A., Muller, P., Olbers, D.J., Richer, K., Sell, W., Walden, H.,
(1973). Measurements of wind wave growth and swell decay during the Joint North Sea Wave
Project,JONSWAP, Suppl Rep No. A8(12), Dutch Hydrogr Z.
Hsu, S.A., Yan, Z., (1998).A note on the radius of maximum wind for hurricanes. Journal of Coastal Research
14, 667-668.
Kumar, V.S., Mandal, S., Kumar, K.A., (2003). Estimation of wind speed and wave height during cyclones.
Ocean Engineering 30, 2239-2253.
Shore Protection Manual, (1984). U.S. Army Coastal Engineering Research Centre, Department of the Army
Corps of Engineers, Washington, DC. USA. Vol. 1.
SWAMP Group, (1985). Ocean wave modelling. Plenum Press, New York, 256pp.
Trinh, L.P., (2000). Study on laws and prediction erosion deposition habitude in the coastal zone and river
mouth of Vietnam. Final Scientific Report of National Project KHCN0608. Institute of Oceanography, Nhatrang,
Vietnam. (in Vietnamese).
Young, I.R., (1988). Parametric hurricane wave prediction model. Journal of Waterways Port Coastal and
Ocean Engineering, 114 (5), 637-652.
113
SUSTAINABLE BEACH PROTECTIVE MEASURE ALONG

DIGHA-SHANKARPUR COAST ON BAY OF BENGAL
Gupinath Bhandari
School of Oceanographic Studies, Jadavpur University, Kolkata-700032
Abstract
Coastal erosion and accretion is a natural process influenced by wave and littoral environment
of ocean dynamics for a particular stretch of beach. The natural sand budgeting due to ocean/
coastal dynamics may result erosion, accretion or may create stable beach stretch. The
anthropogenic activities along with the natural process may create disaster of a particular
area due to paucity or surplus of sand to the beach. Analysis of coastal dynamics and the
impact of sea defence structures on the littoral process, for proper planning and designing of
erosion protective measures, involve a large number of parameters of coastal dynamics. The
field measurements of most of these parameters are difficult and prohibitive in cost. However,
mathematical model appears to be a useful tool for this analysis and design. Such a model
has been developed to study the beach erosion and provide sustainable protective measures
along Digha coast and presented in this paper.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Coastal erosion and accretion is a natural process influenced by wave and littoral environment
of ocean dynamics for a particular stretch of beach. The natural budgeting of sand may result
erosion, accretion or may create stable beach stretch. The anthropogenic activities, along
with the natural process, may create disaster of a particular coastal stretch; such as, con-
struction of dams on the river (source of sand to the beach) may create a paucity of sand to
the beach or construction of port and harbour on the open sea may act as a sand barrier.
A proper planning for shore protective measure is necessary in a holistic approach. This
should consider the coastal/ ocean dynamics and effectiveness of the protective measures,
and their impact on littoral drift and shoreline changes. This would, however, involve a large
number of parameters whose measurements are not only difficult but also prohibitive in cost.
Mathematical model is a very important tool for studying such problems. The interrelation-
ships among various parameters and boundary conditions can be considered in the math-
ematical model for proper analysis of the coastal dynamics.
The study reported herein is on Digha coast in West Bengal, India. This coast has been
experiencing severe beach erosion for several decades, causing damage to seawall and natu-
ral sand dunes, resulting in flood hazard and huge loss of land in recent years. Based on linear
Corresponding author, e-mail: gnbhandari@hotmail.com
114
wave theory and compatibility between sand movement and shoreline changes, a mathemati-
cal model has been developed for studying beach erosion at Digha (Bhandari and Das, 1997).
Based on some less accurate field data on wave and littoral environment, this model can
estimate the required data using inter-relationships among various parameters through itera-
tion. This model has been extended to analyse and design shore protective measures. Appli-
cation of this model to find an appropriate defence strategy along Digha coast has been
reported in this paper.
2.0 STUDY AREA: DIGHA COAST
Digha, a small town on the Bay of Bengal coast in West Bengal (India), is located at a
distance of about 145 km southwest from Kolkata. A location map of the study area has been
presented in Fig. 1. The wide and firm sandy beach and availability of huge quantity of quality
fish attracted Government of West Bengal to develop Digha as a tourist resort and fishing
Centre. A fishing harbour was constructed on a small inlet (River Digha) at the adjoining
Shankarpur.
Fig. 1. Location Map of Digha-Shankarpur Coastal Region.

But since 1960, the eroding nature of the beach came to public notice. Since then, different
Government bodies, institutions and NGOs worked on this area, and recorded their observa-
tions in some publications/ reports (Niyogi, 1970). But very few data on the wave and littoral
environment of this area, needed for proper analysis and effective planning of coastal protec-
tion, were available. Based on limited data from field measurements and hydraulic study
conducted by Irrigation and Waterways Directorate (I&WD), Government of West Bengal,
through its River Research Institute, and also with expert advice from Central Water and
Power Research Station (CWPRS), Pune, a rubble mound seawall was constructed by Gov-
ernment of West Bengal. A total length of 3464 m of the seawall, extending from Jatra Nullah
on the west and Sea Hawk hotel on the east, was constructed in stages between 1973 and
1982. A cross-section of the seawall is shown in Fig. 2. The seawall was tagged to sand dune
115
on its eastern end near hotel Sea Hawk. Due to further erosion on that end, the seawall was
extended towards east by another about 500 m during last two years.
Fig. 2. Seawall cross-section constructed at Digha coast.
3.0 PERFORMANCE OF EXISTING SEAWALL
Although the seawall could prevent the sea from encroaching Digha Township, the beach
lowering continued. The waves reflected from the seawall might have accelerated beach low-
ering. It was also noticed that the beach was steepened considerably after construction of
seawall, as demonstrated in Fig. 3. The width of the inter-tidal zone also became shorter.
Also, the surface profile of the seawall has deteriorated considerably due to moving up and
rolling down of laterite boulders due to incident and back wash wave action. Toe erosion of
seawall occurred also due to wave action. In summer and monsoon the erosion at the toe may
be upto a depth of 1 m to 1.5 m, but in winter this is covered up due to seasonal sand
accumulation.
Fig. 3. Influence of seawall on beach profile.
It was reported that there was no overtopping of the seawall upto 1990. But since 1991 there
have been cases of overtopping at a few places, during August and September every year,
when storm coincides with spring tide. It has been reported that waves reached a height of 1.5
m to 2 m above the seawall crest at those occasions. A critical evaluation of the design and
performance of the existing seawall has been reported elsewhere (Bhandari, 2002).
116
4.0 MATHEMATICAL MODEL
The salient features of a mathematical model, developed for analysing beach erosion and
suggesting measures for coastal protection, are presented below. The model considers linear
theory of waves (Wiegel, 1964; Matsuoka and Ozawa, 1983) and some basic equations of
sand movement and shoreline changes available in literature (Pelnard, 1956; LeMehaute and
Soldate, 1980; Kraus, 1983). This model is essentially a Two-Line model in which the beach
process is defined by the movement of two contours: (1) the shoreline, and (2) the depth of
closure (the depth upto which sand movement is significant). Although depth of closure is
sometimes taken as 9.0 m (Bruun and Nayak, 1980), in the present study this is considered
as the depth where the velocity of sand particle at the seabed does not exceed 0.1524 m/sec
(SPM, 1984). The governing equations related to beach process given below equation (1)
through (3), which include longshore drift, sand budget and depth of closure.
(1)
(2)
(3)
where, Q = alongshore sand drift; q = on/ off shore sand drift; Hb= wave height at breaking;
Cgb= group velocity of wave at breaking; θbs= wave angle with shoreline at breaking; β = con-
stant beach slope angle along a section but, varies section to section; ρ = density of ocean
water; ρs= density of beach sand sample; λ = porosity of beach sand sample; Y = shoreline
position from reference X-axis; ∂X = section interval (considered 800 m.); ∂t= time interval
(considered 4 months); K1 & K2= model calibration factors; Dc= depth of closure; Hs= signifi-
cant wave height;Ls=significant wave length (m). .
The equations were solved either by explicit Finite Difference technique or using Newton-
Rapsons method.
A computer programme through FORTRAN computer language was developed to carry out the
entire analysis. The study area was divided into segments by fourteen cross-sections across
a reference base line taken as X-axis. For each segment the following seasonal data (mon-
soon, summer and winter) were given as input.
Trial wave period, T (wave pole measurement); Co-ordinate (X, Y) of shoreline; Time interval, t;
Approach wave angle (q) from Wave Atlas; Average beach slope, b; Wave height at gauge
position, Hg (measured from wave gauge installed at Digha), Median grain size of beach sand;
Gs (from beach sand sample analysis); Porosity of beach sand, l, density of sea water (r), Unit
weight of sea water (gw); density of beach sand (rs); Seawall/ Dune toe position (PWDT) as per
117
field survey; Reduced level of seawall/ dune top (BRL) as per field survey; Trial values of model
calibration factors (K1, K2). The calibration factors depend on the geometry of the beach. The
ratio between the two site-specific model calibration factors (K2/K1) normally lies within 0.5 to
1.5 (Kraus, 1983). K1 is a time scale adjustment factor while K2 is a function of transport
characteristics and breaking waves (Kraus, 1983).
The calculation was started with trial values of wave period (T), wavelength at gauge position
(Lg) and still water depth at breaking (Db), which were subsequently corrected through iteration
with the data of monsoon, 1993 as starting time (t =0). The wave and littoral parameters for
subsequent seasons were then calculated. Using these parameters the quantity of along
shore and cross-shore sand movement, and also resulting shoreline positions for subsequent
seasons were calculated.
Table 1. Estimated values of sand movement along Digha-Shankarpur coast.

5 3 2 3
Section Along Shore Drift (x10 m /Month) Cross-Shore Drift (x10 m /Month)
No. Monsoon Winter Summer Monsoon Winter Summer
0 +3.80 -1.98 +3.42 -4.98 +2.52 -4.34
1 +2.85 -1.89 +3.53 -3.80 +2.42 -4.50
2 +3.12 -2.02 +3.91 -4.11 +2.58 -4.97
3 +4.43 -2.33 +3.96 -5.77 +2.97 -5.02
4 +4.37 -2.26 +3.71 -5.70 +2.87 -4.69
5 +4.37 -2.25 +3.69 -5.70 +2.86 -4.68
6 +4.48 -2.35 +3.71 -5.88 +2.98 -4.71
7 +4.44 -2.17 +3.41 -5.84 +2.77 -4.34
8 +4.18 -2.06 +3.76 -5.50 +2.64 -4.78
9 +5.75 -2.69 +4.11 -7.52 +3.43 -5.21
10 +6.05 -2.65 +3.11 -7.88 +3.35 -3.92
11 +4.60 -2.36 +3.02 -5.98 +2.99 -3.82
12 +4.36 -2.41 +3.52 -5.63 +3.04 -4.44
13 +4.80 -2.45 +3.64 -6.22 +3.11 -4.61
Fig. 4. Seasonal shoreline changes obtained from measured data.
The estimated sand movement for different sections has been presented in Table 1. It can be
seen that the coastal stretch is very much dominated by along shore drift; the ratio of along
shore littoral drift (Q) to the cross-shore drift (q) is around 103. The value of q has been
118
considered + for on shore sand movement and vice verse, and for Q + indicates movement
towards east. It can also be seen that there is reversal in the along shore drift with changes of
seasons, however, the predominant direction is west to east.
The shoreline positions for winter, 1993, and summer 1994 estimated from that of monsoon,
1993 as the base data have been shown in Fig. 4. The predicted shorelines agreed satisfac-
tory with these obtained from field profile survey.
5.0 PLANNING FOR SUSTAINABLE DEFENCE STRATEGY
The model has the capability of considering the influence of tidal inlet and impact of different
shore protective measures on erosion and accretion pattern and shoreline changes through
subroutines at appropriate stages. So using the programme the performances of the following
hypothetical defence strategies were studied.
1) Seawall extended upto Digha Mohana (upto section 8)

2) Seawall extended upto Digha Mohana and at Shankarpur (section 10 to 12)
3) Two groins on either side of tidal inlet (one each at section 8 and 10)
4) Two groins, one at section 7 and another at section 9
5) Two groins, one at section 6 and another at section 8
6) Two groins, at section 6 and 8 along with seawall at Shankarpur (section 10 to 12)
7) Single groin at section 8.
In the model the position of toe of the seawall was considered fixed. The hypothetical groins
considered in the study were of permeable type and would extend upto a length of about 450
m from the current shoreline position, in order to allow some sand to down drift side. The groin
would extend landward upto a suitable distance to tag it to sand dune. Also the amount of
sand scoured between two groins was assumed to be deposited near the down drift side
groin. In this study the hypothetical groins were considered to be aligned perpendicular to the
baseline. The performance of the various options for shore protections, as obtained from
mathematical model, have been outlined below:
By extending the seawall upto section 8, with or without further extensions on the Shankarpur
side, the rate of shoreline retreat can be arrested, but massive erosion of the toe of dune on
the down drift side cannot be resisted.
Installation of hypothetical groin system on either side of the tidal inlet, one at section 8 and
other at section 10, would benefit Digha beach by depositing sand on Digha side but naviga-
bility of the tidal inlet would be adversely affected for deposition of sand on the inlet (Fig. 5).
Also there would be acute erosion on the Shankarpur side of inlet. Provision of a single groin
at section 8 and new seawall at Shankarpur side (between section 10 and 12) would cause
accretion on Digha beach but erosion on the down drift side of the seawall.
119
Fig. 5. Impact on shoreline change considering two groins on either side of tidal inlet.
Fig. 6. Impact on shoreline change considering single groin on digha side of the tidal inlet.
Fig. 7. Proposed sea-dyke at Shankarpur.
The study reveals that the best result would be obtained by providing a single groin at section
8 (Fig. 6). This would cause accretion on Digha beach. Also erosion on down drift side of the
groin would clean up the mouth of the tidal inlet resulting in improved navigability. The groin
provided on updrift side of Digha River may create erosion on the downdrift side at Shankarpur
beyond the mouth of the Digha River. To make this protective measure sustainable for Digha-
120
Shankarpur coast a retard embankment may be provided, along with the single groin (at
section 8), on the hinterland at the boundary of CRZ I, 500 m from the present high tide line
(Fig. 7). Since Shankarpur coastal stretch does not have much settlement/ investment within
the CRZ I, this provision will not harp on the society; on the other hand, the coastal process
and dynamics will get a place to play. This retard embankment may accommodate the coastal
erosion and subsequent flooding at the coastal hinterland of Shankarpur stretch.
6.0 CONCLUSION
Installation of a single groin at section 8 along with a retard embankment at Shankarpur

stretch is likely to be effective in controlling erosion of Digha beach and natural sand dunes.
This would also reduce the chances of coastal flooding in the adjacent land at Shankarpur
stretch. The navigability of the tidal inlet is also likely to be improved. The groin should be of
low height and permeable to help in the nourishment of Shankarpur beach.
REFERENCES
Bruun P. and Nayak B.U., 1980. Manual on Protection and Control of Coastal Erosion in India, A Special Publication,
NIO, Dona Paula, Goa, India.
Bhandari G. and Das S.C., 1997. A Study of Beach Erosion through Remote Sensing, Field Survey and Mathemati-
cal Modeling. In the Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Remote Sensing for Marine and
Coastal Environments, ERIM, Orlando, USA. Proceeding Vol. II, pp. II-492 to II-501.
Bhandari G., 2002. Performance of Existing Seawall along Digha Coast - A Case Study. In the Proceedings of
Indian Geotechnical Conference (IGC-2002), Organised by Indian Geotechnical Society, Allahabad Chapter,
Allahabad, India, December 20-22, 2002, Volume 1, pp. 629-632.
Niyogi D., 1970. Geological Background of Beach Erosion at Digha, West Bengal, In the Bull. of the Geological
Mining and Metallurgical Society of India, Bull. No. 43, pp. 1-36.
Kraus N.C., 1983. Applications of a Shoreline Prediction Model, In the Proceedings of Coastal Structures 83, ed.
J.R. Weggel, Arlington, Virginia, pp. 632-645.
LeMehaute B. and Soldate M., 1980. A Numerical Model for Predicting Shoreline Changes, U.S. Army, Corps of
Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Fort Belvoir, VA.22060, Miscellaneous Report No. 80-6,
pp. 9-31.
Matsuoka M. and Ozawa Y., 1983. Application of a Numerical Model to Prediction of Shoreline Changes, In the
Proceedings of Coastal Structures 83, ed. J.R. Weggel, Arlington, Virginia, pp. 646-659.
Pelnard C.R., 1956. Essai de Theorie de lEvolution des Formes de Rivage en Plages de Sable et de Galets, Fourth
Journees de lHydraulique, Les Energies de la Mer, Question III, Report no. 1, pp. 289-298.
Shore Protection Manual, 1984. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, CERC, U.S. Government Printing Office.
Wiegel R. L., 1964. Oceanographical Engineering, ed. R. Salak, Prentice Hall, Inc./ Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
121
WIND AND WAVE CLIMATOLOGY ALONG THE EASTERN

COAST OF THE MEDITERRANEAN
Ron Schreier1 and Matti Weiss2*
Rafael Ballistic Center, P.O. Box 2250 Haifa, 31021, Israel.
1
2
Israel Meteorological Service, Beit Dagan, Israel.
Abstract
Wind and wave measurements are carried out constantly since 1994 on the eastern coast of
the Mediterranean at the ports of Haifa, Hadera and Ashdod.
In order to study the daily and multi-seasonal behavior of the sea waves, a spectral analysis of
the wind and wave data was done. In addition, an effort has been done to discover events of
high waves and weak winds (swell).
The results show annual and daily variations in the average waves height. The annual ampli-
tude is twice that of the daily amplitude (about 4 m and 2.2 m respectively).
The wind behavior is only a bit different strong winds (higher velocities than 10 m/s) occur in
frequencies of 24 and 12 hours, while winds of 4 m/s occur in low frequencies. Analyzing the
wind directions shows that north western winds appear once in 12 hours while eastern winds
appear (only in Haifa) once in 24 hours with velocities of half the maximal ones.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The study of wave characteristics is of utmost importance for port management, marine con-
structions and other maritime operations.
The wave conditions of the Israeli coastline, have been studied about twenty years ago (Gold-
smith and Sofer, 1983), based mainly on preliminary measurements and eye observations.
Later on, based on 4 years of wave measurements, the wave spectral behavior off the ports of
Haifa and Ashdod was analyzed using mainly those storms in which the significant wave
heights were greater than 2.5 meters (German et al., 1997).
There are two approaches in studying the wave climatology. One is based on using long-term
measurements of wave heights, directions and frequencies. In a different approach, a numeri-
cal wave model is used for calculating wave characteristics using wind fields that are either
reanalyzed from measurements (hindcasts), or forecasted by meteorological models (Gayer
et al., 1998).
In the last 10 years wave measurements have been performed along the coasts of Israel off the
*Corresponding author, e-mail: weissm@ims.gov.il
122
ports of Haifa, Ashdod and Hadera. Those measurements were used for port operations and
as a base for comparison with results of a wave model. This data is used in this paper for
understanding the wave phenomenon.
The eastern coast of the Mediterranean is dominated by wind waves while swell with heights
greater than 1.5 meters occur quite rarely. Therefore, a comparison of the statistical behavior
of the winds and the waves seems in place.
2.0 WAVE AND WIND STATISTICS
The waves were measured by Datawell wave gauges located off the ports of Haifa, Hadera
and Ashdod, about two km off the coast. The water depth at these locations is 25 meters. The
locations were chosen to hinder any influence of the sea bed on the waves physical behavior.
Each hour waves were measured constantly for 20 minutes; the significant wave height was
measured by calculating the average of 1/3 of the highest waves.
The winds were measured on the sea shore at heights of 10 meters above sea level. The wind
speed used for the calculations is a 10 minute wind average, measured every hour.
This study is based on a data set of the years 1999 and 2000 in Haifa, and 1997-1998 in
Hadera. Fig. 1 represents the wind directions distribution in (a) Haifa and (b) Hadera ports.
(a) (b)
Fig. 1. Wind direction distributions in (a) Haifa and (b) Hadera.
123
Due to the topographical conditions, the wind regime in Haifa is dominated by westerly winds
while easterlies appear from time to time. In Hadera the distribution is much more uniform.
In trying to understand the difference (if it exists) between the wave regimes in Hadera and
Haifa, one can get an answer to the question whether the coastal wind characteristics can be
a criterion for the wave behavior. The wind speed distributions in those two ports are shown in
Fig. 2. Unlike the wind directions, the wind speeds in Haifa and Hadera are quite similar.
(a) (b)
Fig. 2: Wind speed distributions in (a) Haifa and (b) Hadera.
Differences in wave features between the two sites, are, therefore, caused by the different
direction distribution. The waves that are measured off the coast of Israel are created by winds
that blow somewhere in the Meditteranean, but we claim that the same phenomema that
influence the local winds affect the waves as well (i.e., their heights, frequencies and direc-
tions).
The significant wave heights at the two ports are presented in Fig. 3.
124
(a) (b)
Fig. 3. Data sets of significant wave heights in Haifa and Hadera. The raw data is plotted in blue, and the
data smoothed by an averaging filter is plotted in red.]
In Fig. 4 the wave directions in Haifa are shown. The wave guage in Hadera does not measure
wave direction.
Fig. 4. Plot of wave directions in Haifa.
In order to identify cyclic pattern, a smoothing procedure has been undertaken. It can be seen
that the smoothed line (in red) follows quite nicely the raw date (in blue). The gaps in the data
are due to technical problems in the measurements.
125
Although an analysis for the different seasons has not yet been performed, it is clear from Fig.
3 that the highest waves are measured in the beginning and the end of the year, while in spring
and automn the waves are rather low.
In order to carry out a spectral analysis (Fast Fourier Transform) on the wave height and the
wind speed data sets, the lacking data were filled by linear interpolation. The results of the
spectral analysis of the wave data set are shown in Fig. 5.
(a) (b)
Fig. 5. Spectral analysis of the significant wave heights in Haifa (a) and Hadera
(b). In blue is the raw data spectrum, and in red - the spectrum after smoothing.
The frequency units on the abscissa are 1/hour and on the ordinate meters×hour. The wave
height grows when the frequencies descend up to
equivalent to 10.4 days. At frequencies of
(equivalent to 12 and 24 hours period respectively) there are statistically significant peaks in
the spectrum.
The difference between the average peak and the average trough of the wave height is 2
meters for the 24 hours period and 0.5 meters for the 12 hours.
Another way to present the spectrum is to substitute frequency with time period, so the lower
126
frequencies are shown clearly. This presentation is given in Fig. 6.
(a) (b)
Fig. 6. Spectral analysis of wave heights in (a) Haifa and (b) Hadera.
We can interpret the results presented in Fig. 6 as follows: the average significant wave height
varies by ~3 meters hour (spectral units) over a time period of 250 days. The exact amplitude
of the average height difference can be determined from data sets such as those presented in
Fig. 3. A data set of 2 years (730 days) can not reveal waves with time periods of more than
365 days.
A similar spectral analysis was performed for the wind speed data in Haifa and Hadera. The
results are represented in Fig. 7. .
(a) (b)
Fig. 7. Spectral analysis of the wind speed in Haifa (a) and Hadera (b).
(In blue raw data, in red data under smoothing filter)
127
There is a significant peak of 13.5 m/s at
equivalent to 24 hours, and a smaller one, of 5.2 m/s at
equivalent to 12 hours. In order to see the characteristics of the low frequencies, the operation
was also done versus the time periods. This is shown in Fig. 8. .
(a) (b)
Fig. 8. Spectral analysis of the wind speed in Haifa and Hadera.
The maximum in the wind speed spectra appears once a day. Winds of
~4 m/s appears once in 8, 16, 19, 25 and 67 days.
4.0 CONCLUSIONS
The wind waves that are measured in the eastern coast of the Mediterranean develop distant
from the coast as a result of local winds that blow in the site where they develop.
So, it is not entirely clear that close to the coast the statistical behavior of the winds and the
waves will act similarly. The results of this work show that wind measured on the coast is a
good indicator for the waves and vice versa.
Wave measurement is much more complicated and much more expensive than measurement
of winds, therefore, although it is a bit risky to say, sometimes, it might be enough to conclude
128
about the waves from wind data.
This analysis did not sucseed to identify the swell although it occurs, mainly in summer.
There are still the measurements of Ashdod that were not analysed; taking longer periods of
measurements will be also a benefit to get more reliable results: 450 1350, 1350 2250, 2250
3150 and 3150 450
It is still planned to try and relate the waves and winds that appear once in 24 or 12 hours with
a specific direction. The different directions will be divided to 4 groups,
For each group a spectral analysis will be performed in order to find the significant frequen-
cies. The wave or wind directions that will appear on a frequency of 24 hours will be related to
the wave height or wind speed of the same frequency.
5.0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to thank Guy Bunin of the Technion Israeli Ins. of Technology for the helpful
discussions.
REFERENCES
Gayer G., H. Gunter, and N. Winkel, (1998). Wave climatology and extreme value for the Baltic Sea area off the
Warnemuinde harbour entrance, Dt. Hydrogr. Z. 52, pp. 109-130.
German V., D. Kuniza, E.Kit and M.Weiss, (1997). Two dimensional wave spectra at Ashdod and Haifa. 2nd
Indian National Conference on Harbour and Ocean Engineering, Thiruvaananthapuram, India.
Goldsmith V. and S Sofer, (1983). Wave Climatology of the Southeastern Mediterranean. Israel J. Earth Sci. 32,
pp. 1-51.
129
COASTLINE CHANGE MONITORING: COMPARISON OF

GEOREFERENCED GRAPHICAL CADASTRY WITH DATA
FROM MULTIPLE SOURCES
K.K. Ramachandran*, M.R. Kannan, K. Rajesh, John Mathai and M. Samsuddin
Centre for Earth Science Studies, Akkulam, Thiruvananthapuram-695 031
Abstract
Coastlines undergo changes with time due to natural as well as man-made developmental
activities. Regular updation of spatial coastline information is of vital importance to any mari-
time state. Cumulative changes over a period of time manifests itself into long-term changes
of coastline. With the latest technologies of remote sensing, soft photogrammetry and GIS, it
has become possible now to depict and analyse coastline changes more precisely with time.
Thus, the study essentially focuses on:
(i) Methodology for accurate georeferencing of cadastral maps (village maps) depicting the
survey plots (parcels) as per revenue land-holding records based on precisely defined ground
control points using differential GPS without compromising on its planimetric accuracy
(ii) Using orthocorrected high resolution satellite images (IKONOS) and aerial photographs in
addition to Survey of India (SoI) topographic maps to delineate the shoreline positions, and
(iii) GIS based quantification of shoreline change with time (1926 2003).
These emerging trends in geomatics were utilized to study a small coastal sector (~12.5 km)
along the Malappuram District in Kerala. Data products used in the study are the cadastral
maps in 1:3960 scale (1926), SoI topographic maps of 1:50,000 scale (1969), aerial photo-
graphs (scanned to photogrammetric accuracy with each pixel to ground resolution ~21 cm)
and 1 m BW IKONOS image. IGS corrected Principal Reference Points were established by
continuous static DGPS observations using dual frequency geodetic Leica receivers and net-
work adjustment was performed for the GCPs occupied with GPS to derive submeter posi-
tional accuracy. Digital image/photo-grammetric processing and georeferencing of the satel-
lite image and aerial photos was carried out using ERDAS Imagine suite. Digitization and
collation of the vectorised layers were realized in the ArcGIS environment. Precluding the
disparate spatial resolution of the SoI topographic maps, the resultant multi-date coastlines
successfully demonstrated the depiction of micro-level changes along the coast.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Shorelines vary distinctly in their physical characteristics and susceptibility to erosion. In
*E-mail: kkram-gml@eth.net
130
order to develop strategies for coastal zone management, historical information on the dy-
namics of the shoreline is essential. The position of the shoreline varies over a broad spectrum
of time scales in response to erosion or accretion, changes in sea level, and land uplift or
subsidence. Short-term trends in shoreline position might be masked by the long-term varia-
tions over periods of 10 years or more. Shoreline position in general reflects the coastal
sediment budget, and any temporal change in its position is indicative of natural or human-
induced effects alongshore or in the hinterland area. Historical records on shoreline position
along the Indian coasts are either missing or are commonly short and patchy. Moreover, they
are site specific, temporally and spatially discontinuous, and of varying quality. For certain
stretches of coasts, qualitative information is available. However, qualitative data can be mis-
leading, and recording shoreline positions have severe limitations of methodologies that are
highly subjective.
Kerala coast, which lies at the southwest part of India, has been studied for shoreline changes
on long-term and short-term basis (Mallik et al., 1987; Samsuddin, et al., 1991). The recent
attempt by Sreekala et al. (1998) brought out the prospect of using remote sensing data and
aerial photographs for deriving temporal changes in shoreline position. Erosion has been a
primary concern of the coastal residents and governmental bodies owning property along the
shore, particularly during the monsoon months. However, there is no effort along this part of
the coast to document historic changes in shoreline using newly emerging disciplines of
Geomatics and document multi-date vector shoreline positions. This paper deals with methods
for deriving linear historic shoreline data as early as 1926 and as recent as 2003 and to
analyze the historic rate of shoreline change using a vector-based methodology.
This work is a sequel of the programme being executed by CESS, which is supported by
ISRO under the NRIS scheme, intended at demonstrating the utility of High Resolution Remote
Sensing in cadastral mapping.
2.0 STUDY AREA
The study area comprises of coastal tracts of two Gram Panchayats in Malappuram district of
north Kerala, viz., Vallikkunnu and Parappanangadi (Fig. 1). The coast is bounded on the
north with Kadalundi river inlet and on the south up to the confluence of Pooraparamba river
with the Lakshadweep Sea. Total length of the coast is 12.2 km (Fig. 2). Many stretches of the
coast were protected either with sea wall or groins, or having a combination of both (Fig. 3).
Northern end of the coast is significant with the disposition of low cliffs made up of hard laterite
upon which the waves break directly and hence is devoid of any frontal beach (Fig. 4).
3.0 DATA SOURCE
Cadastre (village map) is one of the oldest maps available in micro-scale for majority of the
areas in India. Village maps in Kerala are in 1:3960 scale and are considered as accurate on
131
account of the meticulous survey carried out during 1922 to 1926 period under the British
regime. These are plan maps without any projection but understandably tied to the Indian
datum for maintaining planimetric accuracy. Survey of India (SoI) topographic sheets in 1:50,000
scale surveyed during 1965-66 and SoI topographic sheets in 1:25,000 scale surveyed during
1986-87 were compared apart from making use of the aerial photographs (AP) taken during
1988-89 and IKONOS image obtained for February 2003 period.
Table 1. Date products used for the study.
Data products Surveyed
Cadastry 1922-26
Toposheet (1:25,000) 1986-87
Toposheet (1:50,000) 1965-66
Aerial Photo 1988-89
IKONOS 2003
4.0 METHODS
Precisely networked and ambiguity resolved 3D co-ordinates on WGS84 were obtained from
DGPS measurements at predetermined Ground Control Points. These were taken as control
reference points for obtaining an accurate orthorectified and georeferenced IKONOS image
and AP of the study area using the ERADAS Imagine s/w. The IKONOS image thus rectified
was taken as reference image to georeference the cadastry (sheet-wise) as well as the
toposheets. To make the comparison of shoreline possible, it is essential that all the data
types be referenced to the same datum with the same projection system. Thus, all the maps,
images and AP were referenced onto WGS84 with UTM projection.
Extraction of coastlines from different co-registered data products vary as the SoI topographic
sheets provide High Water Line (HWL) and Low Water Line (LWL), the cadastral sheets
indicate the High Tide Line (HTL) and Low Tide Line (LTL), whereas the satellite image and
aerial photos depict the Permanent Vegetation Line (PVL) and Land Water Boundary (LWB).
These lines were vectorised and the extracted coastlines were transferred to a GIS environ-
ment for further analysis and comparison.
5.0 EVALUATING SHORELINE POSITIONS
Uncertainties regarding the positional accuracy of coastlines being extracted from multiple
sources are believed to prohibit reliable assessments of temporal differences in shoreline
dynamics. Overall, the shoreline positions derived from multiple data sources, precluding their
accuracy, is indicative of a definite trend on a long-term basis. It is understood that the sea-
ward limits of shoreline positions parcel boundaries in the cadastry were restricted to the then
132
firm land expanse. However, the HTL in these maps at places cross landward of the parcel
boundaries, which has been found true on field verification. The HTL and LTL in the cadastry
are comparable with the HWL and LWL of the topographic sheets owing to their demarcation
being attached to the tide/water level. A direct comparison of these lines with the PVL or LWB
of image/AP might not yield desired results. Nevertheless, PVL for all practical reasons is
considered as the process signature of the HWL/HTL and the LWB that of the LWL/LTL. The
results thus obtained from their comparison are discussed here.
The HTL of cadastry Vs the HWL of the toposheets explicitly indicate a seaward displace-
ment of coastline (Figs. 5 & 6). The period of 40 years since 1926 depict a net accretion of
24.835 hectares, which accounts for an annual planimetric growth of 50 cm. Subsequently,
from 1966 to 1986, the coast in general had a phase of accelerated buildup with a rate of 1.44
m/year for the period taking the annual accretion rate to 81 cm. However, the later part till 2003
illustrate a net erosive stage with an annual planimetric retreat of 38 cm (Fig. 7). There is an
unambiguous signal of progradation of the coast from the evaluation of multi-date coastline
based on the LTL of cadastry and LWB of IKONOS frame (Fig. 8). Overall rate of progradation
for a span of nearly 80 years is quite lower (3 to 4 cm per annum) compared to the faster pace
of ~18 cm/year till 1988. Scrutiny of the available information eventually calls for effective
measures to check erosion that is on the increase along this stretch of coast in the recent
years.
Table 2. Status of erosion and accretion computed based on comparison of different data products.
Erosion Accretion
Data compared
Area in hectares
(1922-‘26) 1965-’66
15.118 39.953
Cadastry (LTL) (1:50,000) (LWL)
(1922-‘26) 1986-’87
0.115 59.670
Cadastry (LTL) (1:25,000) (LWL)
1965-’66 1986-’87
7.786 44.757
(1:50,000) (LWL) (1:25,000) (LWL)
1988-’89
2003 (IKONOS)
(Aerial photo) 14.482 7.545
(LWB)
(LWB)
(1922-‘26) 2003
6.727 10.038
Cadastry (LTL) (IKONOS) (LWB)
(1922-‘26) 2003
8.164 12.524
Cadastry (HTL) (IKONOS) (PVL)
(1922-‘26) 1988-’89
7.907 10.338
Cadastry (HTL) (Aerial photo) (PVL)
(1922-‘26) 1988-’89
4.294 17.943
Cadastry (LTL) (Aerial photo) (LWB)
133
6.0 DOCUMENTATION OF INLET MIGRATION
Inlet position along the coast is controlled naturally by the location of river mouths as well as
by spit development. The two inlets along this coast, in the north at the confluence of Kadalundi
River with the sea is perennial whereas the one at the entrance of Pooraparambu river is
seasonal. The study area is restricted within these two inlets and hence a comparison with
the parcels in the cadastry on the historical migration of inlets is not possible, as the opposite
banks of these rivers are not considered. However, a comparison among the topographic
sheets, AP and IKONOS (frame not available for Kadalundi inlet) is made here for the south-
bound inlet (i.e., opening of Pooraparambu River) to understand the migration. Visually com-
parable IKONOS and AP clearly depict considerable changes in terms of ebb and flood tidal
deltas as well as the disposition/growth of spits (Fig. 9). Over the years, the location where
the sandbar is cut open (arranged by the local administration) to let out the floodwater from the
river to the sea has changed. Cutting is done at the leanest portion of the sandbar (Fig. 10).
Since 1965, cyclic changes were observed, as the southern spit has grown northward till
1989. Simultaneously, the coast has also shown an accreting tendency. However, while main-
taining the coastline almost stable, the southern spit has receded from 1989 to 2003, thus
indicating a sort of cyclicity in spit development and recession. At present, net longshore
transport along this coast is reported to be southward, leading to erosion on the north end and
deposition on the south. This combination of spit building on the north side of tidal inlets and
erosion on the south leading to southward migration of the inlet might have played a role in the
recession of the south-end spit from 1989 to 2003. Further, the historic spit development from
south-end towards north from 1965 to 1989 could be indicative of then hydrodynamic condition
wherein the nearshore experienced net northward longshore transport. Tidal channel migra-
tion progressively displaces the tidal inlet. Extension of the spit combined with erosion along
the channel sometimes makes the channel geometry increasingly unstable. However, in the
case of an inlet that is being human-regulated, it is rather difficult to separate out the natural
processes involved in the inlet migration.
7.0 REVISITING THE COASTAL FEATURES
Cadastral maps and topographic sheets do not contain depiction of the coastal features. Yet
archive information on the nature of the coast is wanting. This is one area in which AP and
High Resolution Remote Sensing data can be advantageous. Except for a few straight feature-
less stretches, cuspate beaches characterize the coast. Archive cusps delineated from AP
and the ones discernible from the IKONOS image are strikingly of similar dimension with a
horn-to-horn spacing of ~28 m. Field verification has also shown similar dimension for the
cusps. Even stormy events of monsoon were unable to completely destroy the cusp morphol-
ogy of the beach line (Fig. 11 & 12). Beach cusps are more or less rhythmic and are charac-
terized by steep-gradient, seaward-pointing cusp horns and gentle-gradient, seaward-facing
134
cusp embayment. It has also been noticed that, the prevalence of beach cusps occurs along
the same stretches of beach. It is reported that horn-divergent flow plays a key role in forming
and maintaining beach cusp morphology. Within the small pocket beach midst of groins
sometimes the cusps are developed. Masselink et al. (1997) reported that the cusp reforma-
tion was controlled more by the antecedent morphology than the hydrodynamic conditions.
8.0 RECENT GEOTECHNOLOGIES FOR COASTLINE MAPPING
GPS techniques in vogue permit us to map coastlines (feature-based) either kinematically or

statically at various precision scales upto a few centimeters of accuracy. Mapping the vegeta-
tion line is unfeasible owing to the hindrance to the sky view of GPS receivers and the option
is limited to occupy the linear beach geomorphic signatures such as the berm crest. Using
Leica geodetic receivers, the coastline was mapped based on RTK method and obtained
horizontal precision of 30 cm (Fig. 13). The same method was used even for beach profiling.
9.0 CONCLUSIONS
Historic rates of shoreline change provide important data on erosion trends and permit some
degree of prediction of shoreline movement. By and large, the approaches adopted above lead
to a good estimate of the coastline position from the individual maps/images/AP. The study
reiterates that precision georeferencing of maps/images holds key in extracting multi-date
vector coastlines with reasonable exactness. However, astute restraint is recommended in
the case of spatial information of varying scales and resolutions. The vector coastlines in a
way help us compare and evaluate the morphodynamic precedent of the coast to deduce the
trends in the recent times eventually to take appropriate notice of the emerging scenario. It is
high time that our country with such a vast coastline should come up with a programme to
have precise multi-date vector coastlines.
Authors are grateful to Dr. M. Baba, Director, Centre for Earth Science Studies for his interest
and encouragement. We are highly indebted to ISRO as this work forms part of the programme
supported by ISRO under NRIS scheme.
REFERENCES
Mallik T K, Samsuddin M, Prakash T N, Vasudevan V & Machado T, Environ Geol Water Sci, 10 (1987) 105.
Samsuddin M, Ramachandran K K & Suchindan G K, J Geol Soc India, 38 (1991) 82.
Sreekala S P, Baba M & Muralikrishna M, Indian Journal of Marine Sciences, 27 (1998) pp 144-148.
Masselink G, Hegge B J & Pattiaratchi C B, Beach cusp morphodynamics. Earth Surface Processes and Land-
forms, 22 (1997) pp 11391155.
135
Fig. 1 Study area.
Fig. 3.The coast being protected by both seawall & groins
Fig. 2. The 12 km long coast depicting Fig. 4 At the northern end of the study area,
excellent Feature control with network of waves directly break over the laterite stacks
rail & road
136
Fig. 5. Coastline derived from Cadastry Fig. 6. Coastline derived from Cadastry
and 1:50,000 toposheet. and 1:25,000 toposheet.
Alungal beach
0
. 250 500
M
Mannarayilpadam
0
0.5
2
Km
Arayankadapuram
Fig. 7. Coastline derived from IKONOS and Aps.
Aviyil beach
Accretion
Erosion
Erosional status: 1922-’27 to AP
Fig. 8. Coastline derived from Cadastry and AP of

the southern part of the coast depicting mostly eroding part.
137
Fig. 9. Inlet migration documented using the IKONOS (2003) and Aerial Photos (1989).
Fig. 10. Photographic view (tow ards South) of the Pooraparambu Inlet cut open during June 2004.
138
Fig. 11 View of beach cusps along the Alungal Beach.
AP
IKONOS
Fig. 12 Delineation of beach cusps from APs and IKONOS. Fig. 13 Points occupied by GPS on RTK mode
as part of Coastline mapping.
139
DELTAIC SHORELINE EVOLUTION

Snigdha Ghatak1*and G. K Sen2
*Geological Survey of India, Central Region, Seminary Hills, Nagpur-440 006
2
School of Oceanographic Studies, Jadavpur University, Kolkata-700 032
Abstract
Ghoramara Island located 2.75 km. north of the northern tip of Sagar Island, at the mouth of
Hoogly estuary, Sundarban Delta, West Bengal shows a continuous erosional trend over the
last 30 years. This is evident from GIS based analysis of time series data of 1968-69 (SOI
Toposheet), 1988 (LISS II digital data), 1995 & 1999 (LISS II, hard copy FCC) of the island.
With the need to assess the impact of local sea level/water level conditions and other coastal
variables on this vulnerable coastal tract, a spatio temporal correlation based model for
Ghoramara Island is developed. This model accounts for the pattern of change in coastal
configuration with the tide gauge computed local sea level/water level rise data adopting an
indirect form - process approach. The correlation was implemented as algorithms or a set of
equations within GIS environment and the best-correlated results were applied to generate the
terrain data. Recasting the output values within the GIS environment, results for the coastal
configuration of Ghoramara for different time intervals as well as different local sea level rise
scenarios could be generated. For example, the projected configuration of Ghoramara Island
in say, next 10, 20, 30 years with different sea level rise scenarios i.e 2.9 mm/yr., 3mm/yr., 3.1
mm/yr etc. are determined taking the year 1999 configuration as the reference frame. Good
match between the projected year say, 1999 (projected from 1995 or say, 1988) with the
original digitized data set of 1999 indicates that local scale sea level conditions in presence of
other estuarine variables viz. tide, wave, current etc. has a noticeable contribution in shaping
the configuration of the Ghoramara Island. This opens up the potentiality of the model for
undertaking near future management plan.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Scientific evidences suggest that accelerated rate of sea level rise is supposed to cause
considerable impact on the world shorelines over the next 50 to 100 years if the predicted
estimate of sea level rise rate proves correct (Hennecke et al, 2000). Change detection study
over the whole West Bengal part of Sundarban Delta reveals a retrograding trend of deltaic
shoreline over the past 200 years (Bandopadhyay et al., 1996). The effect of shoreline retreat
has proved to be drastic and costly for the coastal communities in this coastal stretch. This
shoreline retreat has been correlated to relative sea level rise in the literatures (Allison, 1998;
Hazra et al., 2002). The quantitative estimation of the physical effect to be caused by relative
sea level rise (RSLR) in presence of other coastal variables that is, coupling between shore-
line and inlet processes had been one of the least studied aspects for this coastal regime.
*Corresponding author, e-mail: snigdhaban@hotmail.com
140
Lack of high-resolution survey data for longer time periods for the Ganges-Brahmaputra del-
taic coast retards proper estimation of effects of potential coastal hazards resulting from
comparatively long-term processes, say 50 - 100 years (Hennecke et al., 2000). Moreover,
the fundamental problem arises out of incomplete understanding regarding the full range of
processes affecting the estuarine configuration and the lack of methodologies to successfully
integrate the complex array of non-linear processes operative over long time scales, i.e.,
decades to centuries and large space scales, i.e., kilometers (Niedoroda et al., 1995; Stive at
al, 1995) relevant to engineering and planning (Cowell and Thom, 1994). Previous studies by
laboratory and regional field tests of Brunns rule and its variants by earlier workers (Schwartz,
1967; Rosen, 1978; Dubois, 1977; Hennecke, 2000) in different coastal settings of the world
provide evidences for sea level rise as one of the causative factor behind shoreline retreat on a
regional scale under properly defined boundary conditions. Instead of applying such regional
test and to avoid the uncertainties related to define the boundary conditions as stated in
Brunns model, the present study adopts a comparatively new modeling methodology of spatio-
temporal correlation to predict moderately large spatial and temporal scale (i.e., over kilome-
ters and 30-50 years respectively) changes in coastal configuration by allowing limited data
from maps and imagery to define initial conditions. The basic approach of the present study is
to develop a method that allows a quick and cost effective, simple and pragmatic predictive
tool to assess physical impacts of an accelerated rise in RSL/ local sea level rise and asso-
ciated processes on tidal inlets over next 30 to 50 years. For this, Ghoramara Island, Hoogly
estuary W.B. (Fig. 1), is selected as a test case. The objective of the work is to understand
the nature of deltaic shoreline evolution in response to varying rate of local/RSL rise rate. The
modes of large-scale changes are directly mapped onto a mathematical model instead of
computing the same considering the underlying sediment transport processes directly (De
Vriend et al., 1993, Cowell and Thom, 1994). Thus an indirect form - process approach be-
comes the theme of the study.
Fig. 1. Location map, (LISS III imagery).
141
1.1 Study area
Ghoramara island, with an area of 5.059 sq. km (2001, LISSIII data) and a population pressure
nearing 4,200 (approx) is situated 2.75 km north of the northern tip of Sagar Island, at the
mouth of Hoogly estuary, West Bengal (Fig. 1). This island is a part of Ganges-Brahamaputra
composite delta (GBCD) system. This tide dominated, most populated low-lying coastal
depocentre of GBCD with a tidal range of 3.5 to 5.0 m in the estuaries, has highly vulnerable
coastal environment (Kuehl et al., 1997). Here middle to upper Holocene tidal bar/ridge de-
posit resulted out of Ganges-Brahamaputra composite delta outbuilding process (Hazra et al,
2002). This island morphogenetically is the product of fluvial, fluvio-marine and marine activi-
ties.
1.2 Time series analysis

Data integration in time series using GIS (MapInfo and MapBasic) and Remote Sensing meth-
odologies (ERDAS Imaging) for 30 years time span, i.e., from 1969 to 1999 using multi dated
maps and imagery, viz., SOI Toposheet of 1968-69; LISS II digital data, 1988; LISS II geocoded
FCC, 1995; LISS II, geocoded FCC, 1999 shows a continuous erosional trend of the island
(Fig. 2). As a result, inhabitants of the villages like Baisnabpara, Khasimara, Raipara etc. had
to be resettled elsewhere as environmental refugees (Hazra et al., 2002). There has been a
total of 35.478% land area loss between 1969 and 1999 for this island. Ongoing erosion was
so severe that it had wiped out parts of the earthen embankment on the northwestern part of
the island causing saline water intrusion in the agriculture field, imposing a slow onset type
disaster (Ghosh et al., 2002).
Fig. 2. Change detection analysis and data generation technique for Ghoramara Island.
Quantitative analysis on the vectorised data set of the whole island provides the following
results as described in Table 1.
142
Table 1. Aerial change of Ghoramara Island between 1969 and 1999.
TOTAL TOTAL TOTAL TOTAL Land Area loss Land Land

AREA_1969 AREA_1988 AREA_1995 AREA_1999 88_69 Area loss 95_88 Area loss 99_95
Sq. Km Sq. Km Sq. Km Sq. Km Sq. Km Sq. Km Sq. Km
8.436 6.087 5.652 5.443 2.349 0.435 0.209
Rate of Area Change (Sq.Km/Yr.) 0.11745 0.06214 0.05225

Rate of % Area Change 27.8449 7.146 3.6978
Total Land Area Loss 1999-69 2.993 Sq.Km or 35.478%
2.0 METHODOLOGY AND DATA ANALYSES
The model utilizes the tide gauge computed relative or local sea level/water level rise (RSLR)
data for the Hoogly estuary from a precursor model for last hundred years (Sen, 2003). This is
considered to be 3.14 mm/yr for the period between 1968-1988, 4.0 mm/yr for 1988 -1995, 2.9
mm/yr for 1995-1999. This SLR, which is being measured by tide gauge, reflects the local
relative sea level (RSL) oscillations. These variations measured relative to the land, originate
through periodic (viz. tidal effects), random (meteorological and hydrological influences), iso-
static (redistribution of the mass of the earth due to geological processes), tectonic (crustal
movements) and eustatic (changes in the capacity of the water volumes of the seas and
oceans) agents.
Evolution of the Islands coastal configuration between 1969 and 1999 is considered around
the centroid of Ghoramara polygon of 1969, the first base year of the total data set. East-west
and north-south line passing through this centroid divides the island polygons of different
years into NE, NW, SE and SW sectors. Say, twenty numbers of radial lines for each sector
originating from this centroid are constructed and the easting and northing values of intersec-
tion points between these radial lines and the island polygons are retrieved and stored in a
spread sheet based data base (Fig. 2).
Data of tide-gauge computed rate of local/relative sea level changes and rate of radial distance
changes, i.e., rate of erosion or accretion are correlated to find out the linkages between the
two variables. Moreover, functional relationships of rate of radial change of one intersecting
data point with respect to the surrounding data points are derived by spatio-temporal correla-
tion. That is spatial as well as temporal data of positions were considered for correlation
analyses to understand impact of one location on the dynamic processes at the other loca-
tions. Rationale behind this hypothesis lies in the fact that river-sea interface hydrodynamics
is influenced by local as well as regional constraints. As a result impact is felt at adjacent
regions. The degree of this impact varies with positions from the zone of influence. Similarly
temporal changes in this hydrodynamic regime also incorporate influence at different loca-
tions under study. The multidimensional coordinate space in which this correlation is carried
143
out does not necessarily reflect correlation between one variable to the other. As a result the
projected output reflects the configuration the island is likely to attain with a particular sea
level rise in the presence of set of other variables that were effective in the said time frame.
Thus, indirectly a coastal form-process approach is adhered to where the dynamics of sedi-
ment transport or deposition from one point to the other over a space of years is ultimately
reflected in its form is being considered. Best correlated sea level value and rate of radial
change (erosion or accretion) under the common shield of a composite algorithm yielded
projected output of Ghoramara at the desired projected year with a desired local water level/
relative sea level rise scenario. For example, three relative sea level rise scenarios, i.e., 2.9
mm/yr., 3mm/yr., 3.1mm/yr. are taken into consideration to get the projected output of the
coastal configuration of Ghoramara Island after 10, 20, 30 years after projecting the same from
1999 (Table 2). This reveals that with increasing rate of relative sea level in presence of other
coastal variables in 2009 there will be more retreat of the island shore line/configuration trig-
gering an increase in land area loss or increased erosion. Percentage land area loss with
varying RSLR values for the years 2009, 2019 and 2029 are enumerated in Table 2. This
shows that by the year 2009 there will be 15.02% land area loss with 2.9 mm/Yr. RSLR,
15.89% land area loss with 3 mm/yr. RSLR, 16.058% land area loss with 3.1 mm/Yr. RSLR
when compared to total area of 1999. Percentage land area loss with varying RSLR values for
the years 2009, 2019 and 2029 are enumerated in Table 2.
Table 2. Area of projected Ghoramara Island with varying RSLR rate for next 10, 20, 30 years after 1999.
FORECAST
AREA IN SEA PROJECTED % AREA PROJECTED % AREA PROJECTED % AREA
1999 LEVEL AREA IN 2009 CHANGE AREA IN 2019 CHANGE AREA IN 2029 CHANGE
(mm/Yr) (Sq. Km) (Sq. Km) (Sq. Km)
5.399 2.9 4.588 15.02 3.911 27.518 3.367 37.636

5.399 3 4.541 15.89 3.848 28727 3.319 38.525
5.399 3.1 4.532 16.058 3.846 28.764 3.351 37.93
The best fit RSLR rate values for the different time frames are derived from query-based analy-
sis by comparing the area of the projected output of Ghoramara Island for different RSLR
values with the original data for the respective base years. For example, 1988 base year data
is being compared with the projected data for 1988, projected from 1969 with the above-
mentioned three sea level rise scenarios. Least area deviation after comparing the projected
and original island area for the same year provides the best-fit RSLR scenario for a given time
frame.
144
Table 3. Comparison of original and predicted area of Ghoramara island for different time frame.
Reference Projected Year Original Area Projected Area
Year (Sq.Km) (Sq.Km)
RSLR RSLR RSLR RSLR
2.9mm/Yr 3mm/Yr 3.1mm/Yr 3.2mm/Yr
1988 1969 to 1988 6.068 6.2 6.16 6.01 5.953
1995 1988 to 1995 5.617 5.402 5.356 5.342 5.348
1999 1995 to 1999 5.399 5.265 5.242 5.236 5.241
Model results indicate that the best-fit RSLR scenario for the time frames 1969 to 1988, 1988
to 1995 and 1995 to 1999 are 3.1 mm/yr, 2.9 mm/yr, and 2.9 mm/yr respectively (Table 3). A
falling trend of RSLR rate from 1969 to 1999 is noticed. The projected configuration of the
island with the best-fit RSLR rise rate value for the latest data set i.e. 1999 indicates that the
area of this island will become 4.588 sq.km, 3.911 sq.km, 3.367 sq.km in the years 2009,
2019, 2029 respectively, in the presence of other interacting estuarine processes provided the
latest rate of RSLR does not increase (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. Projected configuration of Ghoramara Island with the best-fit sea level rise value.
However, Few restrictions limit this study. First, RSLR and sediment inputs from rivers or the
offshore region are considered as the only factors driving shoreline change. Other potential
threats such as increase in storminess or interference caused by other engineering factors is
beyond the purview of the present work. Second, the model shows fair behavior up to a
projected time frame of 30-50 years. Third, the non-generic properties of the GIS software
used pose another limitation because different proprietary packages use different algorithms
for data acquisition, conversion, interpolation and calculations (Hennecke, 2000). Therefore,
selection of particular software may have a significant influence on the modeling results
(Hennecke and Cowell, 2000). Data generated here using Map Info was not compared with
modeling results from different GIS software. Fourth, Determination of accurate HTL defining
the island configuration from imagery is beyond the scope of the present study.
Verification and validation of numerical models of natural system is always impossible. This is
because natural systems are never closed and model results are always non-unique (Oreskes,
145
1994). The model outputs in the present study have been confirmed by the demonstration of
agreement between observation and prediction but confirmation is inherently partial. Compari-
son of any of the base year data say, 1999 with the projected configuration of 1999, being
projected from 1995 or 1988 provides satisfactory results (Fig.3).
Fig. 4. Model validation and determination of change in shape of Ghoramara.
3.0 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The potential threat of sea level rise demands adoption of a cost effective risk assessment
methodology for the coming decades to arrive at an effective management plan. The common
process of erosion-accretion within the estuary is the result of complex interplay of a wide
spectrum of variables and therefore is regarded as the agents affecting coastal erosion-accre-
tion phenomena in the presence of a rise in RSL itself. Since the acceptance of the energy by
the coast is reflected on the topography and shape of coastline (Pal, 2003) the indirect form-
process approach adopted in the present study in the presence of a rise in RSLR provides a
good start for hazard mapping in large spatial and temporal scale. The model provides a first
hand estimate for taking up management strategies by determining qualitative as well as
quantitative estimation of site specific land loss to be caused by most suitable sea level rise
scenario after 10, 20, 30 years in the presence of other coastal variables. Any departure
between the modeling result and observed configuration is natural only due to the open nature
of the estuarine system and non-linearity of the interacting processes. Nevertheless, the
physical resemblance between the projected and original data set of the same year indicates
that RSLR in presence of associated coastal processes has a fair control in shaping the
coastal configuration of this island over the period of consideration. It is seen that the rate of
RSLR (i.e. 3.2 mm/yr.) was more pronounced in the time frame of 1969 to 1988 while later on
it decreased to 2.9 mm/yr between 1988 and 1999. Thus, a falling trend of local sea level rise
rate is understood. The model also provides scope of gross estimation of local sea level rise
conditions where tide gauge estimated sea level data is unavailable for this GBCD coastal
stretch. Further research in these directions is expected to open up new possibilities and
146
vistas in coastal zone management.
4.0 ACKNOWLEGEMENTS
The authors express their sincere gratitude to Prof. A.D. Mukhopadhyay, Ex Vice Chancellor,
Vidyasagar University for his useful comments and suggestions during the course of the
present work. Thanks are also extended to Shri A. Samaddar, Geologist, Marine Wing, GSI,
for his continuous encouragement and support.
REFERENCES
Allison, M.A, (1998). Historical changes in the Ganges- Brahmaputra Delta. Journal of Coastal Research,
14(4),1269-1275.
Bandopadhyay, S. and Bandopadhyay, M.K (1996). Retrogradation of the western GangaBrahmaputra delta
(India and Bangladesh): Possible Reasons, National Geographer, Vol. XXXI, Nos. 1&2, 105- 128.
Cowell, P.J. and Thom, B.G (1994). Morphodynamics of coastal evolution. In R.W.G Carter and C.D Woodroffe
(Eds.), Coastal evolution: Late Quaternary shoreline morphodynamics, Cambridge: University Press Cam-
bridge, p. 33-86.
De Vriend, H.J., Capiobianco, M., Chester, T., De Swart, H.E., Latteux, B. and Stive, M.J.F., (1993). Approaches
to long-term modeling of coastal morphology: a review. Coastal Engineering, 21, 225-269.
Dubois, R.N,(1977). Predicting beach erosion as a function of rising water level. Journal of Geology, 85, 470-
476.
Ghosh, T., Bhandari ,G., Hazra S, (2002).Coastal erosion and flooding in Ghoramara and adjoining islands of
Sunderban deltaic system. In the proceedings of International conference on water related disasters.
(ICWRD - 2002), Kolkata, India, Sage publisher, 1, 37-41.
Hazra, S., Ghosh T, Dasgupta, R. and Sen, G. (2002) Sea level and associated changes in the Sunderbans,
Science and Culture, 68 (9-12), 309-321.
Hennecke Werner G, Greve Catharina A, owell Peter J, Thom Bruce G. (2000).GIS modeling of impacts of an
accelerated rate of sea level rise on coastal inlets and deeply embayed shorelines. Environmental Geo
Sciences, 7 (3), 137-148.
Kuehl, S. A. , Levy, B M, Moore, S W and Allison, M A (1997) Subaqueous delta of the Ganges Brahmhaputra
river system. Marine Geology, 144, 81-96.
Niedoroda, A.W.; Reed, C.W.; Swift, D.J.P.; Arato,H. and Hoyangai, K., (1995). Modeling shore normal large
scale coastal evolution. Marine Geology, 126,181-199.
Oreskes, N, Shrade , F.K and Belitz, K, (1994). Verification, validation and confirmation of numerical models in
the earth sciences, Science, 263, 641-646.
Pal, A.K. (2003).Coastal Geomorphology and Environment, ABC Publications.
Rosen, P.S. (1978). A regional test of Brunn rule on shoreline erosion. Marine Geology, 26, M7-M16.
Schwartz, ML. (1967). The Bruun theory of sea-level rise as a cause of shore erosion. Journal of Geology,
75: 76-92.
Sen, G.K, (2003). Tide gauge computed seal level rise data for the West Bengal coast, India (In press).
Stive, M J F and de Vriend, H.J (1995). Modeling shore face profile evolution, Marine Geology, 126, 235-248.
147
MORPHODYNAMIC STATE OF MUDGA BEACH,

WEST COAST OF INDIA
P. T. Hanamgond*
Department of Geology, G.S. Science College, Tilakwadi, Belgaum 590 006.
Abstract
Morphodynamic processes on a monthly, seasonal and annual time scale operating along the
Mudga beach, located in Karwar taluk of Uttara Kannada district, was studied during Novem-
ber 1988 to December 1991. The study brings out morphology, texture and sediment move-
ment across and along the beach. The volumetric study reveals that the beach has gained a
net 71 m3m-1 material through continuous or episodic erosion/ accretional patterns. It is clear
from volumetric study at four selected study sites that, the beach experiences progressive
accumulation of sediment towards north. The beach exhibits the occurrence of clay deposit
during monsoon and postmonsoon seasons which has played a major role in modifying the
beach dynamics.
1.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS
The investigated area is a sheltered, bay beach that is deeply incised compared to the main
coastline, forming the northern part of Belekeri Bay, falling within the coastal tract of Karwar
and Ankola taluks of Uttara Kannada District, situated on the central West Coast of India
between longitude 74º13 to 74º15E and latitude 14º44 to 14º45N (Fig.1).
Four permanent reference stations (Stns. 1-4) were fixed well beyond backshore, so as to
represent the entire beach. The study was carried out with monthly interval over 16 months
from November 1988 to February 1990. Further, the study was continued on seasonal scale
(April, August and November) up to December 1991. The observations were made on previous
day of the full moon day.
The beach profile study was carried out, using graduated poles and measuring tape as de-
scribed by LaFond and Prasadrao (1954) and Emery (1961), during low tide from reference
point to beyond low water level up to the wading depths. The beach profiles were used to
understand the morphological variation along with the volume of sediment eroded or accreted.
Sediment samples representing upper 2-4 cm, were collected during post-monsoon 1988 and
1989; pre-monsoon and monsoon 1989, from different microenvironments viz., backshore
(berm) and foreshore (high, mid and low tide). These samples were subjected to mechanical
analysis to obtain grain size parameters following Folk and Ward, (1957), Friedman, (1961,
1979). The wave and longshore current parameters were monitored visually.
*Email: Hanamgondpt@yahoo.com
148
Fig. 1. Location map of the study area.
2.0 RESULTS
2.1 Beach profile changes

The morphological study was carried out at four locations (1-4) along the beach. A gap be-
tween stations 2 and 3 was inevitable because of human interference and due to the presence
of some ephemeral streams. These ephemeral streams often cut the beach during monsoon
season, due to high runoff from the hinterland areas. Of this the major backwater creek is
situated at the southern portion of this beach and played major role in modifying the beach
morphology (see Coastal Photographs, Hanamgond, 1992). The width of the beach varies
between 30-80 m. The beach exhibits moderately steep foreshore.
The beach profiles on monthly, seasonal and annual time scales with the relative changes in
beach morphology during the study period (November, 1988 - December, 1991) have been
studied and presented in Fig. 3 and in Tables 1 and 2.
The study of beach profiles reveal that the Mudga Beach experiences accretion at the north-
ern two stations and erosion in general at the southern two stations. The monsoon activity is
less conspicuous on the beach except at station 4. The profiles reveal a peculiar feature that,
the beach experiences erosion during fairweather seasons and accretion during monsoon
season, except at station 4, which shows erosion during monsoon and accretion during fair
weather. At the northern parts (stations 1 and 2), the beach exhibits progressive growth of the
backshore. On the contrary at the southern half portion (stations 3 and 4) the backshore is
reduced month-by-month until it was hardly left about 10/5 m.
149
The study of beach profiles also indicates that the maximum deposition at station 1 is around
40-45 m from reference point and it is around 20-25 m at station 2. At station 3 the erosion is
significant around 20 m and 30 m onwards. During May 1989 onwards the beach has experi-
enced erosion between 0-15 m and 30 m onwards, and accretion around 15-20 m. Station 4
shows overall erosion during the study period. Erosion is observed up to 40/45 m (from refer-
ence point) and is significant around 30-40 m. The eroded portion between 30-40 m caused
during January 1989 remained unfilled during the study period.
Fig. 2. Monthly beach profiles at mudga beach.
2.2 Volume changes

Monthly changes in the volume of sediment (Table 1) indicate that the beach has gained a net
volume of 71 m3m-1 material through continuous or episodic patterns of erosion/accretion. Of
this net gain station 1 contribute 47 m3m-1, station 2 about 22 m3m-1, and station 3 about 5.5
m3m-1 where station 4 experienced erosion of 3.3 m3m-1. It is clear from this observation, that
the beach experienced progressive accumulation of sediment towards north indicating north-
erly sediment movement during the study period.
150
Table 1. Monthly net changes in the volume (m3m-1) of sediment of Mudga Beach (+ Accretion - Erosion).
Sl Months Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 Station 4

No.
1. Nov.1988/ -02.450 -00.324 -05.625 +05.499
Dec.1988
2. Dec.1988/ -02.175 -00.325 -00.650 -15.225
Jan.1989
3. Jan.1989/ +13.625 -00.675 -00.225 +00.674
Feb.1989
4. Feb. 1989/ March +00.575 -00.575 +01.700 +02.825
1989
5. March 1989/ April +01.175 +03.425 +00.975 +02.001
1989
6. April 1989/ May -01.075 -01.874 +00.800 +02.324
1989
7. May 1989 / June +02.524 +08.575 -00.125 +00.775
1989
8. June 1989 / July -00.450 +00.975 -01.800 -01.450
1989
9. July 1989/ Aug. +06.975 +11.075 +00.825 -03.550
1989
10. Aug.1989/ Sept. +12.449 +02.750 +02.850 -04.175
1989
11. Sept. 1989/ -10.500 -05.175 -00.025 -12.000
Oct.1989
12. Oct.1989/ +15.625 +01.850 +01.925 -00.450
Nov.1989
13. Nov.1989 / +00.375 -01.076 -05.450 +09.225
Dec.1990
14. Dec.1990/ +05.375 -00.900 +02.600 +05.150
Jan.1990
15. Jan.1990/ +05.175 +03.949 +07.675 +05.100
Feb.1990
Net Change +47.223 +21.675 +05.450 -03.277
The monthly changes (Table 1) clearly reveal that the significant trend is accretional at sta-
tions 1 3, except during October 1989 at stations 1 and 2, which show erosion. Station 4, on
the other hand shows significant erosion during January 1989 and from March to October
1989, after which it shows significant deposition. Significant erosion has been noted during
January-February, 1989.
2.3 Seasonal changes

During 1988-1989: Station 1 shows progressive growth of beach and development of berm;
station 2 shows significant growth during April-August, and erosion mainly at lower foreshore
during August-November; station 3 shows minor erosion during November-August and signifi-
cant accretion during August-November; and at station 4 erosion is significant during all the
seasons and is more during November 1989.
During 1989-1990: Station 1 shows accretion during April 1990 and continuous erosion during
the succeeding seasons. Erosion is conspicuous during November 1990. Station 2 shows
continuous erosion. However, erosion was conspicuous during November 1990. Station 3 shows
151
accretion during April 1990 and continuous erosion in the succeeding seasons. Erosion was
more on backshore during August 1990 owing to backwater intrusion along backshore. At
station 4, accretion was more on foreshore during April 1990. During this period a large cusp
head was formed at this location that was eroded during the next season (August 1990),
giving rise to significant erosion.
2.4 Annual Variation

During 1988-1989 the beach shows significant accretion at the northern half portion (stations
1 & 2) and erosion at the southern half during November 1988 to November 1989. During this
period stations 1 & 2 showed almost equal accretion, station 3 shows negligible erosion and
station 4 shows fairly large erosion. During November 1989 to November 1990, the beach
exhibits erosion at all the locations and the erosion is more at station 2. Station 4 shows very
less erosion. During November 1990 to December 1991, the beach exhibits erosion in the
northern half (stations 1 and 2) and accretion in the southern half. Erosion was more at station
2 and accretion was more at station 4.
To understand the overall change during November 1988 to December 1991, the superimpos-
ing of the profiles of the same indicates alternate accretion-erosion along the beach. Erosion
is fairly large at station 2 compared to station 4, and deposition is slightly more at station 3
compared to station 1.
Table 2. Seasonal net changes in the volume (m3m-1) of sediment of Mudga beach.
Sl. Months Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 Station 4

No.
1. Nov.1988/ +12.549 +01.624 -01.100 -07.424
Apr. 1989
2. Apr. 1989 / +05.875 +23.800 -00.850 -03.351
Aug. 1989
3. Aug.1989/ +02.874 -01.874 +08.025 -14.349
Nov.1989
4. Nov.1989/ +03.875 -02.100 +05.050 +23.025
Apr.1990
5. Apr. 1990 / -01.625 -02.824 -06.300 -10.625
Aug. 1990
6. Aug.1990/ -06.799 -05.625 -03.300 -11.375
Nov.1990
7. Nov.1988/ +28.450 +28.700 -00.275 -31.021
Nov.1989
8. Nov.1989/ -06.349 -13.500 -07.345 -00.925
Nov.1990
9. Nov.1990/ -10.600 -26.600 +19.350 +26.000
Dec.1991
10. Nov.1988/ +08.525 -19.175 +11.575 -09.425
Dec.1991
(Overall
Change)
152
3.0 DISCUSSION
From the beach profile study and volume changes (algebraic sum) it is observed that (i) the
fluctuations in sand level (erosion/accretion) is more during July, 1989 to February, 1990 at all
the locations. (ii) The onshore-offshore sediment movement is almost alternate at stations 1
(only up to May 1989), 2 and 3. At station 2, a continuous landward movement from June to
August has been observed. At station 1, almost landward movement after May 1989 except
during October, where major seaward transports has been recorded. (iii) In general, stations 1
and 2 have experienced progressive accumulation during the study period, the maximum
growth was during September 1989 and the erosion was during October 1989. (iv) Station 3
has shown not much variation throughout the study period but has experienced longtime
erosion until January 1990. (v) At station 4 the onshore-offshore sediment movement is alter-
nate but on seasonal scale, i.e., erosion during monsoon and during early phase of postmonsoon
period (June-October) after which the beach shows accretional trend.
The morphological studies at this beach during the study period indicate in general, accretion
of the northern part and erosion at the southern two stations. The beach shows less response
to the southwest monsoon; however, station 4 does show some response. Overall, the beach
exhibits erosion during fairweather and accretion during monsoon period.
The seasonal volume changes during 1988-1989 indicate that the accretion was fairly large at
the northern part (station 1 and 2) and erosion at the southern portion (stations 3 and 4). This
is mainly due to (i) the presence of predominant northerly longshore currents prevailing during
that period, (ii) the creek at the northern end might have also contributed significant material to
deposit at the northern part. The presence of a prominent spit near the mouth at this creek
also support this view, (iii) in addition the seasonal backwater creeks have eroded fairly large
quantity of the beach material from the southern parts especially near station 3 and between
stations 3 and 4 (Hanamgond and Chavadi, 1992; see Coastal Photographs, Hanamgond,
1991a), which ultimately undergo transportation and dispersion through waves and longshore
currents.
During November, 1989 to November, 1990, the seasonal changes during November, 1989 to
April, 1989 shows overall deposition, except at station 2 which shows slight erosion; and the
southern part (station 4) of the beach shows significant accretion. During rest of the seasons
the beach has experienced erosion (station 4 being more). During November 1990 to Decem-
ber 1991, the beach showed erosion at the northern half and accretion at the southern half.
This is probably due to the shifting of clay deposit to the southern end and occurrence of
southerly longshore currents. The observed longshore currents (Table 3) also indicate the
southerly dominating nature during fair weather period.
153
Table 3. Longshore current speed and direction at Mudga Beach.
Months Stations
Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 Station 4
November 1988 CLAY CLAY CLAY CLAY
December CLAY CLAY CLAY CLAY
January 1989 0.17 N 0.02 N 0.17 N 0.02 N
February -- 0.02 S 0.10 S 0.08 S
March 0.04 S 0.06 S 0.03 S 0.05 S
April 0.03 N 0.05 S 0.03 S 0.09 S
May 0.02 S 0.05 S 0.03 S 0.12 S
June 0.03 N 0.06 N 0.02 S 0.17 N
July 0.20 S 0.13 N 0.18 N 0.33 N
August 0.16 N 0.13 N 0.13 N 0.17 S
September 0.02 N 0.02 N 0.07 N 0.12 N
October 0.07 S 0.07 S 0.08 S 0.03 S
November 0.08 S 0.04 S 0.08 S 0.07 S
December 0.02 N --- 0.03 N 0.12 S
January 1990 0.08 S 0.03 N 0.33 S 0.10 S
February 0.01 N 0.04 N 0.04 N 0.04 S
April --- 0.20 S 0.15 S 0.10 S
August 0.03 OFF 0.15 S 0.05 S 0.25 N
November 0.07 OFF 0.01 S 0.07 S 0.07 S
Aug.1991 0.04 S 0.05 S 0.33 S 0.13 S
Dec. 1991 0.07 S --- 0.03 S CLAY
The beach is sheltered from major wave directions, hence it is characterised by low energy
environment. The beach exhibits the occurrence of clay deposit (Fig. 3), which occupied large
area during monsoon season and postmonsoon season during the study period.
Fig. 3. (A) Occurrence of clay deposit at Mudga Beach exposed at the low tide during December 1988.
(B) Occurrence of clay deposit almost at the same location during November 1990.
The erosion of the southern end of the beach during 1988-90 is mainly due to the occurrence
of clay deposit in the northern portion exposing the southern portion for wave action. This clay
deposit moved southerly alongshore during 1991 and protected the southern portion from
154
wave action (Fig. 4). However, the northern portion underwent severe wave attack by way of
encroachment of sea, giving rise to significant erosion especially around station 2. Visits to
this area during August 1992 and February 1993, revealed that this portion (around station 2),
was protected by shore protection blocks of Granite to mitigate further encroachment of sea
and loss of property (Fig. 5).
Fig. 4. Occurrence of clay deposit at Mudga Beach Fig. 5. Coastal protection wall at Mudga Beach.
exposed at the low tide on 22 December 1991.
The Mudga beach is sheltered greatly from the major wind and wave directions because of
which, the beach is characterized by low energy condition and occurrence of clay deposit.
The clay deposit is exposed below low water line during most of the study period especially
during 1988-1989. This may be due to low energy environment that exists in this bay. Due to
the presence of this clay deposit the wave activity was reduced during postmonsoon (1988). It
was also noted that the clay deposit migrated southward at Keni near Belekeri during Decem-
ber 1991. This migration was found to be prominent during the monsoon season (1989-91).
3.1 Texture
The textural details including EOF analysis of sediments of this beach has been presented
elsewhere (Hanamgond and Chavadi, 1998). The sediment of Mudga beach shows only me-
dium and fine sand class, however, the fine sand class predominates (55.60%). The grain size
varies from 1.39 to 2.87Ø at station 1, 1.62 to 2.66 Ø at station 2, 1.33 to 2.42 Ø at station 3
and 1.17 to 2.36 Ø at station 4, which lie in medium to fine sand class. The sediment varies
from very well to moderately sorted (0.25 to 0.75 Ø), the majority being moderately well sorted
(49%); very negatively skewed to positively skewed (-0.385 to 0.29), majority being negatively
skewed (44.4%) and very platykurtic to leptokurtic (0.74 to 1.49), the majority being mesokurtic
(46%).
The textural study also showed that the percentage of medium sand class sediments at
different microenvironments increases seaward (except at HTL). Correspondingly the percent-
155
age of fine sand class sediments decrease. The berm, high tide (HTL) and mid tide (MTL)
samples show predominance of negatively skewed distribution, and near symmetrical distri-
bution as next predominant. The low tide (LTL) samples show predominance of positively
skewed distribution and negatively skewed distribution as next.
In general, the sediments showed seaward coarsening trend. This is mainly due to the occur-
rence of clay deposit at the low tide. In the absence of wave swash-backwash, the normal
dispersion of sediment was affected. However, the tidal fluctuation during flooding and ebbing,
the fine sand is probably being transported offshore leaving behind the coarser material at the
lower foreshore. Another probability is that, the effect of groundwater with the beach face in the
lower foreshore area (please see Coastal Photograph, Hanamgond 1990) has been noted
during the ebb tides, almost all through the year except during monsoons. The groundwater
percolation at the lower foreshore produce rill structures (see Coastal Photograph, Hanamgond,
1990), which remove finer particles leaving behind the coarser and/or some times rolling coarser
grains/pebbles when the inflow is stronger.
The size of the sediment decreases (Phi value increases) towards north, i.e., from station 4 to
station 1. The dominance of fine sediments at stations 1 and 2 compared to the southern
stations 3 and 4, clearly indicate that the sediment movement is due north. The bivariant plots
of mean size and standard deviation (Hanamgond and Chavadi, 1998) showed that as the
degree of sorting increases (standard deviation value decreases) the mean size also increases,
i.e., the finer the sand the better the sorting (Inman, 1949; Griffiths, 1967). The plots clearly
indicate that the samples of high tide levels are finer and better sorted compared to other
microenvironments. The figure also indicated that, major part of the sediments are clustered
around 1.5 Ø at station 4, around 2 Ø at station 3, between 2 to 2.5 Ø at station 2 and around
2.5 Ø at station 1, suggesting the fining of sediments towards north. This supports the trend
observed in the morphological study.
The CM patterns of Mudga Beach sediments (Hanamgond and Chavadi, 1998) showed that,
the sediments represent the OPQR field and fall within the field of beach deposits as shown
by Passega (1964) and suggest traction currents as being the transport mechanism. Majority
of the sediments (71.25%) is transported as graded suspension with some rolling (17.5%) and
uniform suspension (31.25%). Further the figure indicated that the percent of the uniform
suspension population increases towards station 1. The figure was used to understand the
energy conditions, according to Passega and Byramjee (1977). It is noted that, the sediments
fall in region I, IV and V, majority of which fall in IV (56.5%) and V (30.6%). According to
Passega and Byramjee (1977), the sediments falling in regions I, II and III contain rolled
grains, which are deposited near the source or transported across environments where sus-
pension is scarce. Sediments falling in region IV and V are suspension sediments that may
contain rolled grains smaller than 1 mm. These rolled grains may have transported long dis-
tances in suspension before being rolled. Type IV and V are generally graded suspension
sediments, type IV being high, type V being a moderate turbulence deposits. Type I sedi-
156
ments are formed by mixtures of suspension sediments and rolled coarse grains or pebbles.
4.0 CONCLUSIONS
The morphological studies at Mudga beach indicated that the width of the beach during the
study period varies between 30-80 m.
The seasonal variation revealed accretion at northern half portion and erosion at the southern
half during November 1988 to August 1989. However, accretion is fairly large at the northern
end. During August-November 1989, alternate accretion and erosion was observed along the
beach. During November 1989 to April 1990 accretion is observed at all the stations (except at
station 2) and the accretion was fairly large at station 4. During April-August 1990, and Au-
gust-November 1990, overall erosion was observed. In general, progressive growth at the
northern parts (stations 1 and 2) and erosion at the southern parts (stations 3 and 4) is mainly
observed during the study period.
The annual variations during November, 1988 to November, 1989 indicate accretion at the
northern end (stations 1 and 2) and erosion at the southern end (stations 3 and 4), during
November, 1989 to November, 1990 erosion at all the locations, and during November, 1990 to
December, 1991 erosion at the northern end and accretion at the southern end. This is essen-
tially due to the occurrence of clay deposit in the area and seasonal changes in wind and wave
climate.
REFERENCES
Hanamgond, P.T. 1990. Ripple structure and rill structure. Shore and Beach, USA, p.50.
Hanamgond, P.T. 1991a. Berm erosion by falling tide. Journal of Coastal Research, U.S.A., Vol.7 (3), p ii.
Hanamgond, P.T. 1991b. Ripples on inter tidal flat. Journal of Coastal Research, U.S.A., Vol.7 (4), p.968.
Hanamgond , P.T and Chavadi V.C., 1993. Sediment movement on Aligadde beach, Uttara Kannada District, West
Coast of India. Journal of Coastal Research, Florida (U.S.A.), Vol.9(3)847, pp. 847-861.
Hanamgond, P.T and Chavadi V.C., 1992.Preliminary observation on a channel cut by backwater at Mudga
Beach, Uttara Kannada District, West coast of India. Journal Karnatak University - Science, V.XXXVI, pp.
53-63.
Lafond, E.C. and Prasad Rao, R., 1954. Changes in sea level at Vishakapatnam. the East Coast of India, Andhra
University Memoir Oceanography, Waltair, India, Vol.1, pp. 57-62.
Passega, R., 1964. Grain size representation by CM patterns as a geological tool. Jour. Sed. Petrol., V.34(4), pp.
830-847.
Passega, R. and Byramjee, R., 1969. Grain-size image of clastic deposits.Sedimentology, V.13, pp. 233-252.
157
MONITORING OF A LAGOON SYSTEM IN KUWAIT

K.A. Rakha1* and F. Al-Hulail
Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, P.O. Box 24885, 13109 Safat, Kuwait,
Abstract
The khiran area south of Kuwait is currently being developed. The existing lagoon system is
being expanded and houses will be constructed along the lagoons. This project will be com-
pleted over five phases. This paper provides hydrodynamic data collected before and after the
completion of phase A1. The RMA finite element package was used to model the hydrody-
namics and the flushing of the lagoons. The model was validated using the measured data for
the pre- and post-construction stages. The model showed that the flushing of the existing
lagoons was not affect by the construction activities. The end of the dredged lagoons however
showed reduced flushing as compared to the existing lagoons.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The shorelines in Kuwait extend over a distance of about 500 km. A large portion of these
shorelines have already been developed. The southern part of Kuwait near Al-Khiran (Fig. 1) is
one of the few locations with undeveloped beaches. Two natural lagoons (khors) exist at Al-
Khiran located 13 km north of the Saudi Arabian border. The Khor Al Ama and Khor Al Muffateh
are aligned with shallow geological faults and at the surface the creeks pass through gaps in
soft sandstone ridges which run parallel to the coastline.
Currently this area is being developed and several recreational resorts are planned. The pro-
posed deveplopment (Khiran Pearl City) will modify the geometry of the existing lagoons. In
2001, a numerical model study was conducted to investigate the water circulation and water
quality of a proposed preliminary conceptual design for the development of the lagoons (Ealey
et al., 2001). Fig. 1 provides a schematic for the final proposed lagoon system where water
flushing takes place via tidal flows from the Arabian Gulf. At the coastline of Khiran the tides
are mixed with substantial semi-diurnal inequality, with a mean tidal range of about 1.6 m and
about 2.2 m at springs. The project will be completed over five phases as shown in Fig. 1. The
lagoon system for Phase A1 has already been completed where the existing entrance chan-
nel was deepened and new lagoons were constructed.
Data on the tidal currents were measured during different construction phases of Phase A1.
This data was used to validate a numerical model that was used to study the impact of these
different phases on the currents and the flushing of the lagoons.
*Corresponding author, e-mail: krakha@kisr.edu.kw
158
30
29.75
29.5
Latitude
29.25
29
28.75
28.5
46.5 46.75 47 47.25 47.5 47.75 48 48.25 48.5 48.75
Longitude
Fig. 1. Location map and project layout.
2.0 FIELD MEASUREMENTS
Field measurements were conducted before and after the dredging activities. These measure-
ments included the measurement of currents and water levels at the stations shown in Fig. 2.
The purpose of these measurements was to collect data to assist in the validation of the
numerical models that will be used in future phases.
159
After
4500 Opening
4000
Location 4
3500
3000
y (m)
2500
2000
4500
1500 Location 2
4000
1000 2.8
3500
Before
2
500
Opening
3000
1
0
y (m)
2500 0 500 1000 1500 2000 02500 3000 3500 4000

x (m)
2000 -1
-2
1500
-3 Location 3
1000
-4
500
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
x (m)
Fig. 2. Location of the measuring stations (before and after opening lagoons).
3.0 NUMERICAL MODEL
The RMA finite element package (King, 1988) was used to model the lagoons. The RMA-10
model is a three dimensional hydrodynamic model capable of simulating steady and un-
steady currents. The water quality is modelled using the RMA-11 model based on the results
of the RMA-10 model.
3.1 Model Setup

The model was developed based upon the Phase A1 Master Plan and its proposed bathym-
etry, together with the existing bathymetry. Fig. 3 shows the grid used for the RMA model for
Phase A1 of the Khiran Pearl city project. The grid spacing varied from about 5.0 m till about
30 m. Some areas within the existing lagoons were closed to reduce the tidal prism as
explained in Ealey et al. (2001). The model is driven by a tidal water level boundary at the
entrance to the Arabian Gulf. The tidal water level was calculated from the tidal constituents at
the project site
160
For the calculation of the flushing in the lagoon system, a conservative substance (tracer) of
100% concentration was assumed to fill the whole lagoon system. The RMA-11 water quality
model was used based on the results of the RMA-10 model. The seawater at the boundary
was assumed to have a zero concentration. The dispersion coefficients were taken to be 2.0
m2/s in both the x and y directions
Before construction
Open Boundary
After construction
Fig. 3. The grid used for modeling the lagoon system.
3.2 Model validation

Fig. 4 to 7 provide samples of the model validation covering the pre- and post-construction
phases. It can be seen that the model is capable of predicting the measured currents well
before and after the opening of the lagoons.
0.5
0.45 Measured
0.4 RMA
Velocity (m/s)
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
50 100 150 200 250
Fig. 4. Model results at Location 2 (before opening
Time (hr) - Starting July 1, 2003).
161
0.9
0.8
0.7 Measured
Velocity (m/s)
0.6 RMA
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
50 100 150 200 250
Time (Hr)
Fig. 5. Model results at Location 3 (before opening - Starting July 1, 2003).
0.6
0.5
Velocity (m/s)
Measured
0.4 RMA
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00 90.00
Time (hr)
Fig. 6. Model results at Location 2 (after opening - Starting March 5, 2004).
0.45
0.4
Velocity (m/s)
0.35 Measured
0.3 RMA
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Time (hr)
Fig. 7. Model results at Location 4 (after opening - Starting May 15, 2004).
3.3 Model results

In order to determine the effect of opening the lagoons on the flow, a 400 hr simulation was
completed for the pre-construction and post-construction phases. The simulation started on
July 1, 2003 and covered a neap spring tide cycle.
Figs. 8 and 9 show the maximum velocities predicted before and after the opening of the
lagoons. It can be seen that the maximum velocities shifted to the deepened lagoon.
Four stations were selected for analyzing the time variation in the concentration of the tracer
material used to study the flushing of the lagoons. These locations (A to D) are shown in Fig
162
9. Fig. 10 to 11 provide the time series of the concentration of the tracer material for these four
stations. It can be seen that the construction works had a small effect on the flushing at
location B. The flushing at Lagoon 7 (Location D) is weak as shown in Fig. 10. This is mainly
due to the fact that for the existing lagoons, most of the lagoon area is dried during the ebb
tide. The newly dredged lagoons, however, contain water even during ebb tide.
4.0 CONCLUSIONS
The currents in the lagoons at Al-Khiran were monitored before and after the completion of
Phase A1 of the Pearl City development in Al-Khiran. This data was used to validate the RMA
package.
The RMA package was used to study the effect of the construction activities. The model
results showed that for the existing lagoon system the flushing will not change. The flushing at
the end of the newly excavated lagoons, however, was lower than at locations within the
existing lagoon.
Year 2003 day 198 hour 16.00 TOTAL VELOCITY
1000.
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
1.10
1.20
1.30
1.40
1.50
Fig. 8. Maximum velocities for 400 hr simulation (before construction).
Year 2003 day 198 hour 16.00 TOTAL VELOCITY

1000.
Location B Location D
Location C
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
1.10
1.20
Location A 1.30
1.40
1.50
Fig. 9. Maximum velocities for 400 hr simulation (before construction).
163
100
90
80
Location D
Concentration
70
60
50 Location C
40
30
Location B
20
10
0 Location A
10 60 110 160 210 260 310 360
Time (hr)
Fig. 10. Results of RMA-11 for tracer material at four different locations (after construction).
100
90
80
Concentration
Before
70
After
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
10 30 50 70 90 110 130 150 170 190 210
Time (hr)
Fig. 11. Results of RMA-11 for tracer material at Location B (before and after construction).
5.0 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank the Laala Al-Kuwait Real Estate Company for financially supporting
the data collection study.
REFERENCES
King, I.P. (1988). A Finite Element Model for Three Dimensional Hydrodynamic Systems, report prepared by
Resource Management Associates, Lafayette California, for U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways
Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi.
Ealey, T. A., J. R. Young, P. Holmes and J. M. Lo 2001. Al Khiran Pearl City, Kuwait. Coastlines, Structures and
Breakwaters 2001 Conference, September 26-28, London, U.K.
164
SHORELINE OSCILLATIONS CAUSED BY PORT -

METHODS OF ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION
M.V. Ramana Murthy*, B.R. Subramanian and J.S. Mani1
ICMAM-PD, Department of Ocean Development, NIOT Campus, Chennai 601302
1
Department of Ocean Engineering, IITM, Chennai 600 025
Abstract
Ennore Port, located north of Chennai Port, was constructed in 1999 to meet the increasing
demand of cargo. It is in operation since 2001 with coal as major cargo. Structures con-
structed along the East Coast of India, result in accretion on south and erosion on north due
to net northerly drift. To protect downdrift coast from erosion, shoreface nourishment was
taken up on north of the Ennore port in 2000. For assessing the impacts of port and perfor-
mance of protection measures on adjacent coastline, understanding of coastal morphology,
more specifically, shoreline behavior is required. Various methods adopted to analyse the
shoreline data and their limitations are discussed. An improved method of combining Remote
Sensing, GPS and GIS techniques was used to evaluate the shoreline changes, caused by
construction of the port. Performance of beach fill is assessed based on the beach profile
data.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Ennore Port (East Coast of India) was constructed north of the Chennai port to meet the
increased traffic. The port has a southeast entrance, sheltered by breakwaters of 1.1 km long
on its south and 3.2 km on north. Though the northern entrance is the most preferable one for
many ports located on east coast of India, the port authorities have decided to go for southern
entrance to avoid the risk of bringing vessels through an approach channel comprising full of
shoals (where the water depth varies from 3 to 6 m). In the region that is highly sensitive to
sediment transport, it is obvious that Ennore satellite port would cause morphological changes
along the coast. The south coast is presently witnessing accretion due to southern breakwa-
ter and also due to presence of Ennore creek, located at a distance of 2.6 km south of the
southern breakwater. Since the north coast is experiencing severe erosion, the port authori-
ties have taken up beach nourishment, by placing 3.5x106 m3 of sand, dredged from the
harbour basin and approach channel to prevent downdrift erosion. The beachfill has a dimen-
sion of 600 m length by 300 m width, with a transition length of 400 m to maintain integrity with
coastline. This paper discusses various methods used to analyse the shoreline data and the
performance of remedial measures, taken up to protect the coast from the impacts of port.
*Corresponding author Email : mvr@icmam.gov.in
165
Shoals
T2
T1
Fig. 1. Location of Ennore Port.
2.0 PHYSICAL SETTING OF THE STUDY AREA AND ENVIRONMEN-

TAL CONDITIONS
Ennore port is located at a distance of 24 km, north of Chennai Port. The port is located at a
place where coast has undergone drastic variation in its orientation. The area north of port
(upto Pulicat lake) is flanked by shallows called Ennore shoals which extend offshore in
water depths of 3 to 6 m (Fig. 1). The nearshore zone in this area has a gentle slope of 1: 17
with a sandy stratum. Tides in the region are semi-diurnal with range varying between 1.2 m
(spring) and 0.4 m (neap). The tidal observations along the 20 km coastal stretch between
Ennore and Pulicat indicate no significant variation in amplitude. However, a phase difference
of 10 to 15 min is noticed. Wind plays a major role on coastal circulation in the region. The
wind is southerly during NE monsoon (for a period of 8 months i.e., March to September) and
northerly during rest of the year. Waves approach the coast predominantly from two direc-
tions, i.e., SE during SW monsoon and NE during NE monsoon. The average significant wave
height is 3.0 m. Tropical cyclones are more pronounced during NE monsoon.
166
3.0 METHODS AND ANALYSIS
Various survey methods are used to monitor shoreline changes, starting from chain survey to
advanced techniques like laser tracking. Each method has its own advantages and limita-
tions. Tamilnadu State Public Works Department monitors monthly shoreline oscillations
(from 1978 onwards) under the project crest of berm using simple distance measurement to
understand the behavior of coastline, required for planning and implementation of coastal
protection measures. Distance of the berm crest is measured at regular monthly intervals
with suitable reference point. Though the method forms essential input for studying long-term
behavior of coast at particular location, it is not possible to draw any quantitative result due to
lack of spatial linkage among the observation points. Survey of India (SOI) toposheets and
cadastral maps were used to analyse temporal changes in shoreline, but lack of updation,
non-uniformity in projection and scale of these maps generate errors in estimation of shoreline
changes. In the present study, an improved method was adopted to monitor the shoreline
changes which combines remote sensing, high accuracy GPS and GIS techniques.
3.1 Remote Sensing

The synoptic view provided by satellite remote sensing along with its repeated coverage,
enables to detect the shoreline changes. IRS1D satellite launched by Indian Space Re-
search Organization (ISRO) provides a spatial resolution of 5.6 m with temporal coverage of 24
days. Cloud free data from 1998 to 2003 consisting of three scenes of LISS (Jan 1998, Feb
2001 and March 2003) and four scenes of PAN (Jan 1998, Mar 1999, Nov 2000 and Mar 2001)
were acquired for analysis. Radiometrically corrected satellite imagery was processed using
Ground Control Points (GCP) derived from Survey of India (SOI) toposheets (scale of 1:25000).
As, the rectification based on toposheet is likely to generate an error of about ± 30 m, the
image was corrected using predetermined GCP points, obtained from the field survey using
Real Time Kinematic Global Positioning System (RTKGPS), which is having an accuracy of
sub-meter. The 1998 scene was registered to geographical coordinates using 1st order poly-
nomial transformation of the line and column location of pixels to their LAT/LONG locations
derived from the map and RTKGPS data. The other images were registered to the Geo-
corrected 1998 scene. To enhance the quality of the image, the spatial enhancement with
convolution filtering technique is adopted.
3.2 Beach profile survey using RTKGPS
Method of quantifying shoreline changes consists of measuring distances to the crest of berm
along the shoreline. Leica SR 500 Real Time Kinematic GPS having accuracy of ± 1 cm in
position is used for the survey. A base reference station was established at south breakwater
of the Ennore Port and the horizontal coordinates of X & Y were derived from averaging of 12 hr
167
positions of GPS data. The vertical coordinate Z was arrived from the established GTS bench-
mark of Survey of India (SOI). The movable part with radio modem covering a radius of 4 km,
was used to map and measure the crest of berm and the profiles of beach. The projection of
survey was set to UTM (zone 44) and datum to WGS 84. Cross sectional profiles upto wading
depth were monitored regularly (Table 1) using GPS and the profiles upto the depth of closure
were surveyed using sea sled.
Table. 1. Details of beach profiles surveyed by RTKGPS
Location Dates of Survey
North of Port 22.10.2000, 02.12.2000,11.01.2002, 28.03.2002, 05.02.2004, 24.04.2004,

05.05.2004
South of Port 16.12.2000, 24.02.2001, 23.05.2001,29.03.2002, 04.05.2004, 10.05.2004.
4.1 Shoreline oscillation due to port and its impacts

The remote sensing and the RTKGPS data were integrated in GIS to estimate shoreline
changes. Coastline evolution from 1999 to 2004, on either side of port, is shown in Fig. 2. The
beach, south of the port, is accreting at a rate of 50 m per anum, extended 300 m offshore,
and 2.6 km alongshore, causing increased siltation in Ennore Creek, which is a life line for
two power plants, as a source of cooling water.
On north of port, 600 m length of beach fill is eroding at the rate of 50 m and the zone of erosion
is shifting futher north. During 2003 - 2004, the erosion length was extended upto 1500 m and
100 m width of beach was lost outside the nourishment area, causing a threat to fishing
hamlets. Coastline adjacent to beach fill underwent readjustment and a village, Katuppali,
located 2.5 km from the north breakwater is experiencing accelerated erosion to an order of 60
m per year. Beach profiles taken at a distance of 1000 m north of port (Fig. 3) was showing
accretion (T1) initially and erosion after 2003. This clearly depicts that the transition length of
400 m, provided to maintain the integrity of beachfill with adjacent coast worked well only for
the first 3 years of nourishment and later, it is not in agreement with design. The design of
transition length was studied by several researchers (Hanson and Kraus, 1993) and it is
reported that accentuated erosion occuring at abrupt lateral terminations of beach fills which
can affect the functionality and longevity of beach nourishment project due to increased longshore
sediment transport. Hence design of transition length plays a vital role in the performance of a
fill. Wave climate and orientation of coast near beach fill needs to be assessed critically for
design of transition length.
168
Fig. 2. Erosion/ Accretion pattern along the coast at Ennore Port between 1999- 2004.
Fig. 3. Beach profile variation at north and south of Port, T1 & T2.
4.2 Wave climate

Beach profile (Plan form) is influenced by four factors wave, wind, sediment characteristics
and the structure with, wave being a dominant factor. The energy carried by waves and its
169
variation along the coast, modifies the form of the shoreline, depending on wave chronology.
Hence, estimation of wave climate at nearshore is essential for interpretation of shoreline
changes, for which wave information is required in deep/intermediate water for a period of
atleast one year to represent all seasons. Most of the sites along the Indian coasts do not
have reliable wave climate till 1999, except ship observed data collected by ports. National
Institute of Ocean Technology, Chennai (NIOT) deployed around 12 directional wave rider
buoys along the Indian coast during the year 1999 and extended to 20 buoys under National
Data Buoy Programme (NDBP) for collecting information on wave and meteorological param-
eters. Annual wave climate derived from wave rider buoy deployed off Chennai coast is shown
in Fig. 4. Waves approach the coast predominantly from two directions, viz., south-east and
north-east, former being the dominant direction, resulting net northerly drift.
The monthly wave climate of data buoy location is transformed to nearshore area using REFDIFS
wave model (Kirby and Ozkan, 1994) and calculated the littoral drift rates at two specified
locations (T1 and T2) on either side of the port (Tables 3 and 4). Monthly distribution of waves
heights (offshore and nearshore), maximum longshore current and monthly littoral drift for the
year 1999 at two transects, one located on north (T1) and the other on south (T2) of port are
given in Tables 3 and 4 respectively.
Fig. 4. Annual wave rose off Chennai.
Table 3. Wave climate and littoral dirft north of port at transect T2 for 1999.
p
Month Off-shore Nearshore Max Accumulated
Longshore drift
Hrms Tp Dir Hrms Tp Dir current (m3/m/month)
(m/sec)
Jan 1.03 7 75 0.692 7 61.2 0.77S 41,472
Mar 0.68 10 125 0.358 10 124.5 0.437N 16,070.4
Apr 0.67 11 115 1.28 11 107.6 0.785N 1,16,640
May 0.97 8 150 0.697 8 121.4 0.81N 51,840
June 1.08 10 145 0.626 10 116.3 0.66N 51,840
July 0.94 8 145 0.899 8 120.4 0.93N 77,760
Aug 1.09 9 150 0.552 9 131 0.72N 38,880
170
Table 4. Wave climate and littoral drift south of port at transect T1 for 1999.
p
Month Off-shore Nearshore Max Accumulated
Longshore drift
Hrms Tp Dir Hrms Tp Dir current (m3/m/month)
(m/sec)
Jan 1.03 7 75 1.189 7 85.6 0.52S 15,552
Mar 0.68 10 125 0.902 10 101.1 0.8N 33,696
Apr 0.67 11 115 0.775 11 105.3 0.87N 41,472
May 0.97 8 150 0.848 8 120.2 1.44N 1,45,152
June 1.08 10 145 1.137 10 119.3 1.76N 3,88,800
July 0.94 8 145 0.839 8 119.0 1.4N 1,29,600
Aug 1.09 9 150 0.717 9 134.8 1.36N 1,24,416
* Data for the months of February, September, October, November and December are not available.
Results indicate that sediment transport on southern transect (T1) is greater than the northern
transect (T2), which was one of the possible reasons for accretion on northern coast prior to
the construction of the port. The variation in wave heights from offshore to nearshore can be
attributed to the bottom topography (northern sector-shoals), angle of wave approach and
converging/diverging patterns of waves.
4.3 Even odd analysis

Evaluation of shoreline changes can be done with even odd analysis (Bosma and Dalrymple,
1997) which quantifies the behavior of beach and allows comparison of pre and post interven-
tion. This technique is used for Ennore coastline to separate out shoreline changes that are
uniform along coastline (even function) from those that are due to a coastal structure or inlet
(odd function). The even function ye(x) can be interpreted as background erosion/accretion
which would be present in the absence of the structure. The odd function yo(x ) is then inter-
preted as the shoreline change which is attributed to structure alone. The functions represent-
ing even and odd analysis are
y (x)= [y(x)+y(-x)]/2 - Even function

e
y (x)= [y(x)-y(-x)]/2 - Odd function

o
In the present case, the Ennore port is considered as origin and the measured shoreline
profiles of 2001 and 2004 were carried out for Even-Odd analysis to determine the impact of
port. Shoreline distances, the net changes and the computed even odd functions are given in
Table 5.
171
Table 5. Computed Even and Odd function for shoreline change analysis.
@
Distance Coast Coast 2004 Net Even Oddfunction
@ @
along coast 2001 (m) (m) Change function
(m) (m)
1200 1274 1364 90 27 63
1000 1337 1442 105 -3 108
800 1409. 1527 117 -44 161
600 1492 1622 129 -66 195
400 1588. 1725 137 -75 212
200 1701 1842 140 -60 200
-200 2675 2414 -261 -60 -200
-400 2747 2460 -286 -74 -212
-600 2781 2519 -261 -65 -195
-800 2765 2560 -205 -43 -161
-1000 2684 2572 -111 -3 -108
-1200 2610 2574 -36 26 -63
@
@
+ accretion; - erosion
The odd functions (Fig. 5) indicate accretion and erosion on south and north side due to
construction of port. The order of accretion/erosion on south and north side due to construc-
tion of port is 200 m over a period of 3 years. The even function depicts the erosion of 50 m
upto 1 km on either side of the port and accretion trend in the later part of coast, caused by
natural processes.
Fig. 5. Even Odd analysis of shoreline changes at Ennore Port, for profiles during 2001 and 2004.
172
5.0 CONCLUSION
The shoreline change analysis indicate that impact of port is seen upto a distance of 2.5 km
on either side of the port, i.e., accretion on south and erosion on north. The overall perfor-
mance of the beach fill to protect the downdrift coast is satisfactory with few exceptions. An
extent of 200 m width of beach was lost against 450 m, provided under nourishment. With this
rate of erosion, the estimated life of nourishment would be 3 years and northern coast needs
maintenance after 2007. If no intervention is planned before 2007, the coast north of port starts
eroding due to deficit in sediment supply. The dimensions of the fill including transition length
that proposed in the project could not maintain the integrity of nourishment project with the
adjacent coast village Katupalli located immediately north of fill is experiencing accelerated
erosion of 70 m due to beach fill. The estimated dimensions of the fill would be 800 m length
by 480 m width with a transition length 700 m. On southern side, the average rate of accretion
per year is 70 m (at south breakwater) till 2003. However, there is no significant accretion
between 2003 and 2004 and the shoreline is maintaining a constant position. This may be due
to sliding of accumulated sand into the approach channel of the port. The study demonstrated
the usefulness of remote sensing, GPS and GIS techniques in quantifying the impacts of port
and various improved Beach nourishment design.
The authors gratefully acknowledge Mr. Y. Pari, for his help in Remote Sensing and GIS
related work and Dr. M.S. Bhat for analysis of beach profile data.
REFERENCES
Bosma, K.F. and Dalrymple R.A., 1997, Beach profile analysis along the Delware Atlantic Coastline, Research
Report no. CACR-97-05, Center for Applied Coastal Research, University of Delware, Newark, 165 pp.
Hanson, H. and Kraus, N.C., 1993, Optimization of beach fill transitions, Beach nourishment Engineering and
Management considerations, Stauble, D.K. and Kraus, N.C (Vol. Eds.), Proc. Coastal Zone93 ASCE, 103-
117.
Kirby, J.T. and Ozkan. T., 1994, REF/DIF S: combined refraction/diffraction model for spectral wave conditions,
version 1.1, Documentation and users manual, CACR Rep. No.94-04, Dept. of Civil Engineering, University
of Delaware, Newark, Del.
173
TIDAL CURRENTS AS FEEDERS OF THE RIVER INDUS

FLUX INTO THE MACROTIDAL GULF OF KACHCHH, INDIA
Onkar S. Chauhan1*, S. Jaya Kumar1, A.A. Menezes1, J. Suneethi1, N. Shradha1
A.S. Rajawat2 and S.R. Nayak2,
M.V. Ramanamurthy3 and B.R. Subramanian3
National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa 403 004.
1
2
Space Application Centre, P.O., SAC, Ahmedabad 380015.
3
ICMAM Project Directorate, Department of Ocean Development, Chennai.
Abstract
Tide synchronous abundance of total suspended matter (TSM), currents and hydrodynamic
modeling during September of 1999 have been evaluated to decipher source to sink pathways
in the macrotidal Gulf of Kachchh. Despite being located in the arid region with low rainfall (50
cm y-1) and insignificant fluvial input, gulf waters are enriched in suspended matter. The TSM
distribution is highly dynamic and changes with prevalent tidal conditions. Generally, all along
the northern flank, the gulf waters remain turbid irrespective of tidal conditions. Moreover, TSM
is showing inland reducing trend in the inner regions of the gulf. We have also observed
significant amount of suspended matter across shelf dispersal of TSM in the central region,
particularly during low and high tide conditions. Derived from the spatial variations in TSM,
prevalent hydrography and clay mineral abundance, an advection of flux of river Indus into the
gulf by flood tide currents is deduced.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The studies of dispersal and sink pathways of suspended matter are important for understand-
ing specific influences of land discharge on coastal and ocean processes. Carried in suspen-
sion, these are transported long distance, and have potential to be used as tracers of decipher
regional source to sink pathways. All coastal engineering and shore development strategies
also need accurate determination of drift rates as an input.
The macrotidal environment, modifying constantly with propagating tides, has complex hydro-
graphic regime. The Bay of Fundy, the most prominent macrotidal body in the world (tidal
range of > 11 m), for example, is covered with pebble and migrating sand waves of varying size
signifying the role of tidal environment on sedimentary processes. The Gulf of Kachchh lo-
cated within 22°15' - 23°40' N; 68°20' - 70°40' E is a funnel shaped, eastwest oriented,
macrotidal, seismically active indentation. It occupies about 7350 km2 area (Chauhan and
Vora, 1990) in which tides amplify from mouth to head (about 4 m at the mouth; 7 m in the
intricate creeks) due to depth and width factors. The gulf is located in the arid region with
about 50 cm annual rainfall. It has short, small estuarine rivers with insignificant discharges for
* Corresponding author: onkar@darya.nio.org
174
most of the year (Table 1; Sharma and Devasahayam, 1988). The gulf waters, due to prevalent
climate and reduced fluvial discharge (Table 1) unlike other estuaries of the west coast of India
(which show seasonal stratification), have homogeneous one layered structure (Unnikrishnan
and Luick, 2003). The gulf has fragile ecosystem comprising of mangroves and corals reefs
located along the southern bank of the gulf (area 458 km2). These have witnessed degradation
due to anthropogenic activities, and to protect these from further deterioration, the specific
area has been notified as Marine Sanctuary in 1982. For centuries, the gulf has also been a
center of maritime activities. About ten small and large harbors are located in the gulf, the
channels of which have frequent silting problems. Being located in the arid region, with little
influence of the fluvial runoff, the silting of the channels of the harbors, and source of sedi-
ments into the region is rather intriguing, and need to be investigated.
The present work comprises of tide synchronous measurement of TSM, and hydrodynamic
modeling validated with synchronous in-situ current measurements. Specific clay minerals
(produced and supplied under a specific climate and geology) are source specific, and have
capability to be transported for long distance in the suspension. These are separated from the
gulf waters, and their spatial abundance is also used to decipher the specific role of the tidal
hydrography on sediment dynamics, particularly to determine the source to sink pathways in
the gulf. These outputs will have specific applications for understanding the role of macrotidal
stream in sediment dispersal processes, which are crucial for the existing harbors and future
coastal engineering projects, besides developing strategies for the protection of eco-sensitive
areas of the gulf.
2.0 METHODOLOGY
For sediment dynamics studies, 26 stations distributed in the inner, the middle and the outer
gulf were monitored for TSM concentration during high tide (HT), low tide (LT) and mid tide
(random tide) during 3-19 September 1999 (Fig. 1). Besides, the conventional method of
filtration (estimating TSM based on retention on a optipure fiber filter paper <0.45 mm) we have
for the first time separated suspended matter through 6 feet Prep/Scale TFF regenerated
cellulose cartridge (No CDUF 006 Lm) and a tangential flow filtration system of Millipore.
About 100 liters of seawater was filtered for each station for acquiring TSM. In order to deter-
mine the temporal and spatial variations in the TSM in response to varying magnitude of tides,
synchronous measurements of TSM were also made along three transects (located in the
outer, middle and inner gulf; 9 stations) at 1 hr interval across the gulf beginning at low tide
(Fig. 1). The currents were measured for 24 - 36 hr at 3 selected locations for validation
purpose by CONtrol Ocean current meter (accuracy of ± 5° and 2% for direction and magni-
tude respectively). The Global Positioning System (GPS) was used for determining the geo-
graphical location of each station.
Because the separated suspended material from the gulf waters is rather less for conventional
clay mineral analysis, in order to obtain an oriented sample, a fraction of each sample was
175
passed through a membrane filter of ~2 µm. The collected sediments on the filter papers were
dispersed on a glass slide, and air-dried. The glycolated (treated for 2 h with ethyleneglycol at
1000C) samples were analyzed on an X-Ray diffractometer (Phillips 1840) with a Ni filtered Cu
Ka radiation (l= 1.541Ao). Clays were identified and quantified using the methods of Biscaye
(1965) and Carol (1970).
The hydrographic simulation were carried out using a MIKE-21 software of the DHI Water &
Environment (DHI), Denmark, which calculates flow field from the solution of the depth-inte-
grated continuity and momentum equations (Abbott et al., 1973; Abbott, 1979) for the months
of September, 1999. Local bathymetry, bed resistance coefficients, wind field, hydrodynamic
boundary conditions and eddy viscosity are giving us input in a model domain of 78 km
(horizontal) x 46 km (vertical) covering the entire gulf. The outputs of the simulations are water
levels and fluxes (velocities) in the computational domain.
3.0 RESULTS
Cotidal variations at the different regions of the gulf are presented in Fig. 2. The tidal range
progressively increases from the mouth to head, and tidal amplitude is maximum in the creeks
(at the Navalakhi and Kandla, Fig. 2). The ebb variations are more pronounced and these have
reduced magnitude compared to flood tide flows off the mouth of the Kandla and Navalakhi
Creeks. The simulated current vectors for the high, mid and low tides are shown in Fig. 3. The
relation between observed and modeled current vectors are shown in Fig. 4. We have ob-
served a good correlation between model derived and in situ data which also matches well
with the other available modeling data (Unnikrishnan and Luick, 2004). As expected, the
hydrography is cyclic and varies with propagation of tide. The magnitudes of the currents
measure progressively increase from 68-125 cm sec (at the mouth) to 125-185 cm sec in the
central bay during extreme tide conditions.
The TSM maps of the gulf during low, high and random tidal phases are presented in the Fig.
5. We infer from these maps that there is a large variation in TSM during different tidal condi-
tions. All the stations have variable response to the tide. The inner regions of the gulf, by and
large, have low TSM during the ebb and flood tides. In the outer gulf, however, the northern
region is found to have higher TSM compared to southern region. The specific features of the
TSM distribution are across gulf northsouth advection in form of a tongue in the central region
of the gulf.
4.0 DISCUSSIONS
The gulf lies in semi arid region, with 50 cm annual rainfall. The rivers in the regions are short
with insignificant discharge (Table 1). TSM in the gulf varies between 21- 89 mg l-1, and the
outermost gulf all along the northern flanks may be designated as highly turbid waters (TSM >
30 mg l-1), The inner regions are, also enriched in the TSM (> 20 mg l-1), though the amount
176
of TSM is reduced. Such a high amount of suspended matter in the gulf is rather intriguing; for
the gulf has insignificant fluvial discharge. There are no reports of significant aeolian contribu-
tion into the region, which can sustain such a higher TSM in the entire gulf. Also, if the TSM
flux was related with the fluvial discharge, it should have been progressively distributed in the
form of plumes from the inner gulf to the outer gulf. We however, have observed higher TSM
along the northern flanks progressively decreasing inland. The zonal distribution of TSM in the
gulf, therefore, is anomalous, and appears unrelated with the local fluvial flux. The other sources
of the sediments may be due to re-suspension from the sea-bed. The gulf has parallel 18 m
thick deposition of the sediments with no scouring marks in the sea-bed in the outer gulf
(Chauhan and Vora, 1990), and based upon these, it has been deduced that the outer gulf is
experiencing deposition.
From the TSM maps of HT and LT, a dispersal direction from W-E, with a across gulf transfer
in the central region has been deduced. This implies that the TSM is advecting from the
offshore into inland waters of the gulf. The current vectors during the floodebb tides are
complex. Off the mouth of the gulf, particularly on either flank, currents are generally along-
shore, and move into (out) the gulf with flood (ebb) tide (Fig. 3). Based upon the hydrography
and the TSM distribution, it is inferred therefore that TSM is sucked and advected inland by the
flood currents.
The offshore waters of the gulf are turbid (TSM > 30 mg l-1; Fig. 5). We have evaluated all major,
distant, fluvial sources in the vicinity of the gulf to determine the source of this turbidity. The
river Indus is located about 100 km north, and discharges about 50 million tons of sediments
(Nair et al., 1982). The hydrography is alongshore from mouth of the Indus towards the gulf
during SW monsoon (Shetye et al., 1990), which is favorable for the dispersal of flux of the
river Indus into this region. Based upon the physiography, it has also been deduced that the
entire inner shelf between the mouth of the river Indus and gulf is influenced by the fluvial influx
of the Indus (Chauhan et al., 2000). It is inferred, therefore, that flux of the river Indus is
transported along shelf by the SW monsoon hydrography increasing the turbidity in the shelf
water. The tidal currents, being strongly inland during the flood tide, suck these TSM rich
offshore waters into the gulf. Regional TSM distribution, therefore, stems from the transporta-
tion and distribution of the flux of Indus by the tidal streams (Fig. 3). We evaluated qualitative
maps of TSM distribution during the flood-ebb tide derived from the satellite imageries (IRS P-
4 Ocean Color Monitor (Fig. 6; Pradhan et al., 2004)) to obtain a synoptic, regional view of
TSM of the gulf. There is an inland advection of TSM rich offshore waters inland, particularly all
along the northern shore during the flood tide and corroborates the results of our thesis.
Supply of clay minerals into a region is source specific. Being > 2 µm in size, these are
transported long distances. The clay minerals abundance in the suspended matter is, there-
fore, also evaluated to determine the sources of the sediments into the gulf. The gulf waters
have illite and chlorite as predominant clays (Fig. 7). Smectite and kaolinite are also present
in the minor amount. The local geology is predominantly basalt and Cretaceous sedimentary
177
rocks (Krishnan, 1968), and smectite is the major clay produced in the hinterland due to
prevalent cliamte (Nair et al., 1982; Chauhan, 1994). Chlorite is the clay produced in the arid,
cold climate (Weaver, 1989), and not under semi-arid hot climate, which is prevalent into the
hinterland of the gulf. The source of this clay therefore appears non-local. The chlorite, be-
sides illite is dominantly found in the bed load of the Indus, which has major catchment area
in the Himalayas with the arid, cold climate (Chauhan, 1994). The presence of chlorite in the
water of the gulf therefore further corroborates the inference that the gulf is a depocenter of
the flux of the Indus.
It is concluded that the gulf is a depocenter of TSM from non-local sources; alongshore
dispersal of the plume of the Indus River and their inland advection by flood tidal stream being
the major source of TSM. Our results for the first time deduce a larger and dynamic influence
of the distant fluvial sources (River Indus) over a considerable area in the vicinity of the marine
park and small and large harbors. Integrated studies are needed to further evaluate the spe-
cific influence of these processes on eco-sensitive areas of the gulf.
5.0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are thankful to the Director, NIO for providing the facilities. We thank Command-
ers S. Raguvanshi, J. Dhayya, D. Sings of Indian Navy/Coast Guard for help in collection of
water samples and other logistic support in the gulf. This is the contribution No. of NIO.
REFERENCES
Abbott, M.B., Dansgaard, A. and Rodenhuis, G.S., (1973). System 21, Jupiter, A desigh system for two-dimen-
sional nearly horizontal flows, Journal of Hydraulic Research, 1.
Abbott, M.B., (1979). Computational Hydraulics Elements of the Theory of Free Surface Flows, Pitman,
London,.
Biscaye P.E., (1965). Mineralogy and sedimentation in the recent deep sea clay in the Atlantic and adjacent seas
and oceans. Bulletin of Geological Society America 76, 803-832.
Carol, D., (1970). Clay minerals: a guide to their X ray identification. Geological Society of America, Special paper,
1-80.
Chauhan, O.S., (1994). Influence of macrotidal environment on shelf sedimentation, Gulf of Kachchh, India.
Continental Shelf Research, 14, 1477-1493.
Chauhan, O.S. and Vora, K.H., (1990). Reflection seismic studies in the macrotidal Gulf of Kachchh, India:
evidences of physiographic evolution. Continental Shelf Research, 10, 385-396.
Chauhan, O.S. Almeida, F. and Suneethi, J. (2000) Influence of sedimentation on the geomorphology of the
northwestern continental margin of India, Marine Geodesy, 23, 259-265.
Gokhale, D.P. and Kanetkar, C.N., (1988). Field data collection for currents, sediments and salinity for Kachchh
tidal power project. Proceedings of the International symposium on tidal power development (New Delhi),
pp 9-12.
Nair, R.R., Hashimi, N.H., Rao, V.P., (1982). Distribution and dispersal of clay minerals on the western continental
178
shelf of India, Marine Geology, 50, M1-M9.
Pattanshetti, S.S., Chauhan, O.S. and Sivakulundu, K.M., (1993). Quantification of seabed topography with
special reference to Hansthal creek, Gulf of Kachch, India. Journal of Coastal Research., 9, 934-943
Pradhan, Y., Rajawat, A.S., and Nayak, S.R., (2004). Application of IRS-P4 OCM data to study the impact of tidal
propagation on sediment dynamics in the Gulf of Kachchh, Indian Journal of Marine Sciences, 34, 157-163.
Sharma, H.R. and Devasahayam, R. (1988). Field investigations for Kachchh tidal project. Proceedings of the
International symposium on tidal power development (New Delhi), pp 13-19.
Shetye, S.R., Gouveia, A.D., Shenoi, S.S.C., Michael, G.S., Sundar, D., Almeida, A.M. and Santanam, K., (1990).
Hydrography and circulation off the west coast of India during the southwest monsoon 1987, Journal of
Marine Research, 48, 359-338.
Unnikrishnan, A.S. and Luick, J.L., (2003). A finite element simulation of tidal circulation in the Gulf of Kutch, India,
Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf science, 56, 131-138.
Weaver, C.E., (1989). Clays, Muds and Shales, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 819 pp.
Table 1. Characteristics of the fluvial sources in the Gulf of Kachchh during the peak discharge (modified
from Sharma and Devasahayan, 1988).
3
Name of the Discharge m
-1
River s
Adhoi 2.1
Sakara 4.0
Jhinjhoda 1.0
Phuldi 24.0
Machchu 476.0
Demi 438.0
Aji 3226.0
Fig. 1. The study area with location of stations and profiles for synchronous TSM and current
measurements.
179
Fig. 2. Cotidal flood and ebb tides amplitude at the different locations of the gulf during September of 1999.
For the locations of the stations refer Fig.1.
220
200
180
160
(Grid spacing 500 meter)
140
4
2.
120
2.8
100
80 2.4
60
40
20
1 m/s
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
01/21/00 12:30:00
(a) High Tide

220
200
180
1.
2
160
1.2
0.
0
140
0.4
0.4
1.2
0.8
120
0.8
1.2
0.4
100
80 0.8
0.8
1 .2
60
1.2
40
1.6
0.4
20
1 m/s
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
01/21/00 20:30:00
(b) Mid tide
180
220
200
180
160
1.6
0.4
140
1.2
0.8
0.4
1.6
120
0.4
0.8
1.
1.
100
6
80
0.4
1.
8
6
0.
1.
2
60 0.8
1.6
1.2
40
1.6
20
1 m/s
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
(c) Low tide 01/21/00 18:00:00
Fig. 3. Currents vecotrs during high, low and random tides deduced from hydrodynamic modeling.
1 .6
Measured Current Speed (m/s)
y = 1 .1 5 3 7 x
1 .4 R = 0 .9 0
1 .2
0 .8
0 .6
0 .4
0 .2
0
0 0 .2 0 .4 0 .6 0 .8 1 1 .2 1 .4
Modelled Current Speed (m/s)
360
y = 0.9 34 2 x
R = 0.6 8
300
240
Current Direction(°)
180
120
60
0
0 60 12 0 18 0 24 0 30 0 3 60
Current Direction(°)
Fig. 4. Comparisons of model measured in situ and current vectors during September 1999.
181
(a) High tide
(b) Mid tide
(c) Low tide
Legend
< 20 40 - 45
20 - 25 45 - 50
25 - 30 50 - 55
30 - 35 55 - 60
35 - 40 > 60
Fig. 5. Spatial maps of total suspended matter observed during low, high and random tides in the gulf. Note
across shelf dispersal in the central regions of the gulf.
182
Fig. 6. OCM P-4 imagareis of the Gulf of Kachchh during high tides in the gulf (after Pradhan et al., 2004). A
high enrichment of TSM in the imagareis of high tide at the mouth of gulf is a conspicuous feature.
Fig. 7. Spatial distribution of the clay minerals in the gulf waters. Note high wt per cent of illite and chlorite
in all the samples along the northern bank. Dispersal direction of the flux of the Indus derived from the TSM
and clays studies are schematically shown.
183
ASSESSMENT OF WAVE MODELING RESULTS WITH

BUOY AND ALTIMETER DEEP WATER WAVES FOR A
SUMMER MONSOON
K. Sudheesh, P. Vethamony*, M. T. Babu and S. Jayakumar
National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa-403 004.
Abstract
A second-generation offshore spectral wave model has been applied to simulate wind waves
over the north Indian Ocean during MayAugust 2000 using 6 hourly NCEP re-analysis wind
data. The significant wave height (SWH), wave period and mean wave direction derived from
the model have been compared with moored buoy and TOPEX altimeter data. As the accuracy
of simulated wave parameters depends on the accuracy of winds, the NCEP re-analysis
winds have been compared with buoy winds and an assessment is made to this effect. The
data of deepwater buoys off Goa, Kochi, and Chennai have been utilised for comparison. It is
difficult to get sufficient collinear altimeter points with modelled output, and therefore, all the
altimeter SWH values are organised in 0.75° x 0.75° size boxes and compared the average
value in each grid with those of model output and buoy SWHs. Comparison of model and buoy
wave parameters during the summer monsoon shows that model results agree closely with
the buoy measurements (Example, for Kochi SWHs, bias = 0.888 and correlation coefficient
(γ) = 0.923). Higher winds, of the order of 15-18 m/s, off Goa and Kochi and 10-12 m/s off
Chennai, and wave heights, of the order of 3.5-4.5 m observed during 5-7 June 2000 are due to
a low-pressure system present at that time, and the model is quick in reflecting this rapid
change, and it is a clear evidence of the model capability. Wave heights, in general, are higher
in the Arabian Sea than the Bay of Bengal during June to August, but nearly the same in May.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Important elements for marine navigation are wind speed and direction and wave height, period
and direction. Information on marine winds and waves are also useful for the following opera-
tions: drilling for the exploitation of natural resources in the deep sea, design of harbours,
breakwaters and jetties, loading and unloading of products from the vessels, preparation of
wind and wave atlas, estimation of sediment transport and combating oil spill.
There are several ways of obtaining wave information. However, each source has its own
inherent limitations. For example, in-situ wave measurements provide only spot samples and
they are very expensive; remote sensing provide global coverage data, but good algorithms
are required to derive wave parameters; models predict wave parameters, but they should be
*Corresponding author, e-mail: mony@darya.nio.org
184
provided with accurate input parameters and boundary conditions. In this context, space-
borne measurements along with numerical modeling offer an effective way to supplement the
conventional synoptic network, and contribute substantially to coastal and offshore activities.
The SWAMP group (1985) carried out extensive inter-comparison experiments with various
wind-wave prediction models and concluded that none of the model is suitable for all kinds of
wind fields and extreme situations. The third generation wave model WAM, developed by the
WAMDI group (1988) is based on physical processes rather than empirical relations and can
be used in a global as well as regional domain. Khandekar (1989) compiled the state-of-the-art
development of wave prediction procedures and their utility for real time operations and appli-
cations.
In one of the earlier studies, Vethamony et al. (2000) used ECMWF (European Centre for
Medium Range Weather Forecast) winds in a second generation wave model to hindcast
waves on the north Indian Ocean. The model results have been compared with GEOSAT
altimeter wave parameters and in situ wave measurements and it was observed that there is
striking difference between the 3 sets of results, basically due to limitation of the model to
shallow water and inaccuracy in the visually observed wave data. However, in the present
study, we have used buoy as well as TOPEX (PO.DDAC, 2001) data for comparison.
The Arabian Sea is under the influence of southwest monsoon from June to September and it
is practically calm with long swells during the rest of the period. On the other hand, the Bay of
Bengal comes under the influence of both the southwest as well as northeast monsoon (Oc-
tober-December) seasons. For several coastal and offshore activities, the information on waves
during monsoons is of prime importance. As in-situ measurements are very expensive and
difficult to measure during monsoons, a good model can provide the required wave information
for any practical application, subject to the accuracy of winds.
In the present study, we have used NCEP (National Centre for Environmental Prediction)
analyzed winds as input to MIKE21 Offshore Spectral Wave model-OSW (User Guide, 2001).
The objectives of the study are: (i) to evaluate the accuracy of analysed winds, (ii) to compare
wave modeling results with measured and TOPEX altimeter waves and (iii) to build confidence
in using deep water monsoon waves obtained from the model as design parameters for cur-
rently expanding deep water activities in the north Indian Ocean.
2.0. WAVE MODELLING
2.1 MIKE21 Offshore Spectral Wave model (OSW)

OSW developed by the Danish Hydraulic Institute, Denmark is used in the present study. This
is a discrete spectral model which describes the wave field by the directional-frequency wave
energy spectrum. The energy is calculated in discrete points of a rectangular grid for a number
of discrete frequencies and directions. The model includes two different descriptions of physi-
185
cal processes governing the wind-wave generation and decay: (i) state-of-the-art third genera-
tion formulation and (ii) second generation formulation. The third generation model is based on
the internationally developed WAM Cycle 4 model originally developed for deep-water applica-
tion on global and regional scale. DHI has extended its application into shallower water areas.
The model is based on the numerical integration of the spectral energy (F) balance equation
formulated in Cartesian co-ordinates
DF = S + S nonlinear + S bottom-dissipation + S white-capping + S wave-breaking
wind
Dt
The left-hand side describes the wave propagation in time and space using linear wave theory.
The right-hand side represents the superposition of source functions describing various physi-
cal phenomena. The second generation model typically requires less computational effort
than third generation model.
Wave-wave interaction, refraction, and dissipation due to breaking are included in the OSW
model. The basic input parameters to the model are bathymetry and wind fields. The model
domain is divided into square grids and input parameters are provided at each grid point. Time
step corresponding to the Courant Number is chosen, keeping the minimum wave period
present. The output from the OSW model can be obtained either as discrete wave parameters
(height, period and direction) or in spectral form.
2.2 Model set up

The model domain covers the region between 5°S to 28°N and 50°E to 100° E (marked in Fig.
8) and the domain is divided into 0.75° x 0.75° grid size. The ETOPO5 bathymetry data set
from the National Geophysical Data Center, Colorado, USA, representing the best available
bathymetry values spaced at every five-minute latitude / longitude, has been extracted for the
required region.
Essentially, the quality of wave simulation depends on quality, resolution and time interval of
driving wind fields. Such types of data sets are now available with NCEP re-analysis (Kalnay
et al., 1996). The NCEP re-analysis comprises the largest available (since 1948) re-analysed
data set. This re-analysis global wind data for the period May-August 2000 in 2.5° x 2.5° grid
has been extracted and linearly interpolated for the 0.75° x 0.75° grid size. It is too coarse for
coastal region, and hence, restricted to deep water only. The quality of NCEP re-analysis is
superior to NCEPs original analysis as a state-of-the-art data assimilation has been used
with more observations. However, as the accuracy of simulated wave parameters depends on
the accuracy of winds, the NCEP re-analysis winds have been further compared with buoy
winds and an assessment is made to this effect.
186
3.0 BUOY AND ALTIMETER DATA FOR COMPARISON
In general, buoy data is available for 3 hr interval. The data of deepwater buoys off Goa, Kochi
and Chennai have been utilised for comparison. We have also used significant wave height
(SWH) and wind speed values of TOPEX/POSEIDON (T/P) satellite (inclination = 66°; repetivity:
10 days; ground track accuracy: ±1 km) altimeter data for comparison. Each pass of T/P
takes less than one minute over each grid. It is difficult to get sufficient collinear altimeter
points to compare with model output or measured values, though we got a few. Therefore, all
the altimeter SWH values have been organised in 0.75° x 0.75° size boxes, and the average
value in each grid has been compared with those of model and buoy SWHs.
It has been argued that wave heights approximately scale with the square of the wind speed
and this implies that an error of about 10% in the driving wind fields will result in an error of
atleast 20% in the hindcast wave height (Tolman, 1998). Therefore, the NCEP re-analysis
winds have been compared with the data of deepwater buoys off Goa, Kochi, and Chennai to
ascertain the accuracy of NCEP winds (Fig. 1:a, b and c). It is evident from the figure that
NCEP winds match closely with buoy winds, though at times they are marginally higher than
the buoy winds.
We observe wide scatter between buoy and NCEP winds off Goa for all the monsoon months.
The trend as well as a close agreement of winds of other regions (Fig. 1:b and c) indicate that
winds measured by the buoy off Goa is erroneous. To confirm this, winds measured at Dona
Paula, Goa (close to the buoy location) have been compared with off Goa buoy data as well
NCEP data, and it is found that shore winds are very close to NCEP winds. However, compari-
son of model and buoy wave parameters (Figs. 3a, 6a and 7a) confirm that with confidence
buoy waves can be compared with model or altimeter wave parameters.
The collinear points of wind speeds from buoys and T/P also show good comparison (Fig. 2).
In this figure, the collinear point which shows lower wind speed (4.7 m/s) compared to T/P
value (12.4 m/s) is that of wind speed measured by the buoy off Goa. Therefore, it is possible
to assess the accuracy of model input winds with remote sensing data when measured values
are not available.
The model SWHs (Fig. 3 a, b & c) have been compared with buoy data. Off Goa, model SWHs
vary from 1.0 to 6.8 m and buoy SWHs from 1.0 to 5.7 m, but trend is very good (Fig. 3a). In
general, SWHs greater than 2.5 m during May-September are typical of monsoon wave char-
acteristics. Waves off Kochi follow similar pattern (Fig. 3b). SWHs off Kochi for both model
and buoy vary from 1.0 to 5.0 m, ignoring a few model values greater than 5.0 m in June. The
match is very good for both the locations as seen from the statistical parameters (Table 1: bias
= 0.985 & 0.888; γ = 0.924 & 0.923). SWHs off Chennai (Fig. 3c) vary from 1 to 4.0 m, except
187
a few model values which are greater than 4.0 m in August (bias = 0.242; γ = 0.784).
Comparison of buoy wave height with collinear points of altimeter provided good match (Fig.
4). This shows that altimeter winds/ waves could be used for validation in place of measure-
ments. Therefore, gridwise comparison of TOPEX waves with model waves has been carried
out over the entire model domain for the period MayAugust 2000 (Fig. 5). These results
confirm that wave modelling can be used as an authentic tool for any practical application.
We notice higher winds, of the order of 15-18 m/s, off Goa and Kochi and 10-12 m/s off
Chennai, and wave heights, of the order of 3.5-4.5 m, during 5-7 June 2000. This is observed
in buoy and T/P data as well. Indian Daily Weather Report (2000) shows that there was a low-
pressure system present at that time, and the observed higher winds and wave heights are
due to this extreme event. It implies that the model is quick in reflecting this rapid change, and
it is a clear evidence of the capability of the model.
The wave period match, for both buoy and model, is very good for all locations (Fig. 6).
Comparison of SWHs from model and TOPEX for the entire model domain for MayAugust
2000 is shown in Fig. 5. The mean wave direction between model and buoy for all locations
shows good comparison (Fig. 7).
Wave heights, in general, are higher in the Arabian Sea than the Bay of Bengal during June to
August, but nearly the same in May. This is a peculiar phenomenon of wave characteristics
during summer monsoon. Wave characteristics in the north Indian Ocean for a monsoon
season (June) during a typical low preassure area over west central India, is presented in Fig.
8.
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
The NCEP re-analysis winds have been compared with the data of deepwater buoys off Goa,
Kochi, and Chennai to ascertain the accuracy of NCEP winds and it is evident that NCEP
winds match closely with buoy winds, though at times they are marginally higher than the
buoy winds. Altimeter winds/ waves could be used with confidence for validation in place of
measurements. Comparison of model, altimeter and buoy wave parameters confirms that
they agree with one another very closely. The study suggests that wave modeling can be used
as an authentic tool for any practical application, especially, whenever measurements are not
possible.
We acknowledge the Physical Oceanography Distributed Active Archive Center (PO.DAAC)

at the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, CA, USA for the TOPEX downloaded from
http://podaac.jpl.nasa.gov/ and NCEP/NCAR data downloaded from ftp://ftp.cdc.noaa.gov/
188
Datasets/ncep.reanalysis/surface. We also used buoy data made available by NIOT (National
Institute of Ocean Techonology), Chnennai.
REFERENCES
WAMDI Group (1988), The WAM model - a third generation ocean wave prediction model, J. Phys. Oceanogr.
18, pp. 1775-1810.
Vethamony, P., Rao, L.V.G., Raj Kumar, Abhijit Sarkar, Mohan, M., Sudheesh, K., and Karthikeyan, S.B., (2000),
Wave climatology of the Indian Ocean Ocean derived from altimetry and wave model, Proc. PORSEC, Vol
II: 301-304, Goa, India, 5-8, Dec 2000.
PO.DAAC, (2001) Information on TOPEX wind and wave data obtained from http://podaac.jpl.nasa.gov main-
tained by the NASA Physical Oceanography Distributed Active Archive Center (PO.DAAC), at the NASA Jet
Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, CA, USA.
Greenslade, D.J.M., (2000) The assimilation of ERS-2 significant wave height data in the Australian region, J.
of Marine Systems pp. 141-160
Khandekar, M.L., 1989, Operational analysis and prediction of ocean wind waves, Springer Verlag, New York,
214 pp.
Kalney, E., Kanamitsu, M., Kistler, R., Collins, W., Deaven, D., Gandin, L., Iredell, M., Saha, S., White, G., Woollen,
J., Zhu, Y., Chelliah, M., Ebisuzaki, W., Higgins, W., Janowiak, J., Mo, K.C., Ropelewski, C., Wang, J.,
Leetmma, A., Reynolds, R., Jenne, R., and Joseph, D., (1996), The NCEP/NCAR reanalysis project, Bull.
Am. Meteorol. Soc., 77, 437- 471.
Tolman, H.L., (1998), Validation of NCEPs ocean winds for the use in wind wave models, Global Atmos. Oc.
System, Vol. 6, pp. 243-268.
Indian Daily Weather Report (IDWR), (2000), Indian Meterological Department, Pune, India.
APPENDIX -1
The bias, rms error and scatter index are computed following Greenslade (2001).
∑ (h )
N
bias = 1 i
− hob
i
mo
N i =1
∑ (h )
N 2
1
rms =
i
mo −h i
ob
N i =1
where hmo is modeled SWH, hob is buoy SWH and N is the number of observations.The scatter
index (SI) for SWH is defined as the ratio of standard deviation of error to the mean observed SWH,
and is given by:
( )
2
1 N i i
∑ hmo − hob − bias
N i =1
SI =
1 N i
∑h
N i =1 ob
The statistical analysis of SWH and wave period are given in Table 1 and 2.
189
Table 1. Statistical analysis of buoy and model SWHs (May August 2000).
Buoy Position
RMS Correlation
Coefficient.(g)
Buoy ID Lat ( N) Long Bias Scatter Index
error
( E)
Off Goa (DS1) 15° 30’ 69° 17’ 0.985 1.096 0.173 0.924
Off Kochi (DS2) 10° 37’ 72° 30’ 0.888 1.013 0.229 0.923
Off Chennai (DS3) 12° 30’ 87° 30’ 0.242 0.533 0.205 0.784
NCEP [m/s]
Buoy [m/s]
Wind speed (m/s)
20
10
0
May June July August
2000 2000 (a)
2000 2000
Model [m/s]
DS2-Wind Speed [m/s]
Wind speed (m/s)
20
10
0
2000 2000 2000 2000
(b)
P(51.00,23.00): Magnitude [m/s]
DS2-Wind Speed [m/s]
Wind speed (m/s)
20
10
0
2000 2000 2000 2000
(c)
Fig. 1. Comparison between NCEP/NCAR and buoy wind speeds: (a) off Goa, (b) off Kochi and (c) off
Chennai.
15
TOPEX wind speed (m/s)
12
0 3 6 9 12 15
Buoy Wind speed (m/s)
Fig. 2. Comparison between buoy and altimeter wind speeds.
190
Model [m]
SWH (m) Buoy [m]
5.0
0.0
2000 2000 2000 2000
(a)
P(29.00,20.00): Hm0 [m] [m]
DS2-SWH [m]
SWH (m)
5.0
0.0
2000 2000 2000 2000
(b)
P(51.00,23.00): Hm0 [m] [m]
DS3-SWH [m]
SWH (m)
5.0
0.0
2000 2000 2000 2000
Fig. 3. Comparison between model and buoy significant wave heights:

(a) off Goa, (b) off Kochi and (c) off Chennai.
4 10
8
3
TOPEX SWH (m)
TOPEX SWH(m)
6
2
4
1
2
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 2 4 6 8 10
Buoy SWH(m) Model SWH (m)
Fig. 4. Comparison of SWHs between buoy Fig. 5. Comparison of SWHs between TOPEX
and TOPEX altimeter. and model.
Model [sec]
Buoy [sec]
wave period (s)
15
10
5
(a)
2000 2000 2000 2000
P(29.00,20.00): T01 [s] [sec]
DS2-Tm02 [sec]
wave period (s)
15
10
5
2000 2000 2000 2000
P(51.00,23.00): T01 [s] [sec] (b)
DS3-Tm02 [sec]
wave period (s)
15
10
5
2000 2000 2000 2000
(c)
Fig. 6. Comparison between model and buoy wave periods:
191
Model [deg]
[rad]
Buoy [rad]
[deg]
300
MWD (deg)
200

2000 2000 2000 2000
(a)
P(29.00,20.00): MWD [deg] [rad]
DS2-Mdir [rad]
300
MWD (deg)
200

2000 2000 2000 2000
(b)
P(51.00,23.00): MWD [deg] [rad]
DS3-Mdir [rad]
300
MWD (deg)
200

2000 2000 2000 2000
(c)
Fig. 7. Comparison between model and buoy mean wave directions:

Fig. 8. Typical wave Characteristics in the north Indian Ocean during a low pressure on 6 June 2000
(1700 hrs).
192
A MODEL FOR SHORELINE MANAGEMENT

M.V. Ramanamurthy, M.S.Bhat* and B. R.Subramanian
ICMAM-PD, DOD, Chennai 601302
Abstract
Coastline has been a focus for a variety of activities including industry, recreation and fisher-
ies. These national economic assets have developed and flourished despite constant changes
in the physical characteristics of the coast, sometimes lead, often unintentionally, to adverse
effects on both adjoining and distant stretches of coastline. For example, the construction of
Madras Port in 1876, was the prime cause of shoreline changes along the adjoining coast. It
is estimated that an area of 260 ha of land has been lost between 1893 and 1955 and that an
area of 30 ha of land between 1980 and 1989. Overall loss between 1893 and 1989 has been
estimated to be in the order of 350 ha. The cost of the land alone lost to the sea is of the order
of 40 million USD. The work carried out by ICMAM-PD (2003), along this stretch of the coast
clearly indicated a need for a well-defined plan that seek to treat the shoreline and the defence
requirements in a more integrated, sustainable and strategic manner. Here we highlight the
impacts of Madras harbour development on the adjoining coast and effectiveness of short term
mitigation measures planned and executed by the government agencies to protect the fragile
coastline of Chennai (Madras). This paper describes a simple and a very useful model that
illustrates various steps to be followed while adopting a plan for Shoreline Management, par-
ticularly for coastal defence.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Finding environment friendly solutions that are compatible with ever-changing needs of the
society is a major challenge in coastal zone management today. Political, social and techni-
cal issues must be considered, and possible solutions must balance the likely positive and
negative impacts. For centuries, the coastline has been a focus for a variety of activities
including industry, agriculture, recreation and fisheries. These national economic assets have
been developed and flourished despite constant changes in the physical characteristics of the
coast. The coastline is a national heritage and in order to sustain it for future generations,
proper management of coastal defence is essential. Coastal defence means protecting the
coastline from erosion by the sea and defending low lying ground from flooding by the sea.
Traditionally, coast and flood protection works have been implemented in a piecemeal fashion,
either in response to a recognized threat to an existing village or town, or as part of a new
development scheme. The authorities responsible for coastal defence and flood protection
*Corresponding author, e-mail: drmanjubhat@rediffmail.com
193
tend to look at the issue within their own boundaries. The measures taken in response to a
problem, sometimes lead, often unintentionally, to adverse effects on both adjoining and dis-
tant stretches of coastline.
Therefore, there is need for a well-defined plan that seek to treat the shoreline and the defence
requirements in a more integrated, sustainable and strategic manner. The policy adopted
should ensure adequate protection against flooding and erosion in a manner that is techni-
cally, environmentally and economically acceptable, both at the time any associated mea-
sures are implemented, and in the future.
In this paper we highlight the effects of Madras harbour development on the adjoining coast
and effectiveness of short term mitigation measures planned and executed by the government
agencies to protect the fragile coastline of Chennai (Madras). The work carried out by ICMAM-
PD (2003), along this stretch of the coast clearly indicated need for a well-defined plan that
seek to treat the shoreline and the defence requirements in a more integrated, sustainable
and strategic manner. Although it is preferable to opt for a geomorphological or ecological
solution for coastal conservation (Carter, 1988), the Chennai coast has been taken up as a
case study where the need for a well defined management plan can be emphasized.
Therefore, an attempt is made to develop a simple and a very useful model that illustrates
various steps to be followed while adopting a plan for Shoreline Management, particularly for
coastal defence based on the experience gained by chennai shoreline changes.
2.0 COASTAL EROSION AT CHENNAI AND REMEDIAL MEASURES
The coast under focus, is 11 km in length extending from fishing harbour to Ennore creek (Fig.
1). This coastal stretch is under enormous stress due to an increased industrial growth com-
bined with harbour facilities resulted changes in coastal dynamics. The rate of sediment
transport (Chandramohan et al., 1990) is towards the north from March to October and
towards the south from November to February. The net drift towards north is in the order of 0.3
x 106 m3 per year.
Ever since the Chennai harbour was constructed, the coast north of the harbour has been
experiencing erosion at the rate of about 8 meters per year. It is estimated that 500 meters of
beach has been lost between 1876 and 1975 and another 200 meters between 1978 and 1995
(Ramaiyan et al., 1997). History reveals that in the year 1876 a jetty projecting into the sea
was constructed at Chennai for unloading of the cargo. Later, breakwaters were constructed
on either side of the jetty (with the harbour entrance located on the eastern side), to protect
the facility from wave disturbance, without realizing the effect of east entrance on tranquility in
the harbour basin. Subsequently, the entrance to the harbour was shifted to the north and the
harbour expanded further parallel to the coast for operational reasons. Schematic diagram
(Fig. 1) shows the present day configuration of the Chennai port and the growth of the beach
194
on the southern side over the years. Marina Beach has been formed as a result of arresting
the littoral drift by the breakwater. The north Chennai coast, extending from the fisheries
harbour is fragile and is very sensitive for change in the environmental conditions. One of the
main reasons for this delicate response of the coastal stretch is the disruption in sediment
supply induced by the Chennai port causing extensive erosion over the years. This has been
aggravated by the rough sea conditions during the northeast monsoon. Wave overtopping and
undermining of the coast due to unprecedented wave actually have caused substantial dam-
age to the coastal region. The consequences of the construction of Chennai port and Fishing
harbour on the North Chennai coast are detailed below.
Fig. 1. Present day configuration of Chennai coast.

The shoreline has recessed by about 1000 m with respect to the original shoreline in 1876.
The villages, hutment and the Royapuram-Ennore express highway connecting the Manali
Refineries and Thermal Power Station to Chennai are subjected to sea erosion during both
Southwest and Northeast monsoons every year. The erosion in the coast which became very
pronounced, affected the coastline up to the 13/150 km stone near Bharathi Nagar and neces-
sitated constant attention and protective works in response to the cry of the fishermen living in
this stretch.
In order to protect the coastline, the State authorities resorted to construction of short-term
protective structures (Anon,1989). They have recommended the use of sand dredged at Chennai
port to nourish North Chennai-Royapuram as a long-term measure and construction of rubble
mound stone wall and groyns as short-term measures. Part of this protected coastal stretch
experiences undermining of the seabed due to large-scale wave action. The erosion along this
coast has reached an alarming stage requiring immediate attention (Kalisundram et al., 1991).
It is estimated that an area of 260 hectares of land was lost between the years 1893 and 1955
and that an area of about 30 hectares was destroyed by the wave action between the years
1980 and 1989. Overall loss between the period 1893 and 1989 is estimated to be of the order
195
of 350 hectares. The cost of land alone, lost to the sea, is of the order of approx. Rs. 200 crore
(US$ 40 million). During and after 1990 this stretch of coastline was threatened by severe
waves and the authorities resorted to new techniques involving erection of concrete pipes to
protect the shoreline. However, this did not provide much of remedy and about 50 m wide
beach must have been lost after 1990. Devastating effects due to the wave overtopping and
severe erosion led to the destruction of the coastal highway and compulsory rehabilitation of
fishermen (about 200 families) to safer places. The shoreline receded by about 100 m be-
tween 1978 and 1995. The highway running at the edge of this weak coastline faces the
following natural and man-made threats:
a) Large size waves continue to attack the seaside slope of the road resulting in (i) severe
wave overtopping and (ii) damage to the highway. Slow disintegration of the bitumen surface
of the highway allows seawater to seep through, a sure sign of the decay of the highway.
b) This highly sensitive road also experiences heavy vehicular movement (especially trucks
laden with containers) due to the mushrooming regional container depots in the recent years.
Though the short-term measures taken up by authorities gave temporary solution to the vil-
lages in protected areas, the problem is not resolved completely. Due to the construction of
stone wall (Fig. 2), the natural beach available is lost and the downdrift villages, north of
protected areas started experiencing erosion. The village Chinnakuppam near Ennore flyash
outfall is experiencing severe erosion.
Fig. 2. Seawall along Rayapuram Highway.
The figures of dredging quantities provided by the Dredging Corporation of India indicate a
variation between 0.27 million m3 and 1.10 m3. It has been reported that the annual mainte-
nance dredging at Chennai port is in the order of 0.5 million m3. This dredged material is being
196
dumped to the east of harbour, as dredgers are unable to reach nearer to the shore due to
shallow draft. Hence, the foremost requirement at this juncture is the coordination between
the Port Trust and the State Department officials in the ocean development activities, which
otherwise will aggravate the erosion in this portion.
The short-term protection to the coastline by dumping stones is found to be ineffective for the
reasons that (i) the nearshore coastal processes in the region are not clearly understood, (ii)
inadequate funds usually restrict the required quantity of rubble for the protection and mainte-
nance, which make remedial measures as ineffective and (iii) lack of continuous monitoring
(Mani, 2001).
The above case study, clearly stressed the need for a shoreline comprehensive plan to man-
age the multiple resources and uses of shorelines in a manner that is consistent with require-
ment and purposes and addresses the needs of the public. The management plan should
ensure a balance that supports local economic interest, protect environmental resources and
allows the public to enjoy those resources and all these are vital for the long-term success of
a Shoreline Management Plan (SMP).
3.0 APPROACH FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF SMP
3.1. Promoters of SMP and pre-plan activities

Shoreline Management Plans are promoted by State Public Works Department, Coastal En-
gineering groups involving user groups from various sectors such as ports, fishing harbors,
irrigation departments and research institutes. Promoters need a detailed understanding of
on the ground problems and needs in the coastal zone, best understanding of constraints
and limitations, support of user group and local communities. The objectives of promoters are
to improve their understanding of coastal processes; work in partnership with all interested
organizations and the public; prepare a setting for the long term planning of coastal defences
and associated land use. Therefore, a good beginning of pre-plan activities should start with
gathering of information (Fig 3), identifying gaps in knowledge and consultation with a wide
range of interested parties and these are considered as fundamental elements to plan prepa-
ration. This approach provides opportunities for consultees and members of the public to
become involved in plan preparation and broaden the ownership of the plan.
Involvement of public must be approached in a thoughtful and meaningful manner. Promoters

initiative often involve the public only as recipients of information after the fact, or consultation
about decisions that have already been taken. If SMP initiatives are to be successful, they
must be based on a joint planning and management arrangement that involves local interest at
all stages of SMP process from conceptual development through implementation and pro-
gram evaluation.
197
3.2 Identifying the shoreline
Based on the knowledge gained from pre-plan activities, the next step is to determine the
appropriate position of the shoreline, define which parts should be defended against erosion
and flooding. For this purpose the shoreline has to be divided into major sediment cells/
management units and the identification of the boundaries of these major sediment cells
should be based on natural coastal process behavior. These cells/management units can be
sub-divided for the purpose of coastal defence management into Sediment Sub-Cells. Sedi-
ment sub-cells are discrete lengths of shoreline bounded by either headlands or estuaries and
define the limits of each Shoreline Management Plan. This system of shoreline zoning pro-
vides a basis for encouraging uses that will protect and enhance the character of distinctly
different shoreline areas and for uniformly applying policies and use requirements within those
areas. Boundaries are established for each environment designation and policies and regula-
tions prepared specific to that environment.
Shoreline Management
Identifying Promoter
Issues
Information Gaps Preplan Activities Defining boundaries
Identifying other Littoral cell/sub cell
entities or stake
holders, Public
interaction Identifying the shoreline
Analysing present status Field investigation
Policy options
Protection Do nothing Retreat Accommodate
Hard solution Soft solution Mixed solution
Sea Walls Beach Hard + Soft

Breakwaters Nourishment
Revetments
Jetties
Groyns
Sills
Predicting future change
Draft Plan Review
Training Plan
implementation
Feed back & up Post monitoring

updating of plan
Fig. 3. A simple model describing various steps to be followed for Shoreline Management.
198
3.3 Assessment of present status of shoreline
Once the shoreline boundaries are defined, now it is time for the field investigation. The aim of
the investigation is to analyse the present status of the system in terms of coastal morphol-
ogy, nearshore environmental conditions and natural processes, sediment characters etc.
This will directly contribute to the goal of adopting sustainable policies for coastal defence. It
also enables Managing Authorities to be informed about the general health and therefore the
vulnerability of each section of shoreline by measuring changes in trend behavior. This in-
formed approach to coastal management will reduce the risk of surprises and costly failures
during storm events and will enable a more cost-effective system that identifies emerging
problems.
It is required perhaps more to interpret the gathered data in terms of specific management
questions and this would improve the effectiveness of monitoring programs over long-term.
Monitoring the natural coastal processes is the very important step in policy analysis. The
results obtained from measurements of waves, tides, currents and sediment transport in-
crease the understanding of physical processes and are the input for mathematical models
enlarging the capability of prediction of coastal sequential developments (Stive, et al., 1990).
3.4 Policy options

After having a complete idea about the present status of the system, the strategies or policy
options for consideration at management unit level can be worked out. The options are broadly
divided into four categories as listed below:
1) Do nothing.
2) Retreat: Abandonment of land and structures in vulnerable areas and resettlements of

inhabitants.
3) Accommodate : Continued occupancy and use of vulnerable areas.
4) Protection: Defence of vulnerable areas, population centers, economic activities and

natural resources.
Among the four listed options, first three options are policy oriented and they can be adopted
through regulatory measures. Hence, they are not dealt in this paper. The fourth option has
been widely applied in developed countries and it requires planning and technical know-how.
3.4.1 Protection
Protection, a strategy, involves defensive measures and other actions to protect the areas
against inundation, tidal flooding, effects of waves on infrastructure, shore erosion, salinity
199
intrusion and loss of natural resources. The measures may be drawn from an array of Hard
and Soft solutions. They can be applied alone or in combination (mixed solution), depending
on the specific conditions of the site. There is no single or generic best solution, as each
situation must be evaluated and treated on its merits.
3.4.2 Hard Solutions
Hard solutions, i.e., control structures can be categorized generally in three groups (Sorenson,
1997). (A) Structures that are attached and are perpendicular to the shoreline, like groyns
and jetties; (B) structures that are parallel to the shoreline and are offset seaward from the
shore like breakwater and sills; (C) structures that are parallel to the shoreline and located on
the visible beach like seawalls, revetments and bulkheads.
It is imperative that a complete analysis be conducted whenever hard shoreline structures are
to be used. Some coastal structures, including groyns, breakwaters and sills, can have a
positive effect on the performance and others like seawalls, revetments, and bulkhead do little
to improve their performance. In fact, when these latter structures are exposed to wave condi-
tions, they often have a negative influence on the adjacent locations even while they serve
their designed purpose. The shore-perpendicular and the shore-parallel offshore structures,
primarily groyns and breakwaters, can appreciably affect the sediment budget and the adja-
cent shorelines. They may be quite effective in controlling certain causes of hot spots.
3.4.3 Soft solutions

Prior to the development of our present understanding of coastal processes, stabilization
structures in the form of groyns were the preferred approach to controlling beach erosion.
However, since groyns function by trapping sand within the littoral system, they may have an
associated adverse effect on the downdrift shoreline. The recognition of this effect was the
impetus for the gradual evolution of beach erosion control toward nourishment. Thus, beach
nourishment (a soft measure) is currently the preferred alternative. However, this option re-
quires regular monitoring and maintaining the life of the beach fill area. One approach to
extending the life of beach nourishment projects is through the use of stabilization structures
(mixed solutions). The effects of structures may be used to beneficially influence a beach
nourishment project by modifying the forces that cause rapid or accelerated losses from the
beach and thus increase overall project performance. For example, structures can be used
with beach nourishment in certain locations to slow the background erosion rate. Stabilization
structures used to prolong the life of a beach nourishment project can be effective in reducing
sand losses from a segment of shoreline and thereby used to control erosion hot spots.
200
3.5 Prediction of future changes
Once the suitable strategy or possible policy option is taken, it has to be tested for the
possible impacts in due course of time using available models. Models that show the effect of
the shoreline structures on coastal processes like waves and currents are the best tools for
predicting the effects of the structures on beach nourishment projects. Models can be used to
estimate the losses from the beach with and without the structures and thus the effect of
structures on the sediment budget. Visits to other sites where structures are used with nour-
ishment in a similar setting can also prove to be helpful.
Two types of models are commonly used to study the effects of shoreline structures:
· Numerical models
· Physical models
Numerical models are used to simulate cross-shore and long shore transport also. Physical
models are constructed in a laboratory setting at scale that is much less than that of the
actual site, but are still very helpful. The laboratory model will typically have a contoured bed
to match the site, waves and sediments. The sediments are difficult to scale and therefore are
the weakest link in providing quantitative information about the effect of the structures on the
performance of the beach fill. Nevertheless, the qualitative information provided from physical
models can prove very useful.
3.6 Draft plan and final plan implementation

Draft plan should be placed in a meeting for the review purpose where groups representing
different interests debate technical and scientific information. It should consider the following
aspects:
(i) Ensuring and facilitating inter-sectoral consultation and public participation.
(ii) Improving planning and decision making by predicting impacts on bio-physical, socio-
economic environments and ensuring that the environmental concerns are considered along
with economic, financial and technological concerns in decision making.
(iii) Providing the means for information necessary for the reliable prediction of impacts.
(iv) Ensuring integrated approaches for assessing, evaluating and implementing SMP.
3.7 Implementation, training and post monitoring

Once the final plan is implemented, regular monitoring on coastal morphology, nearshore
environmental conditions, littoral drift, sediment characters etc., should be continued so that
201
the data collected can be used for predicting future changes and updating of SMP. Trained
manpower or training on monitoring packages, survey techniques is an essential part of the
requirement.
4.0 APPLICATION OF SMP TO COASTAL EROSION PROBLEM AT

CHENNAI
The reasons for the failure of strategies adopted for the coastal protection at Chennai were
detailed in Section 2.0. This case study clearly demonstrates the need of a comprehensive
shoreline management model to address various issues along the coastal stretch. The model
developed is applied to Chennai coast where the geographical boundaries are confined be-
tween Cooum inlet at south of port and Ennore creek on the north of the port. The predicted
behavior of the shoreline under the prevailing wave climate without any intervention is shown in
Fig. 4. The erosion will extend up to a width of 200 m and the coast attains dynamic equilib-
rium, thereby bypasses the sediments to the north/downdrift. This process has already been
initiated which can be seen in Fig.1.
The proposed hard measure/mixed solution (Fig. 5) such as groyns or conservation schemes
should cover the entire littoral cell between Ennore creek and Cooum inlet so that the cross
impact of the measure taken can be minimised. Similarly, siltation at Cooum and Ennore
creek can be minimised by providing training jetties. The material dredged from the Chennai
port should be disposed near the coast so that the further erosion can be abated.
Fig. 4. Predicted shoreline without intervention.
202
Fig. 5. Suggested groyne fields between Ennore creek and fisheries harbour (Delft Hydraulics, 1995).
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
The procedure for preparing, producing and monitoring of SMP is a continuous process.
SMPs are the strategic tools by which long term policies for the shoreline and the wider
coastal defence zone are appraised and options set out. The links with the planning system
are equally vital to the follow up coastal defence strategy plan. The success of SMP depends
above all on the correct analysis of the causes of coastal change, the realistic assessment of
its socio-economic consequences and on the relevance of the chosen remedial and control
measures. It is concluded that the conceptual model developed here would help Coastal
Engineers and Decision-Makers to arrive at efficient Shoreline Management Plan for the pro-
tection of coast.
REFERENCES
ICMAM-PD, (2003). Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management Plan for Chennai. A report by ICMAM-PD,
DOD. Govt.of India.
Carter, R.W.G,. (1988). Coastal environments - An introduction to the physical, ecological and cultural systems
of the coastline. Academic Press, New York. NY.
Chandramohan, P., Nayak, B.U., and Raju, V.S,. (1990). Longshore sediment model for south Indian and Sri
Lankan coasts. ASCE JI. Waterway Port Coastal Ocean Eng. 116: 408-424.
Ramaiyan, M., Krishna, E. and Suresh, P.K,. (1997). Shoreline oscillations of Tamilnadu coast. 2nd Indian National
Conference on Harbour and Ocean Engineering, pp 1176-1181. CES, Trivandrum.
Anon., (1989). Model studies for permanent remedial measures against sea erosion in north Madras coast.
Report. Inst. of Hydraulics and Hydrology, Poondi.
Kalisundaran,G., Govindasamy, S. and Ganesan, R., (1991). Coastal erosion and accretion, 25. Ocean Data
Centre, Anna Univ. Madras.
203
Mani, J.S., (2001). A coastal conservation programme for the Chennai seashore, India - A case study. Journal
of Coastal Conservation. 7: 23-30.
Stive, M.J.F., RoElvink, J.A., DeVriend, H.J., (1990). Large scale coastal evolution concept. Paper #9 in The
Dutch Coast, report of a session on the 22nd International Conference on Coastal Engineering.
Sorenson, Robert M,. (1997). Basic Coastal Engineering. Chapman and Hall. New York.
Delft Hydraulics, (1995). Supplementary note on coastal protection measure for Ennore Coal port project.
204
RELIABILITY OF STIFFENED CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

*P. Radha and K. Rajagopalan
Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Madras, Chennai 600 036.
Abstract
Reliability analysis is needed for accounting both the qualitative and quantitative sources of
uncertainties, which occur in the design of important structures. As such uncertainties can
not be directly observed for anyone particular structure, there is a much greater level of ab-
straction and conceptualisation in reliability analysis than is conventionally the case for struc-
tural analysis or design. The stiffened cylindrical shell structures, which are commonly used
in ocean engineering field, can fail through instability in many ways such as inter stiffener
buckling, stiffener buckling, and overall buckling. All these modes of failures involve uncertain-
ties and the combinations of these in probabilistic terms can become quite complex. Hence
there is a desideratum for investigating the probabilities of various collapse modes. Monte-
Carlo Simulation (MCS) technique can be used for this purpose. In this paper, the probabilities
of occurrence of various collapse modes have been evaluated using MCS method. Then the
total probability of failure is evaluated by incorporating these probabilities in the summation of
the probability of different failure modes. A typical submarine pressure hull has been analysed
using this method.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The primary importance of a structural engineering system design is to ensure the satisfac-
tory performance of the system. But the absolute safety of system can not be guaranteed due
to uncertainties involved. This includes phenomenological uncertainty, decision uncertainty,
modelling uncertainty, prediction uncertainty, statistical uncertainty and uncertainty due to
human factors (Melchers, 1987). Hence the reliability analysis has been introduced to reduce
the risk of failure of structural system to an acceptable level. The reliability of stiffened cylindri-
cal shell structures can be determined through the failure probability estimation of structure.
The common methods used for structural reliability assessment are First-Order Second-Mo-
ment (FOSM) method, Advanced FOSM (AFOSM) method, etc., and these require the evalu-
ation of derivatives of the failure equation, which is difficult in complex situations. Another
popular method is Monte-Carlo Simulation (MCS) technique. It consists of obtaining cumula-
tive distribution functions for each and every random variable and simulating the ultimate
strength of stiffened shells for combinations of random variable values. It uses randomly gen-
erated samples of the input variables for each deterministic analysis, and estimates reliability
after numerous repetitions of the deterministic analysis (Harr, 1987). In this paper, MCS is
*Corresponding author, e-mail: toradhanair@rediffmail.com

used to evaluate the probability of occurrence of various collapse modes, which is then used
to find out the total probability of failure of the structure. For rapid estimation of reliability of
complex systems using this method a computer program is needed.
2.0 STRUCTURAL RELIABILITY CONCEPTS
In reliability analysis, the random variables occur in modelling loads (S) and resistances (R).
Their randomness is characterized by means, µ S and µ R ; standard deviations, σ S and
σ R ; and corresponding probability density functions, f (s) and f (r ) , as shown in Fig.
S R
1. (Haldar, et al., 2000).
Fig. 1. Fundamentals of Probability of failure.
The probability of failure, p f is given by

∞
p f = ∫ FR ( s ) f S ( s ) ds (1)
0
where FR (s ) is the Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) of R evaluated at s.

The mean and variance of the performance function Y evaluated as
N
1
mean value, Y =
N
∑y
i =1
i
(2)
variance, σY 2 =
1 N
∑ (yi − Y )2 (3)
N −1 i =1
206
where yi is the value of performance function for each set of variables.
The reliability index ß is calculated by

Y
β = (4)
σY
The probability of failure is given by
p f = φ (− β ) (5)
where φ is the cumulative standard normal distribution function.
For different failure modes of a structure, the total probability of failure can be determined by
taking the union of probabilities of all failure modes. Usually for this type of analysis the events
are assumed to be mutually exclusive. But for some structures, depending on the uncertain-
ties involved in variables, the probability of failure in different modes will come closer. For such
cases the assumption of the mutually exclusive events is not become valid. Hence for such
structures the Poincares formula must be used for the analysis. The generalized form of
Poincares formula for the non-mutually exclusive events is given by Ranganathan (1999) as
(
P A1 ∪ A2 ∪ / / ∪ An ) ( )
n n j −1
( )n j −1 k −1
(
= ∑ P A1 − ∑ ∑ P Ai ∩ A j + ∑ ∑ ∑ P Ai ∩ A j ∩ Ak
i =1 j =2 i =1 j =3 k =2 i =1
)
−/ / ( )n+1 P (A1 ∩ A2 ∩ / / ∩ An )
+ −1 (6)
This can be further reduced for independent events from the equation
P (A ∩ B ) = P(A) ⋅ P(B ) (7)
3.0 RELIABILITY OF STIFFENED CYLINDRICAL SHELLS
Stiffened cylindrical shell structures are widely used in ocean engineering field in the form of
submersibles, submarine pressure hulls, storage tanks in ports and harbours, legs of offshore
platforms, etc. Several attempts have been done to use reliability concepts in stiffened cylin-
drical shell. Das et. al., (2003) described on buckling and ultimate strength assessment of
ring stiffened shells and ring and stringer stiffened shells involving various modes of buckling
under various loading for reliability analysis. Das et. al., (2001) have been put an effort to
establish a set of design equations for buckling strength assessment of ring and stringer
stiffened shells related to marine structures such as TLPs and Spars. Frieze (1991) described
207
the basic requirements for physical modelling, probabilistic modelling and reliability evalua-
tion. The methods for the analysis of submarine structures up to the point of collapse has
been discussed by Kendrick (1986). White et. al., (1987) described the reliability based de-
sign format for marine structures and proposed the reliability-conditioned method. Applica-
tion of reliability theory in submarine design has been discussed by Faulkner (1991). For
submarine pressure hull design, the reliability approach, which requires all independent col-
lapse modes to be summed, has also been proposed. This summation concept has been
modified in this paper by including the probabilities of occurrence of the intersection of differ-
ent failure modes.
4.0 EXAMPLE: SUBMARINE PRESSURE HULL
In this paper, internally ring stiffened pressure hull has been considered for illustrating the
proposed method. The operating depth of submarine considered is 200 m and hence the
external pressure ( p ) acting on it is 2 MPa. The distance between the bulkheads is taken as
21m. The arrangement of internal ring stiffeners used in a submarine pressure hull is shown in
Fig.2.
Fig. 2. Pressure hull with internal ring stiffeners.

The shell and stiffener geometry considered here is given in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3. Shell and Stiffener geometry.
The failure modes considered here are inter stiffener buckling, stiffener buckling and overall
buckling and their corresponding collapse pressures are given by Ross (1990) as
208
( )
2.42 E t 52
) [( ) ( ) ]
2a
p isb =
(1 − υ 2 0.75 b
2a
− 0.447 t
2a
12
(8)
where E = Youngs modulus.

t = wall thickness of circular cylinder.
a = mean radius of circular cylindrical shell.
υ = Poissons ratio.
b = Spacing of stiffener.
The stiffener buckling pressure is given by

25 E I xx
p rc =
3 (9)
Df b
Where I xx = Moment of inertia of combined section.
D f = Diameter of ring at its neutral axis

 t
= 2  R − Ys − 
 2
Ys = Centroid of stiffener.
The collapse pressure due to overall buckling is given by
pob =
m2 E t
+
(
E I xx n 2 − 1 )
 m  2
R 3 L′
R  n 2 − 1 +  (10)
 2 
where m = 1, 2, , n.
n = Number of circumferential waves.
The variables considered here are E , t , p and b , and the reliability problem is formulated
is
Z = pcr − p (11)
where p cr is the collapse pressures considered.

The mean values of t , E and b are taken as 25 mm, 200 GPa and 762 mm respectively, and
υ = 0.25.
A 5% variation in E , 10% variation in t and 2% deviation in b are considered. Hence E

values will change from 190 GPa to 210 GPa, t will be from 22.5 mm to 27.5 mm and that of
b will be from 746.76 mm to 777.24 mm. The number of samples required for each variable
209
has been taken as 1000 for illustration. It is assumed that all the variables have a continuous
uniform distribution.
By using MCS method, the collapse pressures for different failure modes for each set of
variables is calculated. Using Eqn (2) and (3), mean and variances for each collapse modes is
calculated and by substituting it in Eqn (4) to get the reliability index for different failure
modes. The Eqn (5) is used to get the probability of failure due to different collapse modes.
Then the total probability of failure can be obtained by using the equation
∑ x1 ∑ x2 ∑ x3
pf = pf + pf + pf − p f * p f *w f −
1 N 2 N 3 N 1 2 1
pf * p f *w f − p f * p f *w f (12)
2 3 2 3 1 3
where p f 1 , p f 2 , p f 3 are the probabilities of failure by inter stiffener buckling, stiffener
buckling and overall buckling respectively.
∑x ,∑x ,∑ x
1 2 3 are the total number of occurrence of inter stiffener buckling,
stiffener buckling and overall buckling respectively.
N is the total number of samples considered.
w f 1 , w f 2 , w f 3 are the weight factors considered.
The reliability of system is given by
R = 1− pf (13)
The results obtained for the particular problem considered are given in Table 1.
Table. 1. Results for the problem considered
Collapse pressure
Failure mode Reliability Probability of failure
Mean Variance
2
Index β
(MPa) (MPa)
Inter stiffener 4.576333 1.059861 4.44522 p f = 0.42935E-05
buckling 1
Stiffener buckling 2.834658 0.044698 13.40777 pf = 0.1998E-22
2
Overall buckling 11.71089 0.113994 34.68556 pf ≈0
3
For the particular shell dimensions and random variables assumed, 11 values of p f 1 and
p f 2 became closer. ∑
x 2 and ∑
x3 are obtained as zero.
Hence the total probability,
210
+ 0.1998E- 22* (0) + 0 * (0) − 0.42935E- 05*0.1998E- 22*
989 11
p f = 0.42935E- 05 *
1000 1000
= 4.2462715E-06
The reliability of the structure by assuming the random variables are uncorrelated turns out to
be 0.9999957.
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, a method to calculate the total probability of structure, when the different col-
lapse modes come closer, is proposed. This is achieved by modifying the common summa-
tion concept of probability. The total number of occurrence of different collapse modes is
calculated by using MCS technique; which is robust, simple to use and generally faster than
full probabilistic approaches; and is incorporated in the evaluation of total probability of failure.
This method has been efficiently employed using a computer code written for the purpose.
REFERENCES
Melchers, R. E., 1987, Structural Reliability Analysis and Prediction, John Wiley & Sons, INC.
Harr, M. E., 1987, Reliability Based Design in Civil engineering, McGraw-Hill Book company.
Haldar, A., Mahadevan, S., 2000, Reliability Assessment using Stochastic Finite Element Analysis, John Wiley &
Sons, INC.
Ranganathan, R., 1999, Structural Reliability and Design, Jaico Publishing House.
Das, P. K., Thavalingam, A., Bai, Y., 2003, Buckling and ultimate strength criteria of stiffened shells under
combined loading for reliability analysis, Thin-Walled Structures, Vol.41, 69-88.
Das, P. K., Thavalingam, A., Hauch, S., Bai, Y., 2001, A new look into the buckling and ultimate strength criteria
of stiffened shells for reliability analysis, Proceedings of 20th International Conference on Offshore
Mechanics and Artic Engineering.
Frieze, P., 1991, Reliability Analysis in Theory and Practice, Advances in Marine Structures, vol II, ed C.S. Smith
and J.D. Clarke, Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, 596-605.
Kendrick. S. B., 1986, Design of submarine structures, Advances in Marine Structures, vol I, ed C.S. Smith and
J.D. Clarke, Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, 411-434.
White, G, J., Ayyub, B. M., 1987, Reliability Based Design Format for Marine Structures, Journal of Ship-
research, vol. 31, 60-69.
Faulkner, D., 1991, Application of Reliability Theory in Submarine Design, Advances in Marine Structures,
ed C.S. Smith and J.D. Clarke, Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, 566-595.
Ross, C. T. F., 1990, Pressure Vessels under External Pressure: Statics and Dynamics, Elsevier Science
Publishers Ltd.
211
DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR OF AN EXTERNAL TURRET

MOORED FPSO SYSTEM BY VALM ARRANGEMENT
WITH 2 LINES IN REGULAR WAVES
T. Rajesh Kannah* and Dr. R.Natarajan1
Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600 036
Abstract
This paper deals with the dynamic response of an external turret moored floating production,
storage and offloading (FPSO) system by vertical anchor leg mooring (VALM) arrangement
under regular waves. A model study carried out on a 1:100 scale model of 140000 DWT turret
moored FPSO system for three loading conditions, i.e., 40%DWT, 70%DWT and 100%DWT
with a hawser length of 25% of the length of FPSO is presented. Experimental investigation
was carried out in the 2 m wide wave flume at Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian
Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai at a water depth of 1 m for the wave frequencies from
0.55 Hz to 1.25 Hz in steps of 0.04 Hz in head sea condition. Measurements taken during the
model tests include the heave, surge and pitch motions, the mooring and hawser line forces.
The proving ring type load cells were used to measure the mooring forces and hawser line
forces. The motions of the FPSO model were measured by rotary type potentiometers. The
experimental results of motions, mooring and hawser line forces were analyzed for different
loading conditions at constant hawser length and presented with discussions.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the recent years, turret mooring systems (TMS) have been widely used for station keeping
of ships and floating/production system for oil and gas production and recovery. TMS is a
special kind of single point mooring system composed of a relatively small turret structure
suspended from a weather-vaning bearing incorporated in a rigid extension structure con-
nected to the bow or stern of the vessel and it is attached to the sea-bed by anchor leg
moorings. Bearings constitute the interface between turret and vessel allowing the latter to
rotate around the anchored turret in response to the changes in environmental conditions. In
order to maintain optimal conditions for FPSO system operations, it is essential to study the
vessel motions, mooring and hawser line forces of the moored vessels due to wave induced
loads. Hence, the present experimental study has been programmed for a typical external
turret moored FPSO model by VALM which has been subjected to regular head sea waves, in
order to get insight knowledge on its dynamic behaviour due to different loading conditions
with constant hawser length.
*Corresponding author, email : rajeshkannah99@hotmail.com ; rnrajan@iitm.ac.in 1
212
2.0 PROTOTYPE AND MODEL
In a large number of ocean engineering problems, the number of important types of forces is
two, so that when the ratio between the two types of forces is kept same for model and
prototype, the model becomes dynamically similar to that of the prototype. In modeling, most
forces are governed by gravity and inertia forces. In such cases, the model scale may be
derived from the Froude model law. Then the ratio between gravity and inertia is also the same.
In determining the mooring forces due to wave action, gravity and inertia forces govern and
their relationship is derived from the Froude model law, wherein the Froude number must
remain constant between model and prototype. For the present experimental scale was cho-
sen between model and prototype. The details of prototype and model are given in the Table.1.
Table 1. Details of prototype and model.
FPSO PARTICULARS
DESCRIPTION PROTOTYPE MODEL Scale (1:100)
Dead weight (tonnes) 140000 0.140
Length (m) 270.7 2.707
Breadth (m) 44.3 0.443
Depth (m) 21.7 0.217
Fully loaded draught (m) 16.7 0.167
WAVE PARTICULARS
Wave height (m) 5 0.05
Wave period (s) 8-18 0.8-1.8
Water depth (m) 100 1.0
TURRET MOORING PARTICULARS
Diameter of turret (m) 22.5 0.225
Type of mooring VALM VALM
No of mooring lines 2 2
Materials of mooring line Steel stud link chain Steel open link chain
Weight of mooring line (N/M) 3532 0.3532
3.0 DESCRIPTION OF MODEL
FPSO model
FPSO model was made in fiber reinforced plastic material with the transverse sections as
shown in Fig. 1. The block coefficient (CB) of the model is 0.840. The length to breadth ratio is
6.11 and breadth to draft ratio is 2.65. The self weight of the model is 366 N. The model was
ballasted with additional weights of 415 N, 1052 N & 1319 N to achieve the 40%, 70% and
100% DWT respectively.
External turret system

The external turret system consists of (i) Turret body, (ii) Bearing support structure, (iii) Moor-
213
ing chain pipes, (iv) Load cell fixing plate, (v) Turn table with hook arrangement and (vi) Spider
plate.
The external turret system was fabricated in PVC and Perspex materials. The weather-vaning
bearing arrangement was provided at the top of the turret and a hook was fixed on it in order to
connect the hawser line of the FPSO model. The turret turntable clears the still water surface
by 43 mm. Chain pipes were provided inside the turret body to connect the mooring chains.
The load cells were fixed at the top of the turret structure.
Mooring chains
Steel chains connected with load cells were used to simulate the mooring lines of the turret
moored FPSO system. The steel chain of open link type with 0.3532 N/m for the model was
selected based on the weight of the prototype mooring line.
Hawser line
Steel chain fitted with a load cell was used as the hawser line to connect FPSO model and the
turret body. The length of the hawser line was kept as 25% of the length of the FPSO model.
Steel chains connected with load cells were used to simulate the hawser line of the moored
FPSO system. The steel chain of open link type with 0.3532 N/m for the model was selected
based on the weight of the prototype hawser line.
Mooring arrangement
A steel mooring frame was fabricated using 50x50x5mm M.S. angles. A rectangular plate of
1000x700x2 mm was fixed at the center of the frame. In order to connect the external turret
system, the mooring lines are used, holes were drilled and hooks were fixed in the rectangular
plate. The entire frame and rectangular plate with hook arrangement simulates a vertical
anchor leg mooring (VALM) system. The weight of the mooring frame is 34 kg.
4.0 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
Experimental investigation was carried out on a 1:100 scale model of 140000 t DWT external
moored FPSO system in a 2 m wide wave flume at Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian
Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai-600 036. Model tests were conducted at three load-
ing conditions of the FPSO model for a constant hawser length under regular waves in head
sea condition at a water depth of 1 m.
Test facility
The wave flume is 85 m long, 2 m wide and 2.7 m deep. A wave maker is installed at one end
of flume and the other end of flume is provided with an absorber which is combination of a
214
parabolic perforated sheet and rubble mound below it to effectively absorb the deep water
waves and shallow water waves respectively.
Experimental setup
For the present study, the turret moored FPSO model was kept at a distance of 40 m away
from the flume wave maker and one wave gauge was fixed at distance of 9 m from the model.
The FPSO model was suitably ballasted to achieve the desired loading conditions, i.e., 40%,
70% and 100% DWT respectively. The mooring chain and hawser chain is connected with
load cells to measure the mooring and hawser line tension. The water depth was kept as 1.0
m. The complete view of the FPSO system moored with the external turret system and the
experimental setup are shown in Fig. 2.
Instrumentation
The calibration constant of the wave probe is calculated as 1 volt = 18 mm/volt. The motion
response in the surge, heave and pitch directions were measured with three rotary type poten-
tiometers. The rotary potentiometer is a device capable of measuring the linear displacement.
The potentiometer has a pulley over which the thread from the hook on the model passes
around and a counter weight is attached to the other end of the thread. The calibration con-
stant of the three rotary potentiometers are calculated as 4.925, 4.929 and 4.937 cm/volt. The
range of the potentiometer is ±10 v. Tests were carried out to measure the motion response in
regular head sea condition.
The forces in the mooring line and hawser line were measured using ring type load cells made
of stainless steel ring of thickness 1.5 mm, the load cell were fabricated with an outer diam-
eter of 40 mm. The strain for unit load is measured from the calibration curve. The external
moored FPSO model with its instrumentation was oriented along the center line of the flume
with its bow facing the wave paddle to simulate the head sea condition as presented in Fig. 3.
Test procedure
The experiments were carried out under regular waves for head sea condition with frequencies
ranging from 0.55 Hz to 1.25 Hz in steps of 0.04 Hz for a wave height of 50 mm at constant
water depth of 1 m. The incident wave height, forces in mooring line, hawser line and motion
response of the model were obtained using the data acquisition system as shown in Fig. 3.
The test procedure was repeated for three operating conditions with a constant hawser length.
5.1 Motion response

The dynamic response of the model in waves is reported as transfer function. This function
215
gives the amplitude of rigid body motions normalized with the amplitude of the incoming wave
as a function of wave frequency. The ratio of response amplitude to wave amplitude is reported
as the Response Amplitude Operator (RAO) and it is plotted against wave frequency param-
eter, i.e., wL= w2 L/2g, where L is the length of the model, w is the incident wave circular
frequency in rad/sec and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
The variation of the motion response with wave frequency parameter with a constant hawser
length for three operating conditions are shown in Fig. 4.
Surge RAO
The surge RAO shows decreasing trend with increase in wave frequency for all three hawser
lengths at three loading conditions. It is also observed that the maximum surge RAO occurs
at wL = 1.679 for all loading conditions. The maximum surge RAO for three loading conditions
varies from 0.2594 to 0.2804. By comparing the surge RAO of 40%DWT and 70%DWT with
the maximum surge RAO corresponding to 100%DWT at the same wave frequency, i.e., wL =
1.679, the RAOs are 8% and 5% less than the RAO of 100% DWT respectively.
Heave RAO
The maximum heave RAO occurs at wL = 4.497 for all three loading conditions. The maximum
heave RAO for three loading conditions varies from 0.5420 to 0.7174. By comparing the heave
RAO of 40%DWT and 70%DWT with the maximum heave RAO corresponding to 100%DWT
at the same wave frequency, i.e., wL = 4.497, the RAOs are 25% and 20% less than the RAO
of 100% DWT respectively.
Pitch RAO
The pitch RAO shows an increasing trend up to the natural frequency of the FPSO system
with increase of wave frequency and thereafter it decreases with increase of wave frequency
for all the three loading conditions. The maximum pitch RAO for three loading conditions
varies from 0.3910 to 0.5140. By comparing the pitch RAO of 40%DWT and 70%DWT with the
maximum pitch RAO corresponding to 100%DWT at the same wave frequency, i.e., wL =
3.779, the RAOs are 18% and 25% less than the RAO of 100% DWT respectively.
5.2 Mooring and hawser line

The measured tension in the mooring line and hawser line under three loading conditions are
normalised with the breaking strength of the chain. The variation of the mooring and hawser
line tension with wave frequency parameter for a constant hawser length with three loading
conditions are shown in Fig. 4.
216
Forward mooring line
The normalised forward mooring line tension shows increasing and decreasing trend with
increase of wave frequency for all the three loading conditions. It is also observed that the
maximum forward mooring line tension occurs at wL = 2.811 for all loading conditions. The
maximum normalised forward mooring line tension for three loading conditions varies from
0.1746 to 0.2055. By comparing the normalised forward mooring line tension of 40%DWT and
70%DWT with the maximum forward mooring line tension corresponding to 100%DWT at the
same wave frequency, i.e., wL = 2.811, the normalised mooring line tensions are 16% and 9%
less than the mooring line tension of 100% DWT respectively.
Aft mooring line
The maximum normalised aft mooring line tension for three loading conditions varies from
0.0877 to 0.1114. By comparing the normalised aft mooring line tension of 40%DWT and
70%DWT with the maximum aft mooring line tension corresponding to 100%DWT at the
same wave frequency, i.e., wL = 3.219, the normalised mooring line tensions are 22% and 17%
less than the mooring line tension of 100% DWT respectively.
Hawser line
The maximum normalised hawser line tension occurs at wL = 3.219, for three loading condi-
tions and it varies from 0.0168 to 0.0261. By comparing the normalised hawser line tension of
40%DWT and 70%DWT with the maximum hawser line tension corresponding to 100%DWT
at the same wave frequency, i.e., wL = 3.219, the normalised hawser line tensions are 36%
and 25% less than the hawser line tension of 100%DWT respectively.
The comparisons of the motion response, mooring and hawser line forces for different loading
conditions with a particular hawser length is presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Normalised motion response, mooring and hawser

line tension for different loading conditions.
DESCRIPTION 40%DWT 70%DWT 100%DWT

SURGE RAO 0.2594 0.2691 0.2804
HEAVE RAO 0.5420 0.5807 0.7174
PITCH RAO 0.3910 0.4170 0.5140
FORWARD MOORING LINE 0.1746 0.1883 0.2055
AFT MOORING LINE 0.0877 0.0931 0.1114
HAWSER LINE 0.0168 0.0197 0.0261
6.0 CONCLUSIONS
Based on the present experimental investigation, the following conclusions are derived:
217
(i) All motions, i.e., surge, heave and pitch motion increase with increase of DWT and the
maximum motion response occurs at fully loaded condition.
(ii) It was also seen, during experiments that the mooring line forces are not equally shared by
forward and aft mooring line at all loading conditions.
(iii) The maximum mooring line tension occurs at forward mooring line in comparison with aft
mooring line for all loading conditions and it is nearly 2 times more than that of tension in
aft mooring lines.
(iv) Both the forward and aft mooring lines are subjected to maximum tension for 100%DWT
loading condition.
The authors wish to express their sincere thanks to the authorities of Indian Institute of Tech-
nology Madras, Chennai for providing necessary support to carry out the present experimental
investigation for the research work and preparation of this paper.
REFERENCES
Aghamohammadi, F. and Thompson, J.M., 1990, An experimental study of the large amplitude fish tailing instabili-
ties of a tanker at a single point mooring, Journal of Applied Ocean Research, 12 (1), 25-23.
Brook, A.K, and Byrne, D., 1983, The dynamic behaviour of single and multiple moored vessels. Transactions of
the Royal Institution of Naval Architects 53-69.
Chang, P.K. and Pilkey, W.D., 1971, The analysis of mooring lines, Proceedings of the Offshore Technology
Conference, Houston.
DE Boom, W.C., 1987. Turret moorings for tanker-based FPSO. In Proc. Workshop on Floating Structures and
Offshore Operations, Wageningen, The Netherlands, 143-154.
Delepine, Y.M., Engh, I.B and Dove, P.G.S., 1993. Comparative evaluation of disconnectable and permanent
moorings for FPSO in harsh environments. Offshore Technology Conference, Paper OTC - 7200, 17-26.
Donoghue, T.O. and Linfoot, B.T., 1992. An experimental study of turret moored floating production systems.
Journal of Applied Ocean Research, 14, 127-139.
Halliwell, A.R. and Harris, R.E., 1998, A parametric experimental study of low frequency motions of single point
mooring system in waves. Journal of Applied Ocean research, 10, 274-286.
Kazuo Nishimoto, Hernanai, L. Brinati, Joao, P.J. Matsuura, Martin Fuijahan., 1998, Analysis of moored tanker
dynamics.17th International Conference on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering, OMAE, 1998.
Lewis, E.W., 1967, The motion of ships in waves, Principles of Naval Architecture, Edited by John P. Comstock,
SNAME.
Simos, A.N. and Tannuri, E.A., 1998, Dynamics of a turret - FPSO system and hydrodynamic models.17 th
International Conference on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering, OMAE. 1998.
218
Fig. 1. Transverse sections of FPSO.
Fig. 2. Experimental setup of FPSO model.
Fig. 3. Instrumentation of FPSO model in flume.
219
Normalised forward mooring line tension
0.300 0.250
40%DWT
70%DWT 0.200
0.200 100%DWT
Surge RAO
0.150
0.100 0.100
0.050
0.000
0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 0.000
0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00
0.800
0.120
Normalised aft mooring line tension

0.600
Heave RAO
0.080
0.400
0.040
0.200
0.000
0.000
0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00
0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00
0.600 0.030
Normalised hawser line tension
0.400 0.020
Pitch RAO
0.200 0.010
0.000 0.000
0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00
Fig. 4. Normalised motions mooring line and hawser line tension vs wave frequency parameter.
220
PERFORMANCE OF FLOATING WAVE ENERGY DEVICE

WITH VARYING TIDAL CONDITIONS
S. Neelamani1*, R. Natarajan2 and D.L. Prasanna2
1
Coastal Engg. and Air Pollution Dept, Environmental and Urban Development Division, Kuwait Institute for
Scientific Research, P.O. Box : 24885, 13109 SAFAT.
2
Dept. of Ocean Engg, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600 036.
Abstract
Fixed oscillating water column (OWC) wave energy caisson is one of the promising devices
for the extraction of power from ocean waves. However, this device is not suitable for larger
tidal variation, as high tidal fluctuations results in excessive reflection of wave energy and
loss of pneumatic efficiency. Fixed wave energy caisson will be very expensive in deeper
waters and hence floating devices can be adopted. In the present work, an attempt is
made to investigate the hydrodynamic characters like pneumatic efficiency, wave transmis-
sion, reflection and losses, dynamic response of the device and mooring forces of the
OWC wave energy caisson in the moored condition under tidal effects, especially in deep
water conditions. Physical model of an OWC wave energy caisson was tested for under
different input conditions. It is found that the tidal variation of about 10% to 15% of the water
depth does not change the pneumatic efficiency significantly, unlike fixed OWC device,
whereas it is found to increase the wave transmission by about 15% and reduces the
reflection by about 15%. The salient results of this study can be used in the design of
floating OWC devices for wave power conversion and as a floating breakwater in a tide and
wave dominating sea.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Energy is the key to industrial development and for the promotion of economic and social well
being of the world population. The growth of world population, coupled with the rising material
standard of living has escalated the growth of energy usage since the turn of this century. It
took millions of years for the earth to fertilize and to store fossil fuels in convenient forms, but
it takes only 300 or 400 years to use them up by the human being. The rapid depletion of
fossil-fuel resources on a worldwide basis has necessitated an urgent search for alternative
energy sources to meet out demands for immediate future and for generations to come. Of the
many alternatives, ocean energy stands out as the brightest long-range promises toward
meeting the continually increasing demand for energy. Considerable developments have taken
place in the last decade or so in the field of wave energy. Out of numerous concepts which
has been tested and designed, extraction of wave energy using the oscillating water column
(OWC) principle is found to be the most promising. The OWC wave energy converter is a well-
established means of extracting useful energy from water waves. It consists of a chamber
221
with two orifices. One is open to the sea below the water leve and other is typically at the top
of the chamber where the air turbine is mounted. Due to the action of waves on the device, an
oscillating water column is formed in the chamber, which in turn forces air thus driving the air
turbine. The rotary motion of the air turbine is transferred to a generator to generate electricity.
A combination of the wave power converter working on OWC principle and the caisson type
breakwater is attractive as the construction cost for power generation can be jointly shared
with the following facilities:
a. Breakwater cum berthing facility

b. Coastal protection against erosion
c. Calm water basin for cage culture.
Bottom standing caisson type OWC devices are alright for water depths of 8.0 to 10.0 m. But
they will become prohibitively expensive for deeper waters, say 20.0 to 25.0 m. Here floating
wave energy devices can be a financially viable option. Intercepting the waves in deeper water
is also better, since the available wave power is higher in deeper water than that in shallow
water due to loss of wave energy during wave propagation by breaking, bottom friction and
percolation. Floating wave energy device is expected to attract lesser force since a part of the
incident wave power is finally converted electric power. Floating breakwater also has some
inherent merits and demerits of its own. The merits are: Free water circulation between the
sea side and lee side is possible and lee side pollutant dispersion will be better. Fish migra-
tion between sea side and lee side is easy. Any type of foundation can be used. Since the
floating structure rides over the wave, the forces and pressures will be less than that on a fixed
structure. The floating wave energy device can be optimally oriented to take care of the
seasonal wave directions, which is not possible in the bottom fixed devices. The demerits are
that the floating breakwater is not efficient to prevent wave transmission like bottom standing
breakwater, especially for long waves. Berthing of vessels at the rear side is restricted due to
the wave energy transmission. Apart from all the merits listed above, floating moored OWC
caisson has a major advantage compared to bottom standing OWC device. The bottom
standing OWC device can be used in places where the tidal variations are less than say 0.5
m. If tidal variations are higher say more than 1.0 m, then it will affect the average pneumatic
efficiency significantly. This is because, during high tide, more of the incident wave energy will
be reflected and during the low tide, the air pressure inside the OWC chamber will be equal to
the atmospheric pressure most of the time due to the exposure of the bottom of the lip wall
and hence pneumatic efficiency will be very less. Floating moored caissons will raise and fall
in the vertical direction along with the tide and hence this major technical problem is solved.
However, the effect of the tidal variation on pneumatic efficiency, wave transmission, reflection,
loss of power, dynamic response and mooring forces are not known.
This is the motivation for the present work.
222
For many years, scientists and engineers have been constantly working to develop an effec-
tive device for the utilization of ocean-wave energy. A variety of wave-energy extraction devices
have been invented mainly in Japan, the UK, the USA, Norway, Portugal, Ireland and India.
Much of the reviews of this research are available in Elliot (1981), Shaw (1982), Count et al.
(1983) and Carmichael and Falnes (1992). The development of Multi-resonant oscillating
water column from OWC, introduced by Ambli et al. (1982) showed that the device is capable
of absorbing incident wave energy effectively for a wide band width of wave frequency which
results in a more cost effective system. Jayakumar (1994), Thiruvenkatasamy and Neelamani
(1997), Vinod (1998) has carried out experimental investigations for the development of Indian
wave power plants and for future modification. Takahashi (1988) has described the develop-
ment of a wave power extracting caisson breakwater in Japan. Malmo and Reitan (1985)
theoretically studied the hydrodynamic performance behavior of a MOWC in a channel using
linear wave theory for different boundary conditions in the regions between absorber and chan-
nel wall. It is confirmed that MOWCs in an array were more efficient than in isolation. Hitoshi
et al. (1995) reported on the floating wave power device Mighty Whale developed by JAMSTEC,
Japan. The prototype is 50 m x 30 m x 12 m in overall dimensions. The device has a total draft
of 8 m and moored at 40 m deep water. The maximum value of the efficiency was found to be
about 40% at the design wave period of 6 seconds.
From the survey of the existing literature, it is evident that several OWC devices are now in
operation worldwide but all the devices reported so far, except Mighty Whale and Kaimei,
are shore-based structures. Studies pertaining to the pneumatic efficiency of the floating
OWC wave energy device especially with varying tidal levels are scarce. A detailed laboratory
investigation is warranted to investigate on the pneumatic efficiency of the floating wave en-
ergy device under varied wave height, wave period and for different tidal levels. This is the main
motivation for the present work. The present study has been programmed to carry out model
experiments to get insight knowledge about the wave transmission, pneumatic efficiency, the
motion response and line tension of a typical moored OWC for such an application, with
special reference to the damping conditions defined by a/A ratio where a = Area of orifice
opening, A = Projected area of oscillating water column and tidal effects simulated by different
water depths, at a given mooring configuration of scope = 4 (Length of the mooring line/Water
depth)
3.0 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS
3.1 Physical modeling

In this study, a 1:20 model of the floating wave energy device as shown in Fig. 1 was fabricated
using Perspex sheet. The dimension of the OWC device is 1.8 m x 0.99 m x 0.65 m. The side
plates of the model was stiffened with Perspex sheet stiffeners of 6 mm thick and 25 mm
223
width and the bottom plate was stiffened with 18 mm thick and 18 mm width Perspex stiffen-
ers. An indigenous spring loaded frictionless single ball bearing was fixed on the sides of the
floating wave energy device in order to reduce the friction between the sidewall of the flume
and the caisson so as to reduce the error in the measurement of dynamic response & mooring
loads during experimental investigations.
Fig.1. Experimental setup of floating wave energy device model.

A mooring frame was fabricated and fixed to the bottom of the flume bed in order to anchor the
model using the mooring chains. Facilities for varying the damping of air column in the OWC
were arranged by providing ten holes of 12.5 mm diameter on the top of the OWC chamber.
The damping was achieved by plugging the holes using rubber corks. When all the holes were
unplugged, the a/A ratio was found to be 1.13% where a = area of orifice open and A = plane
area of OWC chamber. a/A ratios of 0.9, 0.67 and 0.45 were used. Two caisson models are
used to cover the flume width. This principle can be extended to many numbers of caissons
in array to form a part of or a full portion of floating breakwater.
3.2 Experimental set-up, instrumentation, model tests and analysis

The model was tested in the new 2 m wide wave flume in the Department of Ocean Engineer-
ing, IIT Madras at a constant water depth of 1 m. Mooring arrangement of Scope 4 (length of
the mooring line/water depth) has been used for testing the Floating Wave Energy Device.
This is found to be the better option among scope 4, 5 and 6. The details of instrumentation,
data acquisition and analysis can be found in Prasanna (2003). The experiments were carried
out on the floating model for Scope 4, three damping conditions, which correspond to a/A =
0.9, 0.68, 0.45 under regular waves for wave heights of 0.05, 0.75 and 0.10 m and wave
periods ranging from 1 to 3 s in steps of 0.25 s. During the model tests the following data were
collected:
224
a. Air pressure and water surface fluctuations inside the OWC of the model.
b. Transmitted and reflected wave heights along with incident wave height.
c. Heave, sway and roll .
d. Mooring forces.
After the arrival of the waves at the test section, the data were collected for 30 s with a
sampling time interval of 0.025 s.
4.1 General
The present investigation is carried out for three different incident wave heights (0.05 m, 0.1 m
and 0.15 m). The change in wave height has insignificant change in the normalized output.
Hence all presentations are provided for Hi = 0.10 m. The wave period has very significant
influence on all the normalized output. Therefore, the presentation is made in terms of B/L,
where B is the width of the caisson and L is the local wave length.
4.2 Heave RAO

The effect of B/L, damping of OWC chamber in terms of a/A and variation of water depth on
heave RAO is presented in Fig. 2.
a/A=0.9%
3
2.5 d=1m
2 d=0.9m
1.5
d=0.8m
1
0.5
0
0 0.2 0.4 a/A=0.67% 0.8
0.6
3 d=1m
2 d=0.9m
d=0.8m
1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
a/A=0.45%
3
d=1m
2 d=0.9m
d=0.8m
1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Breadth of the model/Wave length
Fig. 2 Normalized heave motion Vs Non dimesionalised wave parameter at

different damping conditions for wave height of 0.1 m.
225
In general, the heave RAO reduces with increased B/L, which is anticipated. The maximum
value of heave RAO is about 2.0, which occurs for d=1.0, which is the high tide level. The
change in a/A from 0.9% to 0.45% does not have significant change in RAO. Hence a/A is an
insensible parameter as far as heave is concerned.
4.3 Roll RAO

Fig. 3 is a similar plot like Fig. 2 but for roll RAO. The maximum value of roll RAO is about 0.7,
which occurs for the lowest value of B/L studied (i.e. 0.12).
0.6 a/A=0.9%
0.4 d=1.0m
d=0.9m
0.2 d=0.8m
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
0.5 a/A=0.67%
0.4
d=1.0m
0.3
d=0.9m
0.2
d=0.8m
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
0.6 a/A=0.45%
d=1.0m
0.4
d=0.9m
0.2
d=0.8m
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Bre adth of the mode l / Wave le ngth
Fig. 3. Normalized roll motion Vs Non dimesionalised wave parameter at

different damping conditions for wave height of 0.1 m.
The variation in B/L has significant influence on the variation of roll RAO. The change of water
depth also has some noticeable change in roll RAO. Again variation in damping of OWC
chamber (a/A from 0.9% to 0.45%) does not have significant change in roll RAO.
4.4 Sway RAO

Fig. 4 shows the effect of B/L on sway RAO. The trend and magnitude of sway RAO is similar
to that of heave RAO.
226
a/A=0.9%
3
d=1.0m
2
d=0.9m
1
d=0.8m
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
a/A=0.67%
3
2
d=1.0m
d=0.9m
1
d=0.8m
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
a/A=0.45%
3
d=1.0m
2
d=0.9m
1
d=0.8m
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Breadth of the model / Wave le ngth
Fig.4 Normalized sway motion Vs Non dimesionalised wave parameter at

different damping conditions for wave height of 0.1m
4.5 Normalized mooring line tension (seaside)

Fig. 5 provides the effect of B/L on normalized mooring line tension in the seaward side for
different a/A values and different water depth. The maximum normalized mooring line tension
occurs at B/L of about 0.25. The maximum normalized tension for incident wave height of 0.1
m (which corresponds to 2.0 m in the scale of 1:20) is about 0.22.
4.6 Pneumatic efficiency

The pneumatic efficiency is one of the important aspects of the present investigation. It is
because the results of the present investigation are not only used for the design of floating
breakwaters but also for the wave energy conversion plants. The effect of B/L on pneumatic
efficiency for three different a/A values and for three different water depths for each a/A value is
provided in Fig.6. It is seen that the pneumatic efficiency is less than 10% for B/L < 0.2. With
increased B/L, the pneumatic efficiency is increasing. The peak value is reached for B/L = 0.3.
For a/A = 0.67% and 0.45%, the maximum pneumatic efficiency obtained is about 0.5 for d =
1.0 m. At any B/L, the pneumatic efficiency is smaller for smaller water depth. From these
values, it is found that the pneumatic efficiency is more during high water levels. It is to be
recorded that the mooring lines has set with zero pretension when d = 0.9 m. Hence at d =
1.0 m, it has pretension corresponds to 0.1 m increase in water depth and was in slacked
condition when d = 0.8 m. The pretension causes better pneumatic efficiency when d = 1.0
m.
227
0.25 a/A=0.9%
0.2
d=1.0m
0.15
d=0.9m
0.1
d=0.8m
0.05
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
0.25 a/A=0.67%
0.2
d=1.0m
0.15
d=0.9m
0.1
d=0.8m
0.05
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
0.2 a/A=0.45%
0.15
d=1.0m
0.1 d=0.9m
d=0.8m
0.05
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Fig. 5 Normalized line tension Vs Non dimesionalised wave parameter at

different damping conditions for wave height of 0.1 m (seaward side)
60 a/A = 0.9%
50
40 d=1.0m
30 d=0.9m
20 d=0.8m
10
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
60 a/A = 0.67%
40 d=1.0m
d=0.9m
20 d=0.8m
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
60
a/A = 0.45%
40 d=1.0m
20 d=0.9m
d=0.8m
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Fig.6 Efficiency Vs Non dimesionalised wave parameter at

different damping conditions for wave height of 0.1 m..
228
4.7 Wave transmission and reflection
Wave transmission is a measure of the efficiency of the floating breakwater. A floating break-
water, which gives a smaller value of transmission coefficient, is considered to be the best
one. The effect of B/L on transmission coefficient, Kt for three different damping and for three
different water depths was studied. The value of Kt is found decreasing with increased B/L.
The value of Kt is greater than 0.5 for B/L < 0.2, which is not desirable. It is also noted that the
pneumatic efficiency is also less than 10% when B/L < 0.2. Hence from both wave transmis-
sion and pneumatic efficiency point of view, the floating wave energy caisson should be de-
signed for B/L > 0.2. For example, if the most predominant wave length is 100.0 m, then the
width of the floating wave energy device must be greater than 20.0 m. The effect of B/L on
reflection coefficient for the three different a/A and water depths are also studied. It is found
that change in B/L has oscillating characteristics in the reflection coefficient. The average
reflection coefficient is about 0.6 and the maximum is about 0.8. Neither the change in water
depth nor the change in a/A has any significant change in the trend of reflection coefficient.
Hence, a system like this has to be designed for reflection coefficient of about 0.7.
5. .0 CONCLUSIONS
The following important conclusions are arrived:
a. The maximum heave RAO, roll RAO and sway RAO of the floating wave energy
caisson ares about 2.8, 0.5 and 3.0 respectively.
b. Maximum normalized seaside line tension occurs when B/L is 0.25. It is almost
independent of change of water depth from 0.8 m to 1.0 m.
c. The pneumatic efficiency of the floating OWC caisson is maximum for taut mooring
case (d = 1.0 m). The maximum pneumatic efficiency is about 50%, which
occurs when B/L = 0.25. For slack mooring case (d = 0.8 m) the pneumatic
efficiency falls down by more than 50%.
d. The transmission coefficient is almost closer to 1.0, when B/L is about 0.1 and
it reduces to 0.1, when B/L is above 0.6. The transmission coefficient is
independent of change in water depth from 0.8 to 1.0 m and change in a/A from
0.45% to 0.9%.
e. The average wave reflection coefficient from the present floating wave energy
device is about 0.6. Reflection coefficient fluctuates significantly, when B/L is
increased from 0.1 to 0.65.
229
The authors are grateful to the authorities of Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai for
providing all the testing facilities for the experimental studies. The help of Mr. E.V. Rapaka,
Ph.D. Scholar is highly appreciated.
REFERENCES
Ambli, N., Bonke, K., Malmo, O. and Reitan, H., (1982). The Kvaerner multiresonant OWC Proceedings of the
2nd International Symposium on Wave Energy Utilisation, Trondheim, Norway, 275-295.
Carmichael, A. D. and Falnes, J., (1992). State of the art in wave power recovery, Proceedings of the Int. Conf.
On Ocean Energy Recovery - State of the Art. ASCE.
Count, B. M., (1983). Theoretical hydrodynamic studies on harbor system for wave energy absorption, Central
Electricity Generating Board, Marchwood Engg. Lab., Res. Report TPRD / M / 1208 / N83.
Elliot, G., (1981). Wave energy studies at the UK National Engineering Laboratory, In Proceedings of the Second
Int. Symp. on Wave and Tidal Energy, Cambridge, Sept. 23-25, 269-282.
Hotta, H., Washio, Y.Y., Graw, H.Y., and Miyazaki, T. (1995), On the open sea test of a prototype device of a
floating wave power device Mighty Whale, The Second European Wave Power Conference, Lisbon,
Portugal, 404-406.
Jayakumar (1994). Wave forces on oscillating water column type wave energy caisso - n experimental study,
PhD thesis, Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India.
Malmo, O. and Reitan, A. (1985). Wave power absorption by an oscillating water column in a channel, J. Fluid
Mech., Vol. 158, 153-175.
Prasanna, D.L. (2003). Effect of tidal variation on the hydrodynamics of a Floating Wave Energy Caisson.
M.Tech Thesis, Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India.
Shaw, R. (1982). Wave Energy - A Design Challenge, Ellios Horwood Limited, UK.
Takahashi, S. (1988). A study on design of a wave power extracting caisson breakwater, Wave Power
Laboratory, Port and Harbour Research Institute, Japan.
Thiruvenkatasamy, K., and Neelamani, S. (1997). On the efficiency of wave energy caisson in array, Journal
of Applied Ocean Research,Vol.19, 61-72.
Vinod, V.S. (1998). Hydrodynamic studies on a wave energy caisson, MS Thesis, Department of Ocean
Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India.
230
EXPERIMENTAL P-Y CURVES FOR CAISSONS IN MARINE

CLAY
N. Darga Kumar, S. Narasimha Rao*, V. Sundar
Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Madras, Chennai- 600036
Abstract
Caissons can be used in marine environment for various applications. These caissons could
experience lateral forces due to water waves and currents. There is a necessity to predict the
behaviour of caissons under lateral loading. In general, p-y curves are to be developed for
understanding the behaviour of caissons under lateral loads. In this investigation model tests
were carried out on caissons embedded in clay. The lateral earth pressure, ground level
deflection and tilt of model caissons were measured using the instrumentation. From the
measured data deflection has been established along the depth of embedded caisson. The p-
y behaviour of caissons is established along the depth. Also, the ultimate passive earth pres-
sure is proposed for laterally loaded caissons with the measured earth pressure.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Caisson foundations are popular in coastal and offshore constructions. Caissons can be used
as coastal protection walls. Contiguous construction of caissons along the coast by employ-
ing the established methods can be used to serve as a coastal protection wall. This type of
wall in general can experience considerable magnitude of lateral forces due to wave and
currents. The safe design of these embedded caissons requires assessment of lateral deflec-
tion, tilt and mobilization of lateral passive earth pressures. There are a few reported studies
carried out on embedded caissons for coastal protection works. Some of the theories related
to rigid piles are extended to study the lateral behaviour of caissons. The p-y behaviour can be
used for establishing the deflections and rotations of caissons. A set of p-y curves would
represent the lateral deflection of soil with depth for a range of lateral pressures varying from
zero to the yield strength of the soil. There are few reported results on the behaviour of cais-
sons under lateral loads especially in clays. Hansen, 1961 suggested a method for the esti-
mation of ultimate lateral resistance of rigid piles in c-f soils, and separate approaches were
suggested for cohesive and cohesionless soils. Broms, 1964 developed a set of charts for
estimating the ultimate lateral capacity of rigid piles in cohesive soils and also suggested a
simplified distribution of ultimate soil resistance with depth in terms of passive earth pressure.
Matlock, 1970 showed that for the patterns of pile deflections that can occur in practice, the
soil reaction at a point is essentially dependent on the pile deflection at that point only. Cox et
al., 1971 developed p-y curves for piles from the field-measured data of bending moment. A
unified approach for constructing p-y curves for piles in clay has been developed by Sullivan et
*Corresponding author, e-mail: snr@iitm.ac.in or snarasimharao@hotmail.com
231
al., 1979. Ingaki et al., 1996 brought out the displacement modes of caisson under cyclic
loading. Leung et al. (1997) brought out the influence of width of caisson on lateral displace-
ment. Nahas et al., (2002), brought out the stability aspects such as sliding and overturning of
walls and correlated these aspects with the embedment length in soft clay. Yuxia and Randolph
(2002), considering the soil as normally consolidated, the soil flow mechanism was developed
for caissons with embedment ratios up to 5. From the aforementioned review, it is felt that
there is a need to make an in depth study in predicting the lateral behaviour of caissons in
clayey soil. In view of this, the present experimental work has been taken up. The experimen-
tal work, results and discussions were presented in this paper.
2.0 EXPERIMENTAL WORK
2.1 Model caisson used

Model caissons were made out of mild steel pipe of 105 mm outer diameter and 10 mm wall
thickness was used. The embedment length (L) to diameter (D) ratio (L/D) of model caissons
investigated was varied from 2 to 4. The load was applied with a load of eccentricity (e), equal
to 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2D of the model caisson. The rigidity of the model caissons has been
estimated as per the Poulos (1971). The pile flexibility factor is expressed as:
E I  (1)
k R =  p 4p 
 Es Le 
where, kR= Pile flexibility factor, ep= Pile material Youngs modulus, ip= Moment of inertia of
pile material, es= Soil modulus and le= Embedment length of pile in soil. As per this criterion,
all the model caissons used in this investigation are rigid.
2.2 Soil used

Marine clay from the coastal deposit of Chennai, India was used in this investigation. The
liquid limit and plastic limit of soil are 48% and 18% respectively. This soil is composed of
38% clay, 32% silt and 30% fine sand. The soil is classified as medium compressible clay
(CI).
2.3 Test setup

The tests were conducted in a mild steel rectangular tank of size, 1.2 m x 0.8 m x 0.90 m
(Fig.1). The test tank is chosen such that the size effects of model caissons adopted in this
investigation were minimum. A special stress controlled pneumatic loading device was de-
signed and fabricated to apply the loading. The pneumatic loading system consisted of (i) an
air compressor of adequate capacity with pressure chamber, (ii) 5 port two-way electrical
double solenoid valve, (iii) double acting pneumatic power cylinder, and (iv) the pressure regu-
232
lator valve with filter. Using this system, the lateral static loading was transferred to the model
through an appropriate piston arrangement. A load cell was connected to the piston rod to
measure the lateral load. The inductive type LVDT was placed at the ground level to monitor
the deflections. Tilt meter is attached through nut arrangement to the model caisson to mea-
sure the corresponding tilt of caisson and pressure cells were fixed along the embedded
portion of the caisson for measurement of lateral earth pressure. The outputs through cables
connected to amplifiers were recorded in the system through data acquisition unit.
10 11 1. Model Caisson
2. Soil
3. Test tank
7 1 4. Base pressure cell
8 6 5. LVDT
9 6. Extension rod
19 7. Load cell
5 8. Piston rod
12 9. Pneumatic power cylinder
13 10. Pressure gauge
11. Accelerometer
3
12. Solenoid valve
16 13. Electronic timer
14. Pressure regulator
15. Compressor air chamber
14 16. Carrier frequency amplifier
17 4 17. BNC box
15
18 18. Data acquisition system
2 19. Pressure cell.
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of test set up.
2.4 Testing procedure
Clayey soil was mixed thoroughly with the required amount of water to maintain a consistency
index (Consistency Index, Ic is the ratio of difference of liquid limit and natural water content to
plasticity Index). In the test tank, after placing the model caisson vertically, the soil was
placed in layers of 50 mm thickness with hand packing and pressed by jacking a template to
remove entrapped air and to ensure homogeneous packing. Static lateral load tests were
conducted to arrive at ultimate lateral load at Ic =0.22, 0.42 and 0.62 for caisson with L/D ratio
of 2, 3 & 4 and for e/D values of 0.5, 1.0 1.5 and 2. Static lateral loads were applied in
233
increments through pneumatic system. Every load increment was applied until the stabiliza-
tion in deformation had reached. The ultimate load was obtained from the lateral load-ground
level deflection plots, corresponding to a ground level deflection of 0.2 times the diameter of
the model caisson (Broms, 1964). The ground level deflections, tilt, lateral earth pressure and
actual lateral load acting on the caisson were recorded for every load increment. In this paper,
the p-y curves and the ultimate lateral passive resistance of caisson in marine clay were
presented.

Expression for lateral deflection along depth of a caisson
Having known the ground level deflection, tilt and point of rotation, the lateral deflection along
the depth of caisson can be easily
obtained. Fig. 2 shows the detailed
Vertical central axis of parameters and their physical
Caisson before titlting
meaning.
P Central axis of
Caisson after
Nomenclature
e tilting L= embedment depth of caisson
δg e = load eccentricity
A B D = diameter of caisson
L/D =embedment depth ratio
yi e/D =load eccentricity ratio
δi Ic = consistency index
yo Es= modulus of elasticity of soil
θ Ep= modulus of elasticity of caisson ma-
(yo-yi) terial
Ip = moment of inertia of caisson section
L δg = ground level deflection
O
δb = lateral deflection of caisson at its
y-i bottom
δi = lateral deflection of caisson at a
δ-i (L-yo) depth of yi from the ground level
δ-i = lateral deflection of caisson at a
(L-yo - y-i) depth of y-i from the center of rotation
yo = distance from ground level to point
of rotation, O
yi = distance from ground level to the
δb point where lateral deflection, δi is
estimated
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram for deflection of a caisson with notations. y = distance from point of rotation to the
-i
point where lateral deflection, δ-i is
estimated
θ = tilt in a caisson
O = point of rotation
From this figure, the expressions arrived at for lateral deflection of a caisson at different depths
234
are presented below,
θ = 0.2828δ (2)
δg
yo = (3)
tan θ
 (L − yo ) 
δb = δ g   (4)
 yo 
δg
(
δ i = yo − yi
yo
) (5)
Using measured data, relation has been predicted between tilt and ground level deflection.
Equation 5 can be used for the lateral deflection estimation along the depth of caisson. Fig. 3
shows the lateral deflection of caisson at various depths under lateral loads. Predicted deflec-
tion curves shows the linear variation in deflection. The point of rotation is observed at a depth
of 205 mm from the ground level. The variation in lateral earth pressure under lateral static
loads is shown in Fig.4. From this figure, it can be seen that the maximum passive earth
pressure is mobilized at a depth of 180 mm. And also, it is to be noted that the mobilization in
passive earth pressure is slow at the initial loading stage. The p-y curves were developed for
the measured values of lateral soil pressure and deflection for different depths of caisson. Fig.
6 shows the p-y curves developed from the data obtained in the model testing of caissons in
clay. From these curves, it is clear that there is a definite variation in soil modulus (it is the
ratio of soil pressure to deflection at that location) along the depth. In the analysis of laterally
loaded caissons the p-y curve behaviour could be used for establishing deflections, rotations
and any possible bending moments. Due to the extreme wave climate the soils in the vicinity
of seabed will be subjected to lateral strains beyond the elastic range, so these p-y behaviour
of caissons in clay helps in understanding the non-linearity in deflection. At a depth of 180 mm
the p-y curve shows a steep slope, this is because the point of rotation is close to this depth
so the deflection will be less and also the soil pressure is more. Non-linearity in p-y behaviour
is observed more at the depths just below the bed level.
The lateral earth pressure at the ultimate level (it is the level, at which for further increase in
lateral load on the caisson, the variation in earth pressure is not significant) is presented for
different consistency of clay and at different load eccentricity ratios. Figs. 6, 7 and 8 show the
lateral earth pressure at the ultimate stage for different embedment ratios. From these figures,
it can be seen that the passive lateral earth pressure at the ultimate stage is not varying
significantly with the load eccentricity ratio for all the consistency of clay tested. The ultimate
lateral passive earth pressure has significant improvement with the consistency of clay.
235
0
Ic=0.42 50
L/D=4, e/D=1
100
Embedment depth (mm)

150
200
250
300
0.369kN
0.480kN
350 0.570kN
0.636kN
400 0.691kN
0.734kN
450
-45 -30 -15 0 15 30 45
lateral Deflection (mm)
Fig. 3. Lateral deflection of a caisson along the depth under lateral load.
0 70
Ic=0.42 e/D=1
50
L/D=4,e/D=1 60
L/D=4,Ic=0.42
100
50
Lateral soil pressure (kPa)
150
Depth (mm)
40
200
30
250 0.102kN
0.185kN 25mm
0.266kN
20
300 100mm
0.369kN 180mm
0.480kN 260mm
350 0.570kN 10
0.734kN 290mm
370mm
400 0
-90 -65 -40 -15 10 35 60 0 10 20 30 40 50
Lateral earth pressure (kPa) Lateral deflection (mm)
Fig. 4. Lateral earth pressure along the depth of Fig. 5. p-y curves of caisson for different
caisson. depths.
236
0 0
50 50
Ic=0.22 Ic=0.42
L/D=4 L/D=4
100 100
150 150
Depth (mm)
Depth (mm)
200 200
250 250
300 300 e/D=0.5

e/D=0.5 e/D=1.0
350 e/D=1.0 e/D=1.5
e/D=1.5 350
e/D=2.0 e/D=2.0
400
400
-50 -30 -10 10 30 50
-80 -30 20 70
Lateral Earth pressure (kPa) Lateral earth pressure (kPa)
Fig. 6. Lateral earth pressure along the Fig. 7. Lateral earth pressure along the
depth of caisson. depth of caisson.
0 0
Ic=0.62 L/D=4
50
e/D=1
L/D=4
100 100
150
Depth (mm)
Depth (mm)
200 200
250
300 300
e/D=0.5 Ic=0.22
e/D=1.0
350 e/D=1.5 Ic=0.42
e/D=2.0 Ic=0.62
400 400
-130 -80 -30 20 70 120 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
Lateral earth pressure (kPa) Lateral earth pressure (kPa)
Fig. 8. Lateral earth pressure along the depth Fig. 9. Lateral earth pressure along the depth of
of caisson. caisson.
From the above figures, at a consistency of 0.22, 0.42 and 0.62 and for L/D=4, the lateral
passive earth pressures at ultimate level observed are maximum at a depth of 180 mm from
ground level. These values observed are 40 kPa, 60 kPa and 100kPa respectively at clay
consistencies of 0.22, 0.42 and 0.62. From this observed lateral passive earth pressure along
the depth of embedment of model caisson at ultimate stage, the average rectangular distribu-
237
tion is assumed. The average passive earth pressures for the L/D=4 at clay consistencies of
0.22, 0.42 and 0.62 are taken from the above plots are 24 kPa, 42kPa and 64 kPa respec-
tively. The average undrained shear strength (su) values of the clay tested in the laboratory are
6.12 kPa, 12.2 kPa and 18.12kPa respectively for clay consistencies of 0.22, 0.42 and 0.62.
The ratio of assumed passive earth pressure to the undrained shear strength is evaluated at all
the consistencies and these ratios are found to be 3.9, 3.44 and 3.53. This ratio is approxi-
mately constant at all the consistencies and it can be taken as 3.5. Hence, for remoulded
soil, the lateral passive earth pressure distribution is assumed as rectangular and this magni-
tude is 3.5 su. The actual sensitivity of the clay used in this investigation is found to be 3. The
passive earth pressure distribution along the depth of caisson in the field, where the soil is in
undisturbed state can be taken as sensitivity times the actual pressure in the remoulded
state. This rectangular pressure distribution works out to be 10.5 su. Hence, the pressure
distribution for the field situation on laterally loaded caisson in clay at the ultimate stage can
be proposed as 10 su. And also, for the location of point of rotation (where the passive earth
pressure is reversed) the equation proposed in the earlier section can be used.
4.0 CONCLUSIONS
1. The lateral passive earth pressure mobilization is very slow for the initial lateral loading.
2. The maximum lateral passive earth pressure is observed at a depth of 180 mm from the
bed level.
3. From the p-y curves, it is clear that there is a definite variation in soil modulus.
4. The average rectangular pressure distribution for caissons in clay at the ultimate stage
is 10 su.
REFERENCES
Broms, B. B., 1964, The Lateral Resistance of Piles in Cohesive soils, Journal of Soil Mech. & Found. Div., Proc.
ASCE, 90(SM2), 27-63.
Cox, W.R., Reese, L.C. and Grubbs, B. R., 1971, Field testing of laterally loaded piles in sand, Offshore
Technology Conf., Houston, pp. 459-472.
Hansen, B., 1961, The Ultimate Resistance of Rigid Piles Against Transversal Forces, Geoteknisk Institut,
Copenhagen, Bulletin No. 12.
Ingaki, H., Iai, S., Sugano, T., Yamazaki, H., and Inatomi, T., 1996, Performance of caisson type quay walls at
Kobe port, special issue of Soils and Foundations, 111-136, Jan 1996, Japanese Geotechnical Society.
Leung, C.F., Lee, F.H., and Khoo, E., 1997, Behaviour of gravity caisson on sand, ASCE, Journal of Geotechnical
and Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol.123, No.3, Mar 1997, 187-196.
Matlock, H., 1970, Correlations for design of laterally loaded piles in soft clay. Proc. 2nd offshore Technology
Conf. Houston, Vol.I: 577-594.
238
Nahasa, A.E. and Takemura, J. 2002, External stability of vertical excavations in soft clay with self supporting
DMM walls, Soils and Foundations, Vol.42, No.1, 53-69.
Poulos, H.G., 1971, Behaviour of Laterally Loaded Piles: I- Single Piles, ASCE Journal of Soil Mech. & Found. Div.,
97(SM5): 711-751.
Sullivan, W.R., Reese, L.C. & Fenske, C.W., 1979, Unified method for analysis of laterally loaded piles in clay.
Conf. on Numerical Methods in Offshore Piling, London Institute of Civil Engrs., Paper No. 17.
Yuxia Hu. and Mark, F. Randolph, 2002, Bearing capacity of caisson foundations on normally consolidated clay,
Soils and Foundations, 42(5), 71-77.
239
RELIABILITY OF OFFSHORE JACKET STRUCTURE WITH

RIGOROUS MODELING OF SOIL PILE SYSTEM
G. Arunakumari, and K. Rajagopalan*
Department of Ocean Engineering, IIT-Madras, Chennai-600036, Tamil Nadu
Abstract
Due to the growing realization of the fact that, many uncertainties affect the performance of
any structure, the probability theory is becoming more popular now a days. Reliability analy-
sis is performed taking into account randomness in ultimate strength and loading intensity.
Uncertainties in material characteristics and geometrical data introduce randomness in ulti-
mate strength. Uncertainties in design wave force estimation, variations in cohesion of top
layers of seabed, currents, topside loads etc. introduce randomness in loading intensity. In
this paper, a rigorous model of soil-pile system had been developed to study the randomness
in ultimate strength of combined jacket-pile system by repeated applications of finite element
software package i.e. NISA. The piles are embedded in seabed and the surrounding soil is
modeled as a series of non-linear springs using guidelines from API-RP2A (LRFD) code. A
constant vertical force and an incremental lateral force are applied simultaneously. The skin
friction offered by soil-pile system resists the vertical load and the horizontal forces by the
passive resistance offered by the soil. The behavior of vertical, horizontal, and tip springs are
predicted by drawing T-Z, P-Y, Q-Z curves respectively. These are then incorporated into the
discrete, non-linear springs modeling the soil system. Then reliabilities of pile alone, fixed
jacket alone and the combined pile-jacket system are obtained assuming normal distribution
for ultimate strength and loading intensity. Conclusions are advanced rgarding the effect of
rigorous soil-pile modeling on the reliability.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The need for exploitation of under seabed oil reserves has motivated the development and use
of offshore jacket platforms. A jacket is a space frame made of tubular members and can be
installed for drilling and production of oil in water depths of 30 to 300 m. They are thus called
drilling and production platforms. More than 8000 such platforms have been constructed so far
world wide in moderately deep waters. Around 200 jacket platforms are spread over at Bombay
High where the water depth is around 100 m. Each jacket platform may drill from 20 to 60
production wells. The derrick and drilling modules are installed on the deck so that the wells
can be drilled. A typical jacket platform is shown in Fig 1.
The crucial parameters on which structural behavior depends are type and intensity of loading
*Corresponding author, e-mail: kutti141@yahoo.com
240
on the structure, material properties and geometric properties. There is a great chance that
one or all the above mentioned parameters may exhibit variability such as yield stress varia-
tion, loading intensity, variation in shear strength of soil in the top layer of seabed and thick-
ness variation in tubular members due to corrosion. Therefore, it is imperative that these
variations are taken into account while designing a structure especially in the offshore environ-
ment. Because corrosion and variations in design wind and wave loads and variations in
strength of soil in top layer of seabed are predominant. So, in order to ensure platform safety
and to avoid unnecessary and very costly repair, it is essential to assess extent of damage
quickly and accurately. Hence the probability theory in structural analysis and design is
becoming more popular now a days due to the growing realization of the fact that many
uncertainties affect the performance of any structure. And also due to the inherent random
nature of various properties affecting the structural design, especially in offshore, reliability
assumes great importance as a useful tool. The present work is mainly concerned with the
methodology for reliability analysis for combined jacket and rigorous soil-pile system.
Fig. 1. Typical offshore jacket structure.
2.1 Non Linear Analysis

Nonlinear analysis is required when the results obtained have to be precise or when some
phenomena are likely to be missed out by linear analysis. Linearize formulations are insuffi-
241
cient to explain many phenomena of the structural systems. It is obvious that failure stresses
obtained by linear static analysis are far beyond the yield stress as the factor of safeties is
more in that case. Thus, it is an apt decision to perform non-linear analysis to arrive at the
exact failure loads. Nonlinear analysis (NLSTAT) deals with the non-linear behavior of the
structures under static loading. The nonlinearities considered in NISA are material, geometri-
cal, and the combined material and geometrical nonlinearities. As the number of jacket struc-
tures around the world is increasing and their cost of installation and fabrication is also in-
creasing, the nonlinear behavior under static and dynamic conditions has attracted many
investigators in the recent past. Linear approximations were considered adequate for many
practical engineering applications, due to the simplicity involved in arriving at the solutions.
The application of linear theory certainly depends on the type problem and the extent to which
results are to be put into use. However, nonlinear analysis procedures are very complex and
time consuming. This has been simplified by the development of high speed computers and
their usage in formulating various analytical and numerical techniques like FEM, FDM, etc., in
solving such problems. The response of structures can contain material and geometric non-
linearity when limit states of strength and / or serviceability is approached. The methods of
analysis of structures with non-linear behavior often lead to load-deflection relationships which
are complex and require excessive computational effort. Solutions are usually found iteratively
and often pose convergence problems when structural failure is reached. This is because the
actual structure instability is reflected in mathematical model. A simple and efficient ap-
proach for analyzing frame structures with material and geometric non-linear response has
been applied successfully to a wide range of problems.
In this work the jacket structure used in Bombay High has been taken into consideration and
the analysis was carried out for two different boundary conditions using finite element software
package (NISA). The structure has been analyzed for both material and geometric nonlinearity.
The ultimate loads of the jacket for different values of yield stress and cohesion have been
obtained using NISA. From the analysis it is been observed that the ultimate load is increased
considerably with increase in yield stress and cohesion and vise versa.
2.2 Reliability Analysis

The performance of a structure is assessed by its safety, serviceability, and economy. The
information about input variables is never certain, precise and complete. The sources of uncer-
tainties may be
a. Physical uncertainty
b. Statistical uncertainty
In the presence of uncertainties, the absolute safety of a structure is impossible due to 1)

unpredictability of loads on structure during its life, in-place material strengths and human
242
errors, 2) structural idealizations in forming the mathematical model of the structure to predict
its response or behavior, and 3) the limitations in numerical methods. Therefore, some risk of
acceptable performance must be tolerated. In the conventional deterministic analysis and
design methods, it is assumed that, loads, strengths of materials etc. are not subjected to
probabilistic variations. Whereas in reliability analysis it is assumed that all the parameters
are subjected to probabilistic variations and hence more accurate and precise results can be
ascertained. The common definition of reliability which has been accepted by all fields of
engineering is, the probability of an item performing its intended function over a given period of
time under the operating conditions encountered.
The purpose of reliability based design is to produce an engineered system, the failure of
which would be an event of very low probability. The reliability of structure is dependent on
different uncertain parameters viz. the material and geometrical properties of the model, type
of loading etc. The uncertainties are due to variation in material properties like yield stress,
variation in cohesion of the top layers of seabed, variations in currents, variations in geometri-
cal properties like thickness of the components and the magnitude of load etc. It is important
to include the concepts of reliability theory especially in ocean structures because there will
be changes in the hydrodynamic loading, the problem of corrosion (changes the geometrical
properties of the structure), decrease in strength properties of soil at the top layers of seabed
due to scour (tends to lower the load carrying capacity of the foundation system) and also the
weakening of the structural members due to various factors like falling of heavy objects from
working platform. Considering all these uncertainties the structural safety, the primary aspect
in structural design, should be ensured. In the present work, the reliability analysis has been
carried out on, jacket with fixed bottom and the combined pile-jacket system. Monte Carlo
method was used here in to calculate the reliability of the system. Monte Carlo simulation
techniques involve sampling at random to simulate artificially a large number of experiments
and observe the result. In the case of structural reliability, this means, sampling each random
variable X1 randomly to give a sample value x1. The limit state function G(x*) =0 is then
checked. If the limit state is violated (i.e. G(x*) = 0), the structural system is considered to
have failed. The experiment is repeated, with randomly chosen of x*1. If the number of trails is
N, the approximate value of probability of failure is:
Pf n (G(x*)=0)/(N) (1.1)
The number of N trails required would depend on the desired accuracy of Pf. The random
numbers were generated using an in built random generator of xIC compiler running on AIX
operating system and seeded by the system time 232. Range of random variables was set
depending on the assumed variation, assuming the range between a and b. First a random
number, N1 was generated for a uniform probability density function with limits 0.0 to 1.0. This
random number was transported to a new random number, r1 which corresponds to the re-
quired PDF over a range a to b.In this manner, random variables were generated and the
243
resistance (ultimate load) corresponding to each value of the variable is being calculated using
NISA. The above procedure was repeated sufficiently, say, n times. The mean of all these
resistance values was calculated as follows:
(1.2)
And the variance is calculated as follows
(1.3)
Having known the mean and standard deviation, the reliability was calculated using the normal
probability density functions shown in Fig. 2 and equation (1.4)
Reliability index (1.4a)
Probability of failure was calculated as Pf = Ö (-â) (1.4b)
And theory of reliability, i.e. probability of success, is obtained as (1- Pf).
Fig. 2. Basic reliability problem.
50 random values of yield stress and cohesion have been generated to carryout the reliability
analysis. Table 1 shows the values of reliability index and reliability for different CSF. Fig. 3
and 4 show the plots of reliability for both the conditions i.e. fixed bottom and pile supported
bottom for different values of CSF.
244
Table 1. Values of reliability index and reliability for fixed bottom and pile supported jacket
CSF ß for fixed bottom Reliability for fixed ß for pile supported Reliability for pile
jacket bottom jacket (MN) jacket supported jacket
(MN)
1 0.0 0.50 0.0 0.50
1.1 0.8857 0.81192 0.898 0.8146
1.2 1.73634 0.958625 1.7641 0.9122
1.3 2.55 0.99461 2.5967 0.99527
1.4 3.327 0.99956 3.395 0.9996568
1.5 4.068 0.999976 4.158 0.999984
1.6 4.7718 0.99999908 4.887 0.999999495
1.7 5.4397 0.99999991 5.582 0.999999988
1.8 6.073 1.00 6.243 1.00
1.9 6.6725 1.00 6.872 1.00
Fig. 3. Plot showing the values of reliability index for two boundary conditions.
Fig. 4 . Plot showing the values of reliability for two boundary conditions.
3.0 RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
The present investigation is concerned with calculation of reliability of offshore jacket struc-
tures, which are of very complex and typical of structures encountered in offshore environment
for the purpose of drilling and exploiting oil and gas from the seabed. Based on this research
the following conclusions are advanced.
245
A procedure to calculate the ultimate strength of offshore pile using NISA software has been
developed.
A methodology to find the ultimate strength of offshore jacket structure using NISA has been
developed for two different boundary conditions, i.e. for fixed bottom and for pile supported
jacket.
A method of finding reliability for any service load on the jacket structure and pile has been
developed.
From the results obtained for both fixed bottom and pile supported jacket, it has been ob-
served that the reliability is of pile supported jacket is slightly more (.000159) at a CSF of 1.4.
From the results obtained for material nonlinearity only case and both material and geometric
nonlinearity, it was observed that the reliability is 2.5% more for material nonlinearity only
case.
It is observed that at higher CSF the difference in reliability is very less between material
nonlinearity only case and both material and geometric nonlinearity case. But the difference is
significant when the central safety factor is low.
The difference in reliabilities of both the types of structures is found to be very less i.e. 0.000159
at the same CSF of 1.4 and is significant at CSF of 1.2 (.046).
The failure of the structure is governed by the structural failure of the jacket rather than soil
failure or pile failure, as the soil chosen here is stiff enough. Only top 3 springs are deformed
when the load is applied. So enough care must be taken while designing the jacket structure
so that the failure of the jacket governs the ultimate strength.
The reliability of jacket structure with pile-supported bottom at a CSF of 1.4 (most commonly
adopted in practice) is found to be 0.9996589 and that of fixed bottom jacket is found to be
0.9995.
It is most appropriate for us to give special recognition and express our gratitude to Prof. S.
Narasimha Rao, Department of Ocean Engineering for his lavish help and valuable sugges-
tions during this work.
246
REFERENCES
API Recommended Practice 2A-LRFD (2000), Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing
Fixed Offshore Platforms Load, Resistance and Factor Design,
Anderson, W.D., Moses, F., (1982) Reliability procedure for fixed offshore platforms, Journal of Structural
Division, ASCE, Vol. 108, pp.2402-2427.
Allin Cornell, C., (1995), Structural reliability, some contributions to offshore technology, Proceedings of off-
shore Technology Conference, OTC 7753, pp 535-542.
Bea, R.G., (1993), Reliability criteria for new and existing platform, Proceedings of offshore Technology
Conference, OTC 6312, Houston, Texas, pp 393-408.
Chen, W.F., and Han, D.J., (1985), Tubular Members in Offshore Structures, Pitman, London, England.
De, R. S., (1995), Risk analysis methodology for developing design and assessment criteria for fixed offshore
structures, Proceedings of Offshore Technology Conference, OTC 7755, pp.543-548.
Deeks, A.J., (1996), Automatic computation of plastic collapse loads for frames, Computers and Structures,
Vol. 60, pp.391-402.
IS: 2911-Part IV (1985), Code of Practice for Design and Construction of pile foundations, Load test of piles,
Indian Standard Institution, New Delhi.
Krieger, W.F., (1994), Process for assessment of existing platforms to determine their Fitness for Purpose,
Proceedings ofo Offshore Technology Conference, OTC 7482, pp.131-138.
Matlock, H., (1981), Various aspects of soil-structure interaction as related to offshore Drilling Platforms,
Proceedings of Inter national Conference on Ocean Engineering, INCOE81, pp.103-119.
Matlock, H. and L. C. Reese (1960), Generalized solutions for laterally loaded piles, Journal of Soil Mech. &
Found. Engg. Div., AASCE, Vol. 86, No. SM5, pp. 63-91.
Mazurkiewicz, B. K, Offshore Platforms and Pipelines.
Poulos, H. G. (1971), Behavior of laterally loaded piles I-Single piles, Journal of Soil Mech. & Found. Div., ASCE,
Vol. 97, No. SM5, pp. 711-751.
Poulos, H. G. and E. H. Davis (1980), Pile foundation analysis and Design, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Ranganathan, R., (1999), Structural Reliability, Analysis & Design, 1st Edition, Jaico Publishing House, India.
Reese, L.C., (1981), Soil-structure interaction, Proceedings of International Conference on Ocean Engineering,
INCOE81, pp.143-154.
Van de graaf, J.W., Tromans. P.S., (1994), The reliability of offshore structures and its code and environment,
Proceedings of offshore Technology Conference, OTC 7382, pp.105-118.
247
INFLUENCE OF BULBOUS BOW ON THE RESISTANCE

CHARACTERISTICS OF A CATAMARAN
Y. Balasubramanyam1* and R. Natarajan2
Abstract
Presently, a various types of marine vehicles are being developed to meet the increased
demand for inland and coastal transportation services. Since the propulsive power of any
marine vehicle mainly depends on its resistance characteristics, it is essential to develop a
suitable hull form of the marine vehicle in order to obtain better resistance characteristics
which contemplate primarily on fuel economy. In the initial design stage, the propulsive power
is usually predicted analytically by any one of the existing power prediction methods. But,
however, it is necessary to conduct model tests to obtain the final hull form. Hence, for the
present study, a 1:12 scale catamaran model with typical bulbous bow was tested for three
hull spacings in the towing tank at Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian institute of
technology Madras, Chennai. The model test results are analyzed and presented with discus-
sions in this paper.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
A number of advanced marine vehicles are being developed for inland and coastal transporta-
tion purposes. Among these marine vehicles, catamaran is very much popular because of its
design features for large deck area, more stability, better resistance and sea keeping quali-
ties. The most effective method to determine the resistance of any vessel is to conduct model
tests for that vessel and identify the hull parameters which govern the resistance characteris-
tics of the vessel. For the hull form of any vessel, the bow shape plays an important role for
better resistance characteristics of a vessel. A vessel with a bulbous bow has considerably
better resistance characteristics and requires less propulsive power than the same vessel
without bulbous bow. But, the reduction in power also depends on the different shapes of the
bulb. Extensive research is still on the optimization of the bulb configurations. In the present
study, an attempt has been made to investigate the resistance characteristics of a catamaran
with a typical bulbous bow experimentally.
2.0 DETAILS OF CATAMARAN MODEL
A 1:12 scale geosim catamaran model was fabricated in FRP material with the particulars of
the demihull given in the Table 1.The bulbous bow is designed based on the design charts
(Alfred, 1978).The bulb model was also fabricated in FRP material and fitted on the bow of the
*Corresponding author, e-mail : 1balu_bs2001@yahoo.co.in, 2rnrajan@iitm.ac.in
248
demihull.The different bow shapes of the demihull are shown in Fig 1. A suitable steel frame
structure was fabricated with provision for varying the hull spacings. The two demihulls were
assembled using this steel frame for a particular hull spacing (s/L) to form a catamaran model
where s is the spacing between the demihulls and L is the length of the catamaran. An
assembled view of the catamaran model is shown in Fig 2.
Table 1. Details of prototype and model of the demihull.
DESCRIPTION PROTOTYPE MODEL

(1:12 Scale)
Length over all (LOA) 41.15 m 3.40 m
Length between 36.00 m 3.00 m

perpendiculars (LBP)
Breadth (mld) 3.00 m 0.25 m
Depth (mld) 3.00 m 0.25 m
Draft 1.67 m 0.139 m
Displacement 74.39t 42 kg
Speed 17 knots 2.52 m/s
CB 0.4 0.4
CP 0.8 0.8
CM 0.5 0.5
Ordinary bow for hull configuration-1 Bulbous bow for hull configuration-2
Fig. 1. Different bow shapes of the demihull.
Fig. 2. Catamaran model with bulbous bow for hull configuration-2.
249
3.0 MODEL TESTS
The present experimental investigation was carried out in towing tank with the dimensions of
82mx3.2mx2.5m in Department of Ocean Engineering, at Indian Institute of Technology Ma-
dras, Chennai. At the forward end of the towing tank, a trimming tank is provided to facilitate
proper ballasting of the model to the required draft. The towing carriage can be operated in the
low speed range by a low duty D.C. motor (manual control only), whereas in the higher speed
range, it can be operated by a heavy duty D.C. motor fed by a Ward-Leonard set (both by
manual and electronic control) and the A.C./D.C. power supplied through overhead bus bars.
The towing carriage is provided with braking system for stopping the model at any position in
towing tank. Also for safety purposes, emergency braking rails are provided at both the ends
of towing tank, which retard the towing carriage. For the present study, a 25 kg load cell was
used which was mounted on the towing carriage to measure the resistance of the catamaran
model.
Initially, the demihull model with ordinary bow was trimmed to loaded condition and fitted to
the towing carriage between the clamps. This clamping arrangement will prevent the model
from sway, roll and yaw motions. The load cell was fixed rigidly to the mild steel angle, which
is mounted on the carriage. The demihull model was then connected to the load cell by means
of a steel wire from the tow hook attached to the model through pulley arrangement. The
experiments were carried out by running the model at different speeds (Vm). During each run,
the total resistance of model (Rtm) was measured using the data acquisition system. Then, the
two demihull models were connected to form the catamaran model for the hull configuration-1.
The same procedure as that of demihull test was repeated to find out resistance of catamaran
model (Rtmc) with different hull spacings, i.e., s/L = 0.13, 0.26, 0.40.
Finally, the fabricated bulbs were attached to the demihull model to obtain the hull configura-
tion-2 of the catamaran model and the above mentioned procedure was repeated again to
obtain the resistance of the catamaran model with bulbous bow for hull configuration-2.
The variation of the total resistance of the demihull (Rtd) with Froude number (Fn) at different
speeds (Vd) for two hull configurations is shown in Table 2 and Fig. 3. The variations of the total
resistance (Rtca) and interference factor (IF) of the catamaran with Froude number (Fn) at
different speeds (Vca) for two hull configurations are shown in Table 3 and Figs.4 to 7 where
the interference factor (IF) is defined by,
IF = [RRCA- 2(RRD)] / 2 RRD

where
RRCA = Residuary resistance of catamaran
RRD = Residuary resistance of demihull
250
A comparison for the resistance at the service speed of 17 knots for two hull configurations is
shown in Fig. 8.
Demihull
From the analysis of demihull model test results, it is observed that the resistance of the
demihull has a decreasing trend with change in hull configuration-1 to hull configuration-2. The
demihull for the hull configuration-2 has 16% to 18% reduction for higher speeds in compari-
son with hull configuration-1.
Catamaran
Based on the model test results of catamaran for hull configurations-1&2, the following infer-
ences are made:
· For s/L=0.13, the catamaran for hull configuration-2 has reduction in resistance of 30%
to 40% for lower speeds and 15% to 20% for higher speeds when compared to that of hull
configuration-1.
configuration-1.
configuration-1
· Interference factor mainly depends on the wave making resistance of the catamaran.
The positive and negative interference factors shown in Fig. 7 are because of the interference
effects of the wave pattern created by the bow and stern of the catamaran.
· An increase in hull spacing as shown in Fig. 8 causes reduction in resistance of the

catamaran based on operational requirements. If the separation distance is further increased
the resistance of the catamaran will not converge to zero, but it is the summation of the two
demihulls since the resistance characteristics of each demihull is considered to be that of a
monohull. The separation distance mainly depends on the width of the channel for which the
hull spacing is to be optimized for safe navigation.
251
Table 2. Resistance of the demihull for the hull Configurations-1&2.
S Vm Vd Hull configuration-1 Hull configuration-2 Vd Fn

no (m/s) (m/s) Rtm Rtd Rtm Rtd (knots)
(kg) (kN) (kg) (kN)
1 0.85 2.94 0.24 3.18 0.20 2.52 5 0.13
2 1.1 3.81 0.423 5.78 0.35 4.57 7 0.18
3 1.3 4.50 0.49 6.50 0.40 5.01 8 0.21
4 1.5 5.19 0.745 10.29 0.62 8.22 10 0.26
5 1.8 6.23 1.01 13.95 0.85 11.31 12 0.32
6 2 6.92 1.15 15.74 0.98 12.93 13 0.34
7 2.4 8.31 1.98 28.32 1.72 24.01 16 0.42
8 2.6 9.00 2.70 39.6 2.31 33.14 18 0.48
Table 3. Resistance and interference factor of the catamaran for hull configurations 1&2 with different hull
spacings.
Sl Vca Hull configuration-1 Hull configuration-2 Fn

No (knots)
s/L =0.13 s/L =0.26 s/L =0.40 s/L =0.13 s/L =0.26 s/L =0.40
Rtca IF Rtca IF Rtca IF Rtca IF Rtca IF Rtca IF
(kN) (kN) (kN) (kN) (kN) (kN)
1 5 8.22 0.478 6.53 0.044 3.14 -0.82 6.53 0.57 5.68 0.25 4.8 -0.07 0.13
2 7 12.20 0.085 10.51 -0.137 7.12 -0.58 7.12 -0.389 6.27 -0.55 5.42 -0.71 0.18
3 8 16.25 0.428 12.86 -0.018 11.16 -0.24 9.47 -0.118 7.77 -0.48 6.08 -0.85 0.21
4 10 21.86 0.094 20.16 -0.03 16.77 -0.28 13.38 -0.32 11.70 -0.50 9.99 -0.68 0.26
5 12 30.05 0.12 26.66 -0.068 23.27 -0.25 18.2 -0.34 14.80 -0.61 13.1 -0.74 0.32
6 13 30.3 -0.06 27.75 -0.192 23.51 -0.41 25.2 -0.04 20.12 -0.41 16.7 -0.66 0.34
7 16 36.28 -0.51 34.59 -0.555 29.5 -0.68 26.11 -0.7 22.72 -0.81 19.3 -0.92 0.42
8 18 43.71 -0.59 40.32 -0.652 36.93 -0.709 36.93 -0.628 33.54 -0.70 28.4 -0.81 0.48
45
40
RESISTANCE (kN)
35
30
25 WITHOUT BULB
20 WITH BULB
15
10
5
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
FROUDE NUMB ER (Fn)
Fig. 3. Comparison of resistance of demihull without and with bulb.

s/L =0.13
50 s/L =0.26
RESISTANCE (kN)
s/L =0.4
40
30
20
10
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
FROUDE NUMBER (Fn)
Fig. 4. Comparison of resistance of the catamaran for the

hull configuration-1 with different hull spacings.
252
s/L =0.13
0.6
s/L =0.26
0.4
s/L =0.4
0.2
0
IF
-0.2 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
FROUDE NUMBER (Fn)
Fig. 5. Comparison of the interference factor of the catamaran for the hull configuration-1 with different hull
spacings.
s/L =0.13
40
s/L =0.26
35
s/L =0.4
RESISTANCE( kN)
30
25
20
15
0
10
5
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
FROUDE NUMBER (Fn)
Fig. 6. Comparison of resistance of the catamaran for the hull configuration-2 with different hull spacings.
s/L =0.13
0.8
s/L =0.26
0.6
s/L =0.4
0.4
0.2
IF 0
-0.2 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
FROUDE NUMBER (Fn)
Fig. 7. Comparison of the interference factor of the catamaran for the hull configuration-2 with different hull
spacings.
50 CONFIGURAT ION-1
CONFIGURAT ION-2
40
RESISTANCE (kN)
30
20
10
0
0 500 1000 1500
HULL SPACING (mm)
Fig. 8. Comparison of the resistance of catamaran with different hull spacings at the
service speed of 17 knots for the hull configurations-1&2.
253
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
Based on the present experimental investigation, the following conclusions are derived on the
influence of bulbous bow on the resistance characteristics of the catamaran:
Demihull
· The variation of resistance with Froude number is non-linear in nature with humps and hol
lows for the resistance characteristics of the demihull.
· The resistance of demihull increases with increase in speed and decreases from hull con
figuration-1 to hull configuration-2.
· The relative difference in resistance between the demihull without and with bulb increases
with speed of the demihull. This result follows the same trend of mono hull resistance charac-
teristics available in published results.
· The hull configuration-2, i.e., demihull fitted with bulbous bow has better resistance charac
teristics when compared with the demihull with ordinary bow
Catamaran
· For any hull spacing, the resistance of catamaran increases with increase in speed for all
hull configurations, since the wave interference is more at higher speeds.
· For the service speed of 17 knots, the resistance is less for a catamaran with bulbous bow
when compared to that of ordinary bow. This is mainly due to the change in bow shape.
· Finally, better resistance characteristics is obtained for the hull configuration-2, i.e., for a
catamaran fitted with bulbous bow for a larger hull spacing, since resistance will be less due
to less wave interference.
investigation and preparation of this paper.
REFERENCES
Holtrop, J. and Mennen. G.G.J., (1972), An approximate power prediction method, ISBP., pp.166-169.
Chel stromgren., (1995), A comparison of alternative bow configurations, Marine Technology, 32(3),224.
Alfred, M. Kracht., 1978, Design of bulbous bows, SNAME Transactions, 86, 197-217.
254
Turner. H and Taplin. A. (1968), The resistance of large powered catamarans, SNAME, 272-292.
Corlett. E.C.B, (1969), Twin hull ships, TRINA, 401-426.
Edward, V. Lewis, Editor, (1988), Principals of naval architectures, Vol 1 &2, SNAME.
Bohyun Yim, (1974), A simple design theory and method for bulbous bow of ships, Journal of Ship Research,
18, 141-152.
255
SLAMMING FORCES ON AN OPEN SEA MOORING

DOLPHIN WITH BATTERED PILES
S. Neelamani1* and P. Baskaran2
1
Coastal Engineering and Air Pollution Dept, EUD, Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, P.O. Box : 24885,
13109 SAFAT, KUWAIT.
2
Chennai Port Trust, Chennai 600 001, INDIA.
Abstract
The accurate estimation of the slamming force on an open sea mooring dolphin built in a wave
and tide dominating region is essential for safe and economic design of such structures.
Physical model investigations with water waves on a typical open sea mooring dolphin model
containing a deck slab and nine piles (One vertical and 8 inclined) is carried out to estimate
the uplift wave forces for different tidal conditions. The water depths are varied such that the
deck slab encounters both fully submerged and fully exposed conditions. It is found that the
uplift force is critical when the deck is just fully submerged for relatively short waves. Rela-
tively long waves are critical, when the deck is just emerged. The slamming coefficient on the
open sea mooring dolphin varies from 2 to 8. An average slamming coefficient, Cs of 5 can be
used for this structure for the estimation of average uplift force. For deck submerged case, the
maximum uplift force is nearly 5 times that of the maximum in-line force. It is found from the
study that the open sea mooring dolphin receives highest in-line and uplift forces when the
deck is completely submerged and not when the bottom of the deck is touching the still water
level. The coefficient of correlation between the uplift and in-line forces is closer to 1.0 for the
submerged deck case of the mooring dolphin. When the deck is emerged, the coefficient of
correlation is closer to zero. Design of open sea mooring dolphin should take care of all these
important points both for safety and economics.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Marine terminals consisting of approach trestle, Jetty head, mooring and breasting dolphin is
one of the options to handle especially the liquid cargoes in open sea conditions. This facility
is normally used during fair-weather seasons of up to certain sea states and threshold operat-
ing conditions w.r.t. dynamic response of vessels and mooring forces. Inside the harbor,
normally, the mooring force dictates the design of mooring dolphin. But for the open sea
mooring dolphin, its design is dictated by the extreme wave forces during storms, rather than
the mooring forces plus normal wave forces during the fair weather window. If the location has
predominant tidal fluctuations along with significant wave action, then the deck slab of the
mooring dolphin may experience submerged condition. Mooring dolphin normally contains a
deck slab resting on a number of piles. Vertical pile groups are relatively easy to drive com-
256
pared to battered piles, but battered piles are proved to be better for resisting the horizontal
wave and mooring loads. Study on uplift forces on such structures is scarce. Hence a de-
tailed physical model investigation on uplift wave loads on a typical open sea mooring dolphin
consisting of eight battered piles and one vertical pile is carried out. High tidal variations are
introduced in the study, so that the deck of the mooring dolphin experiences both fully sub-
merged and fully exposed situations. Theoretical estimation of uplift wave forces on such
mooring dolphin is uncertain because of complicated wave structure interaction due to the
presence of many closely placed slender piles, dominant vortex shedding and partial submer-
gence of the deck slab during the action of high waves. The research based on physical model
is carried out since even an approximate calculation of uplift wave loads under the above
conditions will be cumbersome.
There are extensive literatures available on in-line wave forces on single vertical cylinder sub-
jected to the action of waves from slender to large body region (viz. Morison et al., 1950;
MacCamy and Fuchs, 1954). Works on pile groups consisting of two or more piles either in
drag dominated or inertia dominated regime are reported by many authors. These are mainly
to study the interference effects and spacing ratio of piles on wave forces; Ex: Spring and
Monkmeyer (1974), Yamamoto (1976), Chakrabarti (1978) and Issacson (1978) and Chakrabarti
(1982).
A review of air gap problem is given by Bolt (1999), wave forces on piled/open structures by
Tickell (1994) and on solid structures by Allsop (2000). Wave force on the deck of the offshore
platforms was studied by Kaplan (1992), Bea et al. (1999) and Sterndorff and Groenbech
(1999). Smith and van Gent (1998) have reported about the wave impacts on a jetty deck.
Smith et al. (1999) has investigated on the effect of air gap on slamming forces.
It is found from the existing literature that only little information is available on uplift wave loads
on mooring dolphin type structures in the open sea mooring dolphin and especially for high
tidal variations. The interest in the construction of open sea mooring dolphins has recently
increased worldwide. This is the main motivation for the authors to carry out the present
investigation on slamming forces on open sea mooring dolphin.
3.1 Experimental facility and set-up

The experiments were conducted in a 2 m wide, 30 m long and 1.7 m deep wave flume at the
Department of Ocean Engineering, IIT Madras, Chennai. Fig. 1 shows the cross sectional
details of the 2 m wave flume and Fig. 2 shows the mooring dolphin model. The flume consists
of piston type wave generator at one end and a sloped rubble type wave absorber at the other
end.
257
3.2 Details of model
The model was fabricated by using PVC sheets of thickness 10 mm and PVC pipes of 63 mm
outer diameter. The model consists of two parts:
a. A square box type deck of size 0.60 m x 0.60 m x 0.10 m. It is fabricated using PVC
sheet of 10 mm thick. The box is leak proof.
b. A pile group consisting of nine piles (one vertical at the centre and eight battered).
The mooring dolphin contains a vertical pipe at center and battered pipes of angle 3V in 1H at
all the eight directions at center-to-center distance of 0.20 m on linear direction on both ways.
To get the strength and rigidity of the mooring dolphin model, the piles were welded with PVC
plate of size 1.0 m x 1.0 m x 0.01 m thick at the bottom. The piles were also welded with the
bottom of the deck by using plastic welding rods. For the rigidity of the pile the inner hollow
portion of the PVC pipes were filled with pieces of PVC plates to suit the pile inner diameter.
A six component force balance was rigidly fixed in a 2 m long, 2 m wide and 0.6 m high pit and
the top plate of the force balance was flushed with the flume bottom. The force balance was
located at a distance of 13 m from the wave generator. The mooring dolphin model was fixed
on the force balance. The force balance is capable of measuring three forces and three mo-
ments. A twin-wire conductivity type wave probe was used for determining the wave height and
wave periods. The data from the experiments was recorded by using a PC based data acqui-
sition system at a sampling rate of 40 samples/sec.
3.3 Experimental parameters

The details of the model and hydrodynamic parameters are given in table 1 as follows:
Table 1. Details of input parameters.
Description Unit Model Values

Water Depth, d m 0.36 to 0.78
Wave Period, T & Tp sec 1.0 to 3.0
Wave Height, Hi & Hs m 0.05 to 0.30
Distance between the bottom of the m 0.6
deck to the flume bed, h
here T is the wave period for monochromatic waves and Tp is the peak period of the random
waves, Hi is the incident wave height of the regular waves and Hs is the significant wave height
of the random waves.
258
3.4 Non-dimensional parameters
The details of the various non-dimensional parameters obtained in the present study both for
regular as well as random waves are given below:
Range of significant wave steepness, (Hi/L & Hs/Lp) = 0.006 to 0.110

Range of relative water depth, (d/L & d/Lp) = 0.066 to 0.502
Range of relative deck height, (h/d) = 0.77 to 1.67
Range of relative wave height, (Hi/d & Hs/d) = 0.056 to 0.57
4.1 General
The water depth is varied such that it covers three different submergence of the deck and four
emergence of the deck. Uplift forces are presented in terms of slamming coefficient, Cs which
is defined as follows:
Cs = Fz / (0.5 ρ A V2) (1)
where,
Fz = Maximum uplift force

ρ = Mass density of water
A = Plan area of the deck (0.6 m x 0.6 m)
V = Calculated undisturbed vertical water particle velocity at
still water level (SWL) using linear wave theory.
First the slamming force coefficients for the reference case (h=d) is discussed. Then the
effect of varying h/d is revealed. The order of magnitude of uplift force compared to the inline
force is discussed. The cross correlation between the inline and vertical force is brought out by
using cross correlation coefficient. Typical results of random wave experiments are presented.
The results of the present investigation can be used in the design of open sea mooring dol-
phins in places, where the tidal variation is significant (e.g., coastal waters of Gujarat, India).
4.2 Uplift force on the reference case of mooring dolphin, h/d = 1.0
The effect of wave period (in terms of D/gT2) on the slamming coefficient, C for the open sea
s
mooring dolphin (Reference case, h=d) for a typical incident wave height (H/D = 4.58) is given
in Fig.3. It is to be noted that the vertical force on the mooring dolphin is due to the forces on
the deck plus the vertical forces on all the nine piles (8 battered and one vertical). It is found
from this plot that the slamming coefficient is very sensitive for change in wave period. It is
seen that the slamming coefficient ranges from 2 to 8 for this typical input condition, when
259
D/gT2 varies from 0.01 to 0.042. In the actual field condition, wave height does not depend on
period to a large extent. Hence it is advisable to consider the maximum value of Cs for the
design of mooring dolphin for the slamming force.
The effect of wave height on slamming coefficient on the reference case of the open sea
mooring dolphin for a typical wave period (D/gT2 = 0.024) is given in Fig.4. It is found that the
slamming force coefficient is reduced when H/D is increasing. This is due to the fact that when
the high waves are acting on the reference case (h/d = 1.0), significant mass of water was
traveling over the deck and it must offer a counter downward load on the mooring dolphin. This
in turn reduces the vertical upward force on the mooring dolphin. This is an interesting phe-
nomenon, which helps in the reduction of uplift force when the wave height acting on the
structure is increasing. The average value of the slamming coefficient is about 6.0.
4.3 Effect of tidal variation on the uplift wave forces

Fig. 5 shows the effect of h/d on the uplift force ratio (the uplift force is defined as the maxi-
mum uplift force on the mooring dolphin at any relative deck level to the maximum uplift force
on the mooring dolphin when h=d under identical hydrodynamic test conditions). The plot is
given for D/gT2 of 0.0016 and 0.0007 and for a constant Hi/D of 3.56. It is seen that for D/gT2
= 0.0016 (relatively a short wave), the maximum value of the uplift force ratio is as high as 1.8,
which occurs for deck submergence case with h/d = 0.77. It is also seen that the change in
the value of h/d from 0.77 to 1.0 is very sensitive on the variation of the uplift forces ratio on the
open sea mooring dolphin for the case of D/gT2 = 0.0016. For the emerged case, the variation
in h/d has little influence on the variation of uplift force ratio. For the long wave interaction (i.e.
D/gT2 = 0.0007), the trend of variation of uplift force ratio is completely different from that of
short wave interaction. For the completely submerged deck case (h/d = 0.77), the normalized
uplift force value is only about 0.4. The normalized uplift force is increased to an extent of 1.6
for the emerged case of the deck. Overall it is concluded that the uplift force is very critical
when the deck is submerged for relatively short wave interaction and is critical for relatively
long wave interaction when the deck is emerged.
The effect of h/d for a fixed wave period (D/gT2 = 0.0064) and for two different wave heights (Hi/
D = 1.74 and 2.63) are provided in Fig. 6. It is seen that the uplift force ratio is slightly less or
little bit more than 1.0 for the submerged case of deck and it increases significantly when h/
d >1.0. A maximum uplift force ratio of 2.5 is estimated for the deck emerged case h/d of 1.66.
It is concluded that the uplift force ratio is very sensitive for wave period compared to wave
height. The design value of uplift force on the mooring dolphin must be selected using the
design wave height and period of the selected site and using Figs. 3 to 7. Additional plots for
different range of wave heights and periods are available in Bhaskaran (2002).
260
4.4 Coefficient of correlation between the uplift and in-line force on the open
sea mooring dolphin
A coefficient of correlation, Cc between the uplift force and inline force only indicate the de-
signer whether both the forces are required to be considered simultaneously in the design of
the open sea mooring dolphin. For example, if Cc between the uplift and in-line force is 1.0,
then it indicates that the maximum uplift force and the maximum in-line force occurs at the
same phase of the wave and this will be very critical in the design. It is because the moment
induced by the in-line force and the simultaneous uplift force is expected to add for the tensile
force on the seaside piles. Fig.7 is provided to understand the correlation between the uplift
and in-line forces as a function of h/d for a constant incident wave height (Hi/D = 3.56) and for
two different wave periods (D/gT2 of 0.0016 and 0.0007). It is found that the value of Cc for the
submerged case of deck for D/gT2 of 0.0007 (Relatively long wave) is closer to 1.0, which is the
critical one for the design. For the same wave period case, with increased h/d and when the
deck is emerged completely, the coefficient of correlation has reduced to 0.1, which mean
that there is almost 90 degree phase lag exists between the uplift force and in-line force. The
coefficient of correlation for the case of D/gT2 of 0.0016 for the deck submergence case pro-
vides a completely different picture. For the fully submerged deck case (h/d = 0.77), the Cc
value is closer to 0.1 and for completely exposed case, the Cc value is closer to 0.0. The
maximum value of Cc of about 0.6 occurs when h/d = 1.0.
4.5 Random wave forces on the open sea mooring dolphin

The random wave experiments were carried out for different combinations of significant wave
heights and peak periods. A typical plot showing the effect of h/d on the spectral density of
slamming wave force on the open sea mooring dolphin is presented in Fig. 8 for the case of Hs/
D = 1.59 and D/gTp2 of 0.0016. It can be seen that the spectral value of the slamming force is
maximum for h/d = 0.77. The maximum spectral density value is about 350.0 kgf2/sec. For
the emerged case (h/d > 1.0), the spectral density values are closer to each other with peak
spectral values from 100 to 150.0 kgf2/sec, proving that submergence of deck has nearly 2
times increase in the spectral density of slamming forces. Similar trend was already observed
in Fig. 5 for the case of regular waves. More information on random wave force on the mooring
dolphin can be obtained from Bhaskaran (2002).
Hence, it is clear that an open sea mooring dolphin receives highest uplift forces when the
deck is completely submerged with h/d of about 0.77 to 0.83 and not when h/d = 1.0. This
aspect must be given due attention in the design of open sea mooring dolphin in an area where
the tidal fluctuations are high.
261
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
Based on the present experimental investigations on a typical open sea mooring dolphin
model with one vertical and eight battered piles, the following conclusions can be drawn:
The uplift force is very critical when the deck is submerged for relatively short wave interac
tion and is critical for relatively long wave interaction when the deck is emerged.
The slamming coefficient on the open sea mooring varies from 2 to 9. An average slam ming
coefficient, Cs of 5 to 6 is recommended for this structure for the estimation of average uplift
force.
Open sea mooring dolphin receives highest uplift forces when the deck is completely sub
merged with h/d of about 0.77 to 0.83 and not when h/d = 1.0.
The coefficient of correlation between the uplift force and in-line force is closer to 1.0 for the
submerged deck case of the mooring dolphin. For emerged deck case, the coefficient of
correlation is closer to zero.
The authors are thankful for the appropriate authority of IIT Madras for providing the facility for
the physical model study.
REFERENCES
Allsop, N.W.H., 2000, Wave forces on vertical and composite walls. Chapter 4, Handbook of Coastal Engineering,
Edited by Herbich, J., McGraw-Hill, New York, pp. 4.1-4.47.
Baskaran, P., 2002, Wave loads on a mooring dolphin with battered piles. M.Tech. Thesis, Department of Ocean
Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai India.
Bea, R.G., Xu, T., Stear,J. and Ramos, R., 1999, Wave forces on decks of offshore platforms. J. Of Waterway,
Port, Coastal & Ocean Engg., Vol. 125, No.3.
Bolt, H.M., 1999, Wave-in-deck load calculation methods. Paper 4.3, Airgap Workshop, Imperial College, June
1999, HSE/E&P Forum, Publn BOMEL, Maidenhead.
Chakrabarti, S.K., 1978, Wave forces on multiple vertical cylinders, Journal of the Waterways, Port, Coastal and
Ocean Division, ASCE, Vol. 104, WW2, pp. 147-161.
Chakrabarti, S.K., 1982, In-line and transverse forces on a tube array in tandem with waves, Applied Ocean
Research, Vol. 4, No. 1.
Issacson, M.St.Q., 1978, Interference effects between large cylinder in wave. OTC paper No. 3067.
Kaplan, P., 1992, Wave impact forces on offshore structures: re-examination and new interpretations. OTC
paper 6814, 24th OTC, Houston, USA.
262
MacCamy, R.C. and Fuchs, R.A., 1954, Wave forces on piles : A diffraction theory. Tech. Memo. No. 69. B.E.B.,
USA.
Morison, J.R., OBrien, M.P., Johnson, J.W. and Schaaf, S.A., 1950, The forces exerted by surface waves on
piles: Journal of Petroleum Tech., AIMME, Vol. 2, No. 5, and Pet. Trans., AIMME, Vol. 189, pp. 149-154.
Smith, G.M. and van Gent, M.R.A., 1998, Wave impacts on a jetty deck. Summary paper 137. Book of abstract for
26th Int. Conf. on Coastal Engg., DHI, Horsholm, Denmark, pp. 274-275.
Smith, D., Birkenshaw, M. and Bolt, H.M., 1999, Airgap determination-meeting the challenge. Paper 1.1, Airgap
Workshop, Imperial College, June 1999, HSE/E&P Forum, Publication BOMEL, Maidenhead.
Spring, B.M. and Monkmeyer, P.L., 1974, Interaction of plane wave with vertical cylinders. Proc. 14th ASCE, Vol.
3.
Sterndorff, M.J. and Groenbech, J., 1999, A numerical model for prediction of wave loads on offshore platform
decks. Paper 4.2, Airgap Workshop, Imperial College, June 1999, HSE/E&P Forum, Publication BOMEL,
Maidenhead.
Tickell, R.G., 1994, Wave forces on structures. Chapter 28. Coastal, Estuarial and Harbour Engineers reference
book. Edited by Abbott, M.B., and Price, W.A. ISBN 0-419-15430-2, E & FN Spon, London, pp. 369-380.
Yamamoto, T., 1976, Hydrodynamic forces on multiple circular cylinders, Journal of Hydraulics Division, ASCE,
Vol. 102, HY9, pp. 1193-1210.
0.60m
PLAN VIEW
0.60m
0.10m
Water level
‘h’ =0.60m
3
Force Balance Plate 1
Elevation
Fig. 1. Experimental set up of Mode.
Fig. 2. View of model after fabrication.
263
10
8 H /D
6 4.58
Cs
4
2
0
0.000 0.020 0.040 0.060 0.080
d/gT2
Fig. 3. Slamming coefficient vs d/gT for the reference deck level, h/d = 1.0.
D/gT 2
0.024
15
10
5
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
H/D
Fig. 4. Slamming coefficient vs H/d for the reference deck level, h/d = 1.0.
2
1.8
1.6 Emergence D/gT
2
Submergence
1.4 0.0016
0.0007
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4 d h
0.2
0
0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7
Fig. 5. Uplift force ratio (Fz(md)/Fz(md,ref) vs h/d for H/D = 3.56.
264
3
2.5 H/D
1.74
2 2.63
Submergence
Emergence
d h
0.5
0
0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7
h/d
Fig. 6. Uplift force ratio (Fz(md)/Fz(md,ref) vs h/d for D/gT2 = 0.0064.
0.9
0.8
d h
0.7
0.6
D/gT2
Cs
0.5 0.001
0.4 0.0007
0.3 Emergenc
0.2 Submergenc
0.1
0
0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
h/d
Fig. 7. Cc between Fx and Fz vs h/d for H/D = 3.56.
h/d
400
350 0.77
300
0.83
0.91
Sfx (kgf 2-sec)
250
1.00
200
1.11
150
1.25
100 1.43
50
1.67
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 8. Typical slamming force spectrum on the mooring dolphin for Hs/D = 1.59 & D/gT2 = 0.0016.
265
COMPUTATION OF WAVE LOADS ON FLOATING

STRUCTURES
S.P. Singh* and S. Dhavalikar
Indian Register of Shipping, 52-A, Adi Shankaracharya Marg, Powai, Mumbai 400072
Abstract
In the present paper, computation results for both first and second order forces are presented.
The method for computation is based upon 3-D zero speed frequency domain Greens func-
tion (Garrison et al., 1972). The second order forces are computed based on the near field
approach proposed by Pinkster, 1980. The computations are carried out for various shapes
and results are compared with other available results. The results of the first order heave
response and the second order mean drift surge forces for the hemisphere are presented.
Also the first order motion response of a semi-submersible is presented.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Wave loads can be subdivided into first order wave loads, which are proportional to the wave
amplitude and the second order wave loads, which are proportional to the square of the wave
amplitude. First order wave loads are responsible for the periodic oscillation of the structure in
six degrees of freedom, whereas the second order wave forces can cause structure to drift
away from its equilibrium position. In irregular waves, second order forces have a mean and
slowly varying component. Although these forces are smaller compared to the first order
forces, they can cause large amplitude horizontal displacements, this is because of the fact
that slowly varying component of the second order wave forces may have frequency (so called
difference frequency) close to the resonating frequency in the surge, sway and yaw motion,
hence these second order forces become very important for the design of mooring systems of
floating structures. Hence, the accurate estimation of wave load and motion response is of
great importance for design and safe operation.
From the hydrodynamic analysis point of view, the structures can be divided into two groups.
Firstly, there are structures made up of space frame of tubular members of relatively small
diameter, here the Morrison type of equation can be used for the estimation of wave forces.
Secondly, there are large volume structures, where the diffraction effects are prominent and
Morrison methods cannot be used for estimation of forces. For the analysis of these types of
structures one has to resort to 3-D panels methods.
*e-mail: spsingh@irclass.org
266
2.0 METHODOLOGY
2.1 Boundary value problem

Consider a surface S(x,y,z) immersed in an inviscid and incompressible fluid (Fig 1). The co-
ordinate system chosen is such that the mean free surface lies on z = 0 plane. The bottom
is assumed to be horizontal and at z = − h .
x
a
z’ a
x’
y
y’ h
S(x,y,z)=0
Fig. 1. Immersed surface.
In potential flow theory fluid is assumed to be irrotational so that velocity potential Φ exists
and velocity vector of fluid is given as
q = ∇Φ(x, y, z , t ) (1)
Considering only the harmonic motion of fluid, Φ is expressed as
{
Φ = Re ϕ (x , y , z )e
− i ωt
} (2)
where, ϕ = complex potential, ω = 2π / T = frequency of motion and T = period.
By applying continuity equation, governing equation of fluid motion is obtained

as ∇ q = 0 , i .e ., ∇ 2 Φ = 0 throughout the fluid domain.
Bottom boundary condition can be stated as no fluid can pass through the bottom (ocean
floor), i.e., vertical velocity of the fluid at the bottom is zero.
∂φ
=0 at z = −h
∂z (3)
267
Similarly on the immersed surface of the object the normal velocity is given as
∂φ
Vn = on S ( x, y , z ) = 0 (4)
∂n
On the mean free surface, combining kinematic and dynamic conditions, linearized boundary
condition results
2
∂φ ω
− φ =0 on z=0 (5)
∂z g
For the infinite fluid case the velocity potential associated with the flow about a body can be
described by either a simple source or doublet distribution over the surface of body. In the
case of the doublet distribution, the normal component of velocity is continuous across the
surface S(x, y, z), but the value of ϕ jumps (i.e., not continuous). Thus, this method is conve-
nient for representation of thin shell with fluid on either side. In case of source distribution,
normal velocities are discontinuous across the surface S. But, generally, flow on one side is of
interest and source distribution method is more convenient. This method is used to find the
potential ϕ, using Greens function method.
Lets consider a point (ξ,η,ζ) on S and f(ξ,η,ζ) is the unknown source distribution at this point.
The potential at some point (x, y, z) may be expressed in terms of surface distribution of
sources as
1
φs = ∫∫ f (ξ , η , ζ ) G ( x, y , z ; ξ , η , ζ ) dS (6)
4π S
Here G ( x , y , z ; ξ , η , ζ ) is the source potential known as Greens function. It satisfies all the
boundary conditions, except the equation (4).
G can be expressed in the form

1 *
G = +G (7)
R
2 2 2
where, R = (x − ξ ) + ( y − η) + (z − ζ ) (8)
G * satisfies ∇ 2 G * = 0 throughout the fluid region.
Depending upon the water depth Greens function can be evaluated using two methods (Gar-
rison, et al., 1972):
(1) The integral form of Greens function (for infinite depth) is
268
∞ − µd
1 1 ( µ + v) e
G= + + 2 PV ∫ × cosh µ (ζ + d ) cosh µ ( z + d ) J 0 ( µr ) dµ (9)
R R’ 0 µ sinh µd − v cosh µd
2 2
(k − v )
+ 2πi cosh k ( z + d ) × cosh k (ζ + d ) J 0 ( kr )
2 2
(k − v ) d + v
’ 2 2 2
R = (x − ξ ) + ( y + 2h + η ) + (z − ζ )
2 2
r= (x − z) + (z − ζ )
P.V. is the principal value of the integral.
(2) The series form of Greens function (for finite depth) is
2 2
2π (v − k )
G= cosh k ( z + d ) × cosh k (ζ + d )[Y0 ( kr ) − iJ 0 ( kr )]
2 2
(k − v ) d + v
∞ 2 2
µm + v (10)
+4 ∑ cos µ m ( z + d ) × cos µ m (ζ + d ) K 0 ( µ m r )
m=1 ( µ 2 + v 2 ) d − v
m
J = Bessel function of first kind of order zero

o
Y = Bessel function of second kind of order zero

o
K = modified Bessel function of second kind of order zero

o
µ = real positive roots of equation : µ k tan( µ k h ) + V = 0

k
2.2 Numerical solution

If the kinematic boundary condition, equation (4), on the immersed surface is applied the
following integral equation is obtained
∂ ∂
− 2 πf ( x, y , z ) + ∫∫ f (ξ , η , ζ ) G ( x, y , z ; ξ , η , ζ ) dS + 4π φ i ( x, y , z ) = 0 (11)
S ∂n ∂n
269
where
∂G ∂G ∂G ∂G
= ∇G ⋅ n = nx + ny + n z = derivative of G in outward normal direction.
∂n ∂x ∂y ∂z
To solve the integral equation panel method is used in which the surface S is subdivided into
N quadrilateral patches (panels) of area ∆S j ( j = 1,2, . , N ) . Ideally the integral equation is
to be solved at all (x,y,z) points of immersed surface S. But in this method in order to have
discretized solution, the integral equation is solved only at the centroids of N quadrilateral
panels. Then the integral equation becomes
∂
− 2 πf i ( x, y , z ) + ∫∫ f (ξ ,η , ζ ) G ( xi , yi , z i ; ξ , η , ζ ) dS = 4πVn (12)
S ∂n i
The surface integral in the equation (12) may be written as the sum of the integrals over the N
panels of areas ∆S j and as an approximation, the source strength function f(ξ,η,ζ) may be
taken as constant over each panel so that the equation (12) becomes
− f i + α ij f i = 2v ni , i , j = 1, 2, . , N (13)
where αij is the velocity induced at ith node point in the direction normal to the surface by a
source distribution of unit strength distributed uniformly over jth panel and is given as
∂G
α ij =
1
∫∫ ( )
xi , y i , z i ; ξ , η , ζ dS (14)
2π ∆s j ∂n
Assuming Vn is known, unknown source strength vector fi is calculated as
[f ] = 2[α − I ]−1 [Vn ]

Subsequently ϕ is found out as
1 
φi =  ∫∫ G ( xi , y i , z i ; ξ , η , ζ ) dS  ⋅ f i = Bij ⋅ f i i , j = 1, 2, . , N
 4π ∆S j 
2.3 Pressure and force calculations

The hydrodynamic pressure on the immersed surface is given by using Bernoullis equation
as
P = ρω Re iφe[ −i ω t
]− 12 ρ Re[(φ x2 + φ y2 + φ z2 )e −i 2ωt ]− 12 ρ  φ x 2 + φ y 2 + φ z 2  − ρgz
(15)
In this expression the first and fourth terms give rise to the so called first order forces and the
second and third term, resulting from the quadratic velocity term in Bernoullis equation give
rise to the so called second order forces. These two terms are generally small as compared
270
with the first and fourth terms. But the third term, which is independent of time, is significant
in case of wave interaction with floating bodies.
The fourth term (-ρgz) is the hydrostatic pressure and gives rise to buoyant force and contrib-
utes to drift force. The first term causes the first order hydrostatic reaction and wave exciting
forces.
Forces are obtained by integrating the pressure equation over the surface S
F = − ∫∫ P ⋅ NdS
S (16)
where N is the normal vector of surface element.
2.4 Second order forces

To get the second order forces, pressure P and normal vector N in above equation can be
expanded up to second order (Pinkster, 1979) so that
( 0) (1) 2 ( 2) (1) 2 ( 2)
F = − ∫∫ ( P + εP +ε P )( n + εN +ε N ) dS (17)
S
By expanding we get
( 0) (1) 2 ( 2) 3
F =F + εF +ε F + O (ε )
where F ( 0)= Hydrostatic force

F (1)= First order oscillatory fluid force
F ( 2) = Second order force.

(2)
Second order force F can be divided into different components as
1. First order relative wave elevation

1 (1) 2
− ρg ∫wl (ζ r ) ⋅ n ⋅ dl
2
dl = length of waterline element
2. Pressure drop due to first order velocity

1 2
(1‘)
− ∫∫ − ρ ∇φ ⋅ n ⋅ dS
So 2
So is the initial wetted surface (when ship is steady)
3. Pressure due to product of gradient of first order pressure and first order motion
(1)
− ∫∫ − ρ ( X ⋅ ∇φ t ) ⋅ n ⋅ dS
So
271
4. Contribution due to products of first order angular motions and inertia forces
(1) (1)
α ⋅ (M ⋅ X g )
5. Contribution due to second order potentials.

( 2) ( 2)
− ∫∫ − ρ (φ wt + φ dl ) ⋅ n ⋅ dS
So
The following are the results of unit radius freely floating hemisphere in infinitely deep water.
For the computation, mean wetted surface of the body is approximated by 180 facets. For the
computation of the second order force component, dependent on the relative wave elevation,
the waterline is approximated by 100 waterline elements. The relative wave elevation is com-
puted at the centre of each line element.
Force is non-dimensionalised with ρgaζ 2 where ρ is the density of water, g is the gravita-
a
tional acceleration, a is the radius of hemisphere and ζ is the wave amplitude. , The results
a
are plotted against non-dimensional frequency ka where k is the wave number. The results
shown are for the head sea conditions.
Also, the results of the semi-submersible are presented here. Only the first order motion
response is given. To describe the semi-submersible geometry 520 panels are used. It is
observed that the results match with the standard available results.
REFERENCES
Garrison, C.J. and Chow, P.Y. (1972) Wave forces on submerged bodies, ASCE Waterways and Harbors,
375-392.
Pinkster, J.A., (1979), Low frequency second order wave exciting forces on floating structures, Ph.D. Thesis,
Delft Univ., The Netherlands.
272
present ka
0
2 Analytical
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Mean drift surge force

Heave RAO
1.5 -0.2
1 -0.4
0.5 -0.6
0
-0.8
0 10 20 30
T(sec.) -1
Fig. 2. Heave response of hemisphere. Fig. 3. Surge mean drift force for hemisphere.
2
Present
1.6 Experiment
Surge
1.2
0.8
0.4
0
0 1 2 3
w (nondimensional)
Fig. 4. Panel approximation of semi-submersible. Fig. 5. Surge response of semi-submersible
0.8 1.6
Present
Present
1.2 Experiment
0.6 Experiment
Pitch
Heave
0.4
0.8
0.4
0.2
0
0
0 1 2 3 4
0 1 2 3 4
w (nondimensional) w (nondimensional)
Fig. 6. Heave response of semi-submersible. Fig. 7. Pitch response of semi-submersible
273
SEAKEEPING CHARACTERISTICS DURING INITIAL

DESIGN
Debabrata Sen*, Subhendu Maity and Saumya Sengupta
Dept. of Ocean Engineering & Naval Architecture, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur-721 302
Abstract
During initial design stage of a vessel, usually detailed sea-keeping computations are not
performed while evolving the principal dimensions of the hull. Sea-keeping is considered based
on some elementary design guidelines. In this paper we propose a scheme wherein during
preliminary design itself, the choice of the principal dimensions, particularly length and breadth,
the two most influencing factors in this regard, can be made considering the sea-keeping
performance predicted from an industry-standard method of computation. An example case is
shown where length and breadth are systematically varied. For this particular hull it is seen
that the detailed calculation is likely to lead the designer to a choice which may be contrary to
the choice he/she would have made based on the simplified design guidelines.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Until the recent past, ship motions and sea-keeping characteristics have not been considered
seriously during the initial stages of design: the usual practice has been to determine these
characteristics after the basic design parameters are finalized. The practice helps assessing
the vessel behavior in sea-environment, and in case of poor performance only small changes
can be made. Marginal changes in the shape, such as easing the radius of curvature of the
bilges or changing the dead-rise angle at the keel, for example, have little discernible effect on
ship motions in the vertical plane. A far better choice is however to consider sea-keeping
calculations as part of the initial design cycle itself while choosing the basic proportions
(principal dimensions) of the hull.
This paper discusses a method where the hull parameters are evolved considering the pre-
dicted performance of the vessel in waves. Usually in any design, the principal dimensions are
chosen based on owners requirement on the carrying capacity of the vessel (eg. deadweight,
no. of containers etc.), or its mission requirement with regard to what may loosely be termed
as vehicle payload. Once the principal dimensions are reached from these considerations,
these can be further changed within some constraints so as to get the best possible sea-
keeping performance of the vehicle. In this paper, we discuss how length and breadth, the two
most important design parameters influencing motions, can be systematically scaled up/
down and the influence of these changes on the motions and overall sea-keeping performance
*E-mail: deb@naval.iitkgp.ernet.in
274
of the hull is determined, during finalizing these parameters in the initial design stage itself.
These particular parameters have been selected because they are known to have appreciable
effects on sea-keeping performance. By this process an improved hull for its sea-keeping
performance within the given design constraints can be evolved.
2.0 BACKGROUND AND METHOD
The usual procedure for determining response of any vessel in irregular sea is to determine the
vehicles response spectra:
SR (ωe ) = [RAO(V , β ,ωe )]2 Sw (ωe ) (1)
where SR (ωe ) is the so-called response spectrum and Sw (ωe ) is the encountered wave
spectrum, and ωe is encountered frequency. In (1), RAO is response amplitude operator,
which is essentially the vessels response in regular waves defined here as response-ampli-
tude per unit wave-amplitude. All these parameters depend on vessel speed (V ) and heading
angle ( β ) . The wave spectrum also depends on the specified sea-conditions, i.e., sea-state,
which in turn can be modeled in terms of significant wave height, and/or some characteristics
wave period. From the response spectrum, all statistical quantities of interest can be deter-
mined, all of which can be related to the area and various moments ( mn ) under the response
spectrum:
∞ ∞
mn = ∫ ω SR (ωe )dωe = ∫ ωen [RAO(V , β ,ωe )]2 Sw (ω e )dωe
n
e
(2)
0 0
There can be a large number of responses of interest to the vehicle. These are the basic six
modes of displacements (surge, sway, heave, roll, pitch, yaw), velocities and accelerations.
There can also be a large number of so-called derived-responses such as bow-motion, relative
bow motion, slamming and deck wetness, added resistance etc. As the name suggests,
these can be derived from the primary six responses.
The above procedure is quite straightforward and algebraic in nature. The main concern in
applying the above is in the determination of the RAOs where-in lies the hydrodynamics of the
problem. It is this RAO which is most difficult to estimate, and is dependent on hull geometry
(in addition to speed and heading). In the literature, there have been many methods for esti-
mating the RAOs ranging from very simple graphical data-base-type methods to the most
modern 3D methods. However, the 3D method of computing the sea-keeping characteristics
are still not at the stage of development where they can be used for routine industry applica-
tion; these are still at R&D stage and also extremely time-consuming to compute. The
present industry standard is to apply some reliable and well-tested version of strip-theory-type
of synthesis. In this regard, the version of strip theory developed by Salvesen, Tuck and
Faltinsen (1970), known in the literature as the STF method remains the most popular and
reliable method for estimating RAOs for conventional hull forms at moderate Froude-numbers.
275
This method has been proved to be particularly reliable for motions in the vertical plane (heave,
pitch and all those derived from it such as relative bow-motion, slamming, deck-wetness) in
head waves. If proper viscous roll damping is modeled, this method also gives reasonable
reliable roll motions.
Briefly, the STF version of the strip theory method solves the potential flow boundary value
problem by reducing it to a two-dimensional equivalent, and considering a 2D solution of the
sectional strips. The sections are defined by means of a set of offset points. The sectional
properties (added mass, damping, exciting force) are computed using a boundary-integral
method (Franks close-fit method). The details of the method can be found in standard refer-
ences such as Lewis (1989), Journee (2001), Bertram (2000) etc.
The method requires modeling the hull geometry by a set of offset points, along a set of
stations. It is here that the systematic variation of the hull can be made. By defining the
geometry suitably non-dimensionalized by length (L ) , breadth (B ) and draft (T ) , these pa-
rameters can be systematically varied about a basic hull shape. By introducing non-dimen-
sional parameters x ’ = x / L ; z ’ = z / D ; y ’ = y / B , the offset can be represented
as y ’ = f ( x ’, z ’) . Therefore, once a basic hull shape (i.e. lines plan) has been arrived, the
principal dimensions of L, B,T can be systematically varied very easily. This procedure does
not cause a change of the basic hull forms itself in the sense that the lines plan remains same
in its proportion to the original form. All that is achieved is that the basic hull gets scaled up/
down. (This is in principle same as the generic hull forms like series 60, where the hull is
defined in terms of non-dimensional parameters.)
3.0 SOME FACTORS INFLUENCING SEAKEEPING RESPONSES
Theory says that the effects of longitudinal motions (pitch, heave and surge) and of transverse
motions (roll, yaw and sway) can for practical purposes, be considered separately. This is
because the design features to reduce motions are generally different for the two cases.
Motions in the vertical plane (heave and pitch) are affected more by choice of ship dimensions,
have a greater effect on attainable of ship speeds in rough seas and are less amenable to
artificial control. In absence of detailed sea-keeping calculations, designer often make deci-
sion on the principal parameters based on estimates of natural period. For example, consider
the natural pitch period T . This is given by,
n5
1 1
1
 Ck 2 + A55 ’ 
1
(3)
 ∇   ∇ L  2  Ck + A55 ’ 
2 2 2 2
1
Tn 5 (g / L ) 2
= 2π  2    = 2π  3   
 BL   CIL  L B  CIL 
where Ck and CIL are non-dimensional coefficients such that Ck is kyy/L (kyy being the longi-
tudinal radius of gyration) and CIL is the conventional waterplane inertia coefficient, IL/L3B,
∇ is volume, and A55 ’ is the non-dimensional pitch added moment of inertia. From the
above, it can be seen that in order to reduce Tn5(g/L)1/2 increased length relative to the dis-
276
placement is generally desirable. Similarly, expressing in terms of draft-length ratio, we have,
1 1
T  2  C  2
(4)
Tn 3 (g / L ) (1 + A33 ’) 2
1 1
2
= 2π    B 
 L   CWP 
Here CB and CWP are block coefficient and waterplane area coefficient of the vessel respec-
tively. Such an analysis will generally indicate to the designer that an increase in length in
relation to displacement and draft will usually give a relatively more favorable response (i.e.
less response) in the vertical plane.
Considering the transverse motions (roll, yaw and sway), roll is of particular interest of conven-
tional ships as it makes the largest contribution to the objectionable acceleration. For most
ships the magnitude and frequency range of these accelerations happen to correspond to
those of the maximum human sensitivity and thus are very likely to produce motion sickness
in rough seas. The natural period of roll (Tn 4 ) is,
2π k 4 (5)
Tn 4 =
g.GM
where GM is transverse meta-centric height. In such a case the longest practicable natural
roll period of ships is favorable as far as sea sickness is concerned. The simplest way to
achieve a long natural period of roll is to adopt a low value GM . Unfortunately this affects
ships transverse stability adversely, and the minimum stability standards may not be met.
Reduction in GM may involve reduction in beam, which is generally unfavorable for damping.
This is where consideration of beam in the preliminary design of a vessel is important.
The above discussion shows that the designer has some rough guides regarding the choice of
the principal dimensions and basic hull parameters for favorable sea-keeping characteristics
based on some very simplified analyses. However, these are at best rough guides, and may
often not yield the results as predicted by the designer. It would be far more desirable to
evaluate the effect of these changes in principal particulars by directly computing sea-keep-
ing.
The proposed method is investigated for a basic hull of length between perpendiculars of 52.8
m, molded breadth of 11 m, and molded draft of 3 m. This vessel is having a relatively large
B / L, B / T and L / T , i.e. this vessel is short and wide with low draft. These ratios were
evolved during initial design considering the vessels mission requirement. Fig. 1 shows the
half-breadth plan of the basic hull.
277
Fig. 1. Body (section) plan of the example vessel.
About this basic hull shape, computations were performed by changing the length and breadth
within the range ±20% . For any value of length, breadth (and draft) combination, the algo-
rithm produces very quickly the entire set of sea-keeping characteristics over a range of user
specified wave-headings, vessel speed and sea-state conditions. The characteristics com-
puted include besides the primary six motions, displacements, velocities and amplitudes,
other derived responses such as bow and relative bow motions, slamming, deck wetness,
added resistance, accelerations at any user specified points, motions sickness index, added
resistance etc. (In fact, any derived response can be determined.) As the data generated is
very high, in this paper we show results for only those responses which were found to be high
and significant for this hull. These were found to be slamming and deck wetness in head
waves for the vertical plane motions (both of which depend on heave and pitch), and roll in
beam waves. Results are also shown for sea-states 3, 4 and 5, which may be considered to
be moderate to mildly high sea conditions in which the vessel is likely to operate for consider-
able time.
278
Fig. 2(a) show slamming in terms of no. of slams/hour for the variations in breadth for different
base lengths, and Fig. 2(b) shows the same response for variation in length for a given breadth.
As can be seen, the vessel has excessive and unacceptable slam (for this speed of 12 knots),
and therefore any modification in the parameters leading to reduction in slam will be desirable.
It is clear that increase in breadth and a decrease in length causes improved slam character-
istics. Similar results for deck wetness are shown in Fig 3(a) and (b). While here an increase
in length has marginal influence, an increase in breadth appears to cause a relatively more
favorable deck wetness characteristic. In short, both slamming and deck wetness for this hull
appear to be improved if beam of the vessel is increased in relation to length. This seem to be
contradictory to the general perception on the vertical plane motions of heave and pitch, where
the general design guidelines stipulate that response characteristics in vertical plane are
improved for increased non-dimensional length to displacement ratio, which for a given draft
means, increased L/B ratio. Clearly the present computation shows danger of such simplified
design guidelines which may not be valid for all types of vessels. Scrutiny of heave and pitch
responses for this hull (not shown here) have revealed that both these motion displacements
are only marginally influenced by the changes in length. The excessive slam appears to be
related to excessive relative bow motion combined with low draft. The large relative bow mo-
tions resulted from an unfavorable phase-combination of heave and pitch.
The results for roll, which was also found somewhat large for this vessel is shown in Fig. 4(a)
and (b). This shows interestingly that the present combination of length and breath in fact is
the poorest combination as far as roll is concerned: a change in either direction (i.e. increase/
decrease in length/beam) will result in a reduction in roll. As expected, lowering the beam
reduces roll to a greater extent. However, considering the slam and deck wetness character-
istics, for this hull it may be better to increase the beam marginally for overall improvement in
the sea-keeping of this hull.
5.0 CONCLUDING REMARKS
This paper discussed how sea-keeping can be considered a part of the initial design cycle
itself during deciding the basic hull characteristics (principal dimensions). In the past, the
practice has been to consider sea-keeping during initial design based on certain general
guidelines. However, such guidelines may not always indicate to the correct direction of changes,
as is revealed for the example hull chosen here. For this hull for example it is found that the
vessel has excessive slamming and deck wetness, and a reduction of these will be achieved
by increasing the breadth to length ratio as opposed to increasing length, which is what would
have been generally indicated from the simplified design guidelines. Therefore, it would be a
far better choice to evaluate sea-keeping characteristics for basic changes in hull parameters
by using reliable and established industry-standard methods during the initial design stage
itself.
279
REFERENCES
Bertram, Volker, (2000), Practical Ship Hydrodynamics, 2000, Butterworth.
Journee, J.M.J and Massie, W., (2001), Offshore Hydromechanics, Delft University of Technology.
Lewis, E.V. (Editor), (1989), Principles of Naval Architecture, Volume III, Chapter 8. Motions in Waves. SNAME,
NJ, USA.
Salvesen, N., Tuck, E.O. and Faltinsen, O.M., (1970), Ship motions and sea loads, SNAME Transactions, Vol. 78.
SLAM ( at L = 0.8 ) SLAM (at B = 0.8)
350 400
300 350
250
300
Sea State 6
Slam / hr
Slam / hr
250
200
Sea State 5
200
150
150
100
Sea State 4
100
50 50
0 0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
% change in B % change in L
SLAM (at L = 0.9 ) SLAM (at B = 0.9)
350 400
300 350
300
250
Slam / hr
Slam / hr
250
200
200
150
150
100
100
50
50
0 0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
SLAM (at L = 1.0 ) SLAM (at B = 1.0)
400 350
350 300
300
250
Slam / hr
Slam / hr
250
200
200
150
150
100
100
50
50
0 0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
SLAM (at L = 1.1 ) SLAM (at B = 1.1)
350 350
300 300
250 250
Slam / hr
Slam / hr
200 200
150 150
100 100
50
50
0
0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
% change in B
% change in L
SLAM (at L = 1.2 ) SLAM (at B = 1.2)
400 350
350 300
300 250
Slam / hr
Slam / hr
250
200
200
150
150
100
100
50
50
0 0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
Fig. 2(a). Frequency of occurrence of slam Fig. 2(b). Frequency of occurrence of slam
for varying beam (B). for varying length (L).
280
DECK WETNESS (at L = 0.8 ) DECK WETNESS (at B = 0.8)
160 160
140 140
120 120
dkwt / hr
100
dkwt / hr
100
80 80
60 60
40 40
20
20
0
0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
% change in L
% change in B
160 140
140 120
120
100
dkwt / hr
dkwt / hr
100
80
80
60
60
40
40
20 20
0 0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
160 120
140
100
120
80
dkwt / hr
dkwt / hr
100
80 60
60
40
40
20
20
0 0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
140 120
120
100
100
80
dkwt / hr
dkwt / hr
80
60
60
40
40
20 20
0 0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
% change in B
% change in L
140 100
120 90
80
100
70
dkwt / hr
dkwt / hr
80 60
50
60
40
40 30
20 20
10
0
0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
% change in B -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
% change in L
Fig. 3(a). Frequency of occurrence of Fig. 3(b). Frequency of occurrence of

deck wetness for varying beam (B). deck wetness for varying length (L).
281
ROLL (at L = 0.8 ) ROLL (at B = 0.8 )
10 1.4
9
1.2
8
7 1
6 0.8
5
0.6
4
3 0.4
2
0.2
1
0
0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
ROLL (at L = 0.9 ) ROLL (at B = 0.9 )
12 18
16
10
14
8 12
10
6
8
4 6
4
2
2
0 0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
ROLL (at L = 1.0 ) ROLL (at B = 1.0 )
16 25
14
20
12
10
15
8
10
6
4
5
2
0 0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
ROLL (at L = 1.1 ) ROLL (at B = 1.1 )
18 20
16 18
16
14
14
12
12
10
10
8 8
6 6
4 4
2
2
0
0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
% change in L
% change in B
ROLL (at L = 1.2 ) ROLL (at B = 1.2 )
25 18
16
20 14
12
15 10
8
10
6
4
5
2
0
0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
% change in L
% change in B
Fig. 4(a). Roll amplitudes for varying beam (B). Fig. 4(b). Roll amplitudes for varying length (L).
282
RELIABILITY ASSESSMENT OF TLP TETHERS

UNDER IMPULSIVE LOADING
R. A. Khan2, N.A. Siddiqui1*, S.Q.A. Naqvi1 and S. Ahmad2
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh-202002
2
Department of Applied Mechanics, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi-110016
Abstract
In the present study, reliability assessment of Tension Leg Platform (TLP) tethers against
maximum tension (i.e. tension exceeding yield) has been carried out under combined action
of extreme wave and impulsive forces. For this purpose, a nonlinear dynamic analysis of TLP
has been carried out in time domain. Using responses obtained after dynamic analysis under
sinusoidal, half-triangular and triangular impulsive forces and employing Von-Mises theory of
failure-based limit state function, reliability assessment of TLP tethers has been carried out.
Effect of angle of impact of various impulsive forces on tether reliability has also been investi-
gated on parametric basis.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Tension Leg Platforms are found to be most suitable option for deep-water oil and gas explo-
rations under deep-sea conditions. These platforms have to withstand safely frequently occur-
ring environmental forces, such as those arising due to wave, wind, water current, tide etc.
and less probable forces, such as those arising due to collision of ship, with iceberg or any
huge sea creature etc. Since last one decade good number of research papers appeared in
various journals and conference proceedings on various aspects of dynamic and reliability
assessment of Tension Leg Platforms. Kareem (1985), Vickery (1995) and Ahmad (1996)
studied dynamic response of TLPs under conventional environmental forces. Siddiqui and
Ahmad (2003a), discussed response behaviour of TLP under less probable impulsive forces.
Lotsberg (1991), Harding and Banon (1989), Amanullah et al. (2002), Siddiqui and Ahmad
(2000, 2001, 2003b) studied reliability of TLP tethers under conventional environmental forces.
The reliability assessment of TLP tethers under less probable small duration impulsive forces
such as that arising due to collision of ships, icebergs, big marine or sea creatures etc,
however, are not seen in the literature. Keeping this point in view, in the present study, the
reliability assessment of TLP tethers under such small duration impulsive forces have been
carried out. For this purpose, a nonlinear dynamic analysis of TLP has been carried out in
time domain. Using responses obtained after dynamic analysis under sinusoidal, half-triangu-
lar and triangular impulsive forces and employing Von-Mises theory of failure-based limit state
function, reliability assessment of the TLP tethers has been carried out against various impul-
sive forces. Effect of angle of impact of various impulsive forces on tether reliability has also
*Corresponding author, e-mail: nadeemahsan@rediffmail.com
283
been investigated on parametric basis.
Fig. 1. A Tension Leg Platform.
2.0 MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION
For mathematical formulation a symmetric TLP (Fig. 1) has been considered. This TLP con-
sists of a square deck supported on four cylindrical columns, which are provided at each
corner and are interconnected at their bottom by four cylindrical pontoons. The columns are
anchored to the seabed by cylindrical steel tether and fixed in place with templates. The
reliability assessment of these tethers against maximum tension i.e. tension exceeding yield
value, is the objective of the present study. For this purpose, first we have carried out dynamic
analysis under various impulsive forces and then using its response tether reliability analysis
has been carried out in a similar way as discussed in Siddiqui and Ahmad (2003 b).
2.1 Impulsive force

The impulse is a special class of relatively very short duration dynamic loading. It is in general
made up of a single major impulse of usually sinusoidal, triangular, half-triangular and rectan-
gular forms. In the present study, however, we have considered sinusoidal, triangular and half-
triangular shaped impulsive forces. These three shapes cover a wide range of impulsive load-
ings. These impulses are derived as follows (Khan 2004):
284
2.1.1 Sinusoidal impulse
A sinusoidal impulsive load f(t) at any time t can be expressed as
 π (t − t 0 ) 
f (t ) = f max sin   for t o ≤ t ≤ (t o + t d ) (1)
 td 
f (t ) = 0 for t ≥ (to + td ) (2)
where, t is its loading duration; fmax is the peak value of impulse; T is the time period of the
d
impulsive load; and to is the time at which the structure experiences the impulse.
2.1.2 Triangular impulse

A triangular impulsive load f(t) at any time t can be expressed as
 (t − t 0 ) 
f (t ) = 2 f max   for t o ≤ t ≤ (t o +t d 2 ) (3)
 t d 
 (t − (t − t o )) for (t + t 2 ) ≤ t ≤ (t + t )
f (t ) = 2 f max  d  o d o d
(4)
 t d 
f (t ) = 0 for t ≥ (t o + t d ) (5)
2.1.3 Half-triangular impulse

A half-triangular impulsive load f(t) at any time t can be expressed as
 (t − t 0 ) 
f (t ) = f max   for t o ≤ t ≤ (t o + t d ) (6)
 td 
f (t ) = 0 for t ≥ (t o + t d ) (7)
3.0 NUMERICAL STUDY

In the present study, reliability assessment of TLP tethers against maximum tension has
been carried out under extreme wave and in the presence of impulsive forces. The sea wave is
considered as regular, with wave height as 17.15 m and wave period as 13.26 sec. This sea
state is the most extreme sea state of twelve sea states considered by Siddiqui and Ahmad
285
(2003b) in their reliability analysis of TLP tethers under conventional environmental forces. The
data representing the geometrical and mechanical characteristics of TLP under study has
been shown in Table 1. Other relevant statistical data that are necessary for reliability assess-
ment are taken from Siddiqui and Ahmad (2000) paper.
Table 1. Geometrical and mechanical characteristics of TLP under study

(Siddiqui and Ahmad 2001).
Parameter Magnitude
Tether diameter 0.40 m
Axial stiffness 5806 t/m
Weight of tether 5257 tons
Radii of gyration (Rx,R y,R z) 29.15 m, 29.15 m, and 32.15 m
Breadth of TLP hull 72.5 m
Diameter of corner columns 14.2 m
Diameter of the pontoon 11.2 m
Length of hull 44.1 m
CG above SWL 9.25 m
7
Mass of platform 2.095×10 kg
8
Total tether pretension 1.245×10 N
Center to center spacing 58.3 m
Current velocity near sea surface & at sea bed 1.40 m/s, 0.15 m/s
8
Buoyancy 34×10 N
Water depth 500.0 m
Draft 26.6 m
11 2
Modulus of elasticity of steel 2.095×10 N/ m
Sea drag coefficient, C D 0.8
Sea inertia coefficient, C I 1.8
4.0 DISCUSSIONS OF RESULTS
In the present study, we have considered three locations of impulsive forces, as shown in Fig.
2. These three locations are designated as Case 1 , 2 and 3. In Case 1, impulsive force acts
on column 1; in Case 2 on column 7 and in Case 3 on pontoon 8. These three cases cover
three worst possible cases of impulsive loading.
Fig. 2. Location of Impulsive forces.
286
4.1 Tether reliability under impulsive loading
Table 3 shows that due to impulsive force, acting on columns 1 and 7 (i.e. Case 1 and 2, Fig.
2), of sinusoidal and triangular nature there is a considerable increase in dynamic stresses. It
is due to this reason that there is a dramatic decrease of tether reliability in Cases 1 and 2
compared to no impulse case (Table 2). This decrease in tether reliability or increase in tether
stresses may be due to participation of those degrees of freedom (such as yaw) to tether
stress which were insignificant in the absence of impulsive forces on TLP columns. However,
when impulsive force acts on a TLP pontoon (Case 3) there is no significant change in maxi-
mum tether stress or reliability. This is so because impulsive force is not causing any signifi-
cant change in any of the degrees of freedom. Further, since energy content of half-triangular
impulse is not appreciably larger than exciting wave energy we do not observe any change in
maximum tether stress or tether reliability due to this impulsive force. Table 4 further shows
that in Case 2, under sinusoidal and triangular impulsive forces, reliability of tether is falling
below 3, which is less than the desired safety value. This indicates present TLP specification
should be altered to obtain the desirable range of reliability index (3-4), if such impulsive forces
have to be considered in the designing.
Table 2. Reliability of TLP tethers under wave alone (i.e. without any impulsive force).
Tether stress (MPa) Pf b

120.42 4.82 x 10-14 7.45
Table 3. Reliability of TLP tethers under impulsive forces (Angle of impact=0°).
Case Location Nature of Tether Pf b

No. of impulse stress
impulse (MPa)
1 Column Sinusoidal 177.43 4.04 x 10-05 3.94
Triangular 173.34 1.46 x 10-05 4.18
Half 120.42 4.82 x 10-14 7.45
Triangular
2 Column Sinusoidal 209.02 1.18 x 10-02 2.26
Triangular 204.95 6.85 x 10-03 2.47
Half 120.42 4.82 x 10-14 7.45
Triangular
3 Pontoon Sinusoidal 120.42 4.82 x 10-14 7.45
Triangular 120.42 4.82 x 10-14 7.45
Half 120.42 4.82 x 10-14 7.45
Triangular
4.2 Effect of angle of impact

Reliability assessment of TLP tethers has also been carried out under variation of angle of
impact as shown in Table 4 to 6. Table 5 shows that if a sinusoidal impulse, acts at an angle
of 45° with respect to X-axis on column 1, reliability index falls to 2.99 from 3.94 when angle of
impact was 0°. This may be due to participation of sway component in the tether stress.
Similar situation we do observe for triangular impulsive loading when it acts at an angle of 45°
(Table 5). This analysis shows that under impulsive loading even if a TLP tether is safe at one
287
angle of impact it may become completely unsafe at some other angle of impact. Therefore,
for a safe design of TLP tethers one should carry out extensive dynamic and reliability analy-
ses for different values of impact angle.
Table 4. Reliability of TLP tethers under various angles of impact (sinusoidal impulse).
Case Location Angle of Tether Pf b

No. of impact stress
impulse (degrees) (MPa)
0 177.43 4.04 x 10-05 3.94
15 164.48 1.21 x 10-06 4.71
1 Column 1 30 175.49 2.52 x 10-05 4.05
45 194.66 1.39 x 10-03 2.99
60 150.70 1.13 x 10-08 5.59
0 209.02 1.18 x 10-02 2.26
15 163.47 8.91 x 10-07 4.78
2 Column 7 30 174.65 2.04 x 10-05 4.10
45 193.30 1.0 9 x 10-03 3.06
60 149.53 7.23 x 10-09 5.67
0 120.42 4.82 x 10-14 7.45
15 120.42 4.82 x 10-14 7.45
3 Pontoon 8 30 120.42 4.82 x 10-14 7.45
45 120.42 4.82 x 10-14 7.45
60 120.42 4.82 x 10-14 7.45
Further, these tables show that there is no fixed pattern in reliability variation with angle of
impact. This may be due to the fact that with a change of angle of impact there is a change in
participation of various degrees of freedom to tether stresses. At one angle of impact, one
degree of freedom may be more influencing while, at other angle of impact some other degree
of freedom may be more influencing to tether stress. It is to be noted here again that for the
half-triangular impulsive force there is no change in reliability with angle of impact (Table 6).
This is so because the energy imparted by half-triangular impulse is not appreciably larger
than exciting wave energy to cause any significant change in tether stresses.
Table 5. Reliability of TLP tethers under various angles of impact (triangular impulse).
Case Location Angle of Tether Pf b

0 177.43 1.46 x 10 -05 3.94
15 181.72 1.09 x 10 -04 4.71
1 Column 1 30 174.47 1.95 x 10 -05 4.05
45 220.33 4.18 x 10 -02 2.99
60 150.41 1.01 x 10 -08 5.59
0 204.95 6.85 x 10 -03 2.26
15 161.88 5.42 x 10 -07 4.78
2 Column 7 30 173.68 1.59 x 10 -05 4.10
45 219.06 3.69 x 10 -02 3.06
60 149.31 6.64 x 10 -09 5.67
0 120.42 4.82 x 10 -14 7.45
15 120.42 4.82 x 10 -14 7.45
3 Pontoon 8 30 120.42 4.82 x 10 -14 7.45
45 120.42 4.82 x 10 -14 7.45
60 120.42 4.82 x 10 -14 7.45
288
Table 6. Reliability of TLP tethers under various angles of impact (half-triangular impulse).
Case Location Angle of Te ther Pf b

0 120.42 4.82 x 10-14 7.45
15 120.42 4.82 x 10-14 7.45
1 Column 1 30 120.42 4.82 x 10-14 7.45
45 120.42 4.82 x 10-14 7.45
60 120.42 4.82 x 10-14 7.45
0 120.42 4.82 x 10-14 7.45
15 120.42 4.82 x 10-14 7.45
2 Column 7 30 120.42 4.82 x 10-14 7.45
45 120.42 4.82 x 10-14 7.45
60 120.42 4.82 x 10-14 7.45
0 120.42 4.82 x 10-14 7.45
15 120.42 4.82 x 10-14 7.45
3 Pontoon 8 30 120.42 4.82 x 10-14 7.45
45 120.42 4.82 x 10-14 7.45
60 120.42 4.82 x 10-14 7.45
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
Following conclusions may be drawn from the study of present example:
• Tethers of the present study are not safe, as desired, under sinusoidal and triangular
impulsive loads if they act at any one of the TLP columns. To obtain the desirable
range of safety index (3-4) TLP specification should be altered, if these impulsive
forces have to be considered in the designing.
• Effects of impulsive loads on TLP tethers are very severe when they act on TLP
columns. However, there is no significant effect on TLP tethers if impulsive loads act
on TLP pontoons.
• If a TLP tether is safe for impulsive load acting at one angle of impact, it may become
completely unsafe for the same impulse but acting at different angle of impact.
REFERENCES
Ahmad, S. (1996), Stochastic TLP response under long crested random sea. Computers and Structures, 61(6),
975 - 993.
Amanullah, M., Siddiqui, N.A., Umar, A. and Abbas, H. (2002), Fatigue reliability analysis of welded joints of a TLP
tether system. Steel and Composite Structures: An International Journal, 2(5), 331-354.
Banon, H and Harding, S.J. (1989), A methodology for assessing the reliability of TLP tethers under maximum
and minimum lifetime load, Proceedings of 5th International Conference on Structural Safety and Reliability
(ICOSSAR89), 182-190.
Kareem, A. (1985), Wind induced response analysis of tension leg platforms, Journal of Structural Engineering,
ASCE, 111(1), 37-55.
289
Khan, R. A. (2004), Reliability analysis of TLP tethers against impulsive loading, M.Tech. Dissertation, Depart-
ment of Civil Engineering, Aliagarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India.
Lotsberg, I. (1991).Probabilistic design of the tethers of a tension leg platform. Journal of Offshore Mechanics
and Arctic Engineering, 113, 162-169.
Siddiqui, N.A. and Ahmad, S. (2001), Reliability analysis against progressive failure of TLP tethers in extreme
tension, Reliability Engineering and System Safety, 68, 195-205.
Siddiqui, N.A. and Ahmad, S. (2001), Fatigue and fracture reliability of TLP tethers under random loading. Marine
Structures, 14, 331-352.
Siddiqui, N.A. and Ahmad, S. (2003a), Dynamic behavior of tension leg platform under impulsive loading.
Defence Science Journal, DRDO, India, 53(2), 205-210.
Siddiqui, N.A. and Ahmad, S. (2003b), Reliability of TLP tethers under extreme tensions, Structural Engineering
and Mechanics, An International Journal, 16(3), 317-326.
Vickery, P.J. (1995), Wind induced response of tension leg platform: Theory and Experiment, Journal of
Structural Engineering, ASCE, 121, 651-663.
290
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON THE TAKE-OFF

PERFORMANCE OF A WIG CRAFT
J. Vimal Doss1 and R. Natarajan2
Abstract
Wing in Ground effect (WIG) craft is emerging as one of the most promising mode of transport
in the 21st century. The greatest hurdle faced by WIG craft designers is the assessment of the
hump drag associated with the take-off mode of marine WIG crafts. During the initial stage of
a WIG craft design, the take-off speed can, however be analytically determined using Savitskys
method. But, it is essential to conduct model tests to ascertain the take-off performance for
obtaining the final hull form of the WIG craft. Hence, this paper deals with the model tests of
a typical WIG craft conducted in the towing tank, at Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian
Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai. The test results are analyzed and presented with
discussions. The present study gives insight knowledge of the drag characteristics associ-
ated with take-off mode of a WIG craft and thereby suggests a suitable methodology to predict
the take-off speed.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Presently, due to the ever increasing cost of crude oil and more environmental awareness,
the development of more economical and eco-friendly modes of transport have become in-
creasing popular. The Wing in Ground-effect (WIG) craft belongs to this category of marine
vehicles. It burns only one-third the fuel required for other fast marine vehicles and thus more
eco-friendly. But the difficulty encountered by the WIG craft designers is the drag associated
during the take-off mode of the craft. This drag is very high for a WIG craft compared with other
marine crafts. A model study was conducted on a WIG craft with a typical planing hull. These
tests were aimed at exactly measuring this hump drag. For improving the take-off perfor-
mance of the WIG craft a hydrofoil was fitted and then its influence was studied. These
studies will be useful in optimizing a suitable hull form for the WIG craft.
2.0 DESCRIPTION OF THE MODEL
A 1:17.5 scale geosim WIG craft model was fabricated. Its hull form was fabricated from 3 mm
transparent PVC sheet with particulars shown in Table 1. The hull form of the model is pris-
matic and also planing type (Natarajan and Malle, 1998). The wing of the model was made in
FRP material based on airfoil No: DHMTU 5-20-1-20-1-90-21-3 as shown in Fig.1 which was
specially developed at Department of Hydrodynamics at Marine Technical University, St Pe-
E mail : 1vimaldossj@yahoo.co.in ; 2rnrajan@iitm.ac.in
291
tersburg for purpose of ground effect of the craft. The hydrofoil and its stud were also made in
FRP material using airfoil No: NACA 0012 as illustrated in Fig. 2. The section of the airfoil and
hydrofoil were obtained using airfoil calculator (Edwin, 2001). The complete details of the WIG
craft model are shown in Fig. 3.
Table 1. Details of prototype and model of the WIG craft.
Description Prototype Model

(1: 17.5 scale)
Length 16.8 m 0.96 m
Breadth 4.5 m 0.24 m
Dead rise angle (deg) 15 0 . 15 0.
Displacement 30 tonnes 53.96 N
Draught 1m 0.06 m
Take-off speed 33 knots 4 m/s
Wing area 171.5 m2 0.56 m2
Hydrofoil area 1.84 m2 0.006 m2
Angle of attack of wing and 6 0. 6 0.
hydrofoil (deg)
Fig. 1. Section of the wing.
Fig. 2. Section of the hydrofoil.
292
Fig. 3. Details of the WIG craft model.
3.0 MODEL TESTS
The present experimental investigation was carried out in the towing tank with the dimensions
of 82 mx3.2 mx2.5 m in the Department of Ocean Engineering, at Indian Institute of Technol-
ogy Madras, Chennai. At the forward end of the towing tank, a trimming tank is provided to
facilitate proper ballasting of the model to the required draft. The towing carriage can be
operated in the low speed range by a low duty D.C. motor (manual control only), whereas in
the higher speed range, it can be operated by a heavy duty D.C. motor fed by a Ward-Leonard
set (both by manual and electronic control) and the A.C./D.C. power supplied through over-
head bus bars. The towing carriage is provided with braking system for stopping the model at
any position in towing tank. Also for safety purposes, emergency braking rails are provided at
both the ends of towing tank, which retard the towing carriage. For the present study, a 25 kg
load cell was used which was mounted on the towing carriage to measure the Drag of the WIG
craft model.
Initially, the WIG craft model was trimmed to loaded condition and fitted to the towing carriage
between the clamps. This clamping arrangement will prevent the model from sway, roll and
yaw motions. The load cell was fixed rigidly to the mild steel angle, which is mounted on the
carriage. The WIG hull was then connected to the load cell by means of a steel wire from the
tow hook attached to the model through pulley arrangement. The experiments were carried
out by running the model at different speeds. During each run, the drag of the model (Dm) was
293
measured using the data acquisition system. The typical view of the WIG craft model during
model tests is shown in Fig.4.
Fig. 4. View of the WIG craft model in test condition.
The experimental results obtained from the model tests for the drag of the WIG craft are
presented in Table 2. and Fig. 5. From the analysis of the test results it is observed that the
drag of the WIG craft increases nonlinearly with the increase in speed. Due to the combined
action of wing and hydrofoil, the craft is gradually lifted out of water. Hence, the drag is maxi-
mum corresponding to hump speed just before the takeoff mode of the craft and tends to
reduce to zero beyond this hump speed as illustrated in Fig. 5.
4
Drag (N)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Model speed (m/s)
Fig. 5. Variation of drag force with speed.
294
Table. 2. Experimental results for the drag of the model.
Speed of the model

Drag ( N )
( m/s )
1 1.010
2 1.935
3 3.102
4 4.577
5.0 CONCLUSION
The authors have already carried out an analytical study to predict the takeoff performance
using Savitskys method for the WIG craft without any additional fitting as takeoff assistance
(Saviskey, 1964; Doss and Natarajan, 2004). In this paper, an attempt has been made to
experimentally study the drag characteristics of a typical WIG craft fitted with a hydrofoil in
order to get the insight knowledge of the hull form and various parameters affecting the take-
off mode of the craft. The hydrofoil can be used as an efficient takeoff aid due to its high lift /
drag ratio. But it is necessary to provide a suitable retractable mechanism during cruise flight
since water contact on the hydrofoil at a negative angle of attack will badly affect the stability
of the craft.
investigation and preparation of this paper.
REFERENCES
Edwin Van Opstal, (2001), Introduction to WIG technology, Proceedings of EAGES 2001, Toulouse, France.
Natarajan, R. and Malle Madhu, (1998) Experimental investigations on the drag characteristics of a high speed
catamaran, Proceeding of the 7th International Symposium on Practical Design of Ships and Mobile Units
(PRADS98).
Savitskey, D., (1964) Hydrodynamic design of planing hulls, Marine Technology, 9, 71-91.
Vimal Doss, J. and Natarajan, R., (2004), Study on the drag characteristics for take-off mode of a WIG craft,
Offshore Mechanics and Artic Engineering Conference (OMAE 2004).
295
RBSO OF STIFFENED CYLINDRICAL SHELL WITH RING

BUCKLING MODE OF FAILURE
V. Manorama
Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Madras, Chennai-600036.
Abstract
Optimization based on structural reliability is a relatively new research subject. It includes

several uncertainty factors, such as the strength of the structure and applied loads, which are
considered as random variables, and studies an optimum design procedure for minimizing the
structural weight and thus satisfying the reliability requirement. The Reliability Based Struc-
tural Optimization (RBSO) of stiffened cylindrical shell with ring buckling mode of failure used
as pressure hulls in submarines and in submersibles is described in this paper. The problem
has been formulated via the Selective Active Constraint Technique with the buckling of the
stiffener along with an effective width of the shell as the active constraint. The stiffener is
modeled in a reduced basis, using the depth of the stiffener as the variable. The reliability-
based optimization has been formulated as a minimum weight problem for a target reliability
index, in terms of two variables viz., the depth of the stiffener and the thickness of the shell.
The results of RBSO were plotted / tabulated for mean values of Youngs modulus, radius of
the ring stiffener, Reliability index, Optimal weight and Coefficient of Variation of loading,
spacing of the stiffener, plating thickness and depth of the stiffener.
Symbols:
b spacing of the stiffeners

d stiffener depth (Design variable)
E Youngs modulus
f flange width of T-section
t plate thickness (Design variable)
Ixx moment of inertia of the effective ring stiffener
w1 flange thickness
w2 web thickness
A area of the stiffener
R radius of the structure
W weight of the stiffened shell
y1 distance of centroid of the stiffener from top of the stiffener
Df diameter of the ring at its N.A
β reliability index
E-mail: chowdary442@ indiatimes.com
296
ρ unit weight of steel
M failure function
µM mean value of failure function
σM standard deviation of failure function
P external pressure (at 300 m water depth)
Pc mean buckling pressure
L length between two stiffeners
L’ frame spacing
m number of longitudinal buckling waves
n number of circumferential buckling waves
σ xi standard deviation of the variable, X i in terms of the basic variables
P, E, b, R, t and d respectively
k1, k2, k3, k4 constants for a geometrically similar series of sections (as shown in Fig.1.)
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The analysis of complex structures used in various fields has been a subject of interest for
researchers since the early part of the nineteenth century. Many researchers have devoted
their time on this aspect and they analyzed some of these complex structures. Stiffened
shells (Brush et al., 1975) are one of those complex structures in which effort had been put in
by researchers to study their structural behavior. Several researchers have formulated the
ultimate strength of the stiffened shell by analytical methods using Reliability Based Optimi-
zation Technique (Kendrick, 1965; Michael and Arnold, 1975; Nash, 1953; Fred, 1997), which
created interest among the researchers. Optimizing the stiffened shells provides optimum
spacing of stiffeners, optimum-plating thickness and optimum stiffener depth for the given
loading condition by satisfying all the design criteria. Reliability aspect has also not been fully
studied and hence we felt the importance of the reliability aspect in deciding the structural
safety and structural maintenance. In this paper, an attempt has been made to compute the
RBSO of Stiffened Cylindrical Shell with a T-stiffener (Fig.1) considering with Ring Buckling
mode of failure (Ranganathan, 1999).
Fig. 1. Definition of effective ring stiffener.
297
2. RELIABILITY BASED OPTIMIZATION PROBLEM FORMULATION
Optimization is the process of obtaining the best results under given circumstances. The
conventional design procedures aim at finding an adequate design that merely satisfies the
functional requirements within the confines of the existing limitations. The optimum design
procedure finds the design variables in such a way that the design will be the best one (among
the many adequate designs) that satisfies all of the limitations and restrictions (Kendrick,
1970) placed on it.
Reliability allocation is the process of assigning reliabilities to individual components so as to

attain a specified overall reliability for the system. The specified overall system reliability could
be achieved in several ways. However, we are interested in minimizing a criterion or objective
function such as cost, weight, or volume while achieving the overall system reliability over a
specified length of time.
In this paper, the problem is formulated based on the weight minimization of the stiffened shell
component using Penalty Function Method (Arora,1989) and the constraint is based on target
reliability using First Order Second Moment Method, FOSM (Ranganathan, 1999) considering
the ring-buckling mode of failure (Pappas and Allentueh, 1974).
Optimization problem can be stated as
(
W = ρπD f bt + k 5 d
2
) (2.1)
where: D f = 2 R − 2 y1 − t (2.1.a)
Minimize the weight of the stiffened shell
Substituting the reliability based constraint
µM
≥β (2.2)
σM
At the mean random failure function,
25 EI xx
M= -P (2.2.a)
3
Df b
Assuming that the design variables are not correlated, the standard deviation is given by
2
N
 ∂M  2 (2.2.b)
σ M2 = ∑   σ xi
i =1  ∂ X i 
298
3.0 DESIGN STUDIES
The program, which has been written to solve the reliability based optimum design problem
described in the previous sections, has been shown to generate minimum weight design of
the stiffened shell and it can carryout sensitivity analysis in which the effect on the optimum
solution for a change in one or more random parameters is determined.
In the present study, the stiffener considered is T-stiffener and the following parameters have
been assumed.
t = 20 mm, i.e., 150 mm ≥ t ≥ 20 mm
d = 200 mm, i.e.,1800 mm ≥ d ≥ 200 mm
E = 2.068×105 N/mm2
ρ = 79.09 kN/m3
b = 0.5 m
R = 8.0 m
P = 3 MN/m2
β =3
For a T- stiffener, the constants are:
k1=0.025,
k2=0.025,
k3=0.2,
k4=0.5726063,
k5=0.029375 and
k6=0.0029684515,
And the coefficients of variations considered are:
σ p=0.1P,
σ e=0.04E,
σ t=0.03t,
σ d=0.01d,
σ b=0.02b
σ r=0.02R
Pappas and Allentuch (1974) have given various formulae to calculate the collapse pressure of
the stiffened shell subjected to external pressure (Kollar and Dulaeske, 1984) for different
failure modes (Fig. 2). The different types of the failure modes of stiffened shells considered by
Pappas and Allentuch (1974) include,
1. Buckling of the ring stiffener

2. Local buckling of the isotropic shell between the stiffeners
299
3. Failure of the whole structure, i.e., shell and stiffeners between bulkheads.
25 EI xx
Ring buckling pressure: Pc = (3.1)
D 3f b
Collapse pressure due to local shell instability:
2.5
 t 
2.42 E  
Pc =  2R  (3.2)
 3 0.5

( )
 1 − µ 2 4  L − 0.45 t   
 2R

   2 R   
Fig. 2. Different failure modes.
300
Table 1. Reliability based optimal values.
p g y
R t d β w Ring Collapse Effective
Collapse
buckling pressure Width
pressure due to
pressure due to local
overall buckling
shell
MPa
m mm mm MN MPa MPa m
6.0 45.0 632 3.02 0.1267 4.732 9.578 10.950 0.933
6.5 43.5 600 3.23 0.1118 4.762 9.234 11.065 0.888
7.0 40.0 570 3.42 0.0953 4.788 7.710 11.136 0.822
7.5 37.6 537 3.67 0.0817 4.815 7.058 11.228 0.769
8.0 34.8 506 3.94 0.0687 4.845 6.208 11.315 0.711
Collapse pressure due to overall buckling:
Pcr =
4
m Et
+
2
EI n − 1 ( ) (3.3)
  2
( 2
)
2 3 ’
R L
 R n − 1 + m  n 2 + m 2 
  2  

 
Checking of effective width: b = 1.1 2 Rt (3.4)
4.0 PARAMETRIC STUDIES
4.1 Optimal Weight vs. Reliability Index

The study was done to give an insight to the designer, while fixing the target reliability index of
the stiffened shell to be designed, given the weight as a constraint. Fig. 3 shows the relation-
ship between Optimal Weight vs. Reliability Index. It can be seen from the graph that the
variation of reliability with weight of stiffened shell is approximately linear in the useful range.
Also, it could be inferred from the graph that with the increase in reliability index of 10%
results in 0.1% increases in optimal weight that is very small and hence it is safe and eco-
nomical for the selected range.
4.2 Radius of the ring stiffener vs. Reliability Index

Table 1 shows the variation of radius of stiffener with optimal weight and reliability index. It can
be inferred from the table that with the increase in radius of the ring stiffener, the dimensions
of the stiffener increases due to which optimal weight increase and safety decreases.
301
4.3 Youngs modulus vs. Optimal Weight and Reliability Index
It can be inferred from the Table 2 that with the increase in E, dimensions of the stiffener,
radius and hence weight decrease and safety increases.
4.4 Co-efficient of Variations vs. Optimal Weight and Reliability Index

This study was done to investigate the sensitivity of Optimal Weight and Reliability Index with
respect to the uncertainties in the loading (p), spacing of the stiffener (b), depth of the stiffener
(d) and plating thickness (t).
Tables 3-6 represent the variation of Reliability Index with respect to the COV of P, b, d and t.
It can be inferred from the table that an increase in COV of P, b, d and t of 1%, 0.5%, 0.05%
and 0.5% results in 6.6-7.6%, 0.4-0.8%, 1.8-2.1%, and 0.7-0.9% reduction in reliability index.
Tables 3-6 represent the variation of Optimal Weight with respect to the COV of P, b, d and t.
It can be inferred from the table that an increase in COV of P, t, d and b of 1%, 0.5%, 0.05%
and 0.5% results in 0.01-0.11%, 0.06-0.14%, 0.05%, 0.008-0.041% increase in optimal weight
which are approximately linear in the useful range.
0.1386
Optimal Weight(MN)
0.1365
0.1344
0.1323
0.1302
2.7 2.8 2.9 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4
Reliability Index
Fig.3. Optimal Weight (vs.) Reliability Index.
302
Table 2. Youngs modulus (E) Vs Design variables. Table 4. COV of spacing of the stiffener (B)
Vs Design variables.
E t d (mm) W β B t d W (MN) β
(GPa) (mm) (MN) (mm) (mm)
191 47.3 644 0.132 2.97 0.010 48.5 647.4 0.1320 3.095
196 46.1 640 0.129 2.98 0.015 48.7 647.6 0.1334 3.091
206 45.2 632 0.127 3.02 0.020 49.1 647.9 0.1340 3.085
217 45.0 624 0.125 3.07 0.025 49.5 648.2 0.1348 3.078
222 44.3 621 0.124 3.09 0.030 50.0 648.7 0.1358 3.070
Table 3. COV of the loading (p) Table 5. COV of the depth of the stiffener (D)
Vs Design variables. Vs Design variables.
p t (mm) d (mm) W (MN) β D t d W β

0.03 44.79 617.9 0.12419 3.586 (mm) (mm) (MN)
0.04 44.67 619.5 0.12415 3.520 0.0080 45.18 646.4 0.1265 3.147
0.05 44.79 621.1 0.12458 3.450 0.0085 45.44 646.7 0.1270 3.129
0.06 45.05 622.8 0.12527 3.375 0.0090 45.70 646.9 0.1275 3.111
0.07 45.57 624.4 0.12643 3.299 0.0095 45.97 647.2 0.1280 3.092
0.0100 A 46.24 647.6 0.1285 3.071
Table 6. COV of the plating thickness (T) Vs Design variable.
T t d (mm) W (MN) β
(mm)
0.030 45.2 632.49 0.12671 3.021
0.035 45.3 632.44 0.12679 3.014
0.040 45.4 632.41 0.12720 3.006
0.045 45.6 632.39 0.12744 2.997
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
1) Critical mode of failure in the case of pressure hull is buckling of ring stiffener.
2) The percentage increase in the weight is very small for the increase in reliability
index and hence the structure is economical and safe.
3) The variations of Optimal Weight and Reliability Index were observed to be almost
linear for the increase in COV of P, t, d and b.
303
REFERENCES
Arora, J.S, (1989) Introduction to Optimum Design, McGraw Hill Company.
Brush, O. Don and Almroth, O.Bo., (1975) Buckling of bars, plates and shells, McGraw Hill Book Company.
Kendrick, S.B, (1970) External Pressurized Vessels, in the Stress Analysis of Pressure Vessels and Pressure
Vessel Components, Edited by S.S.Gill, Pergamon Press.
Kendric, K.S, (1965), The buckling under external pressure of ring stiffened circular cylinders, RINA, Vol.107,
pp.139-156.
Michael Pappas and Arnold Allentuch, (1975), Pressure hull optimization using general instability equation
admitting more then one longitudinal buckling half-wave, Journal of Ship Research, Vol.19, No.1, pp.18-22.
Nash, W.A, (1953), Buckling of multibay ring reinforced cylindrical shells subjected to hydrostatic pressure,
Journal of Applied Mechanics, Vol.20, No.4, pp.469-474.
Fred Moses, (1997), Problems and prospects of reliability based optimization, Journal of Engineering Struc-
tures, Vol.19, No.4, pp.293-301.
Kollar, L and Dulacska, E., (1984) Buckling of Shells for Engineers, A Wiley-Inter Science Publication, pp. 20-58.
Pappas, M and Allentuch, A., (1974), Structural synthesis of frame reinforced, submersible, circular, cylindrical
hulls, Computers and Structures, Vol.4, pp.253-280.
Ranganathan, R, (1999), Structural Reliability Analysis and Design, Jaico Publishing House.
304
RELIABILITY OF OFFSHORE JACKETS FOR DIFFERENT

BRACING CONFIGURATIONS
M. Ramesh Babu* and K. Rajagopalan
Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology-Madras, Chennai - 600036.
Abstract
We demonstrate a methodology for finding out which type of bracing is most reliable. The risk
of failure was calculated for a typical model of Bombay high jacket in India subjected to
environmental loading. Pushover analysis was used to evaluate the ultimate strength of the
structure. The reliability of the structure is evaluated for different bracing patterns and then
reliability per tonne of jacket weight is calculated and then compared.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Since last 40 years, many offshore jacket structures are constructed for different purposes in
the offshore regions. The chief driving force behind this new technology has come from the oil
industry and its need for fixed platforms for exploitation of the extensive hydrocarbon deposits
existing offshore. Its use is, however, not limited solely to this industry and an important
application also exists for military and navigational purposes.
Till now nearly 3000 to 5000 fixed offshore jackets are constructed. Based on the past expe-
rience concerning accidents due to ship impact and environmental effects, recent API RP2A
has called for the use of minimum structures in the jacket, since there is a tendency to
increase the redundancy more and more in the interest of safety resulting in heavy and uneco-
nomical structures. Hence, there is a desideratum for conducting research on minimum struc-
tures and in particular on different bracing configurations to cull out the bracing type which will
result in minimum structures consistent with a target level of safety.
In the present paper, a methodology is generated to find out which, among various type of
bracing arrangements such as diagonal bracing, X and K type of bracing arrangements is
best suitable and most reliable. Ultimate strength (Vannan, et al., 1994) is one of the key
parameters used in safety and economic assessments of platforms. Load pattern for the
jacket structure was calculated considering both hydrodynamic loading and aerodynamic
loading (wind loads, wave loads and current loads). The load pattern is applied on the jacket
and then using NISA (Manual, 1992) software non-linear static analysis carried out. Here
loads and yield stresses are considered as random variables, Ultimate strength of the jacket
was calculated for different bracing configurations at different yield stresses of the material.
Normal distribution table is used for calculating reliability. Reliability of jacket structure for
various jacket-bracing patterns was calculated and reliability per unit weight was calculated
*Corresponding author, e-mail: ramesh_ygr@yahoo.co.in
305
and then compared.
2.0 PROBLEM STATEMENT
In this paper, a typical model of one face of a Bombay High jacket was considered as shown
in Fig. 1 for numerical study. Only one face of jacket is taken into consideration for analysis,
considering it as a 2D frame. The details of the 2D-frame are shown in Table 1. The bottom
nodes of the jacket structure are considered as fixed. The structure is modeled in NISA
software. The top loads of deck structure are transferred at the top of the jacket legs taking
3MN as constant loading on each jacket leg. The horizontal forces on the structure due to
environmental loads and aerodynamic loads (wave forces, wind forces and current forces) are
calculated and a load pattern is arrived at. Wave forces on the jacket are calculated using
Morisons equation (API RP-2A, 2000). In this load calculation, a wave height of 15 m and a
period of 12.7 sec are taken. The loading pattern is applied to the structure as shown in Fig.
2. The horizontal loads on structure are increased until collapse occurs (Deeks, 1996). Non-
linear static analysis was done in NISA software for this model. Ultimate strength of the jacket
structure was determined at different yield stress values. For 50-yield stress values, taken as
random values between 225 and 275 MPa, ultimate strengths are determined. Same proce-
dure is repeated for different bracing configurations.
3.0 RELIABILITY ANALYSIS
Uncertainties arising from randomness in structural materials and applied loads must be
considered in design to assure structural safety and reliability (Royset, et al., 2001; Allin
Cornell, 1995; De, 1995; Vannan, et al., 1994). In this problem, the yield stress of the material
and horizontal loads on the structure are taken as random variables. Nearly 50 yield stress
values of the material are taken randomly between 225 and 275. For different yield stresses
the ultimate loads are calculated using NISA software. Taking central safety factor (CSF) as
1.5 service loads are calculated. Mean and standard deviations for ultimate loads are calcu-
lated. A coefficient of variation of 10% is considered in yield stress variable whose mean is
taken as 250 MPa. Reliability of the structure is calculated by considering the loads and
resistance as normally distributed random variables. The reliability in terms of safety index is
reliability index ß (Ranganathan, 1999). Here both loads and resistance are normal and inde-
pendent. Then
µR − µL
Reliability index, β =
2 2
σR +σL
Where, µ R = mean of resistance, σ R = standard deviation of resistance,
µ L = mean of service loads and σ L = standard deviation of service loads.
306
Reliability per unit weight of the jacket structure and ultimate load per unit weight of structures
are calculated. These values are shown in Table 2. Same procedure is repeated for different
bracing arrangements such as diagonal, X and K, shown in Fig. 2 to 4.
Based on the research, reported in the foregoing, the following observations are made:
·The Reliability of K-braced jacket is significantly higher than either the X-braced jacket or the
diagonally braced jacket (Row 5 in Table 2).
·The reliability of the X-braced jacket is much greater than that of the diagonally braced Jacket.
·The ultimate load per unit weight of K-braced jacket is greater than that of either the X-braced
jacket or the diagonally braced jacket.
·Based on reliability per unit weight and ultimate load per unit weight, it can be said that the K-
braced jacket is the most preferable in design.
·In the research reported in the foregoing, the parameter reliability per unit weight has been
identified as a single index useful in selecting the best bracing system in a structure. Al-
though the usefulness of the parameter is illustrated with reference to a jacket structure, the
parameter can also be used for selecting the best bracing system in other structures used in
ocean and terrestrial engineering.
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
1. A methodology for finding out which type of bracing is most reliable among various bracing
configurations has been generated in this paper. This applies to a variety of structures.
2. Based on dimensions of the jacket used in the paper it can be seen that
• The K-braced jacket is most reliable compared to any other jacket.
• X-braced jacket is more reliable when compared to diagonally braced jacket.
307
Table 1. Details of the jacket structure.
Type of member Member No. External Dia. (mm) Internal Dia. Thickness
(mm) (mm)
Diagonal 3,7,11,15,19 610 586 12

1,17 610 586 12
Horizontal 5 508 484 12

9,13 762 738 12
2,4 1562 1512 25
Main 6,8,10,12,14,16 1537 1487 25
18,20 1549 1499 25
Table 2. Comparison of various jacket bracing patterns.
Diagonal bracing X-bracing K-bracing
Mean Ultimate load (MN), P 0.4126 0.4320 0.5790
Self weight (MN) 1.8776 1.9857 1.9235

Reliability index (ß) 2.3569 2.5401 2.9556
@ C.S.F 1.5
Mean Ultimate load/unit 0.2197 0.2175 0.3010
weight
Reliability/unit weight 1.2553 1.2792 1.5366
Fig. 1. Details of the jacket structure. Fig. 2. Load pattern for diagonally braced jacket.
308
Fig. 3. X-braced jacket structure. Fig. 4. K-braced jacket structure.
REFERENCES
NISA Users manual for Display III, 1992, Engineering Mechanics Research Corporation, Michigan, USA, Vol.1.
API RP 2A- WSD, 2000, American Petroleum Institute, Static Wave Analysis, Morisons equation, Draft section
2.3.1.6, 21st edition.
Vannan, M.T., Thompson, H.M., Griffin, J.J., 1994, An automated procedure for strength assessment, Offshore
Technology Conference, 7474, 55-64.
Ranganathan, R., 1999, Structural Reliability Analysis and Design, Jaico Publishing House, Mumbai, Section 8.3,
182183.
Royset, J.O., Kiureghian, A. Der., Polak, E., 2001, Reliabilitybased optimal design of series structural systems,
Journal of Engineering Mechanics, 607-614.
Allin Cornell, C., 1995, Structural Reliability Some contributions to offshore technology, Offshore Technology
Conference 7753, 535542.
De, R.S., 1995, Risk analysis methodology for developing design and assessment criteria for fixed offshore
Structures, Offshore Technology Conference 7755, 543548.
Deeks, A.J., 1996, Automatic computation of plastic collapse loads for frames, Computers and Structures, Vol 60,
39402.
309
DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR OF COUPLED OTEC PLATFORM -

COLD WATER PIPE SYSTEM
A. Venkata Subbaiah*, V. Anantha Subramanian1 and R. Sundaravadivelu1
Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Madras, Chennai-600 036
Abstract
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) system uses thermal gradient in the ocean to
generate electrical power. The sea water temperature on the surface layer is warm at 20o-30o
while, it is cold at 2o-7o in the deep layer at about 1000 m depth. OTEC obtains the thermal
energy associated with the temperature difference between the warm sea water on the sur-
face layer and the cold seawater at greater depth. The spar platform is one of the best options
for consideration of OTEC system in deep waters. By proper design, the platform motions in
stationary conditions can be minimized. In view of this, a 25 MW OTEC spar platform is
analyzed for motions and the response of a Multiple Anchor Leg (MAL) moor under dynamic
excited conditions at different levels are estimated.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
For the last 30 years, scientists have their attention turned to full-scale investigation and
study of OTEC technology. The chief driving force behind this new technology has come from
the depletion of oil. The use of OTEC system is, however, not limited solely to generating
power. It can also produce valuable complementary products such as desalinated water. The
cold seawater can be used for culturing marine life and for refrigeration and air-conditioning.
Over the years a considerable development has taken place in the field of OTEC. The details
of plants are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Details of 1 MW, 5 MW, 40 MW and 100 MW OTEC plants.
Power Cold water Dia of L B T Disp Hull type Designed Year

(net) discharge CWP (m) (m) (m) (Full) by
3
(m /s) (m) tonnage
1MW 1.4 1.0 68.5 16 4 1800 Rectangle NIOT, India 2001
5MW 13.9 2.74 122 30.5 16 36,300 Rectangle PICHTR, 1995
Japan
40 130 9.1 138 43 27 97,100 Rectangle George, 1980
MW JHU/APL
40 136 10.0 44 63 64,750 Spar Moak 1978
MW
100 450 20.0 160 70 35 1,15,00 Semi- Paolo 1978
MW submersible
25 75 12-2Φ 30 90 47,000 Spar Present work
MW
*Corresponding author, e-mail: avvaru_vs@yahoo.com,
1
subru@iitm.ac.in
310
Among many events in the long OTEC history, the experimental 1 MW project by (NIOT),
National Institute of Ocean Technology, Chennai, India, is worthy of special mention from the
point of view of its output capacity. The present work is considered to develop large scale
OTEC plant that can be suitable for vast Indian coastal zone and islands.
From the study of past OTEC systems, it is concluded that for large scale OTEC plants, a
spar type platform is more stable in deep waters at operational and extreme conditions of
wave. The MAL moor consist of twelve mooring lines. The Cold Water Pipe (CWP) system is
designed with the cold water pipe as part of the mooring line. The cold water pipe system is
also used to moor the OTEC platform. The dynamic behaviour of coupled OTEC platform-cold
water pipe is essential for understanding platform characteristics under operating as well as
extreme conditions.
1.1 Study Area

The 1 MW Indian power plant is located off Tuticorin. The wave parameters at Tuticorin site
are shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Site specific wave parameters.
PARAMETER OPERATIONAL STORM CONDITION

CONDITION
Wave length 83 m 252 m
Significant wave height (Hs) 4.25 m 8.25 m
Time period 6-8s 12.7 s
The 25 MW OTEC spar platform with twelve mooring lines is subjected to monochromatic
waves in a depth of 1280 m. The sketch of the structure and its geometrical data and hydrody-
namic data are given in Fig. 1.
The present analysis has been carried out using one hundred and forty four elements per
mooring chain, five hundred and twenty eight elements per Cold Water Pipe and thirty ele-
ments in the hull and a coupled 3D global spring element attached to the beam node at the
still water level.
Nonlinear time domain analysis has been carried out using the Nonlinear Analysis of Offshore
Structures (NAOS) [Sreekumar (2001)] coded in FORTRAN by Newmark method (with a =
0.25 & d = 0.5 ) with a time step of 0.05 s for 4000 time steps. The modeling of spar with CWP
and mooring chain and deflected shape is shown in Fig. 2.
311
30 Es (steel) = 2.07x1011N/m2
νs (steel) = 3.0
νh (HDPE) = 4.0
30m
45
ρw = 1025 kg/m3
1280 ρs (steel) = 7850 kg/m3
ρh (HDPE) = 950 kg/m3
20m 30 EA (HDPE pipe) = 3.38x108N
EI (HDPE pipe) = 1.53x108Nm2
EA (mooring chain) = 0.85x108 D2 kN
(where D is diameter of chain)
EI (chain) = 0
Cd = 1.0 Cf =0.005, Cm = 2.0
2m-φ Wave height (Hs) = 8.25 m,
1100 m Wave period (T) = 12.7 s
CWP Current = 1.0m/s at surface to 0.11 m/s at seabed
Water depth (d) = 1280 m
Heave stiffness (Kh) = 31589500 N/m
Diameter of CWP = 2.0 m
length of CWP = 1100m
Diameter of spar = 30.0 m,
127 mm Dia height of spar = 105 m
mooring chain DWT of spar = 47,000 t
(355 kg/m)
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of 25 MW OTEC spar with CWP and chain as mooring line.
Fig. 2. Modeling of spar with CWP and mooring chain (elevation).
312
3.0 RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
Based on the analysis, the following observations can be made:
The heave response of spar platform is shown in Fig. 3 for current alone condition. The tension
in moored chain and CWP are shown in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 at different levels.
The heave response of spar platform is shown in Fig. 6 for Hs = 8.25 m, wave period T=12.7 s
and current 1 m/s at surface to 0.11 m/s at seabed. The tension response in mooring chain is
shown in Fig. 7 and the tension response for Cold Water Pipe is shown in Fig. 8 at different
levels.
0.1000
Heave (m)
0.0500
0.0000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
-0.0500
Spar
-0.1000
Time (s)
Fig.3 Heave response of spar platform for
current alone condition
8.0E+05
Tension (N)
6.0E+05
4.0E+05
2.0E+05
E10 E2
0.0E+00
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (s)
Fig.4. Tension in chain for Element No. E2 and E10

for current alone condition
1.0E+06
Tension (N)
8.0E+05
6.0E+05
4.0E+05
2.0E+05
E15 E35 E55
0.0E+00
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (s)
Fig. 5 Tension in CWP for Elements E15,E35 and E55
for current alone condition
0.7
0.6
Heave (m)
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
spar
0.0
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Time (s)
Fig. 6 Heave response of spar
313
1.0E+06
Tension (N)
8.0E+05
6.0E+05
4.0E+05
2.0E+05
E10
0.0E+00
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (s)
Fig.7 Tension in chain for element E10
1.E+06
8.E+05
Tension (N)
6.E+05
4.E+05
2.E+05
E35 E55
0.E+00
20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (s)
Fig.8 Tension in CWP for Elements E35 and E55
The nonlinear time domain analysis has been demonstrated in obtaining the heave motion of
the spar platform and in getting the time variant line tension on the mooring chain at different
elements. The solution is stable and the method is applicable for different environmental
condition of loading.
4.0 ACKNOWLEGEMENTS
The authors acknowledge the support of National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT), India
for the 1 MW OTEC plant and wave data used in the paper.
REFERENCES
George, J.F. and Richards, D. (1980) Model basin tests of ocean wave responses for a 40 MW OTEC pilot plant,
Journal of Solar Energy Engineering, pp.46-51.
Moak, K., Deuchler, W. and Corradi, C. (1987) Design and integration of a 40 MW OTEC spar pilot plant
Proceedings of Seventh Ocean engineering Conference, VI pp.9.2-3 to 9.2-8.
Pacific International Centre for High Technology Research PICHTR (1995), report on Preliminary design of a
5MW floating OTEC plant for the production of electricity and desalinated water
Paolo, G., Bozzo, G.M. and Paruzzolo, A. (1978) A feasible concept for an integrated OTEC floating structure
Proceedings of Tenth Annual Offshore Technology Conference, (OTC- 3334), pp. 2447-2456.
Sreekumar, S. (2001) Analytical and experimental investigations on the dynamics of deepwater mini tension leg
platforms, Ph.D Thesis, Department of Ocean Engineering, IIT Madras.
314
OFFSHORE TRIANGULAR TLP BEHAVIOR UNDER

RANDOM SEA USING ITERATIVE FREQUENCY DOMAIN
METHOD
S.Chandrasekaran1*, A. K. Jain2 and N. R. Chandak1
1
Dept. of Civil Engg (Structures Group), Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005
2
Dept. of Civil Engg, Indian Institute of Technology, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-16
Abstract
The present study deals with the investigation of response of Offshore Triangular TLP under
random sea using Iterative Frequency Domain (IFD) method. The random wave has been
synthetically generated considering a large number of linear small amplitude harmonic waves
with randomly varying phase components. Wave forces are considered to be acting in the
surge direction. Hydrodynamic forces are evaluated using modified Morisons equation with
water particle kinematics evaluated using Airys linear wave theory. Chakrabartis nonlinear
stretching approximation in evaluating the wave kinematics up to variable level of submer-
gence is considered in the analysis. Two types of analyses are performed namely, (i) evalua-
tion of PSDF and (ii) statistical analysis of the extrema of the structural response and the
distribution of the response ranges. The chi-square tests are performed on the sample ex-
treme values of the response to determine their fitness to Gumbel Type-I and two parameter
Weibull distributions. Results show that the extrema of the displacements fit adequately well
with the Gumbel Type-I distribution and that of the range of the extreme value of displace-
ments with the Weibull distribution. The study was also carried out in time domain and the
results thus obtained are compared with that obtained using Iterative Frequency Domain
method. It is seen that both the set of results closely agree with each other in most of the
hydrodynamic cases taken for the study.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Drilling of oil wells in deeper sea is continuing with striking advances, reaching water depth
more than 1000 m. Fig. 1 shows plan at hull of the triangular TLP taken for the study. Fig. 2
shows the degrees-of-freedom of the platform. Chandrasekaran and Chandak (2004) stated
that the triangular Tension Leg Platform (TLP) has several advantages over square TLP and
remains as a state-of-art in deepwater oil exploration. Chandrasekaran and Jain (1997) inves-
tigated the response characteristics of the triangular TLP under regular waves. They reported
that triangular shaped TLP attracts lesser force. The overall behavior of a triangular TLP seems
to be more controlled. Chandrasekaran and Jain (2002) investigated the dynamic behavior of
square and triangular TLP under regular wave loads. The analysis considered various
nonlinearities produced due to change in tether tension and nonlinear hydrodynamic drag
*Corresponding author, email: drsekaran@sify.com
315
force. It is seen that surge response behavior under random sea is nonlinear and is not
proportional to the variation in Hs, for the same Tz value. Chang and Tung (1990) presented an
approximate method for calculating dynamic response of offshore structures to wave action,
based on the assumption that waves were narrow-banded. The stochastic nonlinear differen-
tial equations of motion of the structure, idealized as a lumped mass system, were solved by
the statistical equivalent linearization method and response statistics were given in a closed
form. Li and Kareem (1992) presented a computationally efficient procedure in both time and
frequency domain method that permitted inclusion of the time-dependent drift forces, intro-
duced by the platform displacement, in terms of linear and nonlinear feed back contributions.
It was shown in the analysis that the additional drift forces, caused by the wave forces com-
puted at the displaced position of the structure, could be included in the time domain analysis
by synthesizing drag and diffraction forces through a summation of large number of harmon-
ics, with an appropriate phase relationship, that reflects the platform displaced position. Wang
and Lutes (1997) conducted dynamic response of offshore structures with random wave load-
ing using analytical methods. It was shown that the nonlinearity in the Morison equation had
significant effect on both the frequency spectrum and probability distribution of the hydrody-
namic wave forces.
Fig. 1. Plan at hull of the triangular TLP. Fig. 2. Degrees-of-freedom.
2.0 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
The equation of motion describing the offshore triangular TLP equilibrium between
inertia, damping, restoring and exciting forces can be assembled as follows:
[M] { X} + [C] { X} + [K ] { X} = {F({ X}, { X}, { X}, t )} (1)
Structural mass is lumped at each degree-of-freedom. Chandrasekaran and Jain (2002) pre-
sented the coefficients of the stiffness matrix having nonlinear terms due to cosine, sine,
square root and squared terms of the displacements. The stiffness matrix exhibits (i) the
presence of off-diagonal terms, which reflects the coupling effect between the various de-
316
grees-of-freedom, (ii) the coefficients depend on the change in tension of tethers, which is
affecting the buoyancy of the system. Hence, stiffness matrix is response dependent and is
not constant for all values of time instants but the coefficients are replaced by new values
computed at each time instant depending upon the response value at that time instant. As-
suming damping matrix [C] to be proportional to the initial values of [K] and [M], the elements
of [C] are determined by using the orthogonal properties of [K] and [M].
3.0 WAVE FORCES
The rational solution of the vibration problem is provided by the theory of stochastic pro-
cesses because environmental loads encountered in the ocean environment are random in
nature. In stochastic modeling, sea waves are commonly characterized by their Power
Spectral Density Functions (PSDF). In the present simulation procedure, waves are as-
sumed to be stationery, homogeneous and ergodic in statistical sense. By considering the
random process as a linear superposition of large number of independent waves, its distribu-
tion becomes Gaussian. The modified Peirson-Moskowitz (PM) spectrum is given by Eq. (2)
H s Tz  Tz ω 
2 −5
 1  Tz ω  −4  (2)
S ηη (ω) =   exp −   
8 π 2  2π   π  2π  
In the present study, the wave superposition technique is adopted based on the approach
suggested by Goda (1970) for the simulation of sea surface elevation. The horizontal water
particle velocity u ( x, t ) and the vertical water particle velocity, v ( x, t ) are given as:
K cosh (k i y ) (3)
u ( x, t ) = ∑ A i ωi cos (k i x − ωi t + φi )
i =1 sinh (k i (d + η))
K sinh (k i y ) (4)
v ( x, t ) = ∑ A i ωi sin (k i x − ωi t + φi )
i =1 sinh (k i (d + η))
A i = 2Sηηωi ∆ωi (5)
(6)
∆ωi = ω"i −ω"i −1................,, i = 1,2,3.......k
where, k i is the ith component wave number, y is the vertical distance at which the wave
kinematics is calculated, d is the water depth, η is the sea surface elevation. The wave forces
are computed using modified Morisons equation, which is given as:
(7)
The hydrodynamic force vector is corrected at every time step for the change in the added
mass associated with the actual level of instantaneous water surface. The force vector is
updated at each time step to account for the change in tether tension.
317
4.0 SOLUTION OF EQUATION OF MOTION IN ITERATIVE FREQUENCY
DOMAIN
As presented by Jain and Datta (1987) the equations of motion are written in the frequency
domain with the displacement amplitudes, at different frequencies, as unknowns. The drag
related nonlinearity in the modified Morisons equation is handled using Newton-Raphson
method for simultaneous equations, whereas the coupled stiffness matrix of triangular TLP
and the effects of variable submergence and instantaneous position of the structure are incor-
porated by correcting the loading term in every iteration. The Jacobian in the Newton-Raphson
scheme is evaluated approximately without loosing the accuracy of the results. The triangular
TLP is subjected to hydrodynamic loading due to random wave field, whose force vector can
be computed using Eq. (7). The ith element of the load vector is written in general terms as:
r +1
fi ( t ) = ∑ {K ijd Vj Vj + K mij U j } ; i = 1, .........N (8)
j = r −1
Vj = U j − x j
(9)
where, r = the node of the element at which the force fi(t) is acting; N = the number of nodes
of the structure; U j and x j = the horizontal water particle velocity and structural velocity at
node j, respectively; U j = the horizontal water particle acceleration at node j; K ijd = the drag
m
force contributed to fi(t) by a unit value of Vj V j ; and K ij = the inertia force contributed to fi(t)
by a unit value of U . In the Eq. (8), the summation extends over 3 nodes since the water
j
particle kinematics and structural velocities at nodes on either side of the particular node
influence load corresponding to a particular degree-of-freedom at a node. K ijd and K mij can be
treated as constant properties of the platform if the drag and the inertia coefficients of all
segments are specified. By substituting
S =V V (10)
j j j
the force vector Eq. (1) may be expressed as:
{F(t)} = KdS + Km U (11)
where Kd and Km are rectangular matrices of order 6 x 6; and S and U are vectors of order 6. To
solve Eq. (1) in the frequency domain, {x(t)} and {F(t)} are expanded in Fourier series. The
relative velocity may be expressed in the frequency domain as:
p
{ V j } = {U j } + ω ∑ m ({ x mc } sin mωt + { x ms } cos mωt )
m =1
(12)
Eq. (1), may be expressed in frequency domain as:

ψ 
{ψ m } =  mc  = 0 (13)
ψ ms 
318
where,
{ψ mc } = {[K ] − (m ω) 2 [M]} { x mc } − m ω[C] { x ms } − {Fmc }, m = 1, p (14)
{ψ ms } = mω [C] { x mc } + {[K ] − (mω) 2 [M]} { x ms } − {Fms }, m = 1, p

(15)
and
x  F 
{ x m } =  mc  , {Fm } =  mc  (16)
x ms  Fms 
both {ψ m }and {x m }are vectors of order 6. The unknown is {x m }, m= 1,2,3, p where p is the
number of harmonics considered. Because of the dependence of the hydrodynamic loading
on the structural velocity, solution of Eq. (13) requires iteration. In order to obtain {x m }by the
exact Newton-Raphson iteration scheme, 6p linear simultaneous equations are to be repeat-
edly solved and this can be very expensive, even if the number of iteration required, for conver-
gence, is relatively small. In order to make the iteration scheme less expensive Jain and Datta
(1987), the Jacobian in the Newton-Raphson scheme is evaluated approximately by ignoring
the derivative of the mth harmonic of the nodal loads with respect to the qth harmonic of any of
the nodal displacements (q p) as a first approximation. With this approximation, the equa-
tion for the rth iteration becomes
≠
Jrmm X rm = Jrmm X rm−1 − ψ rm (17)
where the superscript r describes the iteration number. The Jacobian Matrix Jmm is given as
follows:
∂ψ m (18)
Jmm = = Km − Fm
∂Xm
where,
 [K ] − ( m ω ) 2 [M ] ( − ( m ω ) [ C ]) 
Km =   (19)
( m ω ) [ C ] [K ] − ( m ω ) [M ] 
2
 ∂Fmc ∂Fmc 
 ∂X ∂X ms 
Fm =  mc 
 ∂Fms ∂Fms 
 ∂X mc ∂X ms  (20)
The derivatives can be evaluated in succession. The iteration equation becomes
Km Xrm + Dm Xrm = Fmr + Dm Xrm −1 (21)
where,
319

{
 K d Dcc
r
0 } {
− K Dcs 0 
d r
} 
Dm = 2( mω )   (22)
 {
K d Dr 0
sc } {
d r
− K Dss 0 } 

in the iteration process, Drcc etc. and the harmonic components of the loading Frmc and Frms are
found from the displacements obtained in the previous iteration , namely, Xr-1mc and Xr-1ms.
Examination of Eq. (21) reveals that the second term on the either side of the equation acts as
a damping force. These two forces become equal when convergence is achieved. Therefore,
there is no effect of these additional damping terms at the converged state. However, till the
convergence is achieved, they play an important role in controlling the response in each
iteration cycle and hence help in achieving faster convergence. Eq. (21) may be simplified as
{Km + CHr } Xrm = Fmr + CHr Xrm−1 (23)
Eq. (24) is solved and Xm is given as:
X  (24)
Xm =  mc ; m = 1,.....p
 Xms 
Xmc and Xms are the cosine and the sine components of their Fourier Transform. Once Xmc and
Xms are obtained in a particular iteration cycle, the time histories of the response can be found
by using Eq. (24). These time histories are used to evaluate the loading functions for the next
iteration till convergence is achieved. The solution is considered to have converged if the
difference in RMS of {x(t)} in two successive cycle becomes less than or equal to 0.5%. The
simulated water particle kinematics time histories over a certain record length are then used
to determine the time history of the hydrodynamic loading. Then Fourier Transforms of this
loading are obtained for use in Iterative Frequency Domain method. Then the solution of
equations of motion in Iterative Frequency Domain is carried out.
5.0 NUMERICAL STUDIES AND DISCUSSIONS
The geometric properties of TLP taken for the study are given in Table 1, whereas time periods
are shown in Table 2. Fig. 3 shows Pierson-Moskowitz spectrum for different Hs-Tz cases
considered for the study. The coupled response is evaluated with and without considering
the stretching modifications suggested by Chakrabarti (1971). Fig. 4 shows the effect of
variable submergence and Fig. 5 shows the effect of current in the surge response without
and with the current velocity of 1.5 m/sec in random wave of 15 m-15 s respectively. Simi-
larly Fig. 6 and Fig. 7 show the heave response and Fig.8 and Fig.9 show the pitch response
for the same random wave data. The second peak appearing in surge and heave response at
half the peak frequency of P-M spectrum, shows the presence of variable submergence,
which is not seen, when variable submergence effect is neglected. The third peak in the surge
320
and heave responses appears at the peak frequency of the respective P-M spectrum. The first
peak in both surge and heave responses occurs closer to the natural frequency of surge
degree-of-freedom showing the resonating condition and also strong coupling of surge and
heave. In the pitch response, the second peak appears near to the peak frequency of the
respective P-M spectrum and the first peak at half of it, showing the presence of variable
submergence. The presence of current modified the PSD of surge, heave and pitch re-
sponses considerably. Table 2 to 4 show surge, heave and pitch responses for different
hydrodynamic loading cases obtained in IFD and time domain respectively. For 15 m-15 s
case, the response increases by 20.8%, 7.6% and 11.3% in surge, heave, and pitch de-
grees-of-freedom. It increases by 22.3%, 8% and 16.4% in the case of 12m-15s and 20.83%,
7.3% and for 10 m-10 s case when the variable submergence is considered. It is seen that
the presence of current modified the PSD of surge, heave and pitch response considerably.
It is also seen that the surge response increases by 16% for 15 m-15 s for (Uc=1.5 m/sec.),
by 12.2% for 12m-15s (Uc=1.0 m/sec.) and 26.3% for 10 m-10 s (Uc=0.5 m/sec.) respec-
tively and the heave response increases by 7.8% for 15 m-15 s for (Uc=1.5 m/sec.), by
9.5% for 12m-15s (Uc=1.0 m/sec.) and 11.8% for 10 m-10 s (Uc=0.5 m/sec.) respectively.
The pitch response increases by 13% for 15 m-15 s for (Uc=1.5 m/sec.), by 10.9% for 12m-
15s (Uc=1.0 m/sec.) and 8.6% for 10 m-10 s (Uc=0.5 m/sec.) respectively. The results from
the new approach IFD are in close tolerance with the results obtained by time domain
method. The hydrodynamic cases considered are vis-à-vis case 1: with variable submer-
gence and without current, case 2: without variable submergence and without current, case
3: with variable submergence and with current respectively.
Fig. 3. Pierson-Moskowitz spectrums (Hs-Tz). Fig. 4. Effect of variable submergence on

coupled surge response (15m-15s).
321
Table 1.Geometric properties of triangular TLP
Data Description
Weight of the platform (KN) 330000
Buoyancy (KN) 465500
Total tether pretension (KN) 135500
Tether length (m) 269
Center of gravity above keel (m) 27.47
AE/ l (KN/m) 34000
Center to center spacing of columns 75.66
D, Dc Diameter of the columns (m) 16.39
Fig. 5. Effect of current on coupled rx (m) 35.1
surge response (15m-15s). ry (m) 35.1
rz (m) 42.4
Water depth = 300m
Fig. 6 Effect of variable submergence on Fig. 7. Effect of current on coupled heave

coupled heave response (15m-15s). response (15m-15s).
Table 2. Surge response of Triangular TLP under random waves (in m).
Description Hs = 15m, Tz = 15secs Hs = 12m, Tz = 15secs Hs = 10m, Tz = 10secs

Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min
IFD TD IFD TD IFD TD
Case 1 2.69 -2.93 2.72 -2.95 1.97 -2.23 1.95 -2.21 1.5 -1.81 1.55 -1.87
Case 2 2.131 -2.24 2.15 -2.28 1.53 -1.68 1.55 -1.71 1.19 -1.39 1.23 -1.46
Case 3 Table
3.12 3. -3.34
Heave response of Triangular
3.15 -3.31 TLP under
2.21 -2.47 random
2.28 waves1.89
-2.49 (in m).-2.19 1.95 -2.23

Case 1 2.68 -2.81 2.71 -2.89 1.89 -2.13 1.93 -2.15 1.69 -1.71 1.71 -1.75
Case 2 2.49 -2.50 2.55 -2.61 1.75 -1.91 1.82 -1.94 1.55 -1.51 1.62 -1.58
Case 3 2.89 -2.99 2.95 -3.01 2.07 -2.25 2.15 -2.29 1.88 -1.83 1.91 -1.89
322
Fig. 8. Effect of variable submergence on Fig. 9. Effect of current on coupled
coupled pitch response (15m-15s). pitch response (15m-15s).
Table 4. Pitch response of Triangular TLP under random waves (in deg.)

Case 1 0.069 -0.054 0.075 -0.051 0.064 -0.051 0.06 -0.05 0.058 -0.043 0.053 -0.041
Case 2 0.055 -0.043 0.062 -0.041 0.055 -0.041 0.05 -0.04 0.05 -0.036 0.044 -0.033
6.0 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS OF THE STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF

Case 3 0.078 -0.069 0.081 -0.063 0.071 -0.061 0.07 -0.06 0.063 -0.055 0.061 -0.050
THE RESPONSE TIME HISTORIES
Two types of analyses have been performed with the time histories of the structural response
of the triangular TLP in various degrees-of-freedom, namely, (i) evaluation of PSDF and (ii)
statistical analysis of the extrema of the structural response and the distribution of the re-
sponse ranges. The response ranges time history has been calculated by cycle counting
method suggested by Richards et.al. (1974) the spectrum of the response is obtained by
direct Fourier transform of the time history of the response. After the data is smoothened by
the procedure supported by Brigham (1974). The two parameter Weibull law is considered for
modeling the distribution of the extrema of the response and the response ranges. Goodness-
of-fit test of chi-square type has been used to judge whether the extreme values follow the
Gumbel type-i distribution or not. The chi-square tests were performed on the sample extreme
values of the structural response of different degrees-of-freedom of the triangular TLP model to
determine their fitness to Gumbel type-I and two parameter Weibull distributions. The chi-
square test results, shown in Table 5 to table 7, were conducted with n = 23 and chi-square
values were the average of the ten simulation results taken from the response time history
ensembles of RL = 2048 s. Constant for chi-square test = 35.17 (page 524 of Bendat and
Peirsol, 1986), n = 23, α = 0.05. The results show that the extreme value of the response
ranges of different degrees-of-freedom fit adequately to the two parameter Weibull distribution.
Chi-square statistics were comprised in a confidence interval of 95% (α= 0.05). Extreme
value of response for all cases fits well with the Gumbel type-I distribution. It also further
shows that consideration of variable submergence does not affect the distribution of the ex-
treme values.
Table 5. Average values of chi-square for goodness-of-fit test for surge response.
323
Response
Case Hs Tz Description Current Extreme Range
(m) (s) (m/s) Weibull Gumbel Weibull
With variable submergence 0 34.62 31.55 19.42
1 15 15 Without variable submergence 0 33.75 19.602 18.1
With variable submergence 1.5 35.21 32.95 21.21
Table 6. Average values of chi-square for goodness-of-fit test for heave response.
Response
Case Hs Tz (s) Description Current Extreme Range
(m) (m/s) Weibull Gumbel Weibull
Table 7. Average
Withvalues of submergence
variable chi-square for goodness-of-fit
0.5 test 36.95
for pitch response.
25.35 28.51
Response
Case Hs Tz Description Current Extreme Range
(m) (s) (m/s) Weibull Gumbel Weibull
7.0 CONCLUSIONS
Based on the numerical studies carried out on the offshore triangular TLP under random
waves in Iterative Frequency Domain, the following main conclusions are drawn:
1. For the orientation of the Triangular TLP and for the unidirectional wave considered,
translational (surge and heave) and rotational (pitch) degrees-of-freedom responses get
significantly influenced. Variation on water particle kinematics with water depth, induce forces
and moments those activate all six degrees-of-freedom, however, the response is predomi-
324
nant in the three degrees-of-freedom only. 2. The effect
of variable submergence increases the coupled surge response. It also shows peak at half
frequency of the wave loading indicating the influence of variable submergence. 3. When the
current velocity is added with the relative velocity squared hydrodynamic drag force, the re-
sponse behavior of the Triangular TLP is altered significantly introducing non-zero mean re-
sponse in all degrees-of-freedom. 4. The results of sta-
tistical analysis of the responses show that the extreme value of the response of different
degrees-of-freedom fit well with the Gumbel Type-I model. It is seen that consideration of
variable submergence does not affect the distribution of the extreme values in different de-
grees-of-freedom. The extreme value range of the response in various degrees-of-freedom of
Triangular TLP model, under the presence of random wave fit well with the Weibull distribution.
REFERENCES
Bendat, J.S., Peirsol, A.G. (1986), Random data Analysis and measurement procedures, Wiley-Inter Science
publications, U.S.A.
Brigham, E.O. (1974), The Fast Fourier Transform, Prentice Hall, Eaglewood Cliffs, U.S.A.
Chakrabarti, S.K. (1971), Discussion of dynamics of single point moorings in deep water, Journal of Water-
ways, Harbour and Coastal Engineering Division, Transactions of ASCE, Vol. 97, No. WN3, pp. 558-590.
Chandrasekaran, S. and Jain, A.K. (1997), Dynamic response of offshore TLPs under regular waves, Second
National Conference on Harbour and Ocean Engineering, (INCHOE 97), Thiruvanathapuram, pp. 426-435.
Chandrasekaran, S. and Jain, A.K. (2002), Dynamic behavior of square and triangular offshore Tension Leg
Platforms under regular wave loads, International Journal of Ocean Engineering, Vol. 29, No.3, pp. 279-
313.
Chandrasekaran, S. and Chandak, N.R. (2004), Offshore Tension Leg Platform- a state-of-art, Proceedings of
Second National Conference on Material and Structures (MAST). pp. 204-209.
Chang, M.T. and Tung, C.C. (1990), An approximate method for dynamic analysis of offshore structures to
wave action, International Journal of Engineering Structures, Vol. 12, pp. 120-123.
Goda, Y. (1970), Numerical experiments on wave statistics with spectral simulation, Report of the Port and
Harbour Research Institute, Japan, Vol. 9, No. 3, pp. 16-18.
Jain, A.K. and Datta, T.K. (1987). Nonlinear dynamic analysis of offshore towers in frequency domain, Journal
of Engineering Mechanics, ASCE, Vol. 113, No. 4, pp. 610-625.
Li, Y. and Kareem, A. (1992), Computation of wave-induced drift forces introduced by displaced position of
compliant offshore platforms, Proceedings of OMAE, Vol. 114, pp. 175-184.
Richards, F.D., La Pointe, N.R. and Wetzel, R.M. (1974), A cycle counting algorithm for fatigue damage analysis,
Transactions of SAE, Paper No. 740278.
Wang, J. and Lutes, L.D. (1997), Analytical methods of non-Gaussian stochastic response of offshore struc-
tures, International Journal of Offshore and Polar Engineering, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 205-211.
325
TERNARY BLEND CONCRETE FOR MARINE STRUCTURES

Kshemendra Nath* and Charles S. Jones
Elkem India Pvt Ltd., Vashi, Navi Mumbai-400 703
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The corrosion of embedded reinforcement in concrete and the attendant cracking, delami-
nation and spalling of concrete resulting from the bursting stresses generated by the forma-
tion of expansive rust products, is undoubtedly the most prolific form of concrete deteriora-
tion encountered in the world today.
In the late 90s, the Department of Environment in the UK conducted the Partners in Technol-
ogy project to estimate the various deterioration mechanisms of concrete structures. Studies
conducted on 271 structures concluded that rebar corrosion accounted for almost 60% of the
cause of deterioration. In case of marine structures, studies conducted on 20 selected struc-
tures revealed that damage caused by external chlorides accounts for nearly 80% of the
deterioration. This is hardly surprising as marine conditions represent about the most severe
form of environmental loading because of the availability of moisture and salt and the dynamic
splash and spray conditions. Consequently marine structures may normally be expected to
deteriorate several times faster than their inland, urban or rural counterparts.
2.0 INGRESS OF CHLORIDES IN MARINE STRUCTURES
The phenomenon of chloride ingress in the structures at the coast in a hot climate is a
combination of water penetration, diffusion and absorption. Dry concrete imbibes seawater by
absorption and may continue do so until the concrete become saturated. When the condi-
tions change to dry, water evaporates from the ends of capillary pores. It is only the pure water
that evaporates, the salts being left behind. Thus, the concentration of salts in the water still
in the concrete increases near the surface of the concrete. The concentration gradient thus
established drives the salts in the water near the surface towards the zones of lower concen-
tration, i.e., inwards. The next cycle of wetting with salt water will bring more salt present in
solution into the capillary pores. The concentration gradient now decreases outwards from a
peak value at a certain depth from the surface and some salts may diffuse towards the surface
of the concrete. If, however, the wetting period is short and drying restarts quickly, the ingress
of salt water will carry the salts well into the interior of concrete; subsequent drying will remove
pure water, leaving the salts behind.
The ingress of chlorides is strongly influenced by the exact sequence of wetting and drying.
Drying to a greater depth allows subsequent wetting to carry chlorides well into the concrete,
thus speeding up the ingress of chloride ions. For this reason, concrete in the tidal zone,
*Corresponding author, e-mail: kshemendra.nath@elkem.no
326
where the period of drying is short is less vulnerable for corrosion than the splash zone
where wetting may occur only when the sea is high or the wind is strong. The most vulnerable
is the concrete wetted by seawater only occasionally but at other times exposed to the drying
effects of the sun and of a high temperature.
Corrosion protection should be incorporated into the design of new structures and the reha-
bilitation of existing ones. Important defenses against corrosion are: low permeability con-
crete (to slow down the ingress of chlorides); uniform air void system; low water-cement
ratio; degree of hydration; controlled cracking (design & joints); high quality concrete; suffi-
cient cover; proper placement; adequate curing; and proper drainage. The use of Supple-
mentary Cementing Materials (SCM) helps in achieving such characteristics and, thus, in
attaining good durable concrete.
3.0 SILICA FUME CONCRETE FOR DURABLE STRUCTURES
Silica fume or microsilica, fly ash and slag are the most common material that are incorpo-
rated in concrete for durability. The beneficial effects of these materials are so significant that
their use in reinforced concrete liable to corrosion in hot climates is virtually necessary.Portland
cement alone should not be used.
Microsilica/silica fume is extremely fine and amorphous in nature and therefore highly reac-
tive. The combination of high reactivity and extreme fineness results in the production of
dense and high strength concrete with very low and discontinuous pores.
The effect of silica fume on concrete is two pronged. Firstly, due to its extreme fineness, it
physically fills the voids in the transition zone between the cement grain and aggregates. For
example, for a 10% addition of silica fume there will be about 2,00,000 particles of silica fume
for a single grain of cement replaced. The transition zone is acknowledged as the most
vulnerable zone in the concrete through which external moisture, chlorides, sulfates etc. find
the way into the concrete. Microsilica thus refines the pore structure of the hardened cement
paste, resulting in less permeable and more durable concrete. Secondly, its pozzolonic effect
- due to very high silica content reacts with calcium hydroxide and water to form calcium
silicate hydrate gel, which fills the voids, and the spaces previously occupied by calcium
hydroxide.
Silica fume (SiO2) + Calcium hydroxide + Water = Calcium silicate hydrate (CSH)
Although silica fume was used in concrete for the first time in India in 1987, its use in the
construction of nuclear reactor domes at Kaiga and Kota in 1997 popularized the product.
Thereon many structures have been/are being built in India with both binary (OPC & silica
fume) and ternary blend systems (OPC, flyash & silica fume) or (OPC, slag & silica fume).
327
4.0 TERNARY BLENDS FOR HIGH PERFORMANCE CONCRETE
It is an established fact that improved resistance to corrosion damage is achievable through

the use of materials such as Silica fume, Fly ash and Granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS)
in binary blends. However, the current trend is to use large amounts of pozzolans in structural
concrete as ternary blends which results in less cement consumption, better workability, less
heat of hydration and higher durability. In this context, silica fumes is used in combination with
either fly ash or GGBS and OPC to achieve the desired performance. Silica fumes contribute
to mechanical strength at early ages, offsetting the slow gain of strength of binary blends of
OPC and fly ash or GGBS.
The success of ternary blend concrete has boosted the confidence of the engineers to
design and construct concrete structures with 100 years of service life. The storebelt link
bridge in Denmark, the Tsing Ma bridge in Hong Kong, the great belt link bridge and the
Copenhagen metro are a few landmark projects built with ternary blend concrete. Closer
home, the Bandra-Worli sea-link in Mumbai also has ternary blend concrete specified for
improved durability.
5.0 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
As mentioned earlier, whatever their external origin, chlorides penetrate concrete by trans-
port of water containing the chlorides, as well as by diffusion of the ions in water and by
absorption. Therefore, for enhancing the durability of concrete, resistance to water penetra-
tion and chloride ions are critical. An experimental work was taken up to study the perfor-
mance of ternary blend systems, i.e. OPC, slag & silica fume and compare them to the
properties of concrete made with slag cement (Binary blend) in the fresh and hardened
states for their use in marine structures. To study the durability performance, it was decided
to compare the performance of the respective mixes to the established durability tests like the
resistance to water penetration as per DIN 1048 and the Rapid chloride penetrability test
(RCPT) as per ASTM C-1202. The abrasion resistance was also studied in accordance with
ASTM C 1138.
5.1 Materials
The cement used was Portland Slag Cement (PSC) with a slag content of 50%. Coarse
aggregates are 20 mm & 10 mm, with a very high Los Angeles abrasion value (nearly 48
50%). Fine aggregate was river sand with a FM of 2.68. Densified microsilica with a SiO2content
of about 90% was used. The details of cement, aggregates, silica fume etc are given in the
enclosure.
5.2 Mix Designs
The main consideration in designing the mix was to achieve lowest permeability & RCPT
328
values, which is a must for marine structures. Another aspect was the effect of abrasion of
such concrete. Hence high strength concrete was selected for the study.
The most important factor in mix design for high strength concrete is the selection of materi-
als, because all ingredients in such concrete work at near critical limits. A failure always
initiates at its weakest link and propagates through the stronger part. The key to success in
designing a high strength concrete mix is to find the material in which the weakest link is as
strong as required to meet the performance requirements.
Mixes were designed so as to keep minimum cementitious content. Accordingly M50, M60,
and M70 grade concrete were designed with 400 kg of PSC and 10% silica fume. M30 con-
crete without silica fume was also designed for comparing the results of permeability & RCPT
with mixes containing silica fume. Silica fume being extra fine (50 to 100 times finer than
cement) needs superplasticizer for workability. With so many ingredients, mix proportioning
and design is a sophisticated job.
5.3 Test Methods
Water permeability test was done according to DIN 1048 where the specimen is subjected
to water pressure of 1 bar, 3 bar and 7 bars for 24 hours each. At the end of the test the
specimens were split and the depth of penetration is recorded in mm. Rapid Chloride Penetra-
tion Test (RCPT) was conducted on concrete samples 100 mm diameter & 50 mm thick and
the specimens were then conditioned according to ASTM C 1202. The test procedure followed
was in conformity with the ASTM standard (C 1202). The positive reservoir of the cell is filled
with 0.3N sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution, while the negative reservoir was filled with 3%
sodium chloride (NaCl) solution. A direct current (DC) of 60 V was applied across the speci-
men for 6 hours, the coulombs passed across being recorded every 30 minutes. The tempera-
ture of the specimen during RCPT was monitored to ensure that the charge passed data are
not affected due to the joule effect.
The abrasion test apparatus (ASTM C 1138) consist of a container in which agitation paddles
rotate at specified speed in water. Abrasive charge consists of chrome steel grinding balls with
nominal diameter of 25, 19 and 12 mm and of a specified number and weight. This set up
simulates the action of water borne particles (silt, sand, gravel and other solids) and is in-
tended to quantitatively simulate the behavior of swirling water containing suspended and
transported soil objects that produce abrasion of concrete and cause pothole and related
effect. Test specimens, cylindrical in shape having a diameter of approximately 300-mm and
heights of 100 mm were cast (as per ASTM C-1130-1997) for various mixes. The test speci-
men is initially weighed and mounted on the container. The abrasive charges and water are
added and the rotating paddles started. The specimen is removed from the container at
every 12 hours and its weight is recorded after flushing the abraded material. The flushing
water was filtered to separate the solid particles. The test is repeated for 72-hrs and percent-
329
age loss is recorded.
6.0 RESULTS, OBSERVATIONS & DISCUSSIONS
The details of mixes and the results are given in the tables and figures altogether. The results
indicate that when silica fume is incorporated in normal concrete there is a remarkable reduc-
tion in the chloride ion penetration. Though the chloride ion penetrability is low in the mixes
with slag, the water permeability is high. This is because the specific surface of slag or the
fineness of slag is almost equal to cement or in most cases (in India) more than cement. Also
various literature indicate that while mixes with only slag may to some extent be resistant to
chlorides but are not that effective when sulfates are also present, in such cases silica fume
becomes inevitable. With very low w/b ratios and with combinations of SF with slag could
attain RCPT values well below 100 coulombs which falls in the limit of negligible chloride ion
penetration. Such concrete would ensure overall economy and long service life.
The higher the strength, greater the abrasion resistance of that concrete. The results obtained
also substantiate the statement. Use of silica fume helps in achieving higher strengths and
thus reduces the loss in abrasion considerably, besides enhancing the performance of con-
crete on other counts. Abrasion loss is reduced from 6.71% in M 30 concrete without SF to
2.84% in M 70 concrete with SF. i.e. 2.36 times. This is a substantial reduction in the loss.
Also even with high w/b ratios (w/b = 0.45), the addition of silica fume brings down the abra-
sion loss from 6.71% to 3.96%, which is approximately 41% reduction.
7.0 CONCLUSION
The results indicate without an iota of doubt that ternary blend concrete outperforms the
conventional binary blend concrete in terms of resistance to water penetration and chloride
penetrability. The abrasion resistance of concrete is also vastly improved with ternary blend
mixes. Although the experiment was restricted to use of GGBS only, the results of experi-
ments conducted on fly ash also indicate performance along similar lines. A well designed
ternary blend concrete will only be marginally costlier than OPC mix or a binary mix as both
silica fume and fly ash/GGBS can complement each other to reduce the OPC content in the
concrete and bring economy in mix costs. The greatest contribution, however, will be the
reduction in the life span costs of the structure, by limiting extensive deterioration repair
works.
Based on his long years of experience, De sitter has introduced the law of Fives: One pound
spent in phase A equals five pounds in phase B, 25 pounds in phase C and 125 pounds in
phase D, where the phases are:
A. Design, construction and curing
330
B. Initiation processes are underway, but propagation phases of damage has not begun
yet.
C. Propagating deterioration has just begun.
D. Advanced state of propagation with extended damage occurring.
Therefore, it is high time that engineers working in scientific institutions, engineering consult-
ants and contractors take up this challenge and concentrate on phase A.
REFERENCES
Durability by admixture by James R. Miller & David J. Fielding, Concrete International April 1997.
Evaluation of Rapid chloride permeability Test (RCPT) results for concrete containing Mineral admixtures by T.H.
Wee, Arvind K. Suryavanshi and S.S. Tin, ACI Materials Journal, March-April 2000, Pg 221-232
Abrasion & Erosion resistant concrete with silica fume by Rajbal et al, International conference on Accelerated
construction of Dams, Vol 2, Oct 2003.
Condition audit of Reinforced concrete piers & review of concrete designing for the marine environment
Internal Report Taywood Engineering Ltd, October 1996.
Microsilica as an Addition by Per Fidjestol & Robert Lewis, Leas Chemistry of Cement & Concrete, Pg: 675 702
Properties of Concrete, A.M.Neville.
Durability design of concrete structures, Minimizing total life cycle costs Considerations and Examples;Dr.
Mette Geiker, Proceedings of the International conference Creating with Concrete, University of Dundee,
Scotland, UK, Sept.1999.
Table 1(a). Properties of slag cement.

( ) p g
ANALYSIS SPECIFICATION
Chemical Properties (%) (%)
Loss on Ignition (LOI) 1.42 5.0
Silica (SiO2) 24.40
Iron Oxide (Fe 2O3) 2.60
Alumina (Al2O3) 10.98
Calcium Oxide (CaO) 50.75
Magnesium Oxide (MgO) 5.84 8.0
Sulfur Tri-Oxide (SO 3) 1.64 3.0
Insoluble Residue 1.02 4.0
Physical Properties
Setting Time – Initial (Min) 138 Not less than 30
Final (Min) 187 Not more than 600
Fineness – By Sieve (%) 3.20
By Blaine (cm2/gm) 3645 Not less than 2250
Compressive Strength
3 Days (MPa) 29.1 Not less than 16.0
Soundness
By Lechatelier (mm) 0.90 Not more than 10.0
By Autoclave (%) 0.10 Not more than 0.80
331
Table 1(b). Properties of silica fume.
( ) p
ANALYSIS SPECIFICATION
Chemical Properties
SiO2 (%) 90.2 Min 85
Moisture Content (%) 0.5 Max 3.0
Loss of Ignition @ 975 C (%) 1.5 Max 6.0
Carbon (%) 0.9 Max 2.5
Physical Properties
> 45 Microns (%) 3.0 Max 10
Pozz. Activity index (%) 188 Min 85
2
Sp. Surface (m /gm) 20.4 Min 15
3
Bulk Density (kg/m ) 630 500 - 700
Table 1(c). Properties of aggregates.

( ) p gg g
SL. No TESTS CA1 CA2 FA
1 Fineness Modulus 7.10 5.94 2.68
2 Specific Gravity 2.77 2.73 2.54
3 Water Absorption 0.87% 0.50% 1.0%
4 Impact Value 14.70 23.53 ---
5 Los Angeles Abrasion 43.04 38.30 ---
Table 2. Details of mixes & results.
1 2 3 4 5 6
M 20 M 30 M 30 M 50 M 60 M 70
Slag Cement 350 400 350 400 400 400
Microsilica 0 0 26 40 40 40
Binder 350 400 376 440 440 440
Aggregates 1878 1878 1876 1854 1851 1853
Water 158 180 169 150 118 108
Superplasticizer 0 0 1.50% 1.05% 1.20% 1.50%
RHB UD 89 Glen 51 M Glen 51 M Glen 51 M
W/B Ratio 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.34 0.27 0.25
Comp. Strength
1 Day 5.1 9.78 10.58 2.89 3.84 4.66
3 Days 10.8 17.78 24.2 29.91 NA 41.29
7 Days 18.1 26.12 33.6 50.89 60.44 65.02
28 Days 30.02 38.33 44.59 60.29 68.26 78.18
Water Permeability (mm) 90 85 5 Nil Nil Nil

RCPT (Coulombs) 3653 2635 1030 278 173 86
% Loss in Abrasion NA 6.71 3.96 3.51 3.00 2.84
N B Sl i 0% l
N.B: Slag cement contains 50% slag
MIXES 1 & 2 Without Silica Fume RHB UD 89 Rheobuid UD 89 (Degussa Const. Chemicals)
MIXES 3 to 6 With Silica Fume Glen 51 M Glenium 51 M (Modified) Type G (Degussa)
332
Fig. 1. Water permeability
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
M 20 M 30 M 30* M 50* M 60* M 70* *- Mix with Silica fume
Fig. 2. Rapid chloride penetration tests.
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
M 20 M 30 M 30* M 50* M 60* M 70*
*- Mix with Silica fume
Fig. 3. Abrasion loss after 72 hrs.
0
M 30 M 30* M 50* M 60* M 70*
*- Mix with Silica fume
333
APPLICATION OF GEOTEXTILE AND GABIONS FOR

SHORE PROTECTION AGAINST EROSION ALONG
SOUTH WEST COAST OF INDIA
R. Sundaravadivelu*, V. Sundar, N. Nagabhushan and K. Kamesh Arun
Dept. of Ocean Engineering, IIT Madras, Chennai-600036
ABSTRACT
A stretch of the coast along Tamil Nadu in the southwest of India for a length of about 60 km
has been experiencing continuous erosion. One of the serious problems along this coast is
the acceleration of erosion particularly during the southwest monsoon (May to September).
During, the said season, the sea is rough and the waves break on the landmass resulting in
significant erosion. To protect the coast from erosion, a seawall with geotextile as filter and
gabions for the toe mound is contemplated as a possible coastal protection measure consid-
ering the environmental conditions. The seawall is proposed for 28 sites, which were severely
affected. The details of the design, laying of the geotextile and gabion boxes along with the
placing of the armour layers are discussed and reported in this paper.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The State of Tamil Nadu has a coastline of about 910 km, of which, 850 km is along the Bay
of Bengal and about 60 km along the Arabian Sea and is about one-sixth of the total coastline
of India. A number of urban and rural habitation centers are located along the coastline of
Tamil Nadu. The main occupation of the dwellments along the coast is fishing. A significant
stretch of the coast of Tamilnadu experiences severe erosion. The Kanyakumari district of
Tamil Nadu state (from 8o0530 N and 77o2630 E to 8o16N and 77o08 E) is the most affected
area. Particularly during May to September, the sea is rough with high waves, which break
well within the landmass in the coastal area and carry away the sand mass resulting in severe
erosion. This results in considerable damage to property, monuments, roads and plantations.
Heavy damages are caused to the fishermen for whom fishing is their only livelihood. This
causes economic loss and several socio-economic problems to the state in general and to
the fishing hamlets in particular. From the past data collection, it is observed that the erosion
rate is assessed to be of the order of about 0.4 m/year. A landmass of about 440 hectares
along the coast is affected by erosion over the past 11 years. The area to be protected is
nearly about 10 km. Hence, it is suggested to protect the severely affected 28 sites in and
around the Kanyakumari district by the construction of seawalls.
The construction of rubble mound seawall has to be chosen based on following parameters:
*Corresponding author, e-mail: dr_velu@hotmail.com
334
a) Environmental parameters
b) Geographical location of individual site.
The location map of the present study area is shown
in (Fig.1)
Location of the
study area
Fig. 1. Location map.
2.0 COMPONENTS OF SEAWALL
Geotextile Layer: A Geotextile laid over the prepared seabed with a slope of 1:10 for a
length of 18 m (i.e. bottom width of RMS Wall), 5 m towards the seaside and 1.3 m towards
the landside.
Filter Layer: Filter layer consists of stones of size upto 150 mm of about 300 mm thick.
Core Layer: Core layer consists of stones of 50 kg to 125 kg for a minimum of 500 m thick.
Armour Layer: Armour layer is 1000 mm thick over the core layer comprising of stones of
size 400 kg to 500 kg.
Gabion Boxes: Gabion box consisted of woven net, in which stones of size not less than 150
mm were placed to form a box. Two sizes (1 m x 1 m x 1 m) and (1 m x 1 m x 0.5 m) of gabion
boxes were adopted for the study.
335
3.0 IMPORTANCE OF GEOTEXTILE
The geotextile is made up of a polypropylene woven geotextile. The main function of the
geotextile in the seawall is to act as a filter media between the existing bed profile and the
bedding layer. The specifications of the geotextile are provided in Table 1.
Table 1. Specification of geotextile fabric.

Sl.No Properties GWF 26 -130
1. Mechanical
Breaking strength (IS 1969)
Warp (KN/m) 28.00
Weft (KN/m) 26.00
2. Elongation at break%
Warp (Max) 34.50
Weft ( Max) 25.00
3. Grab Strength (3” X 1”)
KN (Min) ASTM D 5034
Warp 1.15
Weft 1.0
4. Mullen Burst
Kps (Min) ASTM D 3786 2964
5. Trapezoidal Tear
Warp 0.70
Weft 0.50
6. Single Rip Tear
Warp 0.14
Weft 0.19
7. Hydraulics Pore size (mm)
ASTM D 4751 <0.075
Permeability (Lit/m 2/sec)
ASTM D 4491 23.60
The geotextiles have the advantage of easy installation, stability and durability. Controlling the
scour and loss of bed material by the way of infiltration has derived the advantage of using
geotextiles in shore protection works. Wave action at the toe of shore protection works with
gravel filter with and without geotextile are depicted in the Fig. 2. (Ramaswamy and Rathore,
1987). The design of the seawall was carried out based on the guidelines of the Shore Protec-
tion Manual (1984).
4.0 METHODOLOGY
4.1 Laying the geotextile

Laying the geotextile under dry conditions is relatively a simple procedure. The material
delivered as rolls on site, is usually placed by unrolling, over the area that has to be pro-
tected. The geo-fabric of width 6 m (2 nos. each 3 m) and 24.30 m long was initially laid for
a width of 18 m. The extra length of 5 m towards seaside and 1.30 m towards the landside
was kept as a roll as shown in Fig. 3. The 18 m geotextile layer was kept in position using
sand bags of 300 mm thick in a grid pattern of 3 mx3 m to prevent uplift or buoyant situation
as shown in the above figure. The 3 m wide of geotextile was laid with an overlap of 300 mm
with proper stitching at site using hand held moving electrically operated machine. The filter
layer consisting of stones of size upto 150 mm of about 300 mm thick was then placed over
336
the geo-fabric.
4.2 Gabion box
The gabion boxes were closed and properly tied using polypropylene rope of 10 mm diam-
eter. The main function of the gabion box is to act as a toe mound for the seawall, so as to
avoid the failure of the toe. The specifications of the gabion box are given in Table 2.
Table 2. Specifications of the gabions.
Sl.No Properties 10 mm rope gabions
1. Size of the body 10 mm having a weight of 45 gm/m

and border rope with a tolerance of + 8%
2. Material of the rope PP (With adequate UV stabilizer)
3. Mesh opening size 100 mm x 100 mm
4. Tensile Strength (a) 10 mm rope 1560 Kg
breaking strength (min)
(b) Ropenet 10000 Kg/m width
breaking strength
5. Punching shear 5000 Kgs
Strength
6. Structure of the 3 Strand Howser laid
rope
7. Construction of net Woven joint at the intersection of
ropes
8. Abrasion resistance The rope when tested as per
procedure shall have a residual
B.S. of at least of 85% of the
stipulated rope strength at the end
of 1000 cycles.
9. Thermal Stability The rope when tested as per
procedure shall have a residual
strength of 90%
10. Resistance of UV Material shall be adequately UV
radiation Stabilized.
Two gabion boxes each of 1 m x 1 m x 0.5 m were placed on the prepared filter layer near the
toe as shown in Fig. 4. One additional gabion box of size 1 m x 1m x 1 m was placed on the
top of the already laid gabion boxes as can be seen in Fig. 5. All these three gabion boxes laid
in an overlap pattern in both the vertical and horizontal directions were tied with overlaps in
both vertical and horizontal directions together with polypropylene rope of 10 mm diameter
atleast at four locations of each of the box. The rolled portion of geo-fabric was opened and
placed on landside as stated earlier. The seaside portion of geo-fabric was opened and placed
over the gabion boxes. The stones of size 50 to 150 kg were laid to a thickness of 500 mm on
the top of filter layer to form the core layer. From the center of the cross section, the thickness
of the core layer varies as shown in the above figure. The armour layer was then placed for
a thickness of 1000 mm with stones of size 400 to 500 kg in two layers. Finally, filtering
arrangements with gravel and sand for 250 mm thick in two layers was laid at the land side for
the filter so that the debris does not to enter into the seawall. The final cross section of the
seawall with geo-fabric, gabion boxes on the seaside, filter layer, core layer, armour layer
and filtering arrangements are shown in the Fig. 6.
337
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
Geotextiles perform the functions of filtering, separation and reinforcement when used in shore
protection applications. Proper testing and selection of the type of geotextile is important. In
addition, the construction method depends on the individual project and the environment. The
geotextile is a polypropylene multifilament woven fabric; the individual multifilaments are wo-
ven together in such a manner so as to provide dimensional stability relative to each other.
Hence, geotextile fabric was suggested as a filtering media in between the existing bed profile
of the coast and the bedding layer stones.
Based on the prevailing site conditions the gabion boxes of the following sizes were specified
for the toe mound to protect the seawall against toe failure.
(a) 1 m x 1 m x 1 m (1 No.) with aperture size of 100 mm x 100 mm filled in up with stones
of size not less than 150 mm to be placed at top.
(b) 1 m x 1 m x 0.5 m (2 Nos.) with aperture size of 100 mm x 100 mm filled in up with
stones of size not less than 150 mm to be placed at the bottom.
REFERENCES
Ramaswamy, S.D., Rathore M.N., 1987, An assessment of polypropylene fabric for geotextile applications, Proc.
Fourth Int. Conf. on Polypropylene Fibres and Textiles, Nottingham.
Shore Protection Manual, 1984, U.S. Army Coastal Engineering Research Center, Department of the Army, U.S.
Corps of Engineers, Washington, DC. USA.
with gravel filter

with geotextile
INITIAL PLACEMENT
with gravel filter
Large Stone Drop & Separate
Small Stones & Gravel
Separate & Move away Small Stones Drop But
Remain to Protect Toe
Progressive Scour Geotextile Prevent Futher Scour

Sand infiltration
AFTER MANY WAVE CYCLES
Fig. 2. Function of geotextile at the time of initial placement and after many wave cycles.
338
LAND SIDE
SEA SIDE
18m
ED
SEAB
Fig. 3. Existing profile of beach and geotextile.
GABION BOX (2Nos.) 1M X 1M X 0.5M LAND SIDE

APERTURE 100mm X 100mm TO BE
FILLED WITH STONE SIZE 150mm.
SEA SIDE
0.3m
FILTER LAYER +1.50
STONE 150mm.
MSL (0.00) SLOPE 1:10

-0.30
GEOFABRIC LAYER
18M
Fig. 4. Existing profile of beach with gabion box.
GABION BOX 1m X 1m X 1m
APERTURE 100mm X 100mm TO BE CORE LAYER 50Kg TO 125Kg.
FILLED WITH STONE SIZE 150mm.
LAND SIDE
FILTER LAYER +2.35
STONE UPTO 150mm
SEA SIDE
0.5m
E 1:4
0.3m
SLOP
+1.50
MSL (0.00)
-0.30 SLOPE 1:10
GABION BOX (2Nos.) 1m X 1m X 0.5m GEOFABRIC LAYER
FILLED WITH STONE SIZE 150mm. 18M
Fig. 5. Cross section of rubble mound seawall with gabion boxes and core layer.
LAND SIDE
ARMOUR LAYER 400Kg TO 500 Kg. CORE LAYER 50Kg TO 125 Kg.
GABION BOX 1m X 1m X 1m FILTER LAYER

APERTURE 100mm X 100mm TO BE STONE UP TO150mm.
FILLED WITH STONE SIZE 150mm. +3.35
:4 +2.74
PE 1
SLO
SEA SIDE
+1.50
MSL (0.00)
-0.30 SLOPE 1:10
0.3m
GABION BOX 1m X 1m X 0.5m GEO TEXTILE LAYER

FILLED WITH STONE SIZE150mm. 18M
Fig. 6. Typical cross section of rubble mound seawall.
339
STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS OF LOW CALCIUM

FLYASH CONCRETE EXPOSED TO MARINE
ENVIRONMENT
Vijaykumar V1 and S. Jayakumar *
Ocean Engineering Division, National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa.
1
Software group, ITG, NIO, Goa.
Abstract
Concrete is the most used construction material for Port and Harbour structures as well as for
shore protection works. Due to its ability to resist weathering action, chemical attack and
other processes of deterioration, it is an excellent material for coastal construction. Studies
were carried out with replacement of cement with flyash at different percentages by weight
and subjected to the marine environment. The experimental investigations were carried out on
the strength characteristics from early ages, i.e., at 1, 7, 14 and 28 days and afterwards up
to 30 months at intervals of 3 months. The results of the studies and the advantages of
addition of flyash in concrete for marine applications in the strength characteristics are pre-
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Concrete is being used as a construction material for Port and Harbour structures and for
shore protection works. Due to its ability to resist weathering action, chemical attack and
other processes of deterioration, it is an excellent material for coastal construction. The per-
formance of concrete depends on the quality and quantity of cement being employed in the
design mix. The concrete properly designed, compacted and cured with adequate cover to the
reinforcement and with due care for the determination of physio-chemical properties of the
ingredients, will normally give good performance in service. Considering the aggressive envi-
ronment we must understand the various environmental causes for the structural distress.
Once these are understood the structural design with proper selection of concrete ingredients
becomes simple. It is on this basis, choice of cement can be made. However, concrete
prepared from such combination is uneconomical. Therefore, research efforts are being made
to develop economically viable and highly durable pozzolanic flyash concrete for its use in
marine environment. In India, flyash is a waste product of thermal power plants and is also
available in large quantities. The disposal of the flyash is also an acute problem, which causes
environmental pollution. This material is proven highly effective in developing cheap and high
quality concrete for various marine applications.
*Corresponding author, e-mail : jay@nio.org
340
2.0 METHODS AND MATERIALS
The properties of concrete primarily depend on the constituent materials. As this investigation
is specifically directed towards understanding the strength and durability characteristics of
concrete it should be ensured that all of the constituent materials are of good quality.
(i) Cement: Ordinary Portland cement with minimum 7 days strength of 28.57 N/mm2 was
used throughout these investigations. The properties are given in Table 1.
(ii) Fine Aggregates: The fine aggregates used are the river sand, without inorganic impurities,
having a specific gravity of 2.53. The sample satisfies the requirement of grading zone III as
per IS 383, 1970.
(iii) Coarse Aggregates: The coarse aggregate is made up of well graded crushed granite
stone chips so that there may not be the problems of alkali aggregates reaction, absorption
etc. 10 mm aggregate is used throughout the investigation available from a mechanised quarry,
having a specific gravity of 2.62. As per IS 383, 1970, sample satisfies the grading limits for
coarse aggregates, i.e., Percentage passing for single-sized aggregates of 10 mm (by weight).
(iv) Flyash: The flyash required for this investigation is obtained from the Raichur Thermal
Power Station (RTPS), Karnataka. Flyash used throughout this investigation is used as it is
without any processing and having chemical and physical properties as shown in Table 2.
Compressive Strength: The strength characteristics are evaluated through the compressive
strength test (IS 456 - 1978).
Mix proportions: In all 36 different mixes were used in this investigation, considering two
grades of concretes M20 (nominal mix as per IS:456-1978) and M30 (designed mix as per IS
: 10262-1982) with two different w/c ratios of 0.45 and 0.60 and replacement of cement with
flyash in concrete is done by simple replacement method from 0 to 40% at 5% interval. The
details of the various mixs are shown in Table 3.
Investigations on the strength characteristics of concrete with replacement of Flyash (FA)

from 0 to 40% have been carried out and the results for 1, 7, 14 and 28 days are presented
(Table 4). The results on the strength characteristics of different concretes over a period of 30
months in deployed in various zones (i.e. submerged, inter-tidal, and splash) are presented in
Figs. 1 to 12.
The 28-day compression strength of M2A and M2B concrete mixes showed that FA percent-
ages up to 15% showed either equal or better strength characteristics of the control concrete
without any FA content. In general, all mixes have shown strength above 20 N/mm2. For M2B
341
mixes up to 20% FA attained strength above 20 N/mm2. M3A mix concretes with FA percent-
age up to 10% were found to have higher compressive strength then that of control. M3B mix
concretes were observed to have lesser strength compared to control concrete and the strength
was found to reduce with increase in percentage of FA.
The results on the strength characteristics of different concretes for 1, 7, 14 and 28 days have
been presented comprehensively in figures below:
Splash Zone: M2A mix concretes with 5 and 10% FA were observed to gain higher strength
compared to higher replacements of FA, wherein the initial strength was more than 30 N/mm2
for all the concretes. Over a period of 24 months, the strength is observed to fall below the
design strength of 20 N/mm2. A large difference in strengths between concretes with higher FA
content and concretes with lower FA content is observed. This large difference in strengths is
reduced over longer periods, which could be due to the gain in strength by the concretes with
higher FA content and reduction of strength for concretes with low FA content. The reduction
of the strength over period of time is observed irrespective of the quantity of FA present in the
concrete. As all the mixes with different percentages of FA provided similar variation in the
strengths, it can be said that addition of FA for the mix with 0.45% w/c ratio did not yield major
advantage. Though higher initial strength is observed, the rate of reduction in strength for
0.45% w/c concretes is found to be faster when compared to concrete with 0.6 w/c ratio. From
these studies it can be stated that M2A mix is not suitable for the SPLASH zone over longer
periods due to reduction of strength below the design value beyond 20 months. However, for
concrete with short duration applications (periods less than 18 months) replacement of ce-
ment up to 40% provides adequate strength. Replacement of cement by 10% yields better
results compared to 40% replacement for such short-term applications.
M2B mix concretes with FA replacement up to 40% were observed to gain higher initial strength.
However, FA replacements up to 20% showed initial strengths beyond 30 N/mm2 compared to
higher replacements. It is seen that FA replacements of 30 and 40% provided lowest strength
compared to all other replacements. Over a period of 24 months, the strength is observed to
fall below the design strength of 20 N/mm2 for FA replacements beyond 25%. A large differ-
ence in strengths between concretes with higher FA content and concretes with lower FA
content is observed throughout the 30 months period. The reduction of the strength over period
of time is observed irrespective of the quantity of FA present in the concrete. However, mixes
with FA replacement up to 25% retained strengths greater than the design strength of 20 N/
mm2 till 18 months (except for 20% replacement which showed lesser strength). As all the
mixes with different percentages of FA maintained similar variation in the strengths, it can be
said that addition of FA for the mix with 0.6% w/c ratio did not yield better strength compared
to concrete with 0% FA. Though higher initial strength is observed, the rate of reduction in
strength is found to be slower when compared to concretes with 0.45 w/c ratio. From these
studies it can be stated that M2B concrete with FA replacements up to 25% is suitable for the
SPLASH zone over periods less than 20 months as reduction of strength below the design
342
value beyond 20 months is observed. However, for concrete with short duration applications
(periods less than 18 months) replacement of cement up to 40% provides adequate strength.
Replacement of cement up to 25% FA can be recommended for applications which last less
than 18 months as they yield better strength compared to FA replacements of 30% and
beyond.
M3A mix concretes with 5, 10 and 15 % FA were observed to gain initial higher strength
compared to higher replacement of FA, wherein the initial strength was more than 40 N/mm2.
All other concretes gained initial strength of more than 30 N/mm2. However, the strength
reduced below the design strength for all the concretes after 18 months of exposure. A large
difference in strengths between concretes with higher FA content and concretes with lower FA
content are observed. Concretes with higher FA content (>25%) showing less strength com-
pared to concretes with less FA content. The reduction of the strength over period of time is
observed irrespective of the quantity of FA present in the concrete. As all the mixes with
different percentages of FA provided similar variation in the strengths, it can be said that
addition of FA for the mix with 0.45% w/c ratio did not yield any significant advantage. From
these studies it can be stated that M3A mix is not suitable for the SPLASH zone over longer
periods (>15 months) due to reduction of strength below the design value beyond 18 months
for most of the mixes. However, for concrete with short duration applications (periods less than
15 months) replacement of cement up to 15% provides adequate strength. Replacement of
cement by 5% yields better results compared to 15% replacement for such short-term appli-
cations.
M3B mix concretes with FA replacement of 5% were observed to gain higher initial strength
compared to all other concretes. However, concretes with higher FA content (>20%) were
observed to perform poorly compared to concretes with FA content less than 25%. Concretes
with FA content more than 20% were found to be deteriorating over period of time whereas the
strength of those with FA content less than 25% were observed to be progressively increasing
their strength being less than the design value. From the study results, it is clearly seen that
the use of M3B mix provides better results compared to M2A, M2B and M3A concretes.
Inter-tidal Zone: M2A mix concretes with 5% FA was observed to gain high early strength
compared to higher replacement of FA, wherein the initial strength was more than 20 N/mm2
for all the concretes. After 3 months concrete with 20% FA was observed to have maximum
strength of almost 40 N/mm2 followed by FA concretes with 15 and 10%. The strengths of
mixes with 10 and 15% FA are observed to rise steadily. Control and concretes with FA up to
20% gained strength above 40 N/mm2 after 9 months, where 10% FA concrete observed
highest compressive strength above 50 N/mm2.
M2B mix concrete with 0% FA was observed to have maximum compressive strength of 38.44
N/mm2 after 3 months. After 6 months the 15 and 20% FA concretes are found to give maxi-
mum strength followed by 25 and 0% FA. The strengths of all concretes with FA is observed to
343
fall beyond 6 months, except for mixes with 25 and 30% FA concretes whose strength if found
to reduce progressively beyond 9 months. However, the strength of all the mixes are observed
to be less than the designed strength of 20 N/mm2 except for 5% FA replacement. The reduc-
tion of the strength over period of time is observed irrespective of the quantity of FA present in
the concrete. However, mix with FA replacement up to 10% retained strengths greater than
the design strength of 20 N/mm2 after 30 months. From these observations it can be stated
that M2B concrete with FA replacements up to 10% is most suitable for the Inter-tidal zone
but over longer periods due to reduction of strength below the design value beyond 20 months
they are not suitable.
As in case with M2A concrete, concrete with 5% FA for M3A mix concrete was observed to
gain initial high strength at 28 days compared to other replacements of FA, wherein the initial
strength was more than 40 N/mm2. It was observed that all mixes gained strength above 40N/
mm2 after 6 months except for 20% FA concrete, which had gained strength of 37.33 N/mm2.
The 5% FA concrete was observed to have the highest strength of 65 N/mm2. However, the
strength of all mixes was found to consistently drop beyond 6 months and over a period of 30
months. Only the concretes with 15 and 20% FA had strength above the designed strength
after 18 months, all the other mixes had strength well below the designed strength of 30 N/
mm2.
From the studies on compressive strength it can be stated that M3A concrete is not suitable
for the Inter-tidal zone over longer periods (>18 months) due to reduction of strength below the
design value beyond 18 months for most of the mixes. However, for short duration applications
(periods less than 15 months) replacement of cement up to 25% provides adequate strength.
Replacement of cement by 5 - 10% yields better results compared to other replacements for
such short-term applications.
M3B mix concretes with FA replacement up to 5% was observed to gain higher initial strength
compared to all other concretes at 28 days of curing. However, all other concretes failed to
achieve the designed strength of 30 N/mm2. At 6 months, all mixes are observed to have
attained strength more than the designed strength of 30 N/mm2. Beyond 12 months concrete
with FA more than 20% was observed to deteriorate consistently. For period of over 15 months
it was observed that the concretes with higher FA content (>20%) were observed to perform
poorly compared to concretes with FA content less than 25%. Concretes with FA content
more than 20% were found to be deteriorating over period of time whereas the strength of
those with FA content less than 25% were observed to be progressively steady their strength
being more than the design value. From the study results, it is clearly seen that FA content up
to 20% can be used in the M3B concrete.
Submerged Zone: M2A mix concretes with 5% FA were observed to gain higher strength
compared to higher replacements of FA, wherein the initial strength was more than 20 N/mm2.
All mixes showed strength of more than 30 N/mm2 after 3 months of exposure and over a
344
period of 9 to 15 months, the strength of all concrete mixes is observed to rise steadily. The
concretes with 10 and 15% FA was observed to have higher strength than control and other
mixes. The results on this set of specimens in the submerged zone are available up to 15
months of exposure as one set were lost due to high waves. From the studies it can be stated
that M2A mix is suitable for the submerged zone over longer periods due to steady increase in
compressive strength.
M2B mix concretes with FA replacement of 10 and 15% were observed to gain higher initial
strength almost 40 N/mm2 after 3 months. All mixes showed initial strengths of more than 20
N/mm2 after 3 months. However, it is seen that beyond 6 months to over a period of 30
months, the strength is observed to fall below the design strength of 20 N/mm2. The reduction
of the strength over period of time is observed irrespective of the quantity of FA present in the
concrete. However, mix with FA replacement up to 10% retained strengths greater than the
design strength of 20 N/mm2. From the studies on compressive strength it can be stated that
M20 concrete with 0.6% and FA replacements up to 10% is most suitable for the submerged
zone but over longer periods. Due to reduction of strength below the design value beyond 20
months they are not suitable. However, for concrete with short duration applications (periods
less than 18 months) replacement of cement up to 40% provides adequate strength.
M3A mix concrete with 5 % FA was observed to gain initial high strength at 28 days compared
to other replacements of FA, wherein the initial strength was more than 40 N/mm2. All other
concretes gained strength of more than 30 N/mm2 after 3 months of exposure. It was observed
that mixes with 5 and 10% FA gained strength of about 59 N/mm2 after 6 months. However, the
strength of all mixes was found to consistent beyond 6 months and over a period of 30
months. The strength reduced below the design strength for all the concretes after 21 months
of exposure. The reduction of the strength over period of time is observed irrespective of the
quantity of FA present in the concrete. As all the mixes with different percentages of FA
provided similar variation in the strengths, it can be said that addition of FA for the mix with
0.45% w/c ratio did not yield significant advantage. From the studies on compressive strength
it can be stated that M30 mix with 0.45% w/c ratio is not suitable for the Submerged zone over
longer periods (>21 months) due to reduction of strength below the design value. However, for
concrete with short duration applications (periods less than 15 months) replacement of ce-
ment up to 25% provides adequate strength. Replacement of cement by 5% yields better
results compared to other replacements for such short-term applications.
M3B mix concretes with FA replacement of 5% was observed to gain higher initial strength
compared to all other concretes at 28 days of curing. However, concretes with other FA
percentages failed to achieve the designed strength of 30 N/mm2. After 9 months the 20% FA
concrete was observed to perform better than the other mixes followed by 20%, 0%, 10% and
15%. For period of over 15 months it was observed that the concretes with higher FA content
(>20%) were observed to perform poorly compared to concretes with FA content less than
25%. Concretes with FA content more than 20% were found to be deteriorating over period of
345
time whereas the strength of those with FA content less than 25% were observed to be
progressively steady their strength being more than the design value. From the study results,
it is clearly seen that FA content up to 20% can be used in the M3B concrete.
4.0 CONCLUSIONS
Flyash as collected from the source (without any further processing) is used in the entire
study. This condition provides slightly lesser strengths than processed FA for the size distri-
bution. In other words, use of processed and refined FA would have provided much better
results than those observed here. The use of FA as obtained from the source is attempted so
as to minimize the increase of further release of FA into the environment. In general all the
concretes with different percentage replacement of FA provided adequate strengths after 28
days of curing except for M3B mix concrete. However, concretes with FA more than 15%
showed lesser initial strengths than normal concrete. FA concretes are found suitable for use
in Marine exposure conditions. However, for different purposes, the percentages of FA content
need to be closely monitored and applied. The recommended percentages of replacement of
cement for M20 and M30 concretes without any super-plasticizers or chemical admixtures to
achieve the target strength in 28 days for different zones of exposure are shown in Table 5.
M20 concretes are not recommended for marine applications with long-term duration. How-
ever, for short-term applications in inter-tidal zone M20 concretes with a FA content upto 10%
can be used and for the submerged and mud zone for low w/c ratio of 0.45 up to 40% FA
replacements may be used. But for higher w/c ratio of 0.60 the replacements could be 25% for
splash zone and 10% for inter-tidal and submerged zone.
M30 concretes with FA content perform better in the marine conditions than normal concrete
in terms of strength gain over longer exposure periods. The presence of FA in concrete also
significantly reduced the concentration of free chloride ions in the concrete when the chloride
ingress is from seawater, which indicates the pore filling and pore refinement effect of flyash.
The utility of the FA as cement replacement material is once again proved from the above
studies. However, it should be noted that due to high variations in the quality of FA obtained
from region to region across the country, the recommendations provided here should be used
with caution.
Authors duly acknowledge the financial support provided by the Ministry of Shipping for carry-
ing out this work as a grant-in-aid project. Authors thank the Director, NIO for the facilities and
encouragement during the execution OF project. Authors profoundly thank Mr. Tilu J. Kundaikar,
Late Mr. Shantaram V. Mochemadkar, Mr. Pankaj K. Mandal, Mr. G.N. Naik and Mr. P.S.
Pednekar for their support and help during the execution of the project. NIO contribution
number 3944.
346
REFERENCES
IS383 1970, Specification for coarse and fine aggregates from natural sources for concrete (second revi-
sion), Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi
IIS456 1978, Code of Practice for Plain and Reinforced Concrete (forth revision), Bureau of Indian Standards,
New Delhi.
IS10262 1982, Recommended Guidelines for Concrete Mix Design, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi
Table 1. Properties of Cement.
Sr. No. Physical Properties
Property Test results

1 Normal consistency 29.50%
2 Specific gravity 3.14
3 2
Finess of cement 275.00 m /kg
4 Soundness of cement
1.00 mm
(Le-chatlier method)
5 Setting time
Initial setting time 32 Minutes
Final setting time 172 minutes

6 Compressive strength
2
1 days 10.20 N/mm
2
3 days 20.41 N/mm
2
7 days 28.57 N/mm
2
28 days 45.31 N/mm
Chemical Properties
Lime Saturation Factor 0.90 (Ratio)
Alumina Iron Ratio 1.09 (Ratio )
Insoluble Residue 0.39%
Magnesia 1.19%
Sulphuric Anhydride 1.73%
Oxide, Na2O 1.34%
Potassium Oxide, K2O 0.42%
Sulphuric Anhydride, SO3 0.00%
347
Table 2. Properties of flyash used in the study.
p y y
Chemical Analysis of flyash Physical Tests of flyash
Sr.
Description % By Wt. 1. Blaire, Sq m/Kg ---------- 360 – 400
No.
1 Silica, SiO2 57.0 - 58.0
2 Aluminium, Al2O3 28.0 - 29.0 2. Finess
3 Iron oxide, Fe2O3 5.5 - 6.0
a) < 10 µm ----------- 15.54%
4 Calcium oxide, CaO 2.0 - 3.0
5 Magnesium Oxide, MgO <1.25
b) 10-40 µm ----------- 38.13%
6 Oxide, Na2O <1.25
7 Potassium Oxide, K2O <1.0 c) > 40 µm ------------ 46.31 %
8 Sulphuric Anhydride, SO3 <1.0
9 Loss of ignition <1.0
Table 3. Details of concrete mixes used in the study.

y
GRADE w/c Mix ratio Mix code
0.45 1.00:1.50:3.00 M2A
M20
0.60 1.00:1.50:3.00 M2B
0.45 1.00:1.22:2.08 M3A

M30
0.60 1.00:1.22:2.08 M3B
Table 4. Setting time and compressive strength of cement with flyash.
2
Standard Initial Final Compressive Strength in N/mm
Sr. Flyash
consistency setting time setting time
No (%)
(%) (min) (min) 1 day 3 day 7 day 28 day
1 0 29.50 32 172 10.2 20.41 28.41 45.31
2 20 34.00 145 187 6.12 12.24 16.33 28.57
3 40 37.50 178 235 2.04 8.18 12.24 22.45
Table 5. Recommended flyash percentages for concrete in marine environment.
Exposure zone Recommended % of Flyash

M20(0.45) M20(0.60) M30(0.45) M30(0.60)
Atmosphere 10 25 5 30
Splash 10 25 5 20
Inter-tidal 10 10 10 20
Submerged 40 10 5 20
Mud 40 20 20 25
348
Avg Comp Strength - SUBMERGED ZONE Avg Comp Strength - SUBMERGED ZONE
M20 with 0.45 w/c & 0% FA M20 with 0.60 w/c & 0% FA
80 M20 with 0.45 w/c & 15% FA 80 M20 with 0.60 w/c & 15% FA
60 60
40 40
Av g. Com p. Strength (N/mm 2)

Av g. Comp. Strength (N/mm 2)
20 20
0 0
0 6 12 18 24 30 0 6 12 18 24 30
Duration in months Duration in months
FIG. 1. Variation of compressive strength in flyash and controlled FIG. 2. Variation of compressive strength in flyash and controlled
concrete for M2A mix over 15 months of exposure in Submerged concrete for M2B mix over 30 months of exposure in Submerged
Zone. Zone.
349
Av g Comp Strength - SU BMERGED ZONE Avg Comp Strength - S UBMERGE D ZO NE
M30 with 0.60 w/c & 5% FA
M30 with 0.45 w/c & 5% FA
M30 with 0.60 w/c & 10% FA
M30 with 0.45 w/c & 10% FA
80 M30 with 0.60 w/c & 15% FA
M30 with 0.45 w/c & 15% FA
M30 with 0.60 w/c & 20% FA
80
M30 with 0.45 w/c & 40% FA
60
60
40
40
A vg. Comp. S tr ength (N/mm2 )

Avg. Comp. Strength (N/mm 2)
20 20
0
0
0 6 12 18 24 30
0 6 12 18 24 30 Dura tio n i n mon ths
Duration in m onths
FIG. 3. Variation of compressive strength in flyash and controlled FIG. 4. Variation of compressive strength in flyash and controlled concrete for
concrete for M3A mix over 30 months of exposure in Submerged M3B mix over 30 months of exposure in Submerged Zone.
Zone.
A vg Co mp St ren gt h - IN T ZONE Avg Com p St ren gt h - IN T Z ONE
80 80
60 60
40 40
Avg. Comp. Strength (N/m m2)

Avg. Comp. Strength (N/m m2)
20 20
0 0
0 6 12 18 24 30 0 6 12 18 24 30
Duration in months Dur ation in months
FIG. 5. Variation of compressive strength in flyash and controlled concrete for FIG. 6. Variation of compressive strength in flyash and controlled concrete for
M2A mix over 9 months of exposure in Inter-tidal Zone. M2B mix over 30 months of exposure in Inter-tidal Zone.
Avg Comp Strength - INT ZONE Av g C omp Strength - INT ZONE
350
80 80 M30 with 0.60 w/c & 15% FA
M30 with 0.45 w/c & 15% FA
60 60
40 40
Av g. Comp. Strength ( N/mm2 )
A vg. Comp. Str ength (N/mm2 )

20 20
0 0
0 6 12 18 24 30 0 6 12 18 24 30
FIG. 7. Variation of compressive strength in flyash and controlled concrete for FIG. 8. Variation of compressive strength in flyash and controlled concrete for
M3A mix over 0 months of exposure in Inter-tidal Zone. M3B mix over 30 months of exposure in Inter-tidal Zone.
Avg Com p Strength - SPLAS H ZONE Avg Com p Strength - SPLAS H ZONE
80 M20 with 0.45 w/c & 15% FA
80 M20 with 0.60 w/c & 15% FA
60 60
40 40

20 20
0 0
0 6 12 18 24 30 0 6 12 18 24 30
FIG. 9. Variation of compressive strength in flyash and controlled concrete for FIG. 10. Variation of compressive strength in flyash and controlled concrete
M2A mix over 30 months of exposure in Splash Zone. for M2B mix over 30 months of exposure in Splash Zone.
Avg Comp S tr ength - SP LASH ZO NE Avg Comp Strength - S PLASH ZO NE
351
80 M30 with 0.45 w/c & 15% FA
80 M30 with 0.60 w/c & 15% FA
60 60
40 40

20 20
0 0
0 6 12 18 24 30 0 6 12 18 24 30
FIG. 11. Variation of compressive strength in flyash and controlled concrete FIG. 12. Variation of compressive strength in flyash and controlled concrete
for M3A mix over 30 months of exposure in Splash Zone. for M3B over 30 months of exposure in Splash Zone.
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON WAVE SLAMMING FORCES ON

HORIZONTAL CIRCULAR MEMBERS IN INTERTIDAL ZONE
V. Hariprasad1*, S. Neelamani2 and R. Sundaravadivelu3
1
Ocean Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai600036
2
Scientific Research, P.O. Box : 24885, 13109 SAFAT, KUWAIT
Abstract
Wave forces on slender horizontal and vertical cylinders are normally estimated using Morison
equation (1950). When a structural member is near the free water surface, it experiences the
slamming force. Wave slamming on horizontal members of any ocean structure is crucial to
its design. API Recommended Practice 2A-WSD (2000) recommends slamming coefficient
CS equal to π for circular cross sectional members near the still water level. The shape of the
member (circular, rectangular or square) is also expected to alter the values of CS. The hori-
zontal cylinders in the inter-tidal zone for Port craft jetties are subjected not only to slamming
force in the vertical direction and horizontal direction but also berthing force in the horizontal
direction. If two cylinders are kept in close spacing, then the load on each members will be
different compared to force on a single member kept alone. In this paper, the results of inves-
tigations of the effect of tidal variation on slamming forces are reported. The comparison of
single circular member and twin circular members with c/c spacing varying from two to six
times the diameter of cylindrical member in regular waves is also reported in this paper.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Wave slamming forces on structural members closer to free water surface is one of the
interesting area in ocean engineering, which has good potential for research. API Recom-
mended Practice 2A-WSD (2000) recommends slamming coefficient CS equal to π for circular
cross sectional members near the still water level. But, unfortunately the slamming coefficient
is found to be not a constant value and it varies w.r.t. the following parameters:
a. Spacing between the cylinder and free water surface

b. Cross sectional shape of the member
c. Incident wave height
d. Wave period etc.
In structures like Port craft jetties, more than one cylindrical member in a horizontal plane is
required. The presence of one horizontal member is expected to affect the wave kinematics
around the neighbouring cylinder. There is no detailed information available on these areas
as on date, which has motivated the authors to carry out the present study.
*Corresponding author, e-mail : vhariprasad_iitm@yahoo.co.in

352
Experiments are conducted for single and twin cylinders of circular cross sectional shapes.
The horizontal and vertical forces on different cylinders are measured by keeping the distance
between the flume bed and centre of the cylinders constant and by varying the water depth (d)
to simulate the various tidal conditions (Example: Some of the locations in Gujarat coastal
waters, where the tidal variations are from 5 to 10 m).
The main purpose of this investigation is to study the effect of wave height, wave period, the
distance between the free water surface and the centre of the cylinders, the spacing between
the cylinders in the horizontal directions etc. on the vertical slamming coefficient (CSV) and the
horizontal slamming coefficient (CSH). The results of this investigation can be used for the
hydrodynamic design of horizontal cylinders in the intertidal zone for any ocean structure.
This paper includes the wave slamming forces on single circular cylinder and twin circular
cylinder models due to regular waves.
For experimental investigations on the cylindrical members regular waves are generated in a
wave flume of 30 m length, 2 m wide and 1.7 m depth in the Department of Ocean Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India. The detailed experimental procedure,
analysis and discussion on the results on wave slamming force on the cylindrical members
are reported in this paper.
There are studies carried out on wave slamming forces around a single circular cylinders kept
closer to the free water surface and in the wave field. But the investigations did not cover a
large range of input conditions and hence warrants the present work.
Dalton et al. (1976) has investigated the slamming forces on the horizontal member fixed in
the splash zone. The slamming coefficients obtained experimentally were reported to vary
from 1.0 to 4.5. The variation of Cs with KC for different wave periods and at different submer-
gence levels was reported.
Faltinsen et al. (1977) has investigated forces on the members of the ocean structure in the
free water surface zone. The theoretical calculations are compared with experimental results
obtained by forcing rigid horizontal circular cylinders with constant velocity through an initially
calm free surface. Numerically estimated slamming coefficient was 3.1. Experiments gave an
average CS of 5.3.
Garrison (1996) investigated the impact loads on circular members both experimentally and
theoretically. A new design method for computing stresses in cylindrical members due to
impact is developed based on the energy principle showing well agreement with the experi-
ments. He obtained stress equations from the energy principle for the design purposes for the
353
first peak in the stress curve and steady state stress. From the test data, it is seen that stress
in the transition region is equal to or less than the steady state stress.
Graham Dixon et al. (1979) showed that for partially submerged cylinders, varying buoyancy
can play as large a part as inertial force. Morisons equation has been adopted to predict the
effects for regular waves by introducing a varying volume and a buoyancy term. It is also
shown that a constant value for CM equal to 2 can be used as a design constant. For small
values of wave amplitude and wave steepness the agreement with experiment is made fairly
well by fitting the inertial coefficient to each of the experimental curves.
Kaplan et al. (1976) presented a mathematical model for determining time histories of vertical
impact forces on platform horizontal structural members in the splash zone. Plots showing
the variation between the rates of change of added mass with depth of immersion are shown.
Martin et al. (1983) studied experimentally and theoretically the scattering of regular surface
waves on a fixed, half immersed circular cylinder, which is partially reflected and partially
transmitted and also induce hydrodynamic forces on the cylinder. These horizontal and verti-
cal coefficients are compared with the linear theory and found that former was accurately
predictable even for large waves and latter was predictable only for small amplitude waves.
Miyata et al. (1990) made an experimental and numerical study of forces and flow about a
circular cylinder steadily advancing beneath the free surface. Here flow visualization also used
to know the difference of vortex shedding due to the difference of the depth of submergence.
This results in a smaller pressure reduction on the backward face of the cylinder and a lower
value of CD.
Sarpkaya (1978) estimated wave forces acting on horizontal cylinders subjected to impact
both theoretically and experimentally. The results have been expressed in terms of two force
coefficients one slamming coefficient at the time of impact and another drag coefficient when
cylinder is immersed approximately 1.8 times diameter inside water. It is found that at initial
instants of impact, CS is very close to the theoretical value of π Also it is found that CS may be
amplified to a value as high as 6.3 through the dynamic response of the cylinder.
A detailed investigation of slamming forces on single horizontal cylinder for wide range of tidal
variation is not available in the literature. Also studies on twin cylinders in the flash zone are
not given much attention so far, which has motivated the authors to carryout this work.
354
Wave maker
Wave Twin cylinders

absorber
1.7m Downstream Upstream side
side
Wave probe
SWL
0.5m K K K K1
5
Frame work for fixing cylinders Flume bed

30m
Sectional elevation
Downstream
Upstream
cylinder
cylinder
2m
"K "K "K 2 "K
4 3 1m 1
Frame work for fixing
cylinders
9m 0.126m 10m
Not in scale
Plan
Fig. 1. Experimental set-up.

The experimental set up to solve the present problem is provided in Fig.1. The experimental
investigations were carried out using a 0.063m outer diameter circular cylinder model. Two
load cells are fixed at the two ends to measure the horizontal and vertical forces. Water depth
is varied from 0.4 m, 0.45 m, 0.50 m, 0.55 m, and 0.6 m. Wave periods is varied from 1 sec to
3 sec with interval of 0.2 sec. and wave height is varied from 10 cm to 25 cm with increment of
5 cm. This model cylinder subjected to these lab conditions represent prototype wave heights
of 2.5 to 6.25 m and wave periods from 5 sec to 15 sec with a scale ratio of 1:25. The
corresponding water depth in the field is from 10.0 to 15 m. However, since the results are
presented in non-dimensional form, there is no need of strictly following the scale ratio of 1:25.
The experimental investigation was carried out first for single circular cylinder. The results of
this study are taken as the reference case for the force variation for the twin circular cylinders.
The spacing kept for double cylinder could represent prototype spacing of two-times diameter
to six-times diameter of the member.
S
D=0.06
0.5 Z = (d-0.5)
H
d
Fig. 2. Definition sketch .
355
Fig. 2 shows all the required parameters which are defined below. The different ranges of the
normalised hydrodynamic parameters obtained are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Ranges of the normalised hydrodynamic parameters.
Parameter Range
Incident wave steepness, H /L 0.013 to 0.102

i
Relative water depth, d/L 0.069 to 0.283
Normalized wave height, H /D 1.39 to 3.17

i
Relative level of submergence, z/D -1.59 to +1.59
Scattering parameter, D/L 0.009 to 0.033
Keulegan- Carpenter number, KC 5 to 21
Spacing parameter for double circle, S/D 2, 4 and 6
where,
Hi :
Incident wave height (m)
D : Diameter of the cylinder (m) (D = 0.063 m)
d : Depth of water (m)
z : Distance between the centre of the cylinder and free water surface (m)
(The origin is at the cylinder centre and z is positive upward)
S : Centre to centre spacing between the cylinders (m)
L : Wave length (m)
KC : Keulegan Carpenter number (KC = umaxT/D)
u : Maximum horizontal water particle velocity at SWL (m/sec)
max
[u = H g T/(2L)]
max i
T : Wave period (sec)
The circular cylinder model is fabricated using aluminium with outer diameter of 0.063 m and
wall thickness of 3 mm. Length of the cylinders is kept as 1.89 m. The distance between the
cylinder centre and the flume bed is kept at a constant height of 0.5 m. The model was located
at a distance of 11m from the wave generator.
To measure the wave forces on the cylinders, two-component strain gauge type load cells of
two numbers, each of capacity 300N were fabricated. They are calibrated few times to assure
the quality of measurements. They are fixed at the two ends of the cylinders. This loadcell is
356
capable of measuring forces in the horizontal (X) and vertical (Z) directions. Maximum force
of the order of about 90N was measured. These loadcells were fixed at both of the cylinders
with proper sealing arrangements in order to prevent the entry of water into the cylinders. Final
alignment of the load cell was based on the elimination of vertical force channel output when
the loadcell was loaded in the horizontal direction, and vice-versa. Calibration was done by
applying weights to the model fixed with loadcell, which is mounted in the framework in the
expected principal wave force component directions.
A wave probe is fixed 9m away from the wave maker at the upstream side of the model to
measure the incident wave history (hi). Three more wave probes are used in the study. One to
measure the inline water surface fluctuation on the first cylinder (h2) at its leading edge and
one to measure the water surface fluctuation in between the two cylinders (h3) and third one to
measure the inline water surface fluctuation on the rear cylinder (h4) at its trailing edge. Stan-
dard conductance type (two parallel stainless steel electrodes with 2-cm distance between
them) wave gauges were used for the measurements of wave fields.
The natural frequency of the model cylinder with setup is estimated experimentally, which is
44 Hz. Regular waves were generated for a total duration of 60 s and the data were collected
for 60 s at a sampling rate of 40 Hz. The time series corresponding to the clear repetition of the
regular occurrences only are used for the analysis. A dedicated personal computer is used to
record the time histories of wave heights and wave forces.
The present experimental investigations on wave loads on the horizontal circular members
were carried out mostly in the drag-dominated region. The slamming force can be estimated
as
1 (1)
FS = × CS × AP × U 2
2
where
FS : The slamming force

CS : The slamming coefficient
r : The water density
AP : The projected area of the member normal to the plane of impact, which
is equal to D per unit length of the circular cylinder
U : The horizontal water particle velocity at SWL in the wave field.
At the instant of contact of fluid with the structure, the water particle in the vicinity of the
structure undergoes large accelerations, which give rise to large forces. When the body be-
comes more immersed, buoyant force will be more predominant. Here in still water condition
itself it is reduced so that the obtained vertical force will be buoyant force excluded.
357
4.1 Typical wave force time series of the single and double cylinder cases
Single circle (z/D = -0.8) Single circle (z/D = -0.8)

6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
-1 -1
12 17 T ime(s ec) 22 27 12 17 22 27
T ime(s ec)
Double circle-(front) Double circle-(front)

6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
-1 -1
12 17 22 27 12 17 T ime(s ec) 2 2 27
T ime(s ec)
Double circle-(rear) Double circle-(rear)

6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
-1 -1
12 17 22 27 12 17 22 27
T ime(s ec) T ime(s ec)
Fig. 3. Time series of the in-line forces (horizontal and vertical) on the horizontal cylinder
for d=0.45 m, T=2.0 s and H=0.15 m for single and double cylinder cases.
A typical plot of the horizontal and vertical wave force time series on the horizontal single and
double cases for T = 2.0 s and H= 0.15 m for a water depth of d=0.45m is given in Fig.3. The
cylinder is emerged (z = -5 cm). It is observed that the in-line force is higher than the vertical
force for the single cylinder case.
For the twin cylinder case, it is seen that the horizontal force is more than vertical force for the
front cylinder. For the rear cylinder, the vertical force is more than the horizontal slamming
force.
In all the plots, sharp peaks in the forces with smaller rising time indicate the wave slamming
effect. This reduction in horizontal slamming forces on the rear cylinder is due to the shelter-
ing effect of the front cylinder.
358
4.2 Effect of Keulegan Carpenter KC on slamming forces on the horizontal circular member
for different relative water depths for S/D=2 and z/D =0.0
d/L=0.244 d/L=0.163 d/L=0.244 d/L=0.163
d/L=0.123 d/L=0.099 d/L=0.123 d/L=0.099
d/L=0.078 d/L=0.078
7 7
single single
6 6
5 5
Csv
Csh
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
4 8 12 16 20 4 8 12 16 20
KC KC
7 7
6 double-front double-front
6
5 5
Csh1
Csv1
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
4 8 12 16 20 4 8 12 16 20
KC KC
7 7
double-rear double-rear
6 6
5 5
Csv2
4 4
Csh2
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
4 8 12 16 20 4 8 12 16 20
KC KC
Fig. 4. Effect of KC on Cs for different d/L for single and double circular cases for z/D = 0.0.
The effect of KC number on horizontal and vertical slamming forces on the single cylinder and
twin cylinder cases are given in Fig. 4 for a number of relative water depths and for S/D = 2.0
and z/d = 0.0. In general, it is found that as the KC value increases, Cs value reduces for all d/
L values. For the single cylinder case, the vertical slamming coefficient is usually more than
the horizontal slamming coefficient. It seems that vertical slamming coefficient of about 6.5
needs to be used in the design compared to a value of 4.5 for the horizontal slamming coeffi-
cient. The vertical slamming is more significant for the twin cylinder case also compared to
the horizontal slamming force. The interference effect has resulted in the reduction of horizon-
tal slamming force in the case of twin cylinder compared to the single cylinder case.
4.3 Effect of z/D on slamming forces on the horizontal circular member for different relative
wave heights for S/D=2 & D/L = 0.014 to 0.017
359
E m er ged S u bm er ged E m er ged S u bm er ged
H/D=1.42-1.56 H/D=2.23-2.36 H/D=1.42-1.56 H/D=2.23-2.36
H/D=2.95-3.15 H/D=2.95-3.15
7 7
6 D/L=0.014-0.017 D/L=0.014-0.017
6
s ingle single
5 5
4 4
Csv
Csh
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
-2 -1 0 1 2 -2 -1 0 1 2
z/D z /D
H/D=1.51-1.57 H/D=2.20-2.37 H/D=1.51-1.57 H/D=2.20-2.37

H/D=3.04-3.15 H/D=3.04-3.15
6 6
double-front double-front
5 5
4 4
Csv1
Csh1
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
-2 -1 0 1 2 -2 -1 0 1 2
z/D z/D
6 6
double-rear double-rear
5 5
4 4
Csh2
Csv2
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
-2 -1 0 1 2 -2 -1 0 1 2
z/D z/D
Fig. 5. The effect of z/D on Cs for different H/D ratios for D/L = 0.014-0.017 for
single and double cylinder cases (S/D = 2.0).
The effect of z/D on horizontal and vertical slamming forces on the single cylinder and twin
cylinder cases are given in Fig. 5 for three different relative wave heights, H/D and for S/D = 2.0
and D/L = 0.014 to 0.017. It is interesting to observe that as the relative wave height, H/D
increases from 1.42 to 3.15, all the slamming force coefficients (Both horizontal and vertical)
decreases for all the values of z/D. This is healthy information for the designer, since the
design of such structure is governed by the higher H/D values. Also for all the cases the peak
slamming force coefficient occurs when the cylinder is slightly emerged from the water. Hence
the designer should try to avoid such configuration, if possible.
4.4 Effect of spacing ratio, S/D on the slamming forces on the horizontal circular member
for different submergence levels
The effect of S/D on horizontal and vertical slamming forces on the single cylinder (S/D = 0.0)
and twin cylinder cases (S/D > 0.0) are given in Fig.6 for five different z/D values, and for H/D
= 1.4 to 1.57 and D/L = 0.029 to 0.033. This plot is useful to understand the interference effect
of one cylinder over the other cylinder. In general, the following are the important observations:
a. The variation of S/D from 0.0 to 6.0 varies both the horizontal and vertical slamming
force coefficients, but the trend of variation is different for horizontal and vertical
components and for front cylinder and rear cylinder.
b. z/D = -0.8 is the critical case, which attracts the highest slamming coefficient for
most of the S/D values.
360
c. In general, the vertical slamming coefficient is higher than the horizontal
slamming coefficient for any S/D value.
The present work is compared with Dalton and James Nash (1976) and satisfactory compari-
son is found. The present results are also found to match well with the results of Faltinsen et
al. (1997), Garrison (1996) and Sarpkaya (1978).
z/D = -1.6 z/D = -0.8
z/D = 0.0 z/D = 0.8 z/D = -1.6 z/D = -0.8
z/D = 1.6 z/D = 0.0 z/D = 0.8
D/L=0.029-0.033 z/D = 1.6
5 8
H/D=1.4-1.57 7
4
6
3 5
Csh1
Csv1
4
2 3
1 2
1
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
S/D S/D
5 8
7
4 6
3 5
Csv2
Csh2
4
2 3
1 2
1
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
S/D S/D
Fig. 6 The effect of S/D on Cs for different z/D ratios for D/L=0.029-0.033
and H/D=1.4-1.57 for double cylinder case.
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
The wave slamming force on cylinders closer to free water surface is a challenging field. The
effect of the relative level of submergence of the cylinder (z/D), Keulegan Carpenter number
(KC), relative wave heights (H/D), scattering parameter (D/L) are investigated on the horizontal
and vertical wave slamming coefficients due to regular waves by using physical model stud-
ies. Also the effect of spacing between the cylinders (S/D) on the slamming coefficients is
also studied. The salient important conclusions of this study are given below:
1. In general, as the Keulegan Carpenter number, KC increases, Cs value reduces

for all d/L values studied.
2. In general, for the single cylinder case, the vertical slamming coefficient is more
than the horizontal slamming coefficient by about 25% to 35%.
3. The maximum vertical slamming coefficient for the single cylinder is about 6.5
361
compared to a value of 4.5 for the maximum horizontal slamming coefficient.
4. The vertical slamming is more significant for the twin cylinder case compared to
the horizontal slamming coefficient.
5. The interference effect has resulted in the reduction of horizontal slamming force
in the case of twin cylinder compared to the single cylinder case.
6. As the relative wave height, H/D increases from 1.42 to 3.15, all the slamming force
coefficients (Both horizontal and vertical) decreases for all the values of z/D studied.
This is healthy information for the designer, since the design of such structure is
governed by the higher H/D values.
7. In general, the peak slamming force coefficient occurs when the cylinder is slightly
emerged from the water (z/D = -0.8). The designer should try to avoid such configu
ration, if possible.
6.0 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The present work is carried out at the Department of Ocean Engineering, IIT Madras, Chennai,
India. The support of the appropriate authorities for the experimental investigations is highly
appreciated.
REFERENCES
API Recommended Practice 2A-WSD (RP 2A-WSD)., 2000, Recommended Practice forPlanning, Designing and
Constructing Fixed Offshore PlatformsWorking Stress Design, 134-140.
Dalton, C., and James Nash, M., (1976),Wave slam on horizontal members of an offshore platform, Offshore
Technology Conference in Houston, May, 769-780.
Faltinsen, A., Kjaerland, O., Nottveit, A. and Vinje, T.,(1997),Water impact loads and dynamic response of
horizontal circular cylinders in offshore structure, 9th Annual Offshore Technology Conference in Houston,
May, 2-5.
Garrison, C, J.,(1996), Water impact loads on circular structural members, Applied Ocean Research, Vol. 18,
45-54.
Graham Dixon, A., Clive Greated, A. and Stephen Salter, H., (1979), Wave forces on partially submerged
cylinders, Journal of Waterway Port Coastal and Ocean Engg. Division, Vol. 105, No. WW 4, Nov., 421-437.
Kaplan, P., and Mark Silbert, N., (1976), Impact Forces on platform horizontal members in the splash zone,
Offshore Technology Conference in Houston, May, 749-758.
Miyata, H., Shikazono, N., and Kanai, M., (1990),Forces on a circular cylinder advancing steadily beneath the
free-surface, Ocean engineering, Vol. 17, No. 1/2, 81 - 104.
Martin, P, A., and Dixon, A, G.,(1983), The scattering of regular surface waves by a fixed, half immersed,
circular cylinder, Applied Ocean Research, Vol. 5, 13-23.
Sarpkaya, T., (1978), Wave impact loads on cylinders, 10th Annual Offshore Technology Conference, May, 8-
11.
362
DIFFRACTION ANALYSIS OF A SEMISUBMERSIBLE

PLATFORM
A.P. Shashikala
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Calicut 673 601
Abstract
Semisubmersibles are large floating structures used for drilling or production of oil and gas
particularly suitable for deep-water conditions. The design of semisubmersibles requires an
understanding of static and dynamic behavior of the structure due to waves. Usually, wave
forces on the semisubmersibles are calculated based on Morisons approach considering the
structural elements as slender. But, the modern semisubmersibles are very large structures
in which it is necessary to take the diffraction effects into account such that the hydrodynamic
forces can be estimated accurately. The present paper describes the evaluation of hydrody-
namic forces using linear diffraction radiation theory. The diffracted and radiated potentials are
calculated based on finite element approach. The coupled terms are determined which are
neglected in the Morisons approach. The responses of the semi submersible are found to be
slightly higher than that calculated using Morisons approach. The hydrodynamic forces ob-
tained by this method give a better understanding of the interaction of the structure with the
waves.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Semisubmersibles are compact floating vessels that are supported primarily on large pon-
toon-like structures submerged below the sea surface. For marginal fields in deeper water, a
semisubmersible based production system may be the only viable economical alternative to
conventional bottom standing structures. The design has the advantage of submerging most
of the area of components in contact with the sea minimizing loading from waves and wind.
The semisubmersibles have to be analyzed for the hydrodynamic response in waves to deter-
mine wave induced motions, survivability and operability. Various researchers had conducted
studies on the behaviour of semisubmersibles under different methods of analysis. Chai and
Varyani (1996) studied the motion response of semisubmersible in oblique seas using the
small amplitude wave theory. Interference effects of various elements of the structure on the
flow field were neglected. Soylemez and Alter (2000) had compared the hydrodynamic loads
on semisubmersibles based on Morison equation and panel method. Gunther Clauss (2002)
carried out numerical investigations based on panel method on semisubmersible subjected to
rogue waves and compared the results with experimental values. It is observed that very little
work is done on the hydrodynamics of semisubmersible using diffraction theory.
E-mail: apska@nitc.ac.in
2.0 THEORETICAL FORMULATION
Calculation of wave forces and consequent motions of large floating structures with dimen-
sions greater than 20% of wave length of incident regular waves must account for modification
of the incident wave flow by the floating body. This distortion of the incident flow can be studied
by a solution of the Governing Laplace equation with different boundary conditions. The ideal
flow boundary value problem consisting of scattering of waves incident upon the fixed struc-
ture and radiation of waves caused by the forced surge, heave and pitch oscillations respec-
tively of the structure in otherwise still water are solved using finite element technique.
The fluid is assumed as inviscid and incompressible and the flow as irrotational such that the
velocity potential, of the flow exists. The total velocity potential can be represented as:
Φ = φ I
+ φ S
+ φ R
(1)
where φ I is the incident wave potential, φ S is the scattered potential and φ R is the radiated
potential
2.1 Wave diffraction problem

The incident wave propagates at an angle α with respect to the x-axis. The velocity potential
may be expressed as
 igH cos k (z + d ) (2)
Φ I ( x , y , z , t ) = Re   × exp i (kxcos α + ky sin α − ωt )
 2ω cosh kd 
in which i = − 1 , g is the gravitational acceleration and k is the wave number given by 2p/L
where L is the wave length.
A scattered velocity potential describes the linear wave diffraction problem as
 
Φ s (x, y, z, t ) = Re − iω φ s (x, z )exp i (ky sin α − ωt )
H (3)
 2 
Both the incident and scattered potentials should satisfy the Laplace equation given by
 ∂2 ∂2 ∂2 
∇ (Φ I + Φ s ) =  2 + 2 + 2  (Φ I + Φ s ) = 0
2
(4)
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
Substitution of Eqn. (2) and (3) into Eqn. (4) reduces to the Helmholtz equation. The linear
boundary value problem posed on the scattered velocity is therefore described by the following
equations:
∂ 2φ s ∂ 2φ s
+ − (k sin α ) φ s = 0 (5)
2
∂x 2
∂z 2
364
∂ 2φ s
− vφ s = 0 z=0 (6)
∂z
∂φ s z = -d (7)
=0
∂z
∂φ s ∂φ I on B
+ =0
∂n ∂n (8)
The radiation boundary condition with the plane damper

∂φ s
− sgn (x )× ik cos α φ s = 0 x→±∞ (9)
∂x
in which ν =w2 /g and n is the unit inward normal on the body surface which lies on the x-z
plane.
2.2 Wave radiation problem
The response of the body in the rth mode is given by:
Ζ r (x, y, z , t ) = Re[ξ r (x, z )exp i (ky sin α − ωt )] (10)
in which r =1, 2, 3 corresponds to the surge, heave and pitch modes respectively. A scalar
radiation velocity potential describes each wave radiation problem:
Φ R (x, y, z , t ) = Re[− iωξ r φ r (x, z )exp i (ky sin α − ωt )] (11)
The linear radiation boundary value problem is defined by the following equations:
∂ 2φ R ∂ 2φ R
+ − (k sin α ) φ R = 0 (12)
2
∂x 2
∂z 2
∂φ R z=0 (13)
− vφ R = 0
∂z
∂φ R z = -d (14)
=0
∂z
∂φ R on B (15)
− nr = 0
∂n
∂φ R x→±∞ (16)
− sgn (x )ik cosαφ R = 0
∂x
365
in which nr is the x and z component of the unit normal on the body for r = 1,2, respectively and
n3 = (x - xc) n2 (z zc) n1 and xc and zc are the coordinates of the center of rotation. The
generalized radiation problem statement describes a flexural wave, which travels along the
surface of the structure and generates an oblique wave in the water.
2.3 Hydrodynamic Forces

The incident wave is assumed to be small in amplitude and the structure is stable in equilib-
rium position. The velocity potential for the wave field can be expressed by the linear superpo-
sition of the incident, scattered and radiated potentials as:
 3

Φ (x, y, z , t ) = Re − iω{ (φ s + φ I ) + ∑ φ r ξ r } × exp i(ky sin α − ωt )
H
(17)
 2 r =1 
The pressure at any point in the fluid
∂Φ
p ( x, y , z , t ) = − ρ [ + gz ]
∂t
 3

= Re  ρω 2 { (φ s + φ I ) + ∑ φ r ξ r } × exp i (ky sin α − ωt ) − ρgz
H
(18)
 2 r =1 
The hydrodynamic forces on the body can be determined by integrating the pressure over the
wetted surface B. These hydrodynamic forces can be separated into exciting forces associ-
ated with the diffraction problem and the hydrodynamic and hydrostatic restoring forces asso-
ciated with the radiation problem.
Hydrodynamic exciting forces

The exciting force in the rth mode on the structure can be expressed as:
 
Fr (x, y, z , t ) = Re  ρω 2 (φ s + φ I )n r dS × exp i (ky sin α − ωt )
H
 2 ∫
B 
= Re[ f r × exp i (ky sin α − ωt )] (19)
Here dS = differential line segment on the body surface.
Hydrodynamic restoring forces
The hydrodynamic restoring force in the rth mode on the structure is given by
 3 
Rr (x, y, z , t ) = Re  ρω 2 ∑ ξ j ∫ nr φ j dS × exp i (ky sin α − ωt )
 j =1 B 
366
 3 
= Re ∑ ξ j Prj exp i (ky sin α − ωt ) (20)
 j =1 
Prj is the hydrodynamic restoring force coefficient in the rth mode due to the motion in the jth
mode. Prj can be separated into real and imaginary parts according to the following
Prj = ρω 2 ∫ nr φ j dS = ω 2 a rj + iωbrj (21)

B
arj and brj are the hydrodynamic added mass and damping coefficients on the structure in
the rth mode due to the motion in the jth mode.
3.0 NUMERICAL FORMULATION
Finite element solution for the diffraction and radiation problems in two-dimensional vertical
plane can be developed based on variational functional formulation.
The functional, Π, for the scattering problem can be expressed as:
∂ 2φ s ∂ 2φ s
∫∫ + 2 + (k sin α ) φ s ]dΩ − ∫ 1 / 2νφ s2 dS
2 2
Π(fs) = ∂x 2
∂z (22)
Ω z =0
∂φ I
− ∫
x=± xR
sgn( x) × 1 / 2ik cos αφ s2 dS + ∫
B
∂n
φ s dS
And the functional, Π for the radiation problem can be expressed as:
∂ 2φ r ∂ 2φ r
∫∫ + + (k sin α ) φ r ]dΩ − ∫ 1 / 2νφ r2 dS
2 2
Π(fr) =
Ω ∂x 2
∂z 2
z =0
− ∫
x = ± xR
sgn( x) × 1 / 2ik cos αφ r2 dS − ∫ nr φ r dS
B
(23)
where r = 1,2,3, Ω is the fluid domain, dΩ is the differential area on the fluid domain dS =
differential line element on the plane boundary dampers x = ±xR, free surface, z = 0, or body
surface, B. The unknown potentials φs and φr can be described in terms of the nodal param-
eters, φem, and the prescribed shape functions, Nem in which m=1,2, ..NE, where N is
E
the number of nodal points for each element. The functionals in eqn. (22) and (23) are now
minimized with respect to the nodal unknowns φem.
3.1 Diffraction problem

Π(φs)=Π1 + Π2 + Π3 + Π4
367
MD MF MS MB
= ∑ Π 1e + ∑ Π e2 + ∑ Π 3e + ∑ Π e4 (24)
e =1 e =1 e =1 e =1
in which MD = number of surface elements on D
MS = number of damper elements on x = ±xR
MF = number of line elements on body surface, B.
 ∂Π 1e   ∂N ie ∂N ej ∂N ie ∂N ej 
 e  = ∫∫  + + (k sin α ) 2 N ie N ej φ ie dxdz (25)
 ∂φ m  ij D e  ∂x ∂x ∂z ∂z 
 ∂Π e2 
 ∂φ e  = − ∫ νN i N j φi dS
e e e (26)
 m  ij F e
 ∂Π 3e  (27)
 e  = P ∫ ik cos α N i N j φ i dS
e e e
∂φ
 m  ij Se
 ∂Π e4  ∂φ I e (28)
 ∂φ e  ∫ ∂n N i dS
=
 m i B e
3.2 Radiation problem of the body in kth mode:

Π(φ ) =Π + Π + Π + Π
k 1 2 3 4
MD MF MS MB
(29)
= ∑ Π 1e + ∑ Π e2 + ∑ Π 3e + ∑ Π e4
e =1 e =1 e =1 e =1
 ∂Π e4  (30)
 e  = − ∫ φ r N i dS
e
φ
 ∂ m i Be
Using Gauss quadrature, all the integral equations can be solved to find the velocity potentials
and the hydrodynamic exciting and restoring forces.
4.0 RESPONSE ANALYSIS
The dynamic equilibrium equation of the structure in the matrix form is
368
.. .
[m + a ]{ξ } + [b]{ξ } + [ K ]{ξ } = {F } (31)
Where [m] is the mass matrix, [a] is the added mass matrix, [b] is the potential damping
matrix, [K] is the stiffness matrix, {F} is the hydrodynamic exciting force vector and{ξ} is the
structural displacement.
4.1 Structural mass

The mass matrix corresponding to the surge, heave and pitch modes are given by
(32)
m 0 mz G 
 
[m]=  0 m - mx G 
 m 55 
 mz G - mx G
where m is the mass of the body, m is the mass moment of inertia about the y-axis and (x ,
55 G
y , z ) are the coordinates of center of gravity.
G G
4.2 Added mass matrix

The hydrodynamic added mass due to the restoring force of water surrounding the structure is
represented in the matrix form as
 a 11 0 a 15  (33)
 
[a]=  0 a 33 0 
 
 a 51 0 a 55 
4.3 Damping matrix

The potential damping matrix obtained from the imaginary part of the restoring force is repre-
sented as
b 0 b15  (34)
 11 
[b]=  0 b33 0 
b 
 51 0 b55 
4.4 Stiffness matrix

The stiffness matrix in surge, heave and pitch modes is
369
0 0 0 
  (35)
[K ]=  0 ρgAwp 0 
0 ρgVGM L 
 0
where k33 = ρgAwp, k55 = ρgVGML , Awp is the water plane area of the structure, V is the
submerged volume of the semisubmersible and GML is the longitudinal metacentric height.
The equation of motion having the time dependent force component is solved using Newmarks
ß time integration procedure.
A computational capability is developed to calculate the response time series of the

semisubmersible in surge, heave and pitch modes. The hydrodynamic exciting and restoring
forces are determined using a 2D finite element program in which eight-nodded isoparamatric
finite elements are used. The hydrodynamic restoring and exiting forces are calculated from
the corresponding velocity potentials. The response of the semisubmersible for different wave
angles is calculated. Table 1 and Fig.1 show the details of the model tested.
Table 1. Model details

L 90.400 m d 6.400 m
X1 37.200 m Displ 10846.7 t
X2 12.400 m KB 4.456 m
h 11.200 m KG 7.340 m
l1 4.800 m BMT 6.056 m
f1 8.660 m GMT 3.172 m
b 14.800 m BML 18.240 m
b1 4.800 m GML 15.356 m
f1
•G
h d
l1
L b 2b1
X1
X2
Fi 1 C fi ti f i b ibl t h ll
Fig. 1. Configuration of Semisubmersible catamaran hull.
370
Fig. 2 shows the discretisation of the fluid domain.
Fig .2. Discretisation of fluid domain.
0 .2
0 .18 0 .3
Surge addedmass
0 .16 0 .1 5
Surge damping
0 .14 0
0 .12 - 0 .1 5 0 0 .5 1 1 .5 2
0 .1 - 0 .3
0 .0 8 - 0 .4 5
0 .0 6
- 0 .6
0 .0 4
- 0 .7 5
0 .0 2
- 0 .9
0
0 0 .5 1 1.5 2
D 11 A 11
0 .12
0 .1
Heave addedmass
0 .1
0 .0 5
Heave damping
0 .0 8
0
0 .0 6 0 0 .5 1 1 .5 2
- 0 .0 5
0 .0 4
- 0 .1
0 .0 2
- 0 .1 5
0
0 0. 5 1 1 .5 2 - 0 .2
- 0 .0 2
D33 A33
30
12 25
Pitch addedmass
10
Pitch damping
20
8
6 15
4 10
2
5
0
0 0 .5 1 1 .5 2 0
0 0. 5 1 1. 5 2
D55
A55
ω2a/g ω2a/g
Fig. 3. Hydrodynamic coefficients in surge, heave and pitch.
The hydrodynamic coefficients of the semisubmersible in surge, heave and pitch are shown in
Fig. 3. The added mass in all the three directions attains a maximum value for ω2a/g varying
from 0 to 0.5. The surge and heave modes have shown negative added mass for the initial
values of ω2a/g due to the interference of hulls and waves. Pitch damping is very high when
compared to surge and heave damping whereas the heave response is increasing with the
increase in the wave angle.
371
Fig. 4 shows the surge-pitch coupling added mass and damping coefficients. Surge-pitch
added mass have the negative values for the initial values of ω2a/g, where as damping
coefficients have all positive values. It is observed that the coupling terms are significant and
will affect the behaviour of the structure. The steady state response of the semi-submersible
in surge, heave and pitch directions for a particular time period of 12 s for different wave
angles are shown in Fig. 5. The pitch response is very less when compared to the surge and
heave responses.
4 .5 3
Surge-Pitch addedmass
4
Surge-Pitch Damping
3 .5 0
0 0 .5 1 1. 5 2
3
2 .5 -3
2
-6
1. 5
1
-9
0 .5
0
0 0 .5 1 1. 5 2 - 12
A 15
D 15
ω2a/g ω2a/g
Fig. 4. Surge-pitch coupling added mass and damping coefficients.
0.8
1. 2
Heave RAO (m/m)
0.7
1
0.6
Surge RAO (m/m)
0.5 0 .8
0.4
0 .6
0.3
0 .4
0.2
0.1 0 .2
0
0
5 7 9 11 13 15
-0. 1 5 7 9 11 13 15
15 degrees - 0 .2 15 d egre es
-0. 2 0 deg re es 0 de gree s
45 degrees T im e p e r io d T ( s ) 45 d egre es
T im e p e r io d T ( s ) 60 degrees 60 d egre es
ω2a/g ω2a/g
Fig. 5. Response of semisubmersible for oblique angles.
6.0 CONCLUSIONS
Following conclusions are derived from the present study. (1) The interference phenomena on
the semisubmersible hull are noticed when the hydrodynamic analysis is performed using
diffraction theory. This will be helpful in the design of mooring lines. (2) The surge and pitch
responses of the semisubmersible are found to decrease as the wave heading angle increases.
REFERENCES
Chai, Y.T., Varyani, K.S. (1996) On the motion response of semisubmersibles, Journal of the Society of Naval
Architects, Cochin University, India
Gunther, Clauss, Christian Schmittner, Katja Stutz, (2002), Time domain investigation of a semisubmersible in
rogue waves, OMAE2002, June 23-28.
Soylemez, M., Alter, M.A. (2000), A comparative study of two practical methods for estimating the hydrody-
namic loads and motions of a semisubmersible, Journal of OMAE, pp. 57-62
372
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF A TAUT MOORING SYSTEM

A. Umar1*, S.Q.A. Naqvi1, Seema1 and T.K. Datta2
Department of Civil Engineering, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh- 202002
1
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi-110016
Abstract
In the present study, the dynamic analysis of a multi-point taut moored buoy is performed
under first and second order wave forces. The analysis is done using time domain integration
scheme. Results are presented which illustrate the effects of the geometric nonlinearity of the
mooring lines on the response of the buoy.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In recent years, moored floating structures are found to be in great demand for offshore opera-
tions. This is due to the fact that these structures are found to be highly economical over fixed
type offshore structures in deep water conditions. Floating structure undergoes large excur-
sions under the action of wave forces. They resist the forces by inertial effects. However, large
excursions of floating structures adversely affect the offshore activity to be performed. For this
reason, sufficient mooring restraints are provided which keep the motions within acceptable
limits. Moorings are a system of cables which anchors the floating structure to the sea-bed.
Ocean mooring systems include single and multi-point systems. The single point moorings
are characterized by curvature, material and hydrodynamic load nonlinearities, whereas multi-
point mooring systems or spread mooring systems, introduce additional geometric nonlinearity
in the system associated with mooring lines. Such type of mooring provides the restoring
forces to the vessel by the catenary effects. As the vessel moves under the influence of waves,
wind and current, some mooring lines slacken and some become taut, thus giving a net
restoring force on the vessel. Because of the relatively large displacements of the vessel,
geometric nonlinearity becomes an important consideration in the analysis of such struc-
tures.
A mooring system can have stability problem if either the damping is nonlinear or the restoring
force is nonlinear or the excitation force is nonlinear or the combination of either of these.
Among all the cases, the nonlinearity of the restoring force is the most probable cause of the
stability problem in a moored structure. Pinkster and Huijsmans (1982), Bishop and Virgin
(1988), De Kat and Wichers (1991) and Adrezin et al. (1996) carried out the nonlinear dynamic
analysis of various compliant structures. A detailed review of past work shows that significant
work has been carried out on dynamic analysis of slack moored structures (Umar and Datta,
2001; 2003 (a&b)). However, barring few, not much work is reported which employs first and
*Corresponding author, e-mail: arshad_umar@rediffmail.com

second order wave forces.
In the present study, dynamic analysis of a four point taut moored bouy has been carried out
under the excitation of first and second order wave forces. Phase plots are obtained for finding
bifurcation of solution like symmetry breaking bifurcation, period doubling bifurcation etc.
2.0 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
The dynamic analysis has been carried out under the following assumptions and idealisations.
(i) The mooring system is a single degree of freedom nonlinear oscillator (Fig. 1);
(ii) Sea waves are assumed to be regular sine waves providing harmonic wave forces;
(iii) Motion of buoy in the surge direction is considered.
Under the above assumptions and idealisations, following governing equation of motion has
been derived by considering the equilibrium of geometric restoring forces and small body
motion under wave excitation (Gottlieb and Yim, 1992).
Mx + Cx + R( x) = F1 sin θ (1)
where M = m + µ ; m is the system mass; m is the added mass; C is the damping

including structural damping and hydrodynamic damping if any; and R(x) is the displacement
dependent restoring force.
Rearranging the equation of motion, Eq. (1) yields the following first order autonomous equa-
tions.
x= y : y = f1 sin θ − r ( x) − δy ; θ =ω (2)
F1 R ( x) C
where f1 = ; r ( x) = ; δ = ; and θ = ωt + φ
M M M
The restoring force r(x) is assumed to be represented by a 5th order antisymmetric polynomial
which closely describes the force displacement behaviour of the mooring lines shown in Fig.
2 and is given by
r ( x) = c1 x + c3 x3 + c5 x 5 (3)
The forcing function of the equation of motion consists of first and second order wave forces.
These forces are found using potential flow concept considering diffraction effect. Eatock
Taylor and Hungs approach which duly considers first and second order diffraction effects,
have been considered. The response of the system is then obtained by direct time integration
method. Adams integration scheme have been employed. The phase plots are then obtained
374
to examine symmetry breaking bifurcation and period doubling etc.
3.0 NUMERICAL STUDY
The numerical data of the moored system (Fig. 1) and the first and second order wave forces,
are given in Tables 1 and 2. The force-excursion relationship is shown in Fig. 2. The restoring
force is approximated by a 5th order antisymmetric polynomial and the coefficients obtained
as discussed in previous section leads to the final equation as:
r ( x) = 4.10051x + 1.95052 x3 − 0.86768 x 5 (4)
Three different regular sea-states namely (i) 5 m/5 sec; (ii) 12 m/10 sec; and (iii) 18 m/15 sec
are considered for the dynamic analysis.
Table 1. Numerical data used for the analysis.
Parameter Taut Mooring System

Structure type Buoy
Buoy ( diameter x height x thickness ) 15 m x 4 m x 0.3 m
Submerged depth of the buoy 1.75 m
Mass of moored vessel 133002.01 kg
No. of anchored mooring lines 4
Length of each mooring line 125 m
Specific Gravity of concrete 2.4
20.595 × 10 N/m
9 2
Young’s Modulus of mooring lines
Structural damping 3.25 %
Depth of sea 150 m
Table 2. Details of the wave forces.

Wave Wave Hydrodynamic F1 (N) F2 (N) ?δ (s -1)
frequency damping
(rad/sec) (N/(m/sec))
5 m/5 sec 1.2566 47790.76 114700.73 13538.00 0.2310
12 m/10 sec 0.6283 4102.69 513333.33 31546.67 0.02529
18 m/15 sec 0.4188 995.63 746666.67 73360.00 0.011120
4.0 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
4.1 Response due to 5 m / 5 sec wave

Figs. 3 (a) and (b) show the time history and phase plots for first order wave forces for initial
conditions (x, y) = (0, 0) and (1, 1). The steady state response is harmonic for both the initial
375
conditions. Maximum amplitude of the response for both the cases is 0.205 m, while the
phase plot is symmetric. Therefore, the response of the system under primary wave forces is
stable for 5 m/5 sec wave.
Fig. 4 (a) shows repeating nature of response for second order wave forces for initial conditions
(x, y) = (0, 0) and (1, 1) with a maximum amplitude of 31.75 mm and a stable phase plot is
obtained as shown in Fig. 4(b).
The response and phase plot of the buoy for the combination of first order and second order
wave forces are shown in Figs. 5 (a) and (b) for both the initial conditions (x, y) = (0, 0) and (1,
1). The responses are identical and it is seen that the response is nearly harmonic with
maximum amplitude of 0.215 m. The phase plot does not show any kind of instability.
Thus, the responses for 5 m/5 sec wave are stable under the action of first order, second order
wave forces and combination of the two. Moreover, the responses are governed by first order
wave forces.
4.2 Response due to 12 m /10 sec wave

From the characteristics of the responses obtained from Figs. 6(a) and (b), it may be stated
that the response is harmonic under the action of primary wave force with maximum amplitude
of 0.525 m. The phase plot is symmetrical. Changing the initial conditions does not affect the
pattern and numerical values of the response. Thus, the system does not show any kind of
instability for 12 m/15 sec waves under the action of primary wave forces.
Similar pattern is observed for second order wave forces [Figs. 7(a) and (b)] with maximum
response of 0.120 m and symmetric phase plots. Thus, the system is stable under second
order wave forces.
Figs. 8(a) and (b) show the response and phase plot due to the combination of first order and
second order wave forces. The phase plot shows symmetry breaking bifurcation. Maximum
response is 0.6005 m.
4.3 Response due to 18 m / 15 sec wave

The responses obtained for primary wave forces for initial conditions (x, y) = (0, 0) and (1, 1)
are identical. The phase plot shown in Fig. 9(b) shows symmetry breaking bifurcation and the
time history shown in Fig. 9(a), shows harmonic response with maximum amplitude of 0.813
m.
For second order wave forces, the time history and phase plots are shown in Figs. 10(a) and
(b). The time history shows harmonic response of magnitude 0.177 m and phase plot is
stable.
376
Time history and phase plots for the wave forces comprising of both primary and second order
wave forces have been plotted in Figs. 11(a) and (b) for both the initial conditions. These
resemble those for primary wave forces; this is expected since primary wave force is domi-
nant. The maximum response being 0.839 m, which is harmonic in nature and phase plot
depicts symmetry breaking.
Thus, for 18 m/15 sec wave, the moored system exhibits instability problem when it is sub-
jected to either primary wave forces or the combination of primary and second order wave
forces.
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
The results of the dynamic analysis leads to the following conclusions:
1. For all the three regular waves, i.e., 5 m/5 sec, 12 m/10 sec, and 18 m/15 sec, the
response is harmonic in nature.
2. For all the three sea states, the primary wave forces govern the responses.
3. For 5 m/5 sec regular wave, the moored system is found to be stable under the action
of first order, second order and combination of primary and second order wave forces.
4. For 12 m/10 sec wave, the system does not show any kind of instability under primary
wave forces but the system shows symmetric breaking bifurcation when first and sec-
ond order wave forces are considered together.
5. For 18 m/15 sec regular waves, the system undergoes symmetry breaking bifurcation
although the response is obtained within finite bounds under the primary wave forces
and combination of primary and second order wave forces.
6. For 12 m/10 sec and 18 m/15 sec regular waves, the system is found to be stable when
subjected to second order wave forces.
REFERENCES
Adrezin, R., Bar-Avi, P. and Benaroya, H. (1996). Dynamic response of compliant offshore structures- Review.
Journal of Aerospace Engineering, pp. 114-131.
Bishop, S.R. and Virgin, L.N. (1988). The onset of chaotic motions of a moored semi-submersible. Journal of
Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering, Vol. 110, pp. 205-209.
De Kat, J.O. and Wichers, E. W. (1991). Behaviour of a moored ship In unsteady current, wind and waves.
Marine Technology, Vol. 28, 251-264.
Gottlieb, O. and Yim, S. C. S. (1992). Nonlinear oscillations, bifurcations and chaos in a multi-point mooring
system with a geometric nonlinearity. Applied Ocean Research, Vol.14, pp 241-257.
377
Pinkster, J.A. and Huijsmans, R. H.M. (1982). The low frequency motions of a semi-submersible in waves.
Proceedings of 3rd Int. Behaviour of Offshore Structures Conference, MIT. I. pp. 447-466.
Umar, A. and Datta, T.K. (2003a) Nonlinear response of a moored buoy. International Journal of Ocean
Engineering, Elsevier Science publication Vol. 30, pp 1625-1646.
Umar, A. and Datta, T.K. (2003b) Dynamic analysis of a moored vessel. Journal of Structural Engineering.
SERC, India, Vol. 29, No. 4, pp. 229-237.
Umar, A. and Datta, T.K. (2001). Stability analysis of a moored system. Proceedings of the Structural Engineer-
ing Convention - An International Meet (SEC 2001), I.I.T Roorkee, pp. 636-654.
b b
T a u t m o o r in g li n e s
Vessel
P LA N
Vessel
M o o r in g
E L E V A T IO N L in e s
Fig. 1. Moored vessel.
9
6
Restoring Force
3
0
-3
-6
-9
-2 -1 0 1 2
Excursion (x)
Fig. 2. Force excursion relationship of the mooring lines.
378
Fig. 3(a&b). Time history and phase plot of the response (x) due
to first order wave force [for 5 m/5 sec wave; (x, y) = (0, 0) & (1,1)].
to second order wave force [for 5 m/5 sec wave; (x, y) = (0, 0) & (1,1)].
Fig. 5(a&b). Time history and phase plot of the response (x) due to
first and second order wave force [for 5 m/5 sec wave; (x, y) = (0, 0) & (1,1)].
379
to first order wave force [for 12 m/10 sec wave; (x, y) = (0, 0) & (1,1)].
0.15 0.15
0.10
y (m/sec)
0.10
0.05
0.05
x (m)
0.00
0.00
-0.05
-0.05 -0.10
-0.10 -0.15
900 950 1000 -0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2
t (sec)
x (m)
to second order wave force [for 12 m/10 sec wave; (x, y) = (0, 0) & (1,1)].
0.80 0.40
0.20
y (m/sec)
0.40
0.00
x (m)
0.00 -0.20
-0.40
-0.40
-0.60
-0.80 -0.80
1900 1950 2000 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
x (m)
t (sec)
Fig. 8(a&b). Time history and phase plot of the response (x) due to first
and second order wave force [for 12 m/10 sec wave; (x, y) = (0, 0) & (1,1)].
380
Fig. 9 (a&b) Time history and Phase plot of the response (x) due
to first order wave force [for 18m/15sec wave; (x, y) = (0, 0) & (1,1)]
Fig. 10 (a&b) Time history and Phase plot of the response (x) due
to second order wave force [for 18m/15sec wave; (x, y) = (0, 0) & (1,1)].
Fig. 11 (a&b) Time history and Phase plot of the response (x) due to first and
second order wave force [for 18m/15sec wave; (x, y) = (0, 0) & (1,1)]
381
SOME DURABILITY STUDIES ON

SILICAFUME-ADMIXED MARINE CONCRETE MIXES
Mattur C. Narasimhan, M. Nazeer*, B. Ramesh, S.V. Rajeeva and K.R.C. Murthy
Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Karnataka
Suratkal, Srinivasnagar PO, Mangalore 575025, Karnataka
Abstract
Concrete is the widely used construction material for different types of marine structures,
offering number of advantages. However, due to higher concentration of sulphate salts in
seawater, concrete gets deteriorated and looses its strength and thus the service life of the
structure is reduced. Reinforced concrete in marine environment undergoes severe problem of
corrosion of embedded steel reinforcement due to higher concentration of chlorides in seawa-
ter, upto 20000 ppm. HPC mixes, incorporating mineral and chemical admixtures, are proved
to be much durable than ordinary concrete. The present study investigates the performance of
a few HPC mixes in sulphate and chloride solutions at ordinary temperature. Silicafume, a
mineral admixture, is used as a partial replacement of cement in the preparation of the con-
crete test specimens. A representative HPC mix designed for a target compressive strength of
50 MPa is considered. Durability behavior of HPC mixes with partial replacement of cement
by Silica fume with increasing percentages (up to 12%) has been investigated in detail. To
make the mixes workable, appropriate dosages of a commercially available chemical admix-
ture also have been used in the preparation of mixes.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
One of the main causes of deterioration of concrete structures is the corrosion of concrete due
to its exposure to harmful chemicals. The most aggressive chemicals that affect the long-term
durability of concrete structures are the chlorides and sulphates. The rate at which the hard-
ened cement paste is deteriorated due to the exposure to harmful chemicals depends mainly
on the concentration of the chemicals in water, the period of exposure and the chemical
resistance of concrete. Controlling the concentration of chemicals in water or the period of
exposure are not practical solutions especially for concrete used for the construction of foun-
dations in chemically aggressive soil and in seawaters. Thus, the only possible way to protect
concrete is by increasing its chemical resistance. High performance concrete (HPC) incor-
porating both mineral admixtures (like silicafume, flyash, blast furnace slag, metakaolin and
other natural pozzolanas) and chemical admixtures (like superplasticisers) have better chemical
resistance. The superior resistance of high performance concrete against harmful chemicals
is attributed to the pore refinement process and further densification of transition zone occur-
ring due to the conversion of calcium hydroxide released during the hydration of cement, into
additional strength- binding material through lime-pozzolana reaction.
*Corresponding author, e-mail: mnr@nitk.ac.in
382
The sulphate attack is partially due to the cement paste losing its stiffness. The sulphate
attack is generally attributed to the formation of expansive ettringite and gypsum, which are
known to precipitate by through solution mechanism. Sulphates of calcium, sodium, magne-
sium, ammonium are, in increasing order of hazard, harmful to concrete as they react with
hydrated cement paste leading to expansion, cracking, spalling and loss of strength. Three
different types of deterioration of concrete due to sulphate attack are identified (Al-Amoudi,
2002). The acid type attack is due to the formation of gypsum. The expansive type of attack is
due to the formation of ettringite (tricalcium sulpho aluminate). The onion peeling type is
typical for fly ash blended cement paste specimens.
Among the various sulphate compounds in marine environment, magnesium sulphates cause
more deterioration to concrete (Shannag and Hussein, 2003). The deterioration due to sul-
phate attack can be minimized by incorporating supplementary cementing materials in con-
crete mixes (Gengying Li and Xiaohua Zhao, 2003). Cements having low C3A and low C3S/
C2S ratio perform better against sulphate attack (Bing and M.D.Cohen, 2000). Blending of
high C3A cement with flyash or silicafume significantly improves the sulphate resistance. In
sulphate-chloride environment plain cement concrete mixes perform better than blended ce-
ment concretes. The w/b ratio has pronounced effect on sulphate attack.
Corrosion of reinforcing steel is the natural result of chloride penetration in reinforced con-
crete. Concrete, normally with a pH>11.5, provides an ideal alkaline environment for reinforce-
ment where a stable film of corrosion products forms on the surface of the steel, strongly
adhering, which prevents further corrosion and thus the reinforcement is in passive state. This
passive state can be inhibited by the destruction of the passive film by aggressive ions (chlo-
rides, sulphates) or by an acidification of the environment near the rebar (carbonation). In
normal chloride penetration tests, the degree of penetration is minimum for silicafume con-
crete and maximum for concretes incorporating high calcium fly ash. The addition of supple-
mentary cementing material has been shown to reduce the total charge passed on speci-
mens when tested by rapid chloride permeability test (Papadakis, 2000).
While most of the literature concerning behaviour of silicafume-admixed concrete is from

countries, which generally have a colder climate, data regarding the performance of such
mixes in Indian structures are very scarce. Only of late HPC mixes are being used in Indian
projects. The temperate and humid climate in most of our important ports and harbours de-
mands higher performance from marine concrete mixes. The aim of the present investigation
is thus to study durability characteristics of such HPC mixes admixed with silicafume.
2.0 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
2.1 Materials
For the preparation of HPC the materials used are:
383
i) Ordinary Portland cement (Grade 53) having specific gravity 3.16, fineness 385 m2/kg
ii) Coarse aggregate with specific gravity 2.66 and particle size varying from 6 mm to 20 mm
iii) River sand conforming to zone III, fineness modulus 2.17 and specific gravity 2.60
iv) Silicafume, specific gravity 2.20, .
v) A naphthalene-based, commercially available superplasticizer .
vi) Clean potable water .
vii) 10 mm diameter mild steel bars as reinforcement for slabs.
2.2 Mix proportions

High Performance Concrete mix is designed for a target mean strength of 50 MPa. The
method adopted for the design is similar to the one recommended by ACI 211-1. The design
basically involves the determination of w/b ratio for the given compressive strength. Selecting
suitable water content, the cement requirement is determined. The coarse aggregate content
is fixed depending on the shape of aggregate and the fine aggregate content is calculated from
absolute volume basis. Volume of entrapped air is assumed to be 2% (Aitcin, 1998). The
coarse aggregate bulk contains particle size between 10 mm and 20 mm (CA I) and 6 mm and
10 mm (CA II). The ratio CA I : CA II is assumed at 3 : 2. The superplasticizer content was fixed
on the basis of Marsh cone test. Cement replacement by silicafume was varied from 0 to 12%,
(0, 8, 10, 12). The details of mix proportion for various mixes are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Trial mix proportions ( kg/m3).
Mix Designation SF0 SF8 SF10 SF12

Cement 483 444.36 434.7 425.04
Silicafume -- 38.64 48.3 57.96
Sand 747.3 733.4 729.9 726.5
Coarse aggregate, CA I 630 630 630 630
CA II 420 420 420 420
Water (W/b ratio = 0.30) 145 145 145 145
Superplasticiser (@ 2.25%) 10.87 10.87 10.87 10.87
2.3 Preparation of specimens

Different types of specimens were prepared for conducting sulphate and chloride exposure
tests. The details are as given below:
384
2.4 Electrically accelerated chloride migration test
Electrically accelerated chloride migration test is conducted to assess the chloride diffusion
characteristics of concrete. Slices of 50 mm thickness are used for electrically accelerated
chloride migration test. Cylindrical specimens (150 mm F 300 mm length) were prepared and
cured in fresh water for 3, 7, and 14 days. The specimens were sliced (after discarding the top
and bottom 40 mm lengths) and the slices were placed in normal atmosphere till test.
Each of the specimens is exposed to 3% NaCl solution on one side and 0.3M NaOH solution
on the other side. An electrical potential of 60V DC is applied across the specimen for a
specified period and the ingress of chloride is determined by colorimetric test. Also, by ob-
serving the current at regular interval, the total charge passed during the test period can be
determined and the vulnerability of concrete to chloride ingress can be assessed.
Sulphate attack: Concrete cubes (150 mm) were cast using mix proportions mentioned in
Table 1. For each mix, specimens were prepared for tests at ages 3, 7, 28, 56, 90 and 180
days. The sulphate solution is prepared by dissolving 25.66 grams of MgSO4.7H2O in one litre
water (this corresponds to a sulphate concentration of about 10000 ppm). Four sets of
specimens were prepared for different curing conditions, as follows:
· 7 days moist curing and then immersed in sulphate solution,
· 14 days moist curing and then immersed in sulphate solution,
· Moist curing till test,
· Curing in sulphate solution till test.
Specimens, which were to be tested at early ages of 3 or 7 days, were cured in water or
sulphate solution (as the case may be) for the entire period. Compressive strength of cubes at
different ages is determined.
Corrosion Monitoring by Half-Cell Potential Technique .

Reinforced concrete slabs (750 mmx750 mmx60 mm) were prepared for different replace-
ments and exposed to different curing conditions in plain and seawater. 10 mm dia mild steel
rebars are provided along both directions with equal cover on either side. Half-cell potential at
grid-points corresponding to bar-intersections are measured at regular intervals and used to
assess the corrosion tendency of embedded steel. Standard half-cell of Cu/CuSO4 is used to
determine the corrosion potential.
3.1 Chloride attack:

Electrically accelerated chloride migration test results are illustrated in Fig.1 for specimens
cured for a particular period but are tested at different ages. It is clear that as the testing age
increases there is a decrease in current, thus lower value of total charge passed. This shows
the compactness of concrete at later ages. This is due to the fact that the pozzolanic action
385
of silicafume makes the concrete denser. Also higher percentage of replacement of cement
with silicafume decreases the current and the most optimum replacement level is 10% with
consequent lower chloride migration levels observed. Specimens tested immediately after
curing show much higher current values, probably due to the higher conductivity of the pore
fluid.
Variation of current with time for different % replacement of SF cement concrete and
3 days curing period at 3-days test age
Variation of current with time for different % replacement of SF cement concrete

and 3 days curing period at 7-days test age
Variation of current with time for different % replacement of SF cement

concrete and 3 days curing period at 58-days test age
Variation of current with time for different % replacement of SF cement

concrete and 3 days curing period at 90-days test age
Fig. 1. Accelerated chloride migration test: Current Vs.Time.
386
3.2 Sulphate attack
Figs.2(a&b), Fig.3(a&b) show the variation of compressive strength with respect to curing
conditions and period of curing. The rate of strength development of concrete containing 12%
silicafume shows the tendency of strength increase at later ages. Specimens cured in water
for 14 days show a marginal reduction in strength after 56 days, whereas, concrete speci-
mens cured in water for 7 days and those completely cured in sulphate solution show contin-
ued marginal increase in the strength at later ages also. The small differences in strength of
the specimens at later ages, say 56 days, may be attributed to different stages of hydration
process reached in them vis-à-vis chemical reaction of the sulphates on products of hydration.
3.3 Corrosion potentials in RC slabs

The variation of corrosion potentials in RC slabs with period of exposure, for various levels of
replacement of silicafume and at different exposure conditions are shown in Fig.4(a&b). It is
clear that curing of slabs in seawater causes almost uniform chloride induced corrosion to
reinforcing steel, irrespective of the silicafume content. The slabs with conventional concrete
show increased corrosion potentials at early ages and further stabilize and coincide with the
potentials of concrete slabs with higher silicafume content. Also, it is observed that infinite
days of water curing reduce the risk of corrosion of reinforcing steel. Longer period of moist
curing reduces the risk of chloride-induced corrosion of rebars.
Fig. 2a. Development of compressive strength of concrete.
387
Fig. 2b. Development of compressive strength of concrete.
Fig. 3a. Compressive strength Vs. Silicafume content.
388
Fig. 3b. Compressive strength Vs. Silicafume content.
Fig. 4a. Corrosion potential of slabs.
Fig. 4b. Corrosion potential of slabs.
389
4.0 CONCLUSIONS
From the observations of the present investigation following conclusions are drawn:
• Replacement of cement with silicafume increases the strength of concrete.

• Longer period of curing of concrete in sulphate solution increases the strength of concrete.
• Curing of concrete in sulphate solution followed by 14 days moist curing shows a decrease
in strength and is more pronounced in concretes containing less than 10% silicafume.
• Longer period of curing decreases the total charge passed through the concrete and indi
cates the compactness of concrete due to combined hydration and pozzolanic action.
• Higher silicafume content decreases the total charge passed through concrete. About 10%
replacement of silicafume is optimum with respect to chloride diffusion.
• Longer period of moist curing reduces the risk of chloride-induced corrosion of reinforce
ment.
The authors acknowledges the support of M/s Elkem India (P) Ltd. and M/s Grasim Industries
Ltd. for the supply of silicafume and 53 Grade ordinary Portland cement respectively for this
research.
REFERENCES
ACI 211-1-91 (1993) Standard practice for selecting proportions for normal, heavy weight and mass concrete,
ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, Part 1.
Al-Amoudi, O.S.B., (2002), Attack on plain and blended cements exposed to aggressive sulphate environ-
ments. Cement and Concrete Composites, Vol. 24, pp. 305-316.
Aitcin, P.-C., (1998), High Performance Concrete. E&FN SPON, New York.
Bing, Tian, and Menashi D. Cohen, (2000), Does gypsum formation during sulphate attack on concrete lead to
expansion? Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 30, pp. 117-123.
Gengying Li, and Xiaohua Zhao, (2003) Properties of concrete Incorporating flyash and ground granulated blast
furnace slag. Cement and Concrete Composites, Vol. 25, pp. 293-299.
Neville, A.M., (1981), Properties of Concrete (3 ed.), Longman Scientific and Technical Publishers, England.
Shannag, M.J., and Hussein A. Shaia, (2003), Sulphate resistance of high performance concrete. Vol. 25, pp.
363-369.
Vagelis G. Papadakis, (2000), Effect of Supplementary cementing materials on concrete resistance against
carbonation and chloride ingress. Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 30, pp. 291-299.
390
HYDRODYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR OF PARALLEL SUBMARINE

PIPELINES NEAR A SLOPING BOUNDARY
*P.L.Vijayakumari, K.Murali and V.Sundar
Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai-600 036
Abstract
The hydrodynamic interference effect of submerged parallel pipelines near a rigid sloping bed
was carried out experimentally by keeping two identical parallel pipelines at different clear
horizontal spacing (w) between them. Both the pipelines were subjected to the action of
regular waves with its crest parallel to pipeline. The circumferential distribution of dynamic
pressure on the test pipe in the presence of another pipe on the seaward side was measured
using pressure transducers. The forces were calculated by integration of the measured pres-
sures. The pressures and forces were normalized and plotted as a function of relative water
depth. The effect of the bottom boundary and the proximity of the free surface were determined
by keeping both pipes at different vertical clear gap (h) from the free surface. The details of the
experimental set up, collection of data, analysis and discussion of results have been pre-
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Development of industries along the coastal region and the increased exploitation of the natu-
ral resources of the ocean have necessitated the development of underwater conveyance
systems. Submarine pipelines are usually used for offshore-onshore conveyance of raw mate-
rials and finished products, mainly in the fluid and semi solid state. The pipelines crossing the
irregular and rocky seabed of the coastal region has to be supported on anchors above the
seabed. Sometimes two identical pipelines are to be laid side by side with suitable clearance
between them. The hydrodynamic behavior of an isolated single pipeline is different from that
of two pipelines in close proximity. Wilson et al. (1970) carried out experiments to understand
the effect of horizontal spacing between the pipes and the vertical spacing of the pipes from
the bed on the forces on pipelines due to steady currents. Two identical parallel pipelines
separated by horizontal spacing 2D, 4D, 7D, 9D and vertical spacing between the pipeline and
the boundary in the range of 0.08 to 1.75 times diameter (D) were adopted for the tests. It was
concluded that the measured lift and drag coefficients, which include the proximity effects,
could be used to estimate pipeline stresses only if the vibrations due to eddy shedding are
avoided. Pranesh and Somanatha (1984), with their experimental studies on wave forces on
twin parallel pipelines near horizontal plane boundary, concluded that the inertia coefficient
increases with a decrease in e/D (e is the vertical clear gap from the sea bed) for a single
pipe. The inertia coefficient for parallel pipes was reported to decrease due to shielding ef-
*Corresponding author, e-mail: vijayapl@hotmail.com

fects. The coefficient for the leeward pipe was comparatively lesser to those for the seaward.
It was also pointed out that the wave heights above the leeward pipe were larger than that
above the seaward pipe. Zdravkovich (1985) measured drag and lift forces on circular cylinders
by varying the gap between the cylinder and the wall thickness of the boundary layer and
Reynolds number. It was concluded that the lift coefficient was governed by the gap to diam-
eter ratio. Cokgor and Avci (2001), studied the forces on a cylinder, laid on, or partly buried in
the bed in presence and absence of a neighboring cylinder. The pressure distribution around
the cylinder was measured. The experiments were repeated for different positions of the dummy
cylinder, both on the upstream and downstream of the test cylinder for different burial depth to
diameter ratio. It was reported that the lift force coefficient significantly decreases for burial
depth to diameter ratio of 0.7. The force coefficients for the upstream pipe were reported to be
higher compared to that for the down stream pipe. Review of literature shows that consider-
able work on the forces due to waves on pipes (in the presence and absence of a neighboring
pipe) near a plane horizontal bed exposed to normal wave angle of incidence has been re-
ported. However, the forces on pipelines in tandem placed on a sloping bed are yet to be
investigated in detail. Hence, detailed study is taken up on the forces on a pipeline in the
presence of another pipeline near a sloping rigid bed to investigate the interference effects as
well as the proximity of the bed and the free surface on the forces on the pipeline.
2.0 EXPERIMENTAL SET UP
The experimental investigations were carried out in a 72.5 m long, 2 m wide wave flume in a
constant water depth of 1.0 m in the Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology Madras, India. A computer controlled wave maker operating either in piston or in
hinged mode is installed at one end of the flume. It is capable of generating both regular waves
and random waves of predefined spectral characteristics. A sloping rigid bed with a slope of
1:10 was fabricated and erected in the other end of the flume. The slope started from a
distance of 40.3 m from the wave maker. Two pipes of same of diameter, D= 0.315 m and
length of 1.99 m were used for the tests. One of the pipes, being the test pipe was housed with
eight pressure transducers each with a measuring range of 20 kN/sq.m, around its circumfer-
ence to register the time history of the dynamic pressures. The water depth at the location of
the test pipe was maintained at 0.827 m.Initially the tests were conducted with a single test
pipe kept at a vertical spacing ratio h/D=1.38 (e/D=0.25, where, e is the vertical clear dis-
tance between the pipe and the sloping bed). The pipeline was placed normal to wave direc-
tion and subjected to the action of regular waves. The tests covered a range of wave period, T
of 1.0 to 2.0 sec with an increment of 0.2 sec. For each wave period, at least three wave
heights, H were employed for the tests. The time histories of dynamic pressures around the
test pipe and wave elevations in phase with the cylinder axis were simultaneously acquired by
personal computer with a sampling interval of 0.025 sec for duration of 1 min. Further, the
tests were carried out with double pipe with the second pipe positioned on the seaward side of
the test pipe for w/D=1,2,3 and 4 (w is the horizontal clear spacing between the test pipe and
the seaward pipe). Both pipes had the same h/D ratio for each of the tests.
392
The experimental setup for a second pipe placed on the seaward side of the test pipe and the
details of the arrangements of pressure transducer is shown in Fig.1. The time histories of
pressures were integrated to obtain the force time history from which the peak horizontal and
vertical forces are evaluated. The circumferential variation of the dynamic pressures in a non-
dimensional form is reported as a function of relative water depth d/L (where d is the water
depth at the test pipe and L is the wavelength). The effect of the horizontal spacing between
the pipes on the dimensionless vertical and horizontal forces are also presented as a function
of d/L. The effect of the vertical gap ratio on the forces have been studied and reported.
3.1 Wave induced pressures

The peak shoreward pressures, pc obtained by analyzing the time histories of pressure trans-
ducers were normalized by dividing it with γH (γ is the specific weight of water, H the maxi-
mum wave height measured at the center of the test pipe, respectively). The circumferential
variation of normalized peak shoreward pressures around the test pipe for different scattering
parameter ka for a particular e/D of 0.25 (h/D=1.38) and for the mean H/d of 0.121 and for
different w/D=1,2,3 and 4 in presence of the dummy on its seaside are shown in Fig. 2.
Wave probes
Sloping bed Test Pipe Energy absorbers
wave maker
2700 mm
d=1000
Second Pipe 72500 mm
DETAILS OF THE WAVE FLUME WITH SECOND PIPE ON THE SEASIDE
SWL T = 900
P2 Wave
Test Pipe h direction
90 w Seaward Pipe
P1 P3
0
180 0
T = 180 P8 T= 00
0
D
P4
270 e
e P5
P7
P6
Second Pipe Sea Side
T = 2700
Fig. 1. Experimental set up with the second pipe on the seaside of the test pipe.
393
ka=0.202 ka=0.233 ka=0.276 ka=0.342 ka=0.448
1 1
w/D=1 w/D=2
0.8 0.8
pc/J H
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
0 90 180 270 360 0 90 180 270 360
1 1
w/D=3 w/D=4
0.8 0.8
0.6
pc/J H
0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
0 90 180 270 360 0 90 180 270 360
Theta Theta
Fig. 2. Circumferential variation of dimensionless peak pressure with theta for h/D=1.38 and H/d=0.121.
Generally, the dynamic pressure increases with decreasing value of ka. The records of pres-
sure confirm that maximum and minimum pressures were obtained for low and high scattering
parameters respectively. The bottom most pressure port recorded minimum pressure, which
corresponds to q=2700 .The highest pressure has been recorded at q=1800 on the leeward
side. This is mainly due to rundown from the sloping beach which exerts a strong thrust on the
leeward side of the test pipe. This is confirmed by a certain phase lag between the wave profile
and pressure profile peak during run down. When horizontal spacing (w) between the parallel
pipe has been increased the intensity of pressure at q=1800 get reduced gradually due to
widening of the clear horizontal gap available for the backwash down the slope. Due to larger
horizontal spacing, the influence of the seaward pipe on the test pipe also diminishes.
3.2 Effect of h/D on the pressure variation

For different vertical gap ratios, the dynamic pressure distribution shows variation as shown in
Fig. 3 for w/D=2 and H/d=0.121. For the highest value of vertical gap ratio h/D=1.38 (which
corresponds to lowest e/D=0.25), highest value of non-dimensional pressure has been re-
corded at port location q =1800. When the relative vertical gap ratio changes from h/D=1.38 (e/
D=0.25) to h/D=0.88 (e/D=0.75) the intensity of pressure at q =1800 gradually reduces and at
q=900 the non-dimensional pressure marginally increases, since the pipes are coming closer
to the free surface. For h/D=0.88, maximum non-dimensional pressure at q=900 clearly indi-
cates the influence of the free surface.
394
ka=0.202 ka=0.233 ka=0.276 ka=0.342 ka=0.448
1 1
h/D=1.38 h/D=1.13
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
pc/J H
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
0 90 180 270 360 0 90 180 270 360
1
h/D=0.88
0.8
pc/J H
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 90 180 270 360
Theta
Fig. 3. Effect of ka on the circumferential variation of dy pressure for different h/D, w/D=2 and H/d=0.121.
3.3 Wave induced forces

Wave induced forces were obtained by integrating the instantaneous dynamic pressures mea-
sured over the segmental areas for unit length of the pipe which is then resolved along and
perpendicular to the wave direction to obtain the maximum horizontal (FH) max and vertical (Fv)
max
forces .The wave forces were normalized by dividing it by γDH/2 and plotted against the
relative water depth, d/L as shown in Fig. 4. Generally, the non-dimensional horizontal force
decreases whereas the vertical forces gradually increase with increasing value of d/L up to 0.5
and thereafter both forces decrease with increase of d/L. This tendency is due to transition
from intermediate to deepwater conditions. It is noted that for a particular vertical spacing ratio
h/D, w/D has lesser effect on the dimensionless horizontal and vertical force. The least force
corresponds to w/D=1 and maximum force for w/D=4 from which it is inferred that for a given
vertical gap ratio, the force gradually increases with increasing the horizontal spacing from w/
D=1 to w/D=4. This is due to the fact that the effectiveness of shielding of the seaward pipe
reduces as it is moved away from the test pipe by increasing the horizontal gap. Comparison
of the forces exerted on single pipe and double pipe shows that the force components on
single pipe are greater than that on the test pipe with second pipe on the seaward side. The
effect of the vertical gap ratio on the non-dimensional forces is shown in Fig. 5. The normalized
horizontal and vertical forces increase with decrease of h/D, due to the proximity of the free
surface. Also vertical gap ratio has more pronounced effect on the non-dimensional vertical
force since the flow asymmetry reduces with reduction of h/D. Also from the Fig. 5 it is clear
that the maximum inline force and lift force corresponds to w/D=4 and h/D=0.88 and the
maximum inline force=0.109 kN which occurs at d/L=0.232 for wave period T=1.6 s and wave
height of 0.13 m. Maximum lift force=0.081 kN corresponding to wave period T=1.4 s and wave
height of 0.13 m.
395
single w/D=4 w/D=3 w/D=2 w/D=1
0.6 0.6
(FV )max/( DH/2)

(FH)max/( DH/2)
0.5 0.5
J
0.4 J0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 h/D=0.88 0.1
h/D=0.88
0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
0.6 0.6
(FH)max/( DH/2)
(FV )max/( DH/2)

0.5 0.5
J0.4 0.4
J
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 h/D=1.38 0.1
0 h/D=1.38
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
d/L d/L
Fig. 4. Effect of horizontal gap ratio (w/D) on the variation of dimensionless horizontal and
vertical force with d/L.
h/D=0.88(e/D=0.75) h/D=1.13(e/D=0.5) h/D=1.38(e/D=0.25)
0.6 0.6
(FH)max/( DH/2)
(FV )max/( DH/2)
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
J J
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 w/D=4 0.1
w/D=4
0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
0.6 0.6
(FH)max/( DH/2)
(FV )max/( DH/2)
0.5 0.5
J0.4 J0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 w/D=1 0.1 w/D=1
0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
d/L d/L
Fig. 5. Effect of vertical gap ratio (h/D) on the variation of dimensionless horizontal and
vertical force with d/L.
4.0 ERROR ANALYSIS
A 12 bit A/D converter card (with a sensitivity of 0.00488) has been used for data acquisition.
The minimum and maximum wave height measured are 72 mm and 150 mm respectively.
Total minimum and maximum uncertainty in wave probe in the measurement of wave height
are 0.507% and 2.008% respectively. Similarly the minimum and maximum uncertainty in the
measurement of pressure are 1.008% and 4.18% respectively.
396
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
The current studies focused on wave induced pressure and forces on tandem pipes near
sloping bed. The hydrodynamic pressure around the cylinder increased with decreasing value
of scattering parameter. It is found that the maximum pressure for the leeward pipe occurs on
the leeside for h/D greater than about 1.13. However for h/D about 0.88, maximum pressure
occurred on the seaside itself. Hence, it is concluded that for h/D greater than about 1.13, the
free surface effect was reduced and run down governs the maximum pressure.
The horizontal component of the force is greater than the vertical component for relative water
depth (d/L) less than 0.5. For the hydrodynamic parameters adopted for tests, the minimum
forces on the test pipe are recorded for the closest position of the seaward pipe and closer to
the seabed. The maximum forces on the test pipe are recorded for the closest position of the
free surface and the largest horizontal spacing of the seaward pipe. The maximum inline force
and lift force corresponds to w/D=4 and h/D=0.88 and the maximum inline force=0.109 kN
which occurs at d/L=0.232 for wave period T=1.6 s and wave height of 0.13 m. Maximum lift
force=0.081 kN corresponding to wave period T=1.4 s and wave height of 0.13 m.It is clear that
the maximum inline force and lift force corresponds to w/D=4 and h/D=0.88 and the maximum
inline force=0.109 kN which occurs at d/L=0.232 for wave period T=1.6 s and wave height of
0.13 m. Maximum lift force=0.081 kN corresponding to wave period T=1.4 s and wave height
of 0.13 m.
REFERENCES
Chevalier, C., Lambert, E. and Belorgey, M.(2000). Wave forces on submarine pipelines in the coastal zone,
Proceedings of the Tenth (2000) International Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference, Seattle, USA,
28May-2June,Vol. 3, pp 267-281.
Cokgor, S and Avci, I (2001).Hydrodynamic forces on partly buried tandem, twin pipelines in current, Ocean
Engineering, 28 1349-1360.
Pranesh, M.R. and Somanatha, Gg.A. (1984) Wave forces on parallel pipelines, Proc. Pacific Congress on
Marine Technology (PACOM-84), 24-27 April, Honolulu, U.S.A, pp. OST 6/19 TO OST 6/25.
Subbiah, K., Cheong, H. F. and Jothishankar, N. (1990). Random wave forces on horizontal cylinders, Ocean
Engineering, Vol.17 No.5, pp.447-462.
Wilson, F.J., Duke, U., Caldwell, H.M. and Usaf (1970).Force and stability measurements on models of sub-
merged pipelines, Offshore Technology Conference, 6200 North Central Expressway Dallas, Texas
75206, Paper No.OTC 1224.
Yuksel, Y. and Narayanan, R. (1994) Wave forces on horizontal cylinder resting on sloping bottom, Proceed
ings of the Fourth International Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference, Osaka, Japan, April 10-
15,1994.
Zdravkovich, M.M. (1985) Forces on circular cylinder near a plane wall, Applied Ocean Research, Vol. 7, No.
4, 197.
397
CORRELATION COEFFICIENT INCORPORATED JOINT

DISTRIBUTION MODEL FOR WAVE HEIGHTS AND
PERIODS AND ESTIMATION OF DESIGN WAVE HEIGHT
PARAMETERS
V.K. Praveen1*, S.P. Satheesh2, G. Muraleedharan3 and P.G. Kurup4
1
CAOS, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-560 012
National Institute of Oceanography-Regional Centre, Kochi-682 016
2
3
Centre for Atmospheric Sciences, IIT Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110 016
4
Amrita Institutions, Ashram Lane, Kochi-682017
Abstract
Instrumentally recorded wave data (CESS, 1984) are used in this study for understanding the
seasonal behaviour of wave heights and periods off the southwest coast of India. Distribution
of digitised zero-up crossing wave heights from wave recorder charts for the month of January
1981 off Valiathura are simulated by the depth factor accommodated Weibull model. Signifi-
cant wave heights are predicted using the parametric relations derived from Weibull model and
validated using relative and mean RMSerror values. The predicted conventional significant wave
heights are comparable with computed values with maximum deviation of only 0.21 m. A
shoaling coefficient in addition to a depth factor is also included in the prediction formulae for
estimating the significant wave heights, stems from the fact that since it is the average of the
one third highest waves, the higher side of the wave height distribution is influenced by both
depth factor and shoaling coefficient. The maximum wave height distribution off Alleppey,
southwest coast of India during southwest monsoon season (June-October) found to follow
the Modified Weibull distribution model derived for maximum wave heights. A depth factor is
included in the model to accommodate the shallow water attenuation effects. Certain wave
height parameters such as mean maximum wave height, most frequent maximum wave height,
extreme wave height, return period of an extreme wave and probability of realising an extreme
wave in a time less than the designated return period are estimated by the prediction formulae
derived and compared with computed values giving reliable results. The observed surface plots
of wave heights and periods are fitted to Bretschneider and Gluhovskii (with zero correlation)
and Weibull-Gamma (with non-zero correlation) joint distributions and it was found that the
joint distribution with marginal density functions - Weibull for wave heights and Gamma (or
Erlang) for wave periods simulate more effectively the real 3D plot.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The knowledge of surface waves is of vital important in coastal and offshore engineering,
defence, navigation, fishing, pollution control and ocean mining. In addition, attempts are
*Corresponding author, e-mail: praveencusat@hotmail.com
398
being made in different parts of the world including India to extract electrical energy from the
ocean waves. An extreme wave height poses severe consequences on coastal structures.
How frequently the event of extreme wave heights occur is of great importance. Design of civil
engineering structures and insurance risk calculations for instance rely on knowledge of the
frequency of these extreme events. The conventional significant wave height can also be used
for representing the severity of sea condition, as it is defined as the average of the one-third
highest.
Wave propagation can be considered as a random process (Silvester, 1974). In statistical

approach, wave parameters such as wave height, wave period, etc. are considered as random
variables which posses some statistical characteristics. Related to the statistical uncertainty
is the problem of limited accuracy of physical mathematical models. In many cases the
mathematical model of a physical process has to be calibrated by small-scale experiment or
prototype observations. Due to these, differences will exist between the predicted and the
observed outcomes. These differences give rise to the model uncertainty. Model uncertainty is
related to the statistical uncertainty in the sense that more data tend to reduce the parameter
uncertainty.
Long-term wave statistics place an important role for the design of marine systems, since the
accumulation of response of marine system in each short-term sea state over its life time
provides information vital for evaluating fatigue loads on the system.
For a complete description of wind generated random waves, it is necessary to consider

simultaneously the wave height and period. In particular serious consideration must be given
to the combined effect of height and period, if any correlation exists. Wave data measured in
the ocean often show that the height and period of incident waves are not statistically indepen-
dent. Hence, the joint probability distribution of wave height and period place a significant role
in predicting statistical properties of waves. The joint probability distribution of wave height and
period is of the utmost importance for the design of floating marine systems. This is because
one of the most important considerations lies in estimation of the possible occurrence of
resonant motion, which may occur when wave periods are close to the natural period of the
system. The latter depends on the size and underwater configuration of the system deter-
mined by the designer.
Baba (1985) opined that Weibull, Gumbel, exponential and log-normal are the generally used
long-term distributions for wave heights. Rayleigh distribution is also recommended for broad
band spectra (Chakraborti and Snider, 1974; Longuet-Higgins, 1975; Dattatri et al., 1979).
Even though a large number of studies have been carried out on the distribution of wave
heights, there is a paucity on the distribution of wave periods. Putz (1952) was the first to
suggest that the distribution of wave periods follow a Gamma-type distribution. Rayleigh model
is also applied as an ocean wave period model (Baba and Harish, 1985). Unnikrishnan Nair et
399
al.(2003a) suggested the Gamma distribution logically and empirically for ocean wave period
simulation and predictions.
Here an attempt is made to predict the design wave heights and operational conditions off
Alleppey during rough monsoon seasons using the parametric relations derived from Weibull
model. A Weibull-Gamma joint distribution accommodating correlation effects between wave
heights and periods is suggested for simulating the 3-dimentional wave height and period
distribution.
Instrumentally recorded wave data (CESS, 1984) and data extracted from recorded wave
charts by using a digitizing software package, ACECAD are used in this work.
Of the various theoretical models available for modeling ocean waves, only the Rayleigh distri-
bution have been derived mathematically on the basis of physical processes governing the
wave heights (Longuet-Higgins,1952). But such a model was derived on certain basic as-
sumptions. These conditions are not always satisfied. Hence we need a model that can meet
the twin objectives of (a) accommodating the Rayleigh distribution whenever the basic as-
sumptions that justify it are satisfied and (b) fitting data situations under more general condi-
tions. This motivates the use of an arbitrary positive quantity b in the place of 2 in the
exponent of Rayleigh model to arrive at Weibull. Thus, the modified curve becomes Rayleigh
whenever b=2 and our twin objectives stated above are satisfied (Muraleedharan, 1991).
Another possible explanation for the Weibull curve can be offered in terms of the intensity
function (Muraleedharan et al., 1993). In any case, it is important to note that the assumption
of Weibull law does not contradict the Longuet-Higgins conditions, which are automatically
satisfied in situations favourable to it, but only supplements it by extending the condition to
more general situation. Once the distribution of wave heights is known theoretically, it is
possible to have specific expressions for different wave height parameter estimations.
2.1 Modified Weibull model

The modified Weibull model with depth factor for maximum wave height distribution is given as
(Muraleedharan et al., 2001)
n
  h
-  +
h 

b

  a d 
 
= − "
G(h)
1  (1)
 
where a-scale parameter, b-shape parameter, n-sample size, h-is the maximum wave height
and h /d is the depth factor. The various design wave height parameters derived were
400
2.1.1 The prediction formula for extreme wave height (Hextreme) derived from equation (1) is
 1

   b
1

  − ln 1 − 1 − 1 N  h
     
H extreme = a −
d
   
Rp
    (2)

 
where Rp-Return period in years, N- number of observations of the largest wave in days.
2.1.2 Probability of realising an extreme wave height in a time (m-years) less than the
designated return period (year) is given by the equation
M
  h h  
b N
  a d  

− + 
 
P = 1 − 1 −  1 − "  
   
    (3)
where M = m/Rp,m < Rp.
2.1.3 The most frequent maximum wave height (Hmfm) is
 1

 1 b
= a  1 − 
h
H mfm  −
(4)
 mb  d
 
2.1.4 Mean of maximum wave height is
  1

 1
m   m (m − 1)   (− 1)r +1  1  
a b −  b ++  b 
H max =  
 b   1! (5)
1 1

2!× 2 b mb
 
m - sample size and r = 1,2,3,...............
401
2.1.5. Conventional significant wave height is
 b1  a  1
H1 = a × (ln3) − DF − SC  + × 3 × I ln3  
3   b b (6)
∞ −t p−1
where I(x)(P) = ∫ " × t × dt, is the incomplete Gamma function
x
The accuracy of the predicted design wave parameters are evaluated by root mean square
relative error (erms) and relative bias (emean) (Roelvink ,1993) where:
1
[
∑ P−C ]2
N
root mean square relative error rms =
1
∑C
N
relative bias (mean error) mean =

∑ P−C [ ]
∑C
where,
N = total number of data.
P = predicted value
C = computed value
To compute the correlation coefficient, consider a bivariate frequency table of X and Y. The
classes of X(vertical class) and the corresponding frequencies fi give the marginal frequency
distribution of X. The class of Y(horizontal class) and the corresponding frequencies fj, give the
marginal frequency distribution of Y. Cell frequencies represented by fij, give the joint fre-
quency distribution (X, Y).
Correlation Coefficient,
P xy
=
x × y
where,
covariance in X and Y (P xy ) from the bivariate frequency distributi on of (X, Y) is,
∑ fi j × X i × Y j
i, j
Pxy = − X×Y
∑ fi j
i, j
Here
X = mean of frequency distributi on of X

Y = mean of frequency distributi on of Y
and ∑ fi = ∑ f j = ∑ fij = Total frequency
i j i, j
402
2.2 Weibull Gamma joint distribution function
Considering the marginal distributions, Weibull for wave heights and Gamma for wave periods
makes the Weibull Gamma joint distribution. The frequency of occurrence of a particular wave
height and period can be predicted including correlation effect by the expression
( ) ( ) ( )[
F x 1, x 2 = F1 x 1 × F2 x 2 × 1 + [ ( )]× [1 − F2 (x 2 )] ]
× 1 − F1 x 1 (Gumbel, 1960)
where F1(x1), F2(x2) are the univariate distribution functions and θ is a constant; -1≤ θ≤1 is a
bivariate function.
In this case univariate distribution functions are the Weibull for wave height (Muraleedharan et.
al. 1993) and Gamma for wave period (Unnikrishnan Nair et. al. 2003a).
h
b
− 
( ) ()
F1 x 1 = F h = 1 − "
a
    ( )2  
( ) = F(t ) =  1 
.( ) ."
− W
1 + 
W
+
W
+ ................... 
+ 1  ( + 1)( + 2 )
F2 x 2 W
      
.
θ can be considered as the correlation coefficient of x1 and x2
Instrumentally recorded maximum wave height distribution from May to October averaged over
a period of 3 years (1981-84) off Alleppey is used for predicting the mean maximum wave
heights, most frequent maximum wave height, extreme wave height, return period of an ex-
treme wave height and probability of realising an extreme wave height in a time less than the
designated return period by including a depth factor H max in the modified Weibull model for
depth
maximum wave height distribution. The differences in the computed and predicted wave pa-
rameters are estimated by the root mean square relative error (εrms) and relative bias (εmean).
The joint distribution of conventional significant wave heights and zero crossing periods (re-
corded, CESS data) clubbed over a period of four years (1981-84) off Valiathura, south-west
coast of India are tried to simulate by the joint distribution model: Gluhovskii and Bretschneider
with zero correlation and Weibull-Gamma joint distribution with non-zero correlation.
Muraleedharan et al. (1999) suggested the Weibull model for redefined significant wave height
distribution and predictions by the method of characteristic function (c.f). Unnikrishnan Nair
et.al. (2003b) suggested by mathematical logic an Erlang model for conventional significant
wave period distribution simulation. A modified Gamma distribution model is suggested by c.f
for redefined significant wave period distribution and predictions (Unnikrishnan Nair et al.,
2003c). Since it is difficult to find out a model for conventional significant wave height distribu-
tion, it is to be concluded from the above findings that the Weibull distribution itself will be a
model for the same. Empirical findings also support the same view point (Muraleedharan,
1991). This study also reveals that the Weibull model effectively simulates the conventional
significant wave height distributions.
403
3.1. A modified Weibull model for shallow water maximum wave height
distribution and predictions
The maximum wave height distributions off Alleppey during monsoon seasons (May-October)
are simulated after accommodating a depth factor in the modified Weibull density function
(e.g. Fig. 1).
30
August
20 Computed
Theoretical
Frequency
10
0
1 2 3
Maximum wave height
Fig. 1. Computed and theoretical maximum wave height distributions off Alleppey.
Frictional, shoaling and refraction coefficients show little effect on maximum wave height
distributions. It fits in all cases (after appropriate grouping) by chi-square test at 0.05 level of
significance. The observed peak frequency is slightly under estimated by the theoretical curve.
Design wave height parameters predicted and computed are shown in Tables.1 & 2. Maximum
and minimum deviations from computed values of most frequent maximum wave height, ex-
treme wave height and mean maximum wave height are respectively 0.56 m and 0.06 m, 0.63
m and 0.32 m, 0.01 m and 0.00 m.
Table 1. Computed and predicted design wave height parameters off Alleppey.
εrms εmean
May June July August September October
Wave height
(m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m)
Com 2.30 2.70 2.70 2.70 2.10 1.05
Hextreme 0.136 0.082
Pre 2.27 3.10 2.69 2.82 2.73 1.10
Com 0.90 1.70 1.60 1.19 0.60 0.40
Hm f m 0.317 -0.165
Pre 0.96 1.15 1.04 0.98 0.74 0.46
_ Com 1.17 1.56 1.35 1.25 0.93 0.49
0.223 0.202
Hmax Pre 1.40 1.89 1.64 1.54 1.19 0.49
Com Computed; Pre Predicted
404
Table 2. Probability of realising an extreme wave height in a time (m-years) less than the
designated return period (Rp-years)
m
Month Rp Prob. (%)
(year)
1 29.29
May 2 4 50.00
3 64.64
1 29.29
Jun 2 4 50.00
3 64.64
1 30.66
Jul 3
2 51.93
1 4 29.29
Aug 2 50.00
3 64.64
1 29.29
Sept 2 4 50.00
3 64.64
1 29.29
Oct 2 4 50.00
3 64.64
It is interesting to note that even though the extreme wave heights differ for different months in
rough monsoon seasons for a given return period (Rp= 4 years) the probability of realising an
extreme wave height in a time less than the designated return period is the same. i.e., It
depends upon the varying monthly maximum wave height distribution.
3.2 Prediction of conventional significant wave height

Distribution of digitised zero up-crossing wave heights from wave recorder charts by zero up-
crossing technique for the month of January 1981 off Valiathura are simulated by the depth
factor accommodated Weibull model. It fits in all cases by chi-square test at 0.05 level of
significance after appropriate grouping. The conventional significant wave heights are pre-
dicted using the expression (6). The results are given in Table 3.
It can be seen that the predicted conventional significant wave heights are comparable with
the computed values, in some cases even for two decimal places. A maximum deviation of
0.21 m and a minimum deviation of 0.00 m are obtained. An average of the shoaling coefficient
(Kurian, 1987) is also included in the prediction formulae for estimating the significant wave
height to give more accurate results. This stems from the fact that since conventional signifi-
cant wave height is the average of the one-third highest waves, the higher waves in the wave
height distribution is influenced by both depth factor and shoaling coefficient.
The computed 3-D plots of conventional significant wave heights and zero crossing periods
(May to October) off Valiathura are simulated by the joint distributions, Bretschneider and
Gluhovskii (with zero correlation) and Weibull-Gamma (with non-zero correlation) (e.g. Fig. 2).
405
Table 3. Computed and predicted conventional significant wave heights off Valiathura.
Hs
(m)
Time
Date erms emean
(hrs)
Com Pre
0900hrs 0.60 0.65

1/22/81 1200hrs 0.46 0.50 0.068 0.055
1500hrs 0.58 0.58
0900hrs 0.47 0.64
1/23/81 1200hrs 0.45 0.53 0.298 0.024
1500hrs 0.72 0.51
0900hrs 0.46 0.63
1/24/81 1200hrs 0.49 0.55 0.219 0.185
1500hrs 0.51 0.55
0900hrs 0.74 0.63
1/25/81 1200hrs 0.65 0.63 0.126 -0.009
1500hrs 0.77 0.88
0900hrs 0.54 0.58
1/27/81 1200hrs 0.53 0.56 0.143 -0.036
1500hrs 0.62 0.49
0900hrs 0.44 0.47
1/28/81 1200hrs 0.42 0.50 0.179 0.163
1500hrs 0.49 0.60
0900hrs 0.42 0.41
1/29/81 1200hrs 0.47 0.53 0.131 0.098
1500hrs 0.44 0.52
0900hrs 0.51 0.45
1/30/81 1200hrs 0.60 0.59 0.224 0.075
1500hrs 0.36 0.54
50 50
40 40
frequency
frequency
30 30
20 20
10 10
2 .5 0 2 .5
0 6 2 .0
6 2 .0 ) 8
8 re 10 1 .5 re
)
Tz 10 1 .5 et T z (s et
(s e (m e c) 12 1 .0 (m
c) 12 1 .0 Hs Hs
O b s e rv e d d is trib u tio n
W eib u ll-G am m a d is trib u tio n
50 50
40 40
frequency
frequency
30 30
20
20
10
10
0 2 .5
0 2 .5 6 2 .0
6 8 )
2 .0 1 .5 re
8 re
) 10 et
1 .5 et T z (s (m
T z(
se c
10 (m ec ) 12 1 .0 Hs
) 12 1 .0 Hs
G lu h ov s k ii dis trib u tion B re ts c h n e id e r d is trib utio n

J u ly
Fig. 2. Computed and simulated 3-D plots off Valiathura in shallow water.
The marginal distributions of wave heights and periods follow Weibull and Gamma laws re-
spectively with goodness of fit in 83.3% and 100% cases by chi - square test at 0.05 level of
significance.
406
Since there exists significant correlation between the wave heights and periods (Table 4), the
Weibull-Gamma joint distribution incorporating correlation coefficient simulates the conven-
tional significant wave height-zero crossing period surface plots, but it slightly underestimates
the peak. The other two models derived on the assumption that there exist a zero correlation
between wave heights and periods (i.e. both are independent) completely fail to explain the
observed fields.
Table 4. Correlation coefficient (r) of conventional significant wave height and

period in shallow water off Valiathura.
Depth Month r
May -0.05
June 0.25
July 0.36
Shallow water
August 0.30
September 0.16
October 0.30
4.0 CONCLUSIONS
The design wave parameters predicted have reliable accuracy and hence the parametric rela-
tions derived from the modified Weibull model for maximum wave height distribution after
accommodating a depth factor to include shallow water wave transformation effects could be
used for its estimation in shallow water.
The conventional significant wave height predicted also is sufficiently accurate which also
suggests the prediction formulae derived from the Weibull model after including appropriately
the coefficients of the shallow water transformation processes is effective in shallow water.
The Weibull-Gamma joint distribution accommodating correlation effects simulated the sur-
face plots Hs-Tz more efficiently than the Bretschneider and Gluhovskii joint distribution mod-
els with zero correlation.
The authors are thankful to the Director, Centre for Earth Science Studies, Thiruvananthapuram,
for providing the wave data.
407
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408
APPLICATION OF GAMMA AND ERLANG STATISTICAL

MODELS FOR ZERO UP-CROSSING AND SIGNIFICANT
WAVE PERIOD DISTRIBUTIONS
V. Jagadish Kumar1* , G. Muraleedharan2 and P.G. Kurup3
1. Elcome Surveys Pvt. Ltd., Elcome House, M.I.D.C., Nerul, Navi Mumbai-400 706.
2. Centre for Atmospheric Sciences, IIT Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110 016.
3. Amrita Institutions, Ashram Lane, Kochi - 682 017.
Abstract
The available competing theoretical models Gamma, Rayleigh, exponential and Bretschneider
were considered to simulate the zero up-crossing wave period distribution of the active south-
west monsoon season (May-October) off southwest coast of India recorded by Center for
Earth Science Studies, Thiruvananthapuram from 1980-84 (5 years). There is an empirical
support in all cases for the simulations by Gamma at 0.05 level of significance. A theoretical
explanation is provided for the distribution of wave periods to follow Gamma Law. The distribu-
tion function of Gamma is an infinite power series and hence any further mathematical treat-
ment will result in complexity. When the shape parameter of Gamma is approximated to the
nearest integer, then it will be an Erlang model. Hence, an expression is derived for various
significant wave period estimations from Erlang as the model for wave periods for simplicity as
 α −1 i λt ( )j 
 ∑ ∑ 
( T > t)
m (t ) = E T =t+

λ
−1 i =0 j =0
α −1 λt
j!
( )
i


 ∑ 
 i =0 i! 
where t - zero up-crossing period, a and l are the shape and scale parameter of the Erlang
model. The simulation capability of the expression is tested using relative and mean RMSerror
values affirming its validity. An Erlang distribution model is suggested theoretically for the
conventional significant wave period distribution from the mathematical logic
 t  m! (t ) 
() ()
F t = 1 − F t = exp − ∫  
)
dt ,
 0  m (t ) − t 
where m(x) is the derivative of m(x). F(x) is the distribution function of Erlang model. Its
empirical validity is established using 10 years visually estimated wave period data compiled
by NPOL (1978).
*Corresponding author, e-mail: jagadishkumarv@rediffmail.com
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Understanding of the interaction of waves with offshore structure and their parameters has
now become a vital factor in the safe and economical design of such structure. Coastal
engineering problems concerning wind waves can be solved with the help of hydraulic models.
Physical scale models are in use over the past 50 years whereas mathematical models are of
recent origin, which are developed with the advancements in the computer science.
The wave climate along a coastline may be highly variable due to the complex wave transfor-
mation processes in the shallow waters. However, wave measurement at each and every
coastal point is expensive. These circumstances warrant the development of suitable predic-
tion models. Verification of such models against real world situation is a pre-requisite for their
use in engineering applications.
Sea waves are random and dynamic in nature and are rather difficult to predict. It is, therefore,
necessary to know how the sea waves get formed, how they propagate, what happens when
these waves interact with the structures, etc. For marine structures, it becomes difficult to
define design wave conditions for a particular type of structure, since the wave climate changes
from location to location. In order to understand wave phenomenon correctly, it is necessary
to carry out field measurements and then try to express the physical process in terms of
mathematical equations.
Limited attention has been directed to the distribution of wave period and the joint distribution
of wave height and period, in contrast to wave height distribution. However, knowledge of these
distribution is of interest to oceanography and engineers. The design of structures in the
marine environment and their construction and maintenance require a reliable estimation of
the probability distribution of wave period and the joint distribution of wave period and wave
height.
Wave period is an important parameter of which knowledge is required in ocean engineering

and oceanography. The average period of sea state governs the response of ocean structure
to wave excitation, through the relationship between the average wave period and natural
period of the structural response. Even a slight change of wave period is enough to make a
structure very sensitive or almost insensitive to wave excitation.
An attempt to validate the expression for estimating various significant wave periods and the
model derived for the conventional significant wave period (Ts) distribution (Unnikrishnan Nair
et al. 2003) are carried out in this work.
The Valiathura region (8026N, 76054E) on the Kerala coast, southwest of India, is considered
for this work.
410
The zero up-crossing wave period data used in the present study were recorded off Valiathura,
as a part of the comprehensive wave measurement program undertaken under the Wave
Project of Center for Earth Science Studies (CESS; 1980-1984). The wave period data col-
lected for the months of May-October (rough weather season) were utilised to compute the
various means of the highest wave periods and they are compared with the theoretically
predicted (derived from the logically and empirically suggested Erlang model for zero up-
crossing wave period distribution) values.
Ship-based visual observations reported by the India Meteorological Department in the daily
weather reports for 0830 and 1730 IST compiled by the Naval Physical and Oceanographic
Laboratory (1960-1969) in the form of wave atlas is also used. The conventional significant
wave periods from Grid 17 (50-90N, 730 -770E, 40X40), including the wave recording station off
Valiathura is used for validation of the Erlang model, suggested theoretically for its simulation.
The zero up-crossing wave period distribution of the active southwest monsoon season (May-
October) off Valiathura, recorded for a period of 5 years (1980-84) are tried to simulate by
available theoretical models such as Gamma, Rayleigh, exponential and Bretschneider distri-
bution functions, given as:
Rayleigh Model
 2
F(t) = 1 − exp  −  t  
 
 4 T 
 
where
t = Individual wave period
Exponential Model
T = Meanwave period
F(t) = 1 − exp -  t 
 T
where
T = Mean wave period
Bretschneider Model
 4
F(t) = 1 − exp  − 0.675  t 
 
  T 
 
where
T = Meanwave period
411
2.1 Distribution model for zero up-crossing wave periods
Unnikrishnan Nair et al. (2003) mathematical suggested a model for conventional significant
wave period distribution as follows. Determining the distribution of wave periods is to derive it
as the marginal distribution of the joint distribution of wave height and periods. By this method
LonguetHiggins (1975) obtained following model
−3
 c 2   1   2  2
F ( t ) = 1 + ⋅  1 +  1  ⋅ 1  , t > 0, (1)
4   2 ct 2 
   t  c2 
  
where ’c ’ is the spectral width and W = 7
7
with ’T ’ the period and T its mean.
An inherent weakness of the model is that the mean of the distribution is infinite and variance
does not exist. Arhan et al. (1976) and Kwon & Deguchi (1994) also provide a joint distribution
of wave height and period. The period distribution are sensitive to the shape of the wave
spectrum and further estimation of wave period parameters often turns out to be difficult for
these model. A second and conventional approach is to fit known probability distribution based
on the physical characteristics of the wave periods.
To suggest Gamma model for wave period distribution, T is assumed as the random variable
representing wave periods; (t), t is non-negative.
Let N (t) be the number of wave periods t in a location at a given point of time. N (t) changes
with different value of t. These changes are explained through the following model assump-
tions.
dN(t)/dt a N (t), i.e. the change in the number of waves of period t is proportional to the actual
number of wave of the same period.
The change in N (t) depends on the wave period, i.e., the proportionality between N(t) and
dN(t)/dt is a variable quantity which changes inversely with the wave period.
When the wave period is small (large) the rate of change is also small (large).
However, these changes cannot exceed a fixed quantity. These conditions are met if we
choose
412
dN(t)/dt = [(k/t - 1/ x N (t) ; t, k, >0
writing k = - 1,
t
()
N t = const × exp -  ×t
−1
 
if ’ N’ is the total number of waves at the given point of time, the problity density of ’ t’ is
N t ()  t −1
f(t) = = const.exp -  ⋅t
N  
 1   t −1
  ⋅t
)
= ⋅ exp −
 (  
This gives the gamma density function. T and are determined from the data.
and are the shape and scale parameters respective ly,
2
(T )
Alpha (α ) = 2
σ
2
Beta ( β ) = σ
(T )
where,
2
σ = variance of the sample value
T = Mean wave period
The distribution function of Gamma model (Incomplete Gamma Functions can be obtained
from Incomplete Gamma Function Tables (Karl Pearson, 1946). The power series expansion
of the distribution function of Gamma model is
 1  α   λt   (λt ) 2  
F (t ) =   ⋅ (λt ) ⋅ exp(− λt )  
1 +   +
    + ..........
., (2)
α Γ (α )   (α + 1)  (α + 1)(α + 2)


 
Since this expression is of complex nature the various wave period parametric relations from
this model will be complicated and a decimal point accuracy is not required in the case of
wave periods, the á values are approximated to the nearest integer to reach at Erlang distribu-
tion model and prediction formulae.
413
2.2 Prediction of various conventional significant wave periods
As the Erlang model is logically suggested for zero up-crossing wave period distribution, it is
possible to derive an expression to predict various significant wave periods (such as T1/3, T1/4,
T1/5 .T1/10 ) as
(
m(t ) = E T T > t )
On the basis of the observations on T, since m (t) determines the distribution of T uniquely, it
is enough to find the appropriate functional form of m (t) consistent with the data. Based on
such a model Unnikrishnan Nair et.al. (2003) derived some of the parameters such as mean,
mean of maximum wave period, most frequent maximum wave period, extreme wave periods
and analysis of return periods.
The probability density function of the Erlang model is given to be:
−λ t
α α −1 "
F (t ) = λ ⋅ t , t > 0, α , λ > 0 (3)
(α − 1)!
as a model for wave period. The distribution function is obtained as,
α −1 − λt
i "
F(t) = 1 − ∑ (λ t ) , t ≥ 0, (4)
i =0 i!
m(t) = ( T > t) =
E T t +
1 ∞
× ∫ F (t) × dt
F (t ) t
−1
∑ ( W) × "
i − W
i =0
where , F (t) =
i!
The various predicted significant wave periods derived from the expression (5) are compared
with the computed values for the recorded wave data off Valiathura during the southwest
monsoon seasons.
Two indicator of the overall accuracy of the expression (5) are computed as (Roelvink,1993).
414
−1
∞ ∞ ∑
i= 0
( W )i × " − W
and ∫ F (t) × dt = ∫ × dt
t t i!
i+ 1
−1 ∞ (i +1) −1 − W
= ∑ × ∫t ×" × dt
i= 0 × i! t
i+1
−1 1  t (i +1) −1 − W 
= ∑
i= 0
× 1 − 0∫ × t × " × dt 
 i! 
  ∑
i
( W )j × " − W 
−1 1   j= 0 
= ∑ × 1 − 1 − 
i= 0 
  
j!

−1 i 1
= ∑ ∑ ×
( W )j × " − W
i= 0 j= 0 j!
Hence
 α −1 i (λt ) j 
 ∑ ∑ 
= =0
=t+ λ 
−1 i 0 j j!
m (t ) (5)
 α −1 (λt )i 
 ∑ 
 i = 0 i! 
∑ [P − C]
1 2
N
root mean square relative error rms =
1
∑C
N
∑ [P − C]
relative bias (mean error) mean =
∑C
where, N = total number of data, P = predicted value and C = computed value.
415
If there is fairly good empirical support, for expression (5), then it can be inferred that it
sufficiently accurately predicts the various conventional significant wave periods, then the
proposal of Erlang as an ocean wave period model can be reaffirmed.
2.3 Distribution model for conventional significant wave period

An Erlang distribution model is suggested theoretically for the conventional significant wave
period distribution from the mathematical logic:
 t 
F (t ) = 1 − F (t ) =
m’ (t)
exp − ∫    dt, (6)
 0  m(t) − t )  
where, m(t) is the derivative of m(t) and F(t) is the distribution function.
2.4 Validation of the Model

Visually estimated wave period data of 10 years (conventional significant wave period) for Grid
17 including the Valiathura recording station, compiled by NPOL (1978) is utilised to validate
the simulation capability of the mathematically suggested Erlang model for conventional sig-
nificant wave period distribution.
The zero up-crossing wave period distributions (recorded) for the periods of May-October
(active south-monsoon season) off southwest coast of India (Valiathura) recorded by CESS
Thiruvananthapuram from 1980-1984 are simulated using the
available competing theoretical models, Gamma, exponential, Rayleigh and Bretschneider.

The empirical validations of these models suggest an empirical support in all cases at 0.05
level of significance for Gamma distribution by Chi-square test, which establish the supremacy
of the model for zero up-crossing wave period distribution simulation (e.g. Fig 1, Table 1;
August data).
416
40
35
O b s e rv e d
30 G am m a
B r e t s c h n e id e r
25
R a y le ig h
Frequency 20 E x p o n e n tia l
15
10
0
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Z e r o u p - C r o s s i n g P e r io d s T Z
Fig. 1. Comparison of observed (histograms, recorded) and theoretically simulated (curves)

zero up-crossing wave periods distribution.
Table 1. Observed and theoretically simulated zero up-crossing wave periods distribution.
Periods Tz Observed Expected frequency

(sec) frequency Gamma Bretschneider Exponential Rayleigh
5 0 0 5 9 10
6 0 2 9 8 11
7 12 9 13 7 11
8 23 23 17 6 11
9 34 36 19 6 11
10 32 34 20 5 10
11 23 22 19 5 9
12 14 11 15 4 9
13 4 4 10 4 7
Table 2. Model Parameters
Month Gamma parameters T

a l
May 36.14 3.80 9.53
June 72.56 8.15 8.89
July 35.89 4.02 8.93
August 40.92 4.26 9.60
September 43.74 4.53 9.65
October 52.02 4.91 10.59
417
Most of the observed wave period distribution are multi peaked and ranges from 6.5 sec. to
13.5 sec., the narrow band 5 to 15 sec. period gravity waves are important for coastal engi-
neering studies which are dominant during rough monsoon seasons. The distribution is al-
most normal. The Gamma curves take the normal shape and it more or less effectively simu-
lates the observed wave period distribution and also the peak frequencies.
3.1 Prediction of significant wave periods.

Unnikrishnan Nair et al. (2003) suggested mathematically the Gamma distribution for the
modeling of the zero up-crossing wave periods. The above findings re-establish its empirical
support. As mentioned earlier the distribution function of Gamma is a power series expansion
and further mathematical treatment will lead to complexity. Hence, the shape parameter of the
model is approximated to the nearest integer to arrive at Erlang distribution model.
Now considering the Erlang distribution as the zero up-crossing wave period model, an ex-
pression was derived to predict the various mean wave periods (5).
The computed and predicted significant wave periods (5) for the active monsoon seasons (for
the above data) are compared (e.g. Fig. 2, Table 3, July data).
13 O bserved
T h e o r e t ic a l
Mean Wave Period
12
11
10
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
z e r o u p - c r o s s in g w a v e p e r io d T Z
Fig. 2. comparison of various computed and predicted significant wave periods.
Table 3. Computed and predicted significant wave periods.
p p g
T z (sec) O (sec) P (sec)
5 8.96 8.96
6 9.14 9.01
7 9.62 9.21
8 9.82 9.63
9 10.52 10.25
10 11.2 11.01
11 12.13 11.85
12 13 12.74
T z = Periods
O =Obse rved Significant wave period
P = Predicted Significant wave period
tt i d b th t l ti
418
The comparability is attained by the root mean square relative error (erms) and relative bias
(emean) with a maximum error of 4.5% and 4.4% respectively (Table 4).
Table 4. Root mean square relative error (erms) and relative bias (emean).
q ( )
Month εrms εmean
MAY 0.025 -0.021
JUNE 0.043 -0.032
JULY 0.023 -0.021
AUGUST 0.045 0.044
SEPTEMBER 0.021 -0.018
OCTOBER 0.017 -0.014
This shows that the predicted significant wave periods are good estimations.
3.2 Gamma distribution model for conventional significant wave periods

The model for conventional significant wave period distributions is derived from the expression
(5) by the mathematical logic (6).
It is found that F(x) is Erlang distribution function. As Erlang is obtained from approximating
the shape parameter of the Gamma model to the nearest integer, the Gamma model is the
appropriate distribution for the conventional significant wave period distribution.
3.3 Validation
The validation of the Gamma model for simulating the conventional significant wave periods is
made by using the visually estimated wave periods (Wave Statistics of the Arabian Sea, 1978;
Grid 17 including Valiathura recording station; refer Fig. 3).
180
160
O b se rv e d
Gam m a
140
120
Frequency
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
S ign ificant W ave P eriod T s
Fig. 3. Comparison of computed (histograms, visual) and simulated (Gamma curve)

significant wave period distributions.
419
Table 5. Gamma model parameters.
Month a l T (Mean)
January 2.04 0.43 4.79
February 2.13 0.43 4.94
March 1.52 0.28 5.43
April 1.21 0.24 5.13
May 1.89 0.32 5.83
June 2.42 0.42 5.78
July 2.06 0.37 5.63
August 2.12 0.37 5.70
September 2.06 0.39 5.25
October 1.51 0.31 4.86
November 1.38 0.24 5.57
December 1.42 0.26 5.41
The observed (histogram) and the simulated (curve) distributions show an exponential behaviour
throughout the year. The Gamma curve very well follows the observed distributions and also
estimates the peak frequencies accurately. It is to be noted that the visually estimated wave
heights and periods are the conventional significant, wave heights and periods.
It fits in all cases at 0.05 level of significance by chi-square test after appropriately grouping.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The application of the model Gamma for simulating the zero up-crossing wave period distribu-
tion is reaffirmed logically and empirically, i.e., there is an empirical support in all cases at
0.05 level of significance by Chi-square test for simulating the recorded zero up-crossing wave
period distributions off Valiathura during rough southwest monsoon seasons (May to Octo-
ber). Since the distribution function of this model is an infinite power series, any further math-
ematical treatment will lead to complexity. Hence the shape parameter of this model is ap-
proximated to the nearest integer to arrive at Erlang distribution model and various prediction
formulae.
Therefore the expression derived for predicting various significant wave periods from this model
is considered for further analyses. The comparability of the theoretically simulated significant
wave periods and the computed are made by erms and emean giving very promising results. The
maximum errors are 4.5% and 4.4% respectively . From this study the suggestion of Gamma
law for zero up-crossing wave period distribution is again re-established.
The Erlang model suggested for conventional significant wave period distribution from the
theoretical expression for predicting various significant wave periods are subjected to further
mathematical treatment. As the Erlang is arrived when the shape parameter for the Gamma
model is approximated to the nearest integer, and it was considered for further mathematical
420
analysis due to its simplicity, it stems from the above facts that Gamma is the appropriate
model for the conventional significant wave period distribution.
The validation of the Gamma distribution for simulating the observed conventional significant
wave period distributions are carried out using ten years visually estimated wave period data
for deep waters (Wave Statistics of the Arabian Sea, 1978, grid.17), giving an empirical sup-
port of 100 % at 0.05 level of significance by Chi-square test.
The authors are thankful to the Directors, Center for Earth Science Studies, Thiruvananthapuram
and Naval Physical and Oceanographic Laboratory, Kochi for providing the wave data.
REFERENCE
Arhan, M.K., Cavanie, A. and Ezraty, R., (1976), Etude therique et experimentale de la relation hauteur- periodedes
vagues de tempete, IFP.24191, Centre National pour IExploitation des Oceans.
Center for Earth Science Studies (CESS). (1984), Long-term wave and beach data of Kerala coast-I, Trivandrum,
229 pp.
Karl Pearson, (1946), Table of the incomplete Gamma Function, Biometrika, Cambridge University Press, 164
pp.
Kwon, J.G., Deguchi, I., (1994), On the joint distribution of wave height, period and direction of individual wave
in a three dimensional random seas, Proceedings of 24th Coastal Engineering Conference, ASCE, 301-320.
Longut-Higgins, M.S.,(1975), On the joint distribution of periods and amplitudes of sea waves, Geophysical
Research, 80, 2688-2694.
Wave Statistics of Arabian Sea, (1978). Naval Physical and Oceanographic Laboratory, Kochi, 204 pp.
Unnikrishnan Nair, N., Muraleedharan, G., Kurup, P.G., (2003), Erlang distribution model for ocean wave peri-
ods, Journal of Indian Geophysical Union,7(2), 59-70.
Roelvink, J.A., (1993), Dissipation in random wave groups incident on a beach, International Journal of Coastal,
Harbour and Offshore Engineering, 19,127-150.
421
WAVE LOADS ON A PERFORATED CIRCULAR CAISSON

AND SUCTION PIPE OF A SEAWATER INTAKE WELL
K. Vijayalakshmi*, S. Neelamani1, K. Murali and R. Sundaravadivelu
Ocean Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai600036.
1
Scientific Research, P.O. Box : 24885, 13109 SAFAT, Kuwait.
Abstract
The wave force on a seawater intake structure model consisting of a perforated circular cais-
son (0.50 m diameter) encircling a vertical suction pipe (0.05 m dia) is measured experimen-
tally. The effect of porosity of the caisson wall, incident wave height and wave period on the in-
line forces on the caisson and suction pipe is investigated. The porosity of the caisson was
varied from 4.54% to 19.15%. Waves of wide ranges of heights and periods were used. The
wave forces on the outer caisson and inner cylinder, water surface fluctuations in the interior &
exterior of the caisson and wave run-up on the outer caisson and inner cylinder were studied
for both regular and random waves. Numerical study was carried out using Greens identity
method in order to compute the force on the perforated caisson. The present paper includes
the wave forces on the outer perforated circular caisson and inner circular cylinder due to
random waves and a few numerical results.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Seawater is required for many purposes, for example, in thermal power plants (as coolant),
desalination plants, coastal aquaculture, chemical plants, salt production etc. Direct pumping
of seawater from open sea using a jetty type structure has many problems. The main difficulty
is that the suction pipe needs protection from direct wave attack; sucks considerable amount
of sediments, inlet is exposed to air due to significant water surface fluctuations, especially if
the water is drawn in the vicinity of surf zone. A perforated caisson encircling the suction pipe
can be used to solve such problems. The schematic diagram of a seawater intake structure is
shown in Fig. 1.
The main purpose of this investigation is to understand the effect of porosity of the caisson on
forces both on the inner vertical cylinder and on the caisson simultaneously. To achieve this
objective a physical model study was performed on a perforated circular caisson (500 mm dia)
encircling a vertical suction pipe of diameter 0.05 m. The porosity of the caisson was varied
from 4.54% to 19.15%. Regular and random waves of wide range of heights and periods were
used. A numerical model was developed to compute the forces on the porous caisson. An-
other purpose of this paper is to compare the predictions of the numerical model with the
laboratory results.
*Coresponding author, e-mail: lakviji2001@yahoo.com
422
Pump House
Sea Water Flow

Land Deck Slab Towards Land
Perforated Caisson
Vertical Cylinder
Piles Sea Bed
Rubble Foundation
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of a typical seawater intake structure.
The study on wave forces and moments on isolated slender and large vertical cylinders has
been one of the main research areas, which attracted the attention of many researchers in the
past. Many researchers have conducted experiments on large bottom fixed surface piercing
vertical cylinders to study the wave forces on and wave diffraction around the impermeable
structure. These include Jen (1967), Hogben and Standing (1974), Chakrabarti and Tam (1975)
and Mogridge and Jamieson (1976). For the case of porous and slotted walls experimental
study was carried out in the past by various researchers. A few of them are Kondo and Toma
(1972), Madsen (1974), Hagiwara (1984), Urashima et al. (1986), Sakakiyama et al. (1990),
Izhumiya et al. (1990), Kriebel (1992), Bennet et al. (1993), Losada et al. (1995), Premasiri
(1997).
For the case of porous cylindrical case, Sundaravadivelu et al. (1999) have carried out experi-
mental study on a 1:25 scale model of a seawater intake well for a site north of Visakhapatnam
Port for a project to extract magnesia from seawater. The experimental results on wave forces
and moments were compared with the results of linear diffraction theory. The water level inside
the well was measured to determine the submergence of suction pipe of pumps and location
of the inlet opening of the intake well. The wave crest elevation was also measured to fix the
deck level of the well so as to avoid water overspill on to the deck. Neelamani et al. (2000) have
experimentally investigated the wave forces on the inner vertical cylinder of the seawater
intake structure in TU Braunschweig, Germany. The water surface fluctuations around the
vicinity of the structure are also measured. It was found that the encircling perforated square
caisson reduces the force significantly (to the order of about 60% to 70%, when the porosity
is about 5%). Predictive equations based on multiple regression analysis were proposed. The
423
wave force on the perforated caisson was not measured in this work. Neelamani et al. (2002)
have carried out experimental investigations in IIT Madras, India to study wave forces on and
water surface fluctuations on the perforated square caisson of the seawater intake structure.
It was found that force on the outer caisson is reduced with an increase in porosity of the
caisson. Force reduction of 30% to 70% is obtained on the square caisson, when the porosity
was increased from 1.6% to 17%. Predictive equations based on multiple regression analysis
were proposed.
Morison et al. (1950) have proposed a simple equation to estimate the velocity dependent
drag force and acceleration dependent inertia force on a slender vertical pile. Selection of
appropriate wave theory for the estimation of the water particle velocity and acceleration and
the corresponding drag and inertia coefficient is very essential in the usage of Morison equa-
tion. MacCamy and Fuchs (1954) have provided an analytical solution for the problem of wave
diffraction by a large vertical cylinder (D/L > 0.2, where D is cylinder diameter and L is the
wave length) by using the linear wave theory conditions. Sarpkaya and Isaacson (1981) have
solved this problem by source distribution technique. Isaacson (1978) used Greens function
theorem to solve the wave interaction problem with a single circular and square caisson and a
pair of circular cylinders. Linear wave theory is used to solve this problem.
Many investigators investigated the wave transmission through porous and slotted walls; the
notables are Abul-Azm (1993), Losada et al. (1993) and Isaacson et al. (1998). They are
mainly for two-dimensional structures and the eigenfunction expansion methods are used to
solve the wave structure interaction problem. Even though these approaches cannot be used
for the present three-dimensional problem directly, they provide fundamental physical insight
of the wave-porous structure interaction problem.
For the same configuration of the present problem Wang and Ren (1994) studied wave interac-
tion with a concentric surface-piercing two-cylinder system. Darwiche et al. (1994) have solved
the problem of wave interaction on a vertical cylinder encircled by a semi-porous circular
caisson. Linearized potential flow condition is assumed and the coupled problem of flow in
the interior and exterior fluid region is solved by an eigenfunction expansion approach. Will-
iams and Li (1998) have extended the numerical procedure of Darwiche et al. (1994) to deal
with the case where the interior cylinder is mounted on a large storage tank.
In the present numerical study the boundary condition along the porous boundary may be
developed on the basis of Sollitt and Cross (1972) and as adopted by Yu (1995) for a thin
vertical barrier extending to the seabed. Greens Identity method is used to solve the present
wave structure interaction problem followed by Murali et al. (1996), who have studied the
performance characteristics of a perforated floating breakwater. The effect of porosity and
hydrodynamic inputs on force reductions on the caisson and inner cylinder should be dealt
together. The present experimental investigation focuses on this and a few results of the study
are presented in this paper.
424
3. 0 EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP, PROCEDURE AND TEST PROGRAMME
Fig. 2 shows the experimental set up of the problem. The experimental investigations were
carried out using a 0.50 m diameter circular caisson model with a circular pipe inside the
caisson in a constant water depth of 0.7 m in a wave flume in the Department of Ocean
Engineering, IIT Madras, Chennai, India. The porosity of outer caisson was varied approxi-
mately from 4.54% to 19.15%. The dimensions of the flume and the characteristics of the
waves used for the study are shown in Table 1. The different ranges of the normalised hydro-
dynamic parameters obtained for random waves are shown in Table 2.
Wave maker
Wave
absorber
170
SWL
Wave probe
70 4 7 5 2 (incident wave)
Force balance (six component) Flume bed

3000
Fig. 2. Experimental setup.
Table 1 The flume dimensions and the characteristics of the waves.
Parameter Dimensions
Flume Length 30m
Flume Width 2m
Flume depth 1.7m
Water depth 0.70m
Type of Wave generator Piston type
Waves used in this study Regular and Random
Incident Wave Height, H i, Regular 0.05-0.30 m
Incident Wave Height, H s Random 0.05-0.20 m (using PM spectrum)
Wave Period, T 1.0-3.0 s
Diameter of Inner Pipe, D p 0.05 m
Diameter of Outer Caisson, D c 0.50 m
Porosity of Outer Caisson, P (%) 0%, 4.54%, 10.42%, 14.11% & 19.15%
Porosity of the outer caisson was obtained by drilling 3.175 cm diameter holes, uniformly on
the outer surface. The inner vertical cylinder was suspended from the top of the flume and a
two-component load cell of capacity 20 kg attached to it measures the in-line wave loads
acting on it. The outer caisson was fixed on a six-component force balance which can mea-
sure a maximum of 200 kg horizontally and 800 kg vertically. Since the inline force is very
425
critical, the present study is concentrated on this force. A wave probe was fixed at 9.2 m
away at the upstream side to measure the incident wave history (h1) without the model. Six
more wave probes were used in the study. One to measure the wave run-up and run-down on
the caisson (h2) at its leading edge and one to measure the wave run-up and run-down on
the caisson (h4) at its trailing edge and three probes to measure the water surface fluctua-
tions in between the caisson and vertical pipe (h5, h6 and h7). The water surface measure-
ments from the wave probe, h3 in phase with the model were used for the purpose of separat-
ing the drag and inertia component of the inline force on the caisson.
Table 2. The different ranges of normalised hydrodynamic parameters.
Parameter Dimensions
Incident Wave Steepness, Hs/L p 0.008 - 0.088
Relative Water Depth, d/Lp 0.082 - 0.397
Scattering Parameter, D c/L p (Caisson) 0.058 - 0.284
Scattering Parameter, D p/L p (Pipe) 0.006 - 0.028
Relative Wave Height, H s/d 0.099 - 0.221
The model was located at a distance of 9.2 m from the wave generator and a rubble beach to
dissipate the wave energy is located at the tail end of the flume. Random waves (using PM
spectral model) were generated for 90 s and the data were collected for 90 s with sampling
rate of 40 samples per second. Frequency domain analysis is carried out to get the significant
forces and wave heights.
4. 0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 Validation of experimental data

Fig. 3(a) and Fig. 3(b) show the validation of experimental data. The inertia coefficient on the
non-perforated outer caisson is assessed and is presented in Fig. 3(a). Fig. 3(b) shows the
inertia coefficient on the isolated vertical cylinder without protection by the perforated caisson.
The inertia coefficient due to in-line force is estimated by using the inertia part of the Morison
equation. The hydrodynamic force coefficients were computed using method of least squares.
By least square method, the value of Cm is calculated to be 1.986. The estimated values of Cm
obtained match with the experimental results (Cm is 2.0 for KC£3.0) of Sarpkaya (1981).
426
2.5 2.5
Inertia Force Coefficient (Cm)

Inertia Force Coefficient (Cm) 2 2
1.5 1.5
1 1
Outer Caisson Isolated Cylinder
Expt -Sarpkaya (1986) 0.5 Expt-Sarpkaya (1986)
0.5
Inertia Coefficient (Method of Least Squares) Inertia Coefficient (Method of Least Squares)
0 0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2 0 6 12 18
KC KC
Fig. 3(a) & 3(b). Validation of experimental data.
4.2 Spectral density functions

The respective time history records for different porosities (P = 0%, 4.54%, 10.42%, 14.11%
and 19.15%) were subjected to spectral analysis and are shown in Fig. 4(a) for the outer
caisson. Fig. 4(b) shows a typical spectral density functions for the inner cylinder for different
porosities of the outer circular caisson (p = 4.54%, 10.42%, 14.11%, 19.15% and 100%
(corresponds to the isolated vertical cylinder case).
2500 1.6
Oute r Caisson P=0% Inner Cylinder P=100%
HS /LP = 0.069 P=4.54% 1.4 HS /LP = 0.069 P=19.15%
2000 d/LP = 0.461 P=10.42% d/LP = 0.461 P=14.11%
1.2 P=10.42%
P=14.11%
P=19.15% p=4.54%
1
SF(f) N -Sec
SF(f) N -Sec
1500
2
2
0.8
1000 0.6
0.4
500
0.2
0 0
0.2 0.7 1.2 1.7 0 1 2 3 4
Freque ncy (f)-Hz Frequency (f) Hz
Fig. 4(a) & 4(b). Typical spectral density functions [random waves].
4.3 Wave forces on the outer caisson and inner cylinder
The effect of diffraction parameter ka on dimensionless force coefficient [Fmax/rgHadtanh(kd)/

kd] on outer caisson for random waves and compared with regular waves are shown in Fig. 5
for different porosities of the outer caisson and Hi/d in the range of 0.107-0.214. Fig. 6 shows
the effect of ka on force ratio on the inner cylinder for the same conditions. Here the force ratio
on inner cylinder is defined as the ratio of the force on the inner cylinder protected by the
perforated caisson to the force on the isolated cylinder without any protection. Random wave
force on outer caisson is 5-20% lesser than that due to regular waves whereas on the inner
cylinder wave forces due to random and regular waves are almost same. For the case of outer
caisson the energy dissipation due to random wave force is less when compared to that of
regular waves whereas for inner cylinder the energy dissipation due to random waves is more.
427
2 2
P=4.54% Re gular P=10.42% Regular
Hi /d=0.1-0.2 Random Hi /d=0.1-0.2 Random
1.6 1.6
Fx/[ gHad(tanh(kd)/kd)]
1.2 1.2
0.8 0.8
U
U
0.4 0.4
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
ka ka
2 2
P=14.11% Re gular P=19.15% Regular
1.6 1.6
1.2 1.2
0.8 0.8
U U
0.4 0.4
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
ka ka
Fig. 5. Comparison of regular and random wave force coefficients on the outer caisson.
2 2
P=4.54% Regular P=10.42% Regular
1.6 1.6
Force Ratio
1.2 1.2
Force Ratio
0.8 0.8
0.4 0.4
0 0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
ka ka
2 2
P=14.11% Regular P=19.15% Regular
1.6 1.6
1.2 1.2
Force Ratio
Force Ratio
0.8 0.8
0.4 0.4
0 0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
ka ka
Fig. 6. Comparison of regular and random force ratios on the inner cylinder.
4.4 Predictive formula for the force ratio on the perforated circular caisson
Multiple regression analysis was carried out with force ratio as dependent variable and poros-
ity (P), relative cylinder diameter (Dc/LP) and relative wave height (Hs/LP) as independent vari-
ables to develop predictive equations to find out the force ratio on the outer perforated circular
caisson due to random waves. The following predictive equation is obtained:
Fx1c D H
= 0.952 − 0.037P − 0.0002 c + 0.298 s (1)
Fxc Lp d
428
with R=0.9622, R2=0.9258 and Se=0.0313. All these equations are valid for 0.107<Hs/d<0.214,
0.108<Dc/LP<0.322 and 0% < P < 19.15%. The high values of correlation coefficient indicate
better reliability of these predictive equations in the estimation of force ratio on the perforated
caisson. The importance of this predictive formula is its simplicity for application purposes.
The reliability of this formula can be assessed from the high value of the correlation coefficient
and the low value of the standard error when compared to the standard deviation.
4.5 Predictive formula for the force ratio on the inner cylinder
Multiple regression analysis (MRA) was carried out to predict the wave forces on the inner
cylinder due to random waves. This yields the following simple empirical formula:
Fx2p Dp Hs
= 0.048P + 0.051 − 0.0026 (2)
Fxp Lp d
with R=0.9845, R2=0.9693 and Se=0.0141. All these equations are valid for 0.053<Hs/d<0.283,
0.0067<DP/LP<0.032 and 0% < P < 19.15%. The high values of correlation coefficient indicate
better reliability of these predictive equations in the estimation of force ratio on the inner
cylinder.
4.6 Error analysis

It is very important to know the uncertainty of measurements to assess the reliability of the
results. The uncertainity in the measurement of wave height because of 12-bit A/D converter
card is 0.043% to 0.374%. The error due to calibration is 0.502% to 2.035%. The error in the
measurement of in-line force using six-component force balance is 0.279% to 5.07%. The
error in the measurement of in-line force using two-component load cell is 1.096% to 4.73%.
It has been found that the magnitude of errors involved in measurements in the laboratory is
relatively insignificant.
4.7 Numerical study

The wave interaction with the perforated circular caisson is studied numerically using bound-
ary integral equation method. The wave steepness is sufficiently small so that the motion may
be described by linear wave theory. The water depth is constant. The small amplitude, irrota-
tional motion of the inviscid, incompressible fluid may be described in terms of velocity poten-
tial f0(r,q, z; t). Based on the diffraction theory, the flow field in the domain exterior to the outer
caisson is fully described by a velocity potential f+ (r,q, z; t) and that of the interior domain is
described by f (r,q, z; t), satisfying the Helmholtz equation and the boundary conditions at
429
the free surface, at the bottom and on the caisson wall. Further, the spatial part of f+ and f is
assumed to be a combination of f0, the incident wave potential, fs, the scattered potential
corresponding to the fixed body condition. To represent the body boundary condition along the
porous part, following porous wall effect parameter, Gp, specified by Yu (1995) has been
adopted.
P
GP = (3)
Rkt
 (1− P)
R = f − i1 + Ca  (4)
 P
where,
p = porosity of the structure

R = dimensionless porous impedance
tw = thickness of the porous wall
k = wave number
f = non-dimensional resistance coefficient
Cm= non-dimensional added mass coefficient
Suitable values of f and Cm are assumed in the numerical model. By inclusion of Gp, the body
boundary condition on the porous caisson can be written as,
(±)
∂φs
=−
∂φo
(
+ −
± ikG p φs −φs ) −d ≤z ≤ 0 (5)
∂r ∂r
where, superscripts + and - represent the +ve and -ve side of the caisson.
Finally, the scattered component of the velocity potential in the exterior region must satisfy
the usual radiation boundary condition, that is
r→∞ ∂r
∂
( )
+ 
lim r  φ + −φ0 −i k0 φ −φ0  = 0

(6)
φ0 = spatial component of the incident wave potential
Application of Greens identity to φ and g* yields the following integral equation in discrete
430
form. Where, N1 and N2 are the number of segments along the outer and inner surfaces of
the body.
* N1+N 2 j(−) ∂g * ( j, i)
(i) N1 j(+) ∂g ( j, i)
2φs + ∑φ s ds j + ∑ φs ds j =
j=1 ∂n j j=N1+1 ∂n j
j≠i j≠i
N1 *  ∂φ + −
 N1+N 2 *  ∂φ + −

0 0
∑ g ( j, i) − + ikGp (φs − φ s ) ds j + ∑ g ( j, i) − − ikGp (φs − φ s ) ds j (7)
j=1  ∂n j  j=N1+1  ∂n j 
   
The Greens function g*(j,i) used is hankel function of first kind satisfies all the boundary
conditions except body boundary condition. The unknown potentials on the body surface are
determined by solving the above simultaneous equations using any standard matrix inversion
procedure. The variables such as pressure, force and water surface fluctuations were obtained
from these potentials.
4.8 Numerical Results
The energy dissipation within the perforated structure is related to friction and added mass
coefficients that have been estimated by a fit to the experimental results. In the present
numerical study the added mass coefficient is taken as zero and the resistance coefficients
(f) were determined by a fit to the experimental results presented as force coefficient as a
function of ka for the different porosities. As this model is based on small amplitude linear
wave theory the smaller wave heights only were considered. The f values chosen are 2.5, 2.6,
2.7 and 2.8 for porosities 4.54%, 10.42%, 14.121% and 19.15% respectively for Hi/d in the
range of 0.046-0.070. The force ratios computed using both numerical and physical model
study are compared for the porosity of 4.54% and is given in Fig. 7. The difference between the
measured and predicted values corresponding to each ka is found to be less than 5%. Simi-
larly the force ratios are compared for other porosities also. The comparison proves that
results of physical model and numerical model are in good agreement for the range of ka
studied.
431
1 1
C a=0, P=14.11%, f=2.7

H/d=0.049-0.071
0.8 0.8
Force Ratio
0.6 0.6
0.4 C a=0, f=2.5, P=4.54% 0.4

H/d=0.049-0.071
0.2 0.2
Experimen t Expe rime nt
Numerical Numerical
0 0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
1 1
C a=0, f=2.6, P=10.42% C a=0, P=19.15%, f=2.8
H/d=0.049-0.071 H/d=0.049-0.071
0.8 0.8
Force Ratio
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
Experime nt Expe riment
Numerical Nume rical
0 0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
ka ka
Fig. 7. Comparison of numerical and experimental results (regular waves) for the perforated
caisson for different porosities for outer caisson
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
The influence of the normalised input parameters like relative wave height (Hs/d), scattering
parameter of the caisson (Dc/LP) and its surface porosity, P on the wave forces due to random
waves were analysed. Based on this understanding, predictive formulae were obtained. As
expected, similar to regular waves the wave force ratio on the outer perforated circular caisson
reduces with increase in porosity P and scattering parameter Dc/LP and increases with in-
crease in relative wave height Hs/d and vice versa for inner cylinder. The wave force ratio on the
caisson and inner cylinder can be estimated using the empirical formulae predicted by MRA
analysis.
The numerical method is based on Greens Identity method and utilises a boundary condition
at the body boundary that accounts for energy dissipation within the perforated structure.
Numerical results compare well with analytical and experimental results from literature for the
limiting case of an impermeable cylinder. Estimated values of coefficients generally agree with
those used in related studies. Comparison with experimental measurements shows reason-
able agreement and indicates that the present method is able to adequately account for the
energy dissipation within the porous structure.
432
The present work is carried out at the Department of Ocean Engineering, IIT Madras,Chennai,
India. The support of the appropriate authorities for the experimental investigations is highly
appreciated.
REFERENCES
Abul-Azm, A.G., (1993), Wave diffraction through submerged breakwaters, J. of Waterway, Port, Coastal and
Ocean Engineering 119(6), 587-605
Darwiche, M.K.M., Williams, A.N., Wang, K.H., (1994), Wave interaction with semi-porous cylindrical breakwa-
ter, J. Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering, ASCE 120(4), 382-403
Isaacson, M., Premasiri, S., Yang, G., (1998), Wave interactions with vertical slotted barrier, J. of Waterway,
Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering 124 (3), 118-126
Isaacson, M.de St. Q., (1978), Vertical cylinders of arbitrary sections in waves, J. of Waterways, Harbours
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Losada, I.J., Dalrymple, R. A., Losada, M.A., (1993), Water waves on crown breakwaters, J. of Waterway,
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MacCamy, R.C., Fuchs, R.A., (1954), Wave forces on piles: a diffraction theory, Beach Erosion Board, Wash-
ington, DC, Tech. Memo. No. 69.
Morison, J.R., OBrien, M.P., Johnson, J.W., Schaaf, S.A., (1950), The force exerted by surface waves on piles,
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Neelamani, S., Koether,G., Schuettrumpf, H., Muttray, M. and Oumeraci, H., (2000), Wave forces on and water
surface fluctuations around a vertical cylinder encircled by a perforated square caisson, Ocean engineer-
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Neelamani,S., Uday Bhaskar, N. and Vijayalakshmi. K., (2002), Wave forces on seawater intake caisson,
Ocean Engineering 29, 1247-1263, Elsevier Science Ltd.
Sarpkaya, T., (1986), In-line and Transverse Forces on Smooth and Rough Cylinders in Oscillatory Flow at High
Reynolds Numbers, Naval Postgraduate School Report NPS 69-86-003, July 4.
Sarpkaya, T., Isaacson, M., (1981), Mechanics of Wave Forces on Offshore Structures, Von Nostrand Reinhold
Company, New York.
Sollitt C.K. and Cross, R.H. (1972), Wave transmission through permeable breakwaters, Proc. 13th coastal
Engg. Conference, ASCE, 3, 1827-1846.
Sundaravadivelu, R., Sundar, V. and Surya Rao, T., (1999), Wave forces and moments on an intake well. Ocean
Engineering, 26, 363-380.
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21, pp. 343-360
Xiping, Yu, (1995), Diffraction of water waves by porous breakwater, J. of Waterway, Port, Coastal and
Ocean Engineering, 121(6), 275-282
433
APPLICATION OF INTERFACE TRACKING METHODS IN

OCEAN ENGINEERING
M.R. Behera* and K. Murali
Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Madras, 600036.
Abstract
Numerical simulations of multiphase flows, using a front-tracking method, are presented. The
method is based on writing one set of governing equations for the whole computational domain
and treating the different phases as one fluid with variable material properties. Interfacial terms
are accounted for by adding the appropriate sources as δ functions at the boundary separating
the phases. The unsteady NavierStokes equations are solved by a conventional finite differ-
ence method on a fixed, structured grid and the interface, or front, is tracked explicitly by
connected marker points. Interfacial source terms are computed on the front and transferred
to the fixed grid. Advection of fluid properties such as density is done by following the motion
of the front. The method has been implemented for two-dimensional and axisymmetric flows.
The representation of the moving interface and its dynamic restructuring, as well as the trans-
fer of information between the moving front and the fixed grid, is discussed. Applications and
extensions of the method to homogeneous bubbly flows, and free surface flows are then
presented.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) is being increasingly applied to a variety of day to day
engineering problems. Though this has been a trend in fields like Aerospace, Mechanical,
Chemical Engineering, etc. for more than a decade, only recently Ocean and Marine Engi-
neers started applying CFD to their problems. However, something that is often encountered
as a stumbling block is the free surface in the oceans. The existence of a free surface could
be generalised as an interface in multi-fluid system where the atmospheric air is generalised
as the other fluid above water. Once the generalisation is computationally achieved, the
resulting technology could be used in many applications across the various fields of engineer-
ing.
Successful simulation of multi-fluid systems rely on satisfactory characterisation of the flow

physics on and across the interface, and in each of the fluid phases. In principle, the multi-
fluid systems could be numerically modeled with a single set of governing equations in the
integral form (Navier-Stokes equations and mass conservation equation), as in the case of
single-phase flow. However, straightforward application of these conservative schemes is
severely limited when a sharp interface is present, because the fluids interface leads to
sharp discontinuities of the fluid properties, such as density and viscosity. In addition, the
*Corresponding author, e-mail: behera_iitm@yahoo.co.in
434
existence of surface tension on the interface would induce a pressure jump across the
interface as well. These facts present difficulties in the numerical modeling of the multi-fluid
systems with sharp interfaces. To overcome these obstacles in tracking the sharp interface
for the multiphase flows, various numerical methods, such as VOF method (Hirt and
Nichols,1981), level set method (Son and Dhir, 1998), front tracking method (Qian et al.,
1998), and surface fitted method (Jacqmin, 1999) have been proposed. In general, these
methods may be classified into two groups, namely the surface methods and the volume
methods. In general, the surface methods provide clear geometrical information of the inter-
face while the implementation is much more complex (e.g. considering the topological changes
of the interacting interfaces). On the other hand, the volume methods are easy in implemen-
tation, but they are subject to difficulties of numerical diffusion and thus tend to smear the
interface.
In the present work, the state of the art of front tracking / finite difference method, a hybrid
approach of the front capturing and front tracking technique proposed by Tryggvason, et al.,
(1998) is considered. In the front tracking / finite difference method, a stationary, fixed/adap-
tive grid is used for the fluid flow, and a set of adaptive elements on the front is used to mark
the interface. This method is based on solving a single set of Navier-Stokes equations for the
whole computational domain by treating the different phases as one fluid with variable material
properties. The fluid properties, such as density and viscosity, are updated based on the
position of the interface. Interfacial source terms, such as surface tension, are computed on
the front and transferred to the flow solver grid by using a δ (dirac-delta) function on the
interface between the phases. The unsteady Navier-Stokes equations are discretised by a
conventional finite difference scheme on the adaptive, staggered, structured grids, and solved
numerically. The interface or front is tracked explicitly by extracting the advection velocity
from the flow solver grid. The advection of fluid properties is achieved following the motion of
the interface front. Hence, this method could evade numerical diffusion, and capture sharp
interfaces.
2.0 THEORY AND NUMERICAL ALGORITHM
2.1 Governing Equations

For a multi-fluid system, the mass and stress balances on the interface of two fluids may be
described as follows (Clift et al., 1978, Scardovelli and Zaleski,1999). First, the normal veloc-
ity of each phase on the interface should be continuous which is expressed as,
[u] ⋅ n = 0 (1)
in which the square brackets represent the jump across the interface, u is the fluid velocity
and n represents the unit normal vector of the interface. Second, stress balance on the inter-
face may be expressed as,
[− p + µ (∇u + (∇u)T )] ⋅ n = σ κ n (2)
435
[ µ (∇u + (∇u)T )] ⋅ t = 0 (3)
where p is the pressure in the fluid domain, µ is the dynamic viscosity, σ is the surface
tension, κ is the curvature and t the unit tangent vector of the interface. In this study, it is
reasonable to treat both the phases incompressible. Hence, the mass conservation on the
whole domain (both fluid phases and the interface) may be expressed as,
∇ ⋅u = 0 (4)
The Navier-Stokes equations, governing the momentum balance in each fluid domain, includ-
ing the interface, may be expressed as,
∂ ( ρ u) (5)
+ ∇ ⋅ ρ uu = −∇p + ∇ ⋅ [ µ (∇u + (∇u)T )] + σ κ n δ (x − x f ) + ( ρ − ρl )g
∂t
where, δ ( x − x f ) is a delta function that is zero everywhere except at the interface, i.e,
x = x f ; g is the gravitational acceleration, and subscript f refers the front / interface. ρ re-
fers the density of fluid, and ρl the density of liquid phase.
2.2 Discontinuity treatment on the front

Solution of the Navier-Stokes equations, with the interface discontinuity, requires the fluid
properties (density and viscosity) to be reconstructed for the whole solution domain. Although
the density and viscosity of each fluid are constant, their abrupt jump across an interface may
lead to either excessive numerical diffusion or numerical instability. The novelty of the method
proposed by Tryggvason et al., (1998) is that the front is considered of having a finite thick-
ness of the order of mesh size instead of zero thickness. In the transition zone, the fluid
properties change smoothly / continuously from the value on one side of the interface to that
on the other side. Hence, the material property distribution over whole domain may be recon-
structed by using an indicator function I (x, t ) , which has the value of one in the gas phase and
zero in the liquid phase at any time t .
b( x , t ) = bl + ( bb − bl )I ( x , t ) (6)
in which b stands for either fluid density or viscosity. The subscripts b and l respectively refer
to gaseous phase and liquid phase. The indicator function can be written in terms of an
integral over the whole domain Ω(t ) , bounded by the phase interface Γ(t ) ,
(7)
I ( x ,t ) = ∫ δ ( x − x ′ )dv ′
Ω(t )
where δ (x − x′) is a delta function that is one only where x′ = x and zero otherwise. The
indicator function I ( x, t ) can be reconstructed by solving Poisson equation.
436
∇2I = ∇ ⋅ ∫Γ (t )
nδ (x − x′)ds (8)
To consider the small artificial thickness of the front, a distribution function, D(x) , is used to
approximate the delta function. Thus, the sharp jump of fluid properties over the interface is
to be distributed among the nearby grids. A gradient field (G = ∇I ) is defined and the
discretised form of the gradient function G is given as follows,
G( x ) = ∑ D( x − x f ) n f ∆s f (9)
f
where n f is the normal unit vector to an interface element of area ∆s f whose centroid is at
x f . In this study the distribution function suggested by Peskin and Printz,(1993) are used for
a two-dimensional grid system,
 ND
 π 
 ( 4 h ) ∏  1 + cos
− ND
x − x f   ,
 i =1   2h 
D( x − x f ) = 
 if x − x f < 2h
 0, (10)
 otherwise.
where h is the grid size, and ND = 2 for two dimensional problem. Using the same ap-
proach, the surface tension on the front can also be easily distributed to the fixed grid, thus
Fst ( x ) = ∑ D( x − x f ) σ k n f (11)
f
2.3 Projection correction solution

A projection-correction method for the integration of the Navier-Stokes equations was used in
the previous works (Tryggvason et al., 1998; Hua et al., 2001). Once the density is updated,
the velocities can be computed. The computation of velocity is done in two steps. The first
step is a projection scheme, in which the effects of pressure are ignored.
ρ n +1u* − ρ nu n (12)
= −∇ ⋅ ρ n u n u n + ∇ ⋅ µ (∇u n + (∇u n )T ) + Fst
∆t
where ∆t is the time step size, the superscript n and n + 1 refer the current and the next time
step, respectively. Then, a correction step is to be performed to include the pressure gradient,
ρ n + 1u n + 1 − ρ n + 1u* (13)
= −∇p
∆t
With the incompressible condition ( ∇ ⋅ u n +1 = 0 ), the pressure can be obtained through solv-
ing the following non-separable elliptic Poisson equation,
1 1
∇ ⋅ ∇p = ∇ ⋅ u*
ρ n +1
∆t(14)
A number of difficulties have been reported in the literature while solving the above equations
437
using project-correction method, especially when the density ratio of two fluid is high. To
overcome this difficulty, an alternative approach is implemented in the present work. The
following equation can be solved iteratively, together with the continuity equation, using the
Simple algorithm.
ρ n +1u n +1 − ρ nu n
+ ∇ ⋅ ρ n +1u n +1uu +1 = −∇p n +1 + ∇ ⋅ µ (∇u n +1 + (∇u n +1 )T ) + Fst n +1 (15)
∆t
In the model computation, a staggered grid scheme as shown in Fig.1 is applied.
Pi,j+1
ui-1/2,j vi,j+1/2 ui+1/2,j

Pi,j
Pi-1,j Pi+1,j
vi,j-1/2
Pi,j-1
Fig. 1.
.4 Front tracking
Since the fluid velocity is updated on the fixed grid, the velocity on the moving front should be
computed by interpolating from the fixed grid so that the front would move at the same velocity
as that of the surrounding fluids.
u f = ∑ D( x f − x )u( x ) (16)
Then, the front is advected normal to itself in a Lagrangian fashion,
n +1 (17)
− x f = ∆t u f ⋅ n
n
xf
Once the front position is updated, the property of marker elements on the interface may have
also been modified. The element resolution on the interface has a strong effect on the informa-
tion exchange between the front and the fixed grids (shown in Fig. 2), and it further affects the
accuracy of the simulation results. Therefore, the elements on the front should be adapted to
keep a good geometric resolution.
2.5 Solution procedure

With appropriate initial conditions for the fluid flow and interface shape, the solution algo-
rithm proceeds through the following steps.
(1) Using the fluid velocity field ( u n ) and the interface ( x f n ), the moving velocity of the
front marker points ( u f n ) is computed according to equation (16).
438
(2) Using the estimated interface velocity, the front is advected to the new position
( x f n +1 ). Subsequently, the elements representing the front are examined for the adaptation
and topology change.
(3) At the new interface positions, the redistribution of the interface property is per-
formed with the reconstructed indicator function I (x f n+1 ) . Hence, the new fluid property
filed, such as density ( ρ n +1 ), viscosity ( µ n +1 ) as well as the surface tension ( Fst n +1 ), is
obtained.
(4) With appropriate boundary conditions, the momentum balance equation and conti-
nuity equation are solved implicitly by using the conventional Simple algorithm. By now, the
fluid velocity ( u n +1 ) and pressure ( p n +1 ) would have been updated.
(5) The steps from (1) to (4) are repeated for the next time step prediction with the
updated values till the convergence.
Fig. 2. The governing equations are solved on a fixed grid but the phase boundary is represented by a
moving front, consisting of connected marker points.
2.6 Results
Rise of a buoyancy bubble in a quiescent liquid is a classical problem used for verification of
new numerical schemes. Previous experimental studies on the rise of a single bubble in
quiescent liquid have been reported in the literature (Peskin and Printz, 1993). Hua et al.,
2001 repeated these numerical experiments for their interface tracking codes. In this case the
same experiments are repeated for verification purposes. The most important non-dimen-
sional numbers for the present simulation are Reynolds number (Re) and Bond number (Bo).
ρl g 1/ 2 D 3 / 2 ρ l gD 2
They are defined as following, Re = ; Bo = where, D is the effective
µl σ
diameter of the bubble. The Reynolds number and Bond number signify magnitude of viscous
effect and surface tension effect respectively. The predicted bubble shapes in a wide range of
Reynolds and Bond numbers are summarised in Fig. 3.
439
Fig. 3. The predicted bubble shapes as a function of Reynolds and Bond numbers. The ratios
of density and viscosity are set to be ρ l ρ b = 1000 abd , respectively.
The predicted bubble shapes are quantitatively compared with the experimental works of
Bhaga and Weber (1981) [1] for further verification. The simulation is performed at the experi-
mental conditions, as shown in Fig. 4(b) at a Reynolds number of 3.57 and bond number of
116 and the predicted bubble is shown in Fig. 4(a). The bubble aspect ratio (minor to major
axis ratio of the ellipse) and included angle (the angle between the axis and the radius passing
through the bottom most point) are 0.89 and 1200 respectively in the experiments, 0.88 and
1230, respectively in the present simulation. In the experiment, the terminal velocity with a
Reynolds number of 1.79 is 0.41(gD)1/2 and the same in simulation is 0.38(gD)1/2. The compari-
son of both the bubble shape and rising velocity shows quite satisfactory agreement between
the numerical prediction and experimental results. Fig. 5 shows the preliminary stage of a
steep wave close to braking condition. The closing up of the wave is captured with a better
solver. It is believed that actual braking problem could be simulated.
(a) (b)
Fig. 4(a&b).
440
Fig. 5.
2.7 Other areas of application

The multiphase / interfacial flows exist widely in many industrial processes (especially in
chemical, pharmaceutical and biological processes) and in the nature (sea waves). The
multiphase flows can be classified into three categories namely, segregated flow (oscillating
gently with low amplitude and frequency), transitional flow (oscillating to the extent that the
wave becomes unstable and break), dispersed flow (shaking violently by suspending small
bubbles within the liquid). The above types of flow can be found in slug flow in pipe, oxygen-
ation and aeration in water purification plant, flow in oil and gas wells, steam generating
boilers, process vaporizers, core cooling of nuclear power plant, wind-water interaction in
marine environment, cavitations on the low pressure surface of a marine propeller, etc.
3.0 CONCLUSION
In the present study, it is aimed at developing simulation tools for multiphase / interfacial
flows, using advanced features in CFD methodology. The front tracking / finite difference
method is used to model multiphase / interfacial flow phenomena. The studies indicate that
this method can not only track the sharp interface between different fluids, but is also more
robust in quite wide flow regimes. The topology change of the interface can also be modeled
accurately. Some case studies reported in this work have demonstrated these capabilities.
These new simulation tools are still under further development. The extensive benchmarking
and validation work will be done in the future to make it applicable to comprehensive engi-
neering applications.
REFERENCES
Bhaga, D. and Weber, M.E., 1981. Bubbles in viscous liquid: Shapes, wakes and velocities, J. Fluid Mech., 105,
61-85.
Clift, R., Grace, J.R., and Weber, M. E., 1978, Bubbles, Drops, and Particles, Academic Press, New York/London.
441
Hua, J. S., Lou, J., Murali, K., Lee, K.H., and Kumar, K., 2001, Simulation of bubble rise and deformation in liquid
using a front tracking / finite difference method, ASME 2001, 2, 225-234.
Hirt, C.W., and Nichols, B. D., 1981, Volume of fluid (VOF) method for the dynamics of free boundaries, J. Comput.
Phys. 39, 201-225.
Jacqmin, D., 1999, Calculation of two-phase NavierStokes flows using phase-field modeling, J. Comput. Phys.
155, 96-127.
Qian, J., Tryggvason, G., and Law, C.K., 1998, A front tracking method for the motion of premixed flames, J.
Comput. Phys. 144, 52-69.
Scardovelli, R. and Zaleski, S., 1999, Direct numerical simulation of free-surface and interfacial flow, Annu. Rev.
Fluid. Mech. 31, 567.
Son, G., and Dhir, V. K., 1998, Numerical simulation of film boiling near critical pressures with a level set method,
J. Heat Transfer, 120, 183-192.
Peskin, C.S. and Printz, B.F., 1993, Improved volume conservation in the computation of flows with immersed
boundaries, J. Comput. Phys., 105, 33-46.
Tryggvason, G., Bunner, B., Ebrat, O. and Tauber, W., 1998, Computations of multiphase flows by a finite
difference/front tracking method. I. Multi-fluid flows, Von Karman lectures notes, The Von Karman
Institute.
442
A POLAR METHOD FOR OBTAINING RESONATING

QUADRUPLETS IN COMPUTATION OF NONLINEAR
WAVE-WAVE INTERACTIONS
V. Prabhakar and J. Pandurangan*
Department of Mathematics, MIT Campus, Anna University, Chromepet, Chennai 600 044
Abstract
A polar method for obtaining resonating wave quadruplets in the computation of nonlinear
wave-wave interaction source term for deep waters is presented with results. It is shown that
when k 3 > k1 , the number of points on the locus varies when the orientations of the input
wave vectors are changed and reduces when the difference in the magnitude of the input wave
vectors increases. A significant advantage in this method is that the angular spacing on the
locus is kept constant.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Nonlinear wave-wave interactions play a very important role in the area of wave model, ever
since its contribution to the wave model has been recognized with the pioneering studies by
Hasselmann (1962), who applied perturbation theory to fifth-order and obtained the energy
transfer rate between four-wave components for finite depth water. The basic equation govern-
ing the nonlinear wave-wave interactions is better known as Boltzmann integral.
Numerical methods for solving the Boltzmann integral are being tried towards the development
of wave model, based on parametric methods or other types of approximations to improve
computational speed. But owing to the mathematical complexities and extreme computation
time involved, the methods are not convenient in any operational wave model. A computationally
fast approximate method called Discrete Interaction Approximation (DIA) by Hasselmann, et
al.(1985) led to the development of third generation wave prediction models such as WAM
model (Hasselmann, et al., 1988) and the SWAN model (Booij, et al., 1999). Inspite of its
several shortcomings, DIA is being used even today in the third generation wave prediction
models. Efforts are being made to develop a fast, accurate method for the estimation of the
nonlinear source term that is valid in both deep and shallow waters.
In this paper, a polar method for obtaining resonating wave quadruplets for the computation of
nonlinear wave-wave interactions in deep waters is presented. The determination of resonat-
ing quadruplets is very important for an accurate estimate of the nonlinear source term.
* Corresponding author : email : jpandurangan@hotmail.com

2.0 Computation of the nonlinear source term
Following Hasselmann (1962), the nonlinear source term can be written as
∂A 1 uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uur uuur uuur uuur
(1)
= ∫∫∫ C ( K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , K 4 ) D ( K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , K 4 ) δ ( K s ) δ ( W ) d K 4 d K 2 d K 3
∂t
uur
where K i = (k i , θi ) is the ith interacting vector wave number,
W ≡ ω1 + ω2 − ω3 − ω4 = 0
is the wave angular frequency resonance condition or locus equation with ωi = ω(k i ) being
uur uur uuur uuur uuur r
the radial frequency of the ith wave number, K s ≡ K 1 + K 2 − K 3 − K 4 = 0 is the wave vec-
uur
tor resonance condition and A i = A ( K i ) is the action density which is related to the
uur uur uur
spectrum F( K i ) by A i = F ( K i ) at wave number K i . The coupling coefficient
uuur uuur uuur uuur ω uur
C ( K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , K 4 ) , is a complicated function of wave numbers K i and frequencies ωi . In
deep waters, its expression is given in the paper of Webb (1978). The density function
uuur uuur uuur uuur
D ( K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , K 4 ) = [ A 1 A 3 ( A 4 − A 2 ) + A 2 A 4 ( A 3 − A 1 ) ] varies cubically in the spec-
tral densities.
uuu
r
An efficient form for integration is obtained by integrating over K 4 resulting in
∂A 1 uuur uuur uuur
∂t
= ∫ T ( K 1 , K 3 )d K 3 (2)
where
uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur
T (K 1 , K 3 ) = ∫ C ( K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , K 4 ) D ( K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , K 4 ) δ ( W )d K 2 (2a)
uur
is the nonlinear transfer integral. It is easy to check that K i = ( k i , θ i − θ 1 ) , i =uur 4,
1(1)
u
uur r
also satisfy the wave vector resonance condition K s = 0 . The wave number vector K 4 and
angular frequency ω4 are given by the resonance conditions
uuu
r uuu r uuu r uuu r
K 4 = K1 + K 2 - K 3
uuu
r uuu
r uuu r uuu r
ω 4 = ω( K 4 ) = ω( K 1 + K 2 - K 3 ) (3)
respectively.
uuur
Equation (2) can now be solved if the locus equation W º 0 is solved for K 2 for all possible
uur uuur uuur uuur
orientations of input vectors K 1 and K 3 .Having calculated K 2the wave number vector
uuur uuur uuur uuur
K 4can
be easily calculated from Equation (3). A set of four wave vectors( K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , K 4 ) is said
to form a resonating quadruplet if it satisfies wave vector and angular frequency resonance
conditions. The determination of resonating quadruplets is thus very important for an accurate
uuur
estimate of the nonlinear source term. A polar uu method
ur
is developed to trace the points K 2 on
uuur
the locus equation for given input wave vectorsK 1 and K 3. ,Once the set of points on the locus
uuur uuur
of K 2 are calculated, the locus of K is4 then obtained from wave number resonance condition.
444
2.01 Determination of the trajectory of the locus equation
In deep waters, the angular frequencies are given by w i = g k i and the locus equation
reduces to
 1 
W ≡ g Q +
 (
k 2 − k 22 + 2 k 2 ( R c o s ( θ 2 − θ 1 ) + S s in ( θ 2 − θ 1 )) + ( R 2
+ S2 ) )
4  = 0
 (4)
 
uuur uuur
where Q = k1 − k 3 , R and S are the x- and y- components of the vector K 1 , - K 3 ,
uuur uuur uuu
r
For given input wave vectorsK 1 ,andK 3 ,, Equation (4) being a function of K2 is known as the
uuu
r
locus of K 2 and can be solved for k 2 by varying q2 in the interval [ q3 , q3 + 2 p ] . It may also
be solved using an iteration procedure. Squaring Equation (4) and re-arranging, we get
2 k2Q = k 22 + 2k 2 (R cos( q2 - q1 ) + S sin( q2 - q1 )) + (R 2 + S 2 ) - (Q 2 + k 2 )

After some simple algebraic manipulations, we finally get the locus equation as
ak 32 + bk 22 + ck 2 + d = 0 (5)
where the coefficients are given by
a = 4Q 2
b = 6Q 2 (R cos( q2 - q1 ) + S sin( q2 - q1 )) - (Q 4 + (R cos( q2 - q1 ) + S sin( q2 - q1 )) 2 )
c = 3Q 2 (R 2 + S 2 ) + (R cos( q2 - q1 ) + S sin( q2 - q1 ))(Q 4 - R 2 - S 2 ) + Q 6
1
d= (2Q 4 (R 2 + S 2 ) - (R 2 + S 2 ) 2 - Q 8 )
4
Equation (5) being cubic in k 2 , can be solved for real roots of Equation (4) using transcenden-
tal solution for cubic equation. Note that no restriction is made on the range of k 2 . In the
uuur
results, this method is used to obtain the locus of K 2 .
3.0 RESULTS
uuur uuur
It is very clear that Equation (5) degenerates when K 1 = K 3 , as all the coefficients become
zero. In the Figures below, the angular spacing along the locus equation ( i.e., ∆θ2 ) is chosen
as 3 ° . The tip of the arrows indicates the starting point of the respective loci and the locus
move in the anti-clockwise direction. By joining the end points of the respective loci, a closed
curve is obtained.
445
uuur uuu
r
Figs. 1 and 2 represent the basic loci of wave vectors K 2 and K4 for the two input wave
uuur uuur
vectors K 1 = ( k 0 , θ 1 ° ) and K 3 = ( λ 2 k 0 , θ 3 ) satisfying the resonance condition with
k 0 = 0.1 4 m - 1 and 1 = 1.2. Here, k 3 > k 1 . In Fig. 1, the orientations of the input wave
uuu
r uuu
r
vectors are equal and the locus of K 2 starts from K 3 . However, it need not necessarily start
uuur
from K 3 . This is illustrated in Fig. 2, where the orientations are chosen as different and are
uuu
r
given by θ 1 = 0 ° and θ 3 = 6 0 ° . The locus for K 4 is obtained from the wave vector resonance
uuur
condition. It is found that there are 42 and 64 points on the locus of K 2 for Figs. 1 and 2.
Figs. 1 and 2 are shown to illustrate the fact that the number of points on the locus varies when
uuur
the orientations of the input wave vectors are changed. Further, K 3 is always a point on the
uuu
r uuu
r uuu
r
locus of K 2 , whereas, K 1 is the corresponding point on the locus of K 4 .
uuu
r uuur
As k 3 ? k 1 , the basic loci of wave vectors K 2 and K 4 are separated as shown in Fig. 3. In
Fig. 3, k 3 is chosen as λ 10 k 0 and the number of points on the locus is found to be 12. This
shows that the number of points on the locus reduces further.
446
uuu
r uuu
r uuu
r
Fig. 4uu
illustrates
ur the basic loci of wave vectors K 2 and K 4 when the input wave vectors K 1
and K 3 are scaled by λ superposed with original basic loci in Fig. 1. They can also be
obtained by multiplying the original basic loci with λ . This means when the input wave
uuur
vectors scales by λ , the locus of K 2 also scales by λ which will help in the use of scaling
relations for the transfer integral.
uuu
r uuu
r
Fig. 5 represent the basic loci of wave vectors K 2 and K 4 when the orientations are different
uuu
r
for k 3 < k 1 . There are 120 points on the locus of K 2 for Fig. 5. This shows that the locus is
single-valued.
4.0 CONCLUSIONS
The procedure for solving the locus equation is presented for deep waters. It is very clear that
uuu
r uuur
the locus of K 2 starts from K 3 when the orientations are same. However, when the orienta-
uuu
r uuu
r uuu
r
tions are different, the locus of K 2 need not necessarily start from K 3 . Throughout, K 3 is a
uuu
r uuur uuu
r
point on the locus of K 2 , whereas, K 1 is the corresponding point on the locus of K 4 . The
locus moves proceeds in the anticlockwise direction.
447
uuur
When k 3 > k 1 , the number of points on the locus of K 2 varies as seen from Figs. 1-2 when
uur uur
the orientations of the input wave vectors K 1 and K 3 vary. Further, it reduces as seen from
Fig. 3 when the difference in the magnitudes of the input wave vectors increases. The compu-
tation time can be minimized if θ 2 starts from the axis of symmetry (θ p , s a y ) , instead of
θ 3 . In this case, it is enough to consider θ 2 ∈  θ p , θ p + π  . The points on the locus below
the line of symmetry can be obtained using symmetry.
When k 3 < k 1 , the locus is single-valued and the number of points on the locus is fixed for a
given angular spacing as shown in Fig. 5. A significant advantage in the present method is
that the angular spacing on the locus is kept constant.
The first author wishes to acknowledge CSIR for awarding SRF for the present work.
REFERENCES
Booij, N., et al., (1999), A third generation wave model for coastal regions, I, Model description and validation,
Journal of Geophysical Research, 104, No. C4, 7649-7666.
Hasselmann, K., (1962), On the nonlinear energy transfer in a gravity-wave spectrum, Part 1, General theory,
Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 12, 481-500.
Hasselmann, S., Hasselmann, K., (1985), Computations and parameterizations of the nonlinear energy transfer
in a gravity-wave spectrum. Part I : A new method for efficient computations of the exact nonlinear transfer
integral, Journal of Physical Oceanography, 15, 1369-1377.
Hasselmann, S., Hasselmann, K., (1985), Computations and parameterizations of the nonlinear energy transfer
in a gravity-wave spectrum. Part II : Parameterizations of the nonlinear energy transfer for application in
wave models, Journal of Physical Oceanography, 15, 1378-1391.
Hasselmann, S., et al., (1988), The WAM model - A third generation ocean wave prediction model, Journal of
Physical Oceanography, 18, 1775-1810.
448
COMPARISON OF PHYSICAL MODEL TEST WITH

NUMERICAL 3D-SIMULATIONS AT A MOVABLE GATE OF A
LARGE STORM SURGE BARRIER
Jens Scheffermann*, Andreas Matheja and Claus Zimmermann
Franzius-Institut for Hydraulic, Waterways and Coastal Engineering, University of Hannover,
Nienburger Str. 4, 30167 Hannover; Germany
Abstract
An approach of transient free surface flow computations for a moving gate of a storm surge
barrier using moving mesh is presented. For validation results from the numerical model are
compared with physical model measurements with Acoustic Doppler Velocimeter (ADV) and
Particle Image Velocimeter (PIV). There is a good agreement between flow simulations and
measurements. Deviation may be from insufficient grid resolution and/or selected turbulence
model.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Prediction and control of water levels and discharges in a river with gates was one of the
earliest challenges to the Hydraulic Engineers several hundred years ago. Empirical and
semiempirical approaches, including
Bernoullis energy equation gave a vast
number of discharge equations having con-
traction coefficients in common, which
depending on their definition depend on
gate geometry, stage/discharge relations
and which had to comprise unknown rough-
ness and turbulence effects. Such con-
traction coefficients and discharge coeffi-
cients of control gates had to be
determinated in hydraulic model tests
(Gentilini, 1941). But there are still prob-
lems with the determination of the exact
discharge under the gates of weir struc-
tures, when downstream water levels are
significant larger than the opening height
of the gate.
Fig. 1. Storm surge barrier with vertical gates at River Ems [Ph. Holzmann AG, Hamburg].
*Corresponding author, email: jens.scheffermann@fi.uni-hannover.de

For submerged jet flow at several weir structures deviations of 50% between predicted and
measured discharge have been reported (Clemmens et al., 2003). Analysis shows that unac-
ceptable deviations are application of experimental coefficients that were obtained under cer-
tain boundary conditions, e.g. flat and regular bottom, constant cross sections and/or specific
gate orifices or lips. Varying boundary conditions during uplift and downlift of the gate is
another reason for inconsistent and unprecise discharge estimations at weirs and gates.
For a storm surge barrier in the tidal river Ems in Germany with 6 vertical lift gates (Fig. 1) a
research program has been established where velocity measuring equipment shall be devel-
oped for the extremely unfavourable local conditions. These are strong tidal flows, varying salt
concentrations during each tide and with varying river discharges and extremely varying sus-
pended sediment concentrations (200 < mg/l < 2300). Developments began with preparation
of measuring equipment which was tested first in the laboratory. Second part of the program is
the adaption and testing of a numerical simulation program for unsteady flow conditions under
a moving vertical gate.
In this paper numerical simulations are presented which can predict unsteady flow conditions
at a weir structure with moving boundary, i.e. a lifting gate, using STAR-CD® and an adapted
moving mesh. Validation of the numerical model with a moving gate will be with results from
physical model tests. Main focus is the simulation of effects during downlift of the gate.
2.0 NUMERICAL SIMULATION
For the numerical simulations STAR-CD of ADAPCO2 was used. This code applies a 3-dimen-
sional CFD-Solver system widely applied in chemical and mechanical engineering. The nu-
merical model is taking into account a free water surface using the Volume of Fluid (VOF)
Method. Basic equations are conservation of mass, momentum and energy. Assuming an
incompressible fluid, viscous stresses can be described with the Friction Approach of New-
ton, the Continuity Equation and the Navier-Stokes-Equations. Transposing the differential
equation system to a numerical simulation system a time averaging process results in the
Time-Averaged Continuity Equation (1) and the Time-Averaged Navier-Stokes-Equations (2).
∂ui
=0
∂x i
(1)
  ∂u  
∂ui ∂ui 1  ∂p ∂ ν i  ′ ′
+ uj =− −ρ − ui u j + fi
∂t ∂x j ρ  ∂x i ∂x j  t ∂x j   (2)
   
As a consequence of the averaging process in time additional terms, the so-called Reynolds-
Stresses, occur in the Navier-Stokes-Equations (RANSE). The relationship between Time-
Averaged Navier-Stokes-Equations and Reynolds-Stresses must be described in explicit terms,
2
CD adapco Group, London Office, 200 Shepherds Bush Road, London W6 7NY, United Kingdom
450
using a turbulence model. From preliminary numerical simulations the k-ε-standard-model
with its standard parameters was chosen as turbulence model.
For a simulation with moving meshes, an additional equation called space conservation law
is solved for the moving coordinate velocity components. This relates the change in the cell
volume to the coordinate frame velocity. The simultaneous satisfaction of space conservation
law and equations of fluid motion enables the general moving mesh operations performed.
[Not to scale] expansion during downlift by adding of cells

#1 #3 #1
y #2 Moving
x Gate
OUTFLOW
INFLOW
#3
contraction during downlift by removal of cells
Fig. 2: Regions in the Numerical Model

The application of a moving gate requires a
large variation in the solution domain size. If
the total number of cells in the solution domain
under the gate remains fixed, the cell spacing
may become too dense at some stages of the
solution and too sparse at others. This is un-
desirable because the time step requires to
obtain an accurate solution that depends on
the mesh Courant Number. Thus, unwanted
small time steps might be necessary when
smaller cells are generated during the transient
process, leading to extensive computational
times and numerical instability problems as-
sociated with large aspect ratios of some cells.
To avoid these problems cells can be removed
or added during the transient calculation pro-
cess. For this case, the mesh was divided into
three different regions (Fig. 2). Region #1 in-
cludes the flow volume upstream and down-
stream of the gate. Region #2 includes the gate
structure. To generate a motion of this area the
vertices of all cells are moved during the tran-
Fig. 3: Detail of the Moving Mesh for Barrier Gate sient process. To keep the correct gate geom-
451
etry all vertices of region #2 are moved by the same value on the y-axis. Due to the gate
motion in region #3 the cells have to be deformed.
During downlift the cells under the gate are contracted and at specified time steps ?t (8 sec-
onds) cells are removed from the cell set. Above the gate cells are expanded and at ?t cells
are added to the cell set. Time step is 0,01 to 0,1 sec. (100 to 10 Hz).
The numerical model was built in equal scale with the geometry of the laboratory flume,
consisting of approximately 80.000 cells, with the bigger part of cells for meshing the compli-
cated girder structure (Fig. 3). Simulations were transient and with the free surface between
water and air filled cells. Bottom and side walls of the flume were no slip walls. On top a
constant pressure boundary was introduced. As result of preliminary numerical simulations
the k-e-standard-model with its standard parameters was chosen as turbulence model. The
transient RANSE/VOF simulation required approximately 50 hours of computational time for
220 s of laboratory simulation.
3.0 LABORATORY MODEL TESTS
A sectional model of a lifting gate of the storm surge barrier in the River Ems, Germany, was
installed in a flume (length 20 m, width and depth 1 m) of the Franzius-Institut (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4. Movable Lifting Gate Model.
452
This lifting gate is moving with variable velocities along the vertical axis. Wave Gauges up- and
downstream of the gate recorded the water surface. Velocities behind the moving gate were
measured with an ADV-Probe at 7 sections and at 9 levels and at 20 Hz intervals.
0 40 50 75 100 150 200 250 Distance from

Gate
Gate
Moving
40
d = 50
. Position 30 35
25
above 20 ADV-Probe
15
bottom 10
0 5 [cm]
Flow
Fig. 5. Sections and Vertical Positioning for ADV-Measurement
In addition velocities were measured with a Particle Image Velocimeter (PIV). For better corre-
lation of the ADV-Measurements and to provide more particles for the PIV-System small
quantaties of the polymer VESTOSINT were added to the flows (Average particle size D50: 22 µm;
Density at 23°C: 1,016 g/cm3).
Tests were with 50 cm depth at an average velocity of 10 cm/s with the gate above the water
surface. The gate then was lowered in 100 seconds to 10 cm above bottom (d = 10 cm) were
it remained for 20 seconds, directly after the gate was lifted in 100 seconds to the starting
position (d > 50 cm). Measurements were repeated for each level, assuming constant flow
conditions.
4.0 COMPARISON WITH ADV-MEASUREMENTS
Figure 6 shows the velocity development behind the gate during downlift and uplift of the gate
for the period 0 to 220 seconds at position above bottom.
Looking at the velocity development near the bottom it increased in positive direction from
10 cm/s (t = 0 sec.) with gate above water surface to appr. 50 cm/s after t = 100 sec. with the
gate 10 cm above bottom, Fig. 6. At level 25 cm above bottom flow velocities increase to appr.
20 cm/s after 100 sec in negative direction also near the surface, indicating return flow, i.e. the
well established horizontal vortex behind the gate.
Agreement between numerical simulations and measurements are surprisingly well. Differ-
ences in fluctuations are from differences in velocity recording (20 Hz) and computational post
processing (0.5 Hz).
453
Downlift Stagnant Uplift Pos. 40 cm
of Gate Opening Width s = 10 cm of Gate from the Gate
100 vx ADV-Measurements vx Simulations

50
0 40
-50
-100 vx ADV-
Measurements
100
50
0 35 vx Simulations
-50
-100
100
50
0 30
-50
Velocity above bottom [cm]

-100
100
50
Velocities vx [cm/s]
0 25
-50
-100
100
50
0 20
-50
-100
100
50
0 15
-50
-100
100
50
0 10
-50
-100
100
50
0 5
-50
-100
Start
100
at 50
10cm/s
0 0
-50
-100
110
-20 0 20 40 60
0 25 50 75 100 sec. 125 150 175 200 225
Start t Time [s] End vx at t = 110 sec
[cm/s]
Fig. 6. Horizontal Flow Velocities from ADV-Measurements and

Numerical Simulations at Position 40 cm
454
5.0 COMPARISON WITH PIV- Gate [cm]
Image Region
MEASUREMENTS
Movable
For comparison of PIV-Measurements P1 P2
d = 50
11
(frequency = 0.5 Hz) with simulations a P3 P4
region near to the gate was chosen (Fig. 24
7). Measured velocities at the P1 to P4 are
50 12
compared with the velocities from simula-
tion (Fig. 8).
Flow
Fig. 7. Recording Area of PIV- Measrements
Downlift Stagnant Uplift Downlift Uplift

of Gate Opening Width s = 10 cm of Gate of Gate of Gate
52,3
100 PI V-Measurements Simulat ion Modeltes t
50
Upstream Water Level [cm]

Simulat ion
0 P1
-50 51,8
Velocities vx [cm/s]
-100
Measurement Point
100
50
0 P2 51,3
-50
-100
100
50 50,8
0 P3
-50
-100
100 50,3
50
0 P4
-50
-100 49,8
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 0 50 100 150 200
Start Time [s] End Time [s]
Fig. 8. PIV-Measurements and Numerical Simulation of Horizontal Flow Velocities

from P1 to P4; Upstream Water Level
P1 P2 P1 P2
PIV - Image Numerical Simulation
10 10
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
P3 P4 P3 P4
[cm] 2 4 6 8 10 12 [cm] 2 4 6 8 10 12
Fig. 9a. Flow Velocity Field at t=50 sec from Begin of Downlift, gate opening 30 cm.
455
P1 P2 P1 P2
PIV - Image Numerical Simulation
10 10
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
P3 P4 P3 P4
[cm] 2 4 6 8 10 12 [cm] 2 4 6 8 10 12
Fig. 9b. Flow Velocity Field at t=110 sec. from Begin of Downlift, gate opening 10 cm.
Velocity fields are shown on Fig. 9 for two gate openings, i.e. at 50 and 110 seconds.
Velocities from simulations show almost uniform directions, while the PIV image indicates a
more turbulent flow. Similar differences are observed at 110 seconds. Such differences
might arise from selected turbulence model and also from grid size (1 to 5 cm). Further
simulations and model adaptions therefore are underway.
The basically good agreement between simulations and measurements confirms the quality
of the numerical approach.
REFERENCES
Naudascher, E., Rockwell, D., (1994). Flow-Induced Vibrations An Engineering Guide. Balkema, Rotterdam,
Brookfield.
Gentilini, B., (1941). Effluso dalle luci soggiacenti alle paratoie piane inclinate e a settore. LEnergia Elettrica,
Auszug in: Wasserkraft Wasserwirtschaft Heft 6 und 7 (1942, 37. Jg.).
Clemmens, A. J., Strelkoff, T. S., Replogle, J.A., (2003). Calibration of submerged radial gates. Journal of
Hydraulic Engineering, 129(9), 680-687.
456
©2004 National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa, India
No part of the material protected by this Copyright notice may be reproduced or utilised in any
form or by any means, electronic or mechanical including photocopying, recording or by any
other information storage and retrieval system, without prior written permission from the Copy-
right owner. The Editors and Publishers are not responsible for any statement or opinions
expressed by the authors in this publication.
VOLUME TWO
ISBN: 81-902109-1-2
Editors Dr. S. Mandal, Scientist, NIO, Goa

Dr. V. Sanil Kumar, Scientist, NIO, Goa
Mr. S. Jaya Kumar, Scientist, NIO, Goa
Editorial Assistance Mr. S.P. Sharma, Mr. Arun Y Mahale

Production Ms. Smita G Bhandari, Mr. Shankar Subhedar,
Ms. Kirti A Naik
Printed by
Mr. Tarak Choudhury, M/s Mudran Printers, Bhuttem Bhat, Merces,Goa
Publishers
ARS PUBLISHERS
Published by Dr. Rama Sarker
197/8 Rajsun’s Gurudev Shakti,
Kevnem, PO. Caranzalem, Goa – 403002, India
ISBN: 81-902109-1-2

PROCEEDINGS - VOLUME TWO
Editors
S. Mandal
V. Sanil Kumar
S. Jaya Kumar
December 2004
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF OCEANOGRAPHY

DONA PAULA - 403004, GOA, INDIA
SPONSORS
Elcome Surveys, Mumbai
Gujarat Adani Port Ltd., Ahmedabad
Indomer Coastal Hydraulics (P) Ltd., Chennai
Mormugao Port Trust, Goa
National Institute of Ocean Technology, Chennai
R.K. Katadi Marine Operators & Engineering, Kakinada
CO-SPONSORS
Alkyon Hydraulic Consultancy & Research,The Netherlands
Andaman Laskhadweep Harbour Works, Port Blair
Centre for Earth Science Studies, Thiruvananthapuram
Chennai Port Trust, Chennai
DHI (India) Water & Environment Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi
Dredging Corporation of India, Visakhapatnam
Garware-Wall Ropes Limited, Pune
Gujarat Heavy Chemicals Limited, Gujarat
Kandla Port Trust, New Kandla
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai
Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai
Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited, New Delhi
PPN Power Generating Company Ltd., Chennai
Tuticorin Port Trust, Tuticorin
iii
FOREWORD
The last 25 years have seen a dramatic increase in development of coastal waters of India:
enlargement of harbours and building of new ones; erection of offshore platforms; construction
of pipelines; etc. A major jump in these activities occurred with growth in exploration for oil and
gas in deep waters. During this time of increase in application of ocean engineering tools to
the Indian coastal region, the series of Indian National Conferences on Ocean Engineering
(INCOE) served as a place for the engineers interested in this field to meet, discuss current
issues, and plan for the future. The first INCOE was held at the Indian Institute of Technology
(IIT), Madras, in February 1981, the second at Central Water and Power Research Station
(CWPRS), Pune, in 1983, the third at IIT Bombay in 1986, and the fourth at the National
Institute of Oceanography, Goa in 1991.
Another platform that served a purpose similar to that of INCOE was the National Conferences
on Dock and Harbour Engineering. These were held at IIT Bombay in 1985, at IIT Madras in
1987, and at KREC, Surathkal, in 1989.
In 1994, the two conferences were brought together to form the Indian National Conferences
on Harbour and Ocean Engineering (INCHOE). The first of these was held at CWPRS, Pune,
and the second at Centre for Earth Science Studies, Thiruvanathapuram, in 1997. The third,
INCHOE2004, is being held at National Institute of Oceanography, Goa during 7-9 December
2004.
The proceedings of INCOE2004, with 103 papers, have been brought out in two volumes.
They bring into focus India’s contributions in the field of harbour and ocean engineering.
Participation of international experts in INCOE2004 brings to the conference a wider per-
spective. It is hoped that the proceedings will serve as a document useful to scientists,
engineers, academicians and planners interested in coastal development in general, and in
activities along the Indian coastline in particular.
Dr S R Shetye
Director, NIO, GOA
iv
FROM THE EDITORS
The proceedings of the third Indian National Conference on Harbour and Ocean Engineering
(INCHOE2004) contain 103 papers in two volumes. All the papers were reviewed by the
Technical Review Committee before acceptance. Invited lecture papers are printed as re-
ceived. The effort of the Technical Review Committee members who have taken lot of pains in
reviewing the extended abstracts and the full papers, and giving their valuable comments is
greatly acknowledged. We appreciate and thank all the authors for their co-operation in
submitting the papers as well as revised versions in time. Our heartfelt gratitude and thanks
are to all the sponsoring agencies of the conference without whose support this proceedings
would not have seen light.
We are indebted to Mr. Vijaykumar Vidhyadharan and Mr. SPN Jakhi for providing help in
computer software and the conference website. We gratefully acknowledge the secretarial
assistance provided by Ms. Smita G Bhandari, Mr. Rajaram A Patil and the services rendered
by Mr. Ganesh N Naik and Mr. Tilu J Kundaikar.
We thank the INCHOE2004 Advisory and Local Organising Committee members for organising
and making this conference possible.
The staff of the Ocean Engineering Division, Publication & Reprography, Director’s office and
Administration are also thanked for their valuable help at various stages of the publication of
these volumes.
S. Mandal
V. Sanil Kumar
S. Jaya Kumar
v
ADVISORY COMMITTEE LOCAL ORGANISING COMMITTEE
Dr. R.A. Mashelkar, DG, CSIR - Patron Dr. S.R. Shetye - Chairman
Dr. Harsh K Gupta, Secy, DOD - Chairman Dr. S. Mandal - Organising Secretary
Dr. M. Baba, CESS Mr. S. Jaya Kumar - Jt. Secretary
Prof. M. Ravindran, NIOT Mr. D. Ilangovan - Jt. Secretary
Dr. P. C. Pandey, NCAOR Dr. V. Sanil Kumar - Convenor
Dr. Radhakrishnan, INCOIS Mr. K. Ashok Kumar - Treasurer
Dr. L.K. Ghosh, CWPRS Dr. M.D. Zingde
Dr. N.P.S. Varde, DST,Govt. of Goa Dr. M.R. Nayak
Prof. C. Zimmermann, Germany Dr. P. Vethamony
Prof. Terry Healy, New Zealand Mr. S.G. Diwan
Prof. Chang E Soon, Singapore Dr. Elgar S Desa
Prof. V. Sundar, IITM Dr. N.M. Anand
Dr. J.S. Moeller, Denmark
Chairman - Mormugao Port Trust
Dr. S.R. Shetye, NIO - Convenor
TECHNICAL REVIEW COMMITTEE
Prof. Datta T.K., Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi.

Prof. Deo M.C, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai.
Prof. Hegde A.V, National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal.
Prof. Mani J.S. Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai.
Prof. Ramachandran S, Institue of Ocean Management, Chennai.
Prof. Ramesh R, Institue of Ocean Management, Chennai.
Prof. Sen D, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur.
Prof. Sundar V., Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai.
Prof. Vendhan C.P, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai.
Prof. Venkataramana K, National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal.
Dr. Chandramohan P.V, Kandla Port Trust, Kandla.
Dr. Kurain N.P, Centre for Earth Science Studies, Thiruvananthapuram.
Dr. Murali K., Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai.
Dr. Nayak M.R., National Institute of Oceanography, Donapaula, Goa.
Dr. Neelamani S, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai.
Dr. Poonawala I.Z, Central Water and Power Research Station, Pune.
Dr. Prasad Rao C.V.K, Naval Physical & Oceanographic Laboratory, Kochi.
Dr. Purandare U.V, Central Water & Power Research Station, Pune.
Dr. Sannasiraj S.A, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai.
Dr. Shailesh Nayak, Space Application Centre, Ahmedabad.
Dr. Vethamony. P, National Institute of Oceanography, Donapaula, Goa.
Mr. Ilangovan D, National Institute of Oceanography, Donapaula, Goa.
Mr. Ramanamurthy M.V, ICMAM, Dept. of Ocean Development, Chennai.
Mr. Sanjeev Dhar, Consulting Engineering Services, New Delhi.
vi
CONTENTS OF VOLUME TWO
Wave past flexible porous barrier in a two layer fluid

Suresh Kumar P. and Sahoo T. 457
Two-dimensional hydrodynamic modeling of estuaries using finite element method

Naveen Chandra and Eldho T I. 468
Performance of triple pontoon floating breakwater - a numerical approach

Amar S S. and Mani J S. 477
Performance of perforated seawater intake and outfall systems

Sudharsan N., Ramkumar S., Prasanna Venkatesan K. and Mani J S. 485
Hydrodynamic charactersitics and stability of rubble mound breakwater with geobags as core
Nasar T., Balaji R. and Sundar V. 492
Uncertainties in predicted maneuverability of surface ships on hydrodynamic derivatives

Debabrata Sen and Amit Tyagi 498
Breaking wave modelling and estimation of energy Dissipation

Bhaskar Mulagaleti L., Muralidharan G., Kurup P G. and Unnikrishan Nair N. 508
Hydrodynamic analysis of a space capsule impacting water

Ravi Challa, Idichandy V G. and Vendhan C P. 516
Wave enviroment in the vicinity of an isolated structure of arbitrary shape -

A numerical approach
Praveen Reddy K. and Mani J S. 523
Experiments on ringing response of vertical cylinder in waves

Prasad G N V., Sundaravadivelu R. and Sundar V. 531
Numerical model of wave forces on semi submerged obstacle

Abbasi M R., Sundar V. and Schlenkhoff A. 541
Analysis of field wave data for assessment of wave transmission coefficient

through low core permeable breakwater
Joshi V B., Phani Kumar M. and Purandare U V. 550
Analysis of formation of hard patches along the approach channel

at New Mangalore port
Jagadeesh H B., Joshi V B. and Purandare U V. 557
vii
Harbour area information system through GIS
Suresh Nayak, Dwarakish G S. and Mayya S G. 564
Development of a mini fishery harbour at Thottappally

Kunhimannu Paravath and Sheik Pareeth P I. 571
Numerical model studies for the proposed fishing harbour at Mahe

Sundar V., Sannasiraj S A., Sriram V., Chitra Devi G V., Balaji R. and Sheik Pareeth P I. 579
Degradation of coral reefs in gulf of mannar, southeast coast of india -with special reference to
land use/land cover changes: a remote sensing and GIS approach
Thanikachalam M. and Ramachandran S. 587
Rehabilitation of rubblemound breakwater by providing a wide toe-berm

Poonawala I Z., Kudale M D., Purohit A A.and Kulkarni S P. 599
Model studies for the proposed fishing harbour at Rameswaram

Sundar V., Suresh P K., Selvarajah A. and Jayapalan M. 606
Impounded solutions for Kandla Port

Chandramohan P V. 613
Archaeological remains of the ancient harbours along the Indian coast:

A legacy of our maritime heritage
Gaur A S., Sundaresh and Sila Tripati 620
Developement of transhipment container terminal at New Mangalore Port

Kiran G. Shirlal, Bhaskar Dharani and T R. Bhatt 631
Estimation of design wave heights over the north Indian Ocean using satellite data
Raj Kumar, Kshatriya Jignesh, Sarkar Abhijeet and Agarwal Vijay K. 639
Evolution of berthing structures in Kandla

Chandramohan P V. 647
Stability of core-loc armoured rubble mound breakwater

Sundar V., Sannasiraj S A. and Balaji R. 658
Concept of a mathematical model for prediction of the major design parameters of a

submersible dredger/miner
Sarkar S., Bose N., Mridul Sarkar and Dan Walker 666
Design of sampling program for water quality management - case study of Ennore Estuary
Rajat Roy Choudhury, Prince Prakash Jebakumar, Jena B.K., Vijaya Ravichandran and
Asokan S. Sundarrajan 677
viii
Scoping - an effective tool for enhancement of EIA study
Vijaya Revichandran and Rajat Roy Chaudhury 687
Dredging strategies for the sustenance of navigational channels in large tidal range
regions: Kandla Port - a case study
Purandare U V., Nagendra T., Ramesh N. and Kulkarni S H. 696
Disposal of contaminated dredged sediments using geotubes and geocontainers

Weng Yee Tack and Datta Pradip 706
Prediction of pile scour in the ocean using ANN

Shailesh Namekar, Kambekar A R. and Deo M C. 717
Comparative study of natural frequencies of offshore structure-automated approach

Hegde A V. and Satish Jadhav 724
Application of ANN approach for prediction of tides

Vivekanandan N. 736
Relating deep water waves with coastal waves using ANN

Kalra R., Deo M C., Kumar R. and Vijay K. Agrawal 746
On line tide prediction using artificial neural networks

Londhe S N., Limaye V S., Chitale A M., Pathak P S. 754
Neural networks for estimation of ocean wave parameters

Mandal S., Subba Rao and Raju D H. 762
Suspended sediment profiles derived from spectral attenuation coefficients measurements

using neural network method
Geeta Varkey, T. Suresh, S G. Prabhu Matondkar, Elgar Desa and Kamath S S. 770
A simple low cost wave measurement system

Pandurangan K., Vijayakumar G. and Govindarajulu D. 777
Design of a low frequency class vii flextensional transducer

Moosad K P B., Pushpa Abraham and Vishnubhatla R M R. 785
Potential of drowned valley estuaries on Indian West Coast for development and harnessing
Purandare U V. and Prabhat Chandra 792
Thermal studies & experimental investigations on a 0.25 m2 solar gel pond

Sozhan N., Kaliyappan T., Rajagopan S. and Vijayakrishna Rapaka E. 801
Bottom mounted seabed mooring frame for high current field

Ashok Kumar K., Chandramohan P., Pednekar P S.and Diwan S G. 812
ix
Submergence of Poompuhar study base on under water exploration s and coastal processes
Sundaresh, Jayakumar S., Gaur A S., Jena B K. and Chandramohan P. 820
Some recent field radiotracing studies on bedload transport in Indian coast

Noble Jacob, SSaravana Kumar U., Kulkarni U P., Pendharkar A S., Mendhekar G N. and Navada S V. 833
Complexities of dredging at Kandla Port Trust

Rao G S. 841
INVITED LECTURE PAPERS
A new look at removing mud from marinas and ports

Terry Healy 850
Coastal protection measures between Chennai and Ennore Ports

Sundar V. 867
Stratification in natural water bodies - some implications for harbour and ocean engineering
Jacob S. Moeller 876
Sand budgeting and coastal management

Baba M. and Kurian N P. 888
On the predictability of the oceans environmental conditions

van Banning G K F M. 895
x
AUTHOR INDEX
A H
Abbasi, M R, 541 Healy Terry, 850
Abraham Pushpa, 785 Hegde A V., 724
Agarwal Vijay K., 639
Agrawal V K., 746 I
Al-Hulail Faisal, 158 Idichandy V G., 516, 658
Amar S S., 477
Asokan, 677 J
Jadhav Satish, 724
B Jagadeesh H B., 557
Balaji R., 492, 579, 658 Jayakumar S., 820
Bhaskar Dharani, 631 Jayapalan M.,606
Bhatt T R., 631 Jebakumar P P., 617
Bose N., 666 Jena B K., 617, 820
Joshi V B., 550, 557
C
Challa Ravi, 516 K
Chandra Naveen, 468 Kalra R., 746
Chandramohan P., 820 Kaliyappan T., 801
Chandramohan P V., 613, 647 Kamath S S.,770
Chaudhury R R., 677, 687 Kambekar A R., 717
Chitale A M., 754 Kshatriya Jignesh, 639
Chitra Devi G V., 579 Kudale M D., 599
Kulkarni S P., 599
D Kumar R., 746
Dan Walker, 666 Kunhimannu Paravath, 571
Datta Pradip, 706 Kurup P G., 508
Debabrata Sen, 498
Deo M C., 717, 746 L
Dwarakish G S., 564
Limaye V S., 754
E Londhe S N., 754
Eldho T I., 468
Elgar Desa, 770 M
Mandal S., 762
G Mani J S., 477, 485, 523
Gaur A S., 620, 820 Mayya S G., 564
Geeta Varkey, 770 Moeller J S., 876
Govindarajulu D., 777 Moosad K P B., 785
Mulagalatti B., 508
Muraleedharan G.., 508
N Sriram V., 579
Nagendra T., 696 Sozhan N., 801
Nair N U., 508 Sudharshan N., 485
Namekar Shailesh, 717 Sundar V., 492, 579, 606, 334, 658, 531,541, 867
Nasar T., 492 Sundaravadivelu R., 531
Nayak S R., 564 Sundaresh, 620, 820
Sundarrajan S., 677
P Suresh Kumar P., 457
Pandurangan K., 777 Suresh P K., 606
Pathak P S., 754 Suresh T., 770
Pednekar P S., 812
Phani Kumar M., 550 T
Poonawala I Z., 599 Thanikachalam M., 587
Prabhat Chandra, 792 Tripati Sila, 620
Prabhu Matondkar S G., 770 Tyagi A., 498
Prakash Prince, 677
Prasad G N V., 531 V
Prasanna Venkatesan K., 485 Vendhan C P., 516
Praveen Reddy K.,523 Vijayakrishna Rapaka, 801
Purandare U V., 550, 557, 696, 792 Vijayakumar G., 777
Purohit A A., 599 Vishnubhatla R M R., 785
Vivekanandan N., 736
R
Raj Kumar, 639 W
Rajagopan S., 801 Weng Yee Tack, 706
Raju D H.,762
Ramachandran S., 587
Ramesh N., 696
Ramkumar S., 485
Rao Subba, 762
Ravichandran V., 677, 687
Roy Rajat, 687, 696
S
Sahoo T., 457
Sannasiraj S A., 579, 658
Sarkar Abhijeet, 639
Sarkar Mridul, 666
Sarkar S., 666
Schlenkhoff A., 541
Selvarajah A., 606
Sheik Pareeth P.I., 571, 579
WAVE PAST FLEXIBLE POROUS BREAKWATER

IN A TWO-LAYER FLUID
P. Suresh Kumar and T. Sahoo*
Department of Ocean Engineering and Naval Architecture, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur 721302
Abstract
An analysis has been carried out to study the performance of a flexible porous plate breakwa-
ter in a two-layer fluid having a free surface. The breakwater is extended over the entire water
depth in a two-layer fluid, each fluid being of finite depth. The porous breakwater is fixed at the
seabed and is free at the free surface. The problem is analyzed in the linearised theory of
water waves with the assumption of small amplitude plate response. The breakwater is
idealized as a one-dimensional beam of uniform flexural rigidity and uniform mass per unit
length. The velocity potentials of the wave motion in a two-layer fluid are coupled with the
equation of motion of the breakwater. The associated mixed boundary value problem is re-
duced to a linear system of equations by utilizing a more general orthogonal relation along
with least-squares approximation method. The reflection coefficients for the surface and
internal modes, the non-dimensional breakwater deflection, the free surface and interface
elevations are computed for various physical parameters like the non-dimensional porous-
effect parameter, fluid density ratio, ratio of water depths of the two fluids, and plate flexural
rigidity to analyze the efficiency of porous plate as a breakwater in the two-layer fluid.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
There has been an increasing interest in the use of floating, flexible breakwater as a mean of
providing protection from wave attack in semi-protected regions. Such structures provide an
alternative to more conventional rigid-fixed breakwaters in areas where poor foundation condi-
tions exist or where protection is required only on a temporary basis. Often, the reflected
waves from the breakwaters are also required to be small, to reduce the occurrence of wave
resonance, typically inside the harbor region. The porous structures can be used effectively
to reduce both the transmitted wave height and reflected wave height. The hydrodynamic
forces acting on the structures also decrease dramatically. The accurate prediction of the
behavior of wave impinging on a flexible, porous breakwater and the dynamic response of the
breakwater is of great importance to coastal engineering practice. There have been several
previous investigations, both theoretical and experimental, on flexible wave barriers. Consid-
ering the effectiveness of a flexible breakwater, the response and efficiency of a rigid, hinged,
floating breakwater have been investigated by Leach et al. (1985). Wang and Ren (1993)
carried out a theoretical study of the reflection and transmission of small amplitude waves by
*Corresponding author, e-mail: tsahoo@naval.iitkgp.ernet.in

a flexible, porous and thin beam like breakwater held fixed in the seabed. Williams and
Wang (2003) proposed a flexible porous wave barrier to increase the effectiveness of wet-
lands habitat restoration projects by protecting cord-grass seedlings from wave action during
the critical initial stages of growth following planting.
In past, most of the wave structure interaction problems were analyzed in a fluid of homoge-
neous density through out the domain. However, waves can also exist at the interface be-
tween two immiscible liquids of different densities. Such a sharp density gradient can, for
example be generated in the ocean by solar heating of the upper layer, or in an estuary or a
fjord into which fresh river water flows over oceanic water, which is more saline and conse-
quently heavier. The situation can be idealized as two-layer fluid by considering a lighter fluid
of density ρ1 lying over a heavier fluid of density ρ 2 . The propagation of waves in a two-layer
fluid with both a free surface and an interface was first investigated by Stokes (1847) and the
classical problem of this type of two-layer fluid separated by a common interface with the
upper fluid having a free surface is given in Lamb (1932) and Wehausen and Laitone (1960).
Recently, there is a significant interest in analyzing wave motion in stratified fluid. McIver
(1996) proved that trapped modes could exist in the absence of a cut-off frequency near two
pairs of surface-piercing structures. The ideas of McIver (1996) were extended to the oblique
wave case in Kuznetsov et al. (1998) and Motygin (1996), and more recently McIver (2000)
has extended this to pairs of submerged structures. Still now there is a negligible progress
has been made in the area of wave structure interaction in a two-layer fluid.
In the present work, the performance of a flexible porous breakwater in a two-layer fluid do-
main is investigated based on the linearized theory of water waves, with the upper fluid having
a free surface. In the study, both layers of fluid are considered to be of finite depth and the
flexible breakwater consists of a porous, flexible plate that extends over the entire water
depth. The flexible plate is fixed at the seabed and free at the free surface. Yu and Chwang
(1994) developed the boundary condition on the porous barrier, which is a generalization of the
one developed by Chwang (1983) and the porous-effect parameter is a complex number,
which includes both the inertia and resistance effects. Utilizing an orthogonal relation suitable
for the two-layer fluid domain along with the least squares approximation method the mixed
boundary value problem is solved. The behavior of the energy reflection in both surface mode
(SM) and internal mode (IM), the non-dimensional breakwater response and the pattern of free
surface and interface elevation are investigated for various parameters of interest like non-
dimensional frequency parameter, water depth, fluid density ratio of the two-layer fluid, po-
rous-effect parameter and the flexural rigidity of the breakwater.
2.0 MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION
In the present study, the problem is analyzed in a two-dimensional Cartesian co-ordinate

system. The two fluids are assumed to be inviscid and incompressible and the wave motion
458
is considered in the linearized theory of water wave neglecting the effect of surface tension.
The fluids are separated by a common interface (at y = h ), whereas the upper fluid has a free
surface (at y = 0 ), each fluid is of infinite horizontal extent ( −∞ < x < ∞ ); both the upper and
lower fluid are of finite depth, 0 < y < h and h < y < H respectively. Region 1 is defined
as −∞ < x < 0 , 0 < y < H and region 2 is defined as 0 < x < ∞ ; 0 < y < H (see Fig. 1).
The porous breakwater is located at x = 0 , 0 < y < H . The flow is assumed to be irrota-
tional and simple harmonic in time with angular frequency ω . Therefore, the velocity potential
Φ exists such that Φ j (x, y, t ) = Re[φ j (x, y )exp( − iω t )], where the spatial velocity po-
tentials φ j ( j = 1, 2) satisfy the partial differential equation
∇ 2φ j = 0 in the fluid region j ,

(1)
with subscript 1 refers to the fluid region 1 ( −∞ < x < 0, 0 < y < H ) and 2 refers to the
fluid region 2 ( 0 < x < ∞, 0 < y < H ). The linearized free surface boundary condition is
∂φ j (2)
+ Kφ j = 0 (j=1, 2) on y = 0,
∂y
where K = ω 2 / g , and g is the gravitational constant. The boundary condition at the
interface requires that
φ jy is continuous across y = h, and (3)
(φ jy + Kφ j )
y = h+
= s (φ jy + Kφ j )
y = h−
, (j = 1, 2) for 0 < h < H , − ∞ <x <∞ (4)
where s is the ratio of the densities of the upper fluid and the lower fluid, i.e s = ρ1 / ρ2 and
has range 0 < s < 1.0 . The condition on the rigid bottom is given by
φ jy = 0 (j = 1, 2) on y = H . (5)
The radiation conditions are given by
φ1 → (I1eim x + R1e− im x ) f 0 (m1 , y ) + (I 2 eim x + R2 e −im x ) f0 (m2 , y ) as x → −∞

1 1 2 2 (6)
and
φ2 → T1 f 0 (m1 , y )eim x + T2 f 0 (m2 , y )eim x as x → −∞

1 2
(7)
459
Fig. 1. Definition sketch.
where I1 , I 2 represent the incident wave amplitudes in SM (fast mode) and IM (slow mode)
respectively. R1 , T1 and R2 , T2 are the unknown reflected and transmitted wave ampli-
tudes in SM and IM respectively.
The barrier is deflected horizontally with a displacement

ς ( y, t ) = Re ξ ( y )exp (−iω t ) and ξ (y ) denotes the complex deflection amplitude,
which is assumed to be small in comparison with the undisturbed fluid depths. The boundary
condition on the porous barrier surface is given by
∂φ j
= ik0G (φ2 − φ1 ) − iωξ ( j = 1, 2) on x = 0, 0 < y < H , (8)
∂x
where G = Gr + iGi is the porous-effect parameter (for detail see Yu and Chwang (1994)).
The dynamic response of the thin breakwater is analyzed by assuming that the breakwater
behaves as a one-dimensional beam of uniform flexural rigidity EI (N .m) and uniform mass
per unit length ms (kg /m2). By neglecting the axial force subjected by the structure, the
equation of motion of the breakwater acted upon by fluid pressure may be written in terms of
complex displacement amplitude ξ ( y ) as
 iωρ1
d ξ
4  EI (φ2 − φ1 ), for 0 < y < h,
−β ξ =
4
dy 4  iωρ 2 (φ − φ ), for h < y < H , (9)

 EI 2 1
where β4 =msω2 /EI. The breakwater is anchored to the seabed and is extended over the full
water depth. Hence the required boundary conditions are given as
460
ξ (H ) = ξ ′ ( H ) = 0 and ξ ′′ (0 ) = ξ ′′′ (0 ) = 0. (10)
In addition, at the interface the continuity of shear stress, bending moment, slope of deflec-
tion and deflection of the plate has to be satisfied, i.e., ξ (h ) = ξ ′ (h ) = ξ ′′ (h ) = ξ ′′′ (h ) = 0.
3.0 METHOD OF SOLUTION
The spatial velocity potentials φ j for j = 1, 2 satisfying Eq. (1) along with conditions (2), (3),
(4), (5), (6) and (7) are expressed as
∞
φ1 = f0 (m1, y )(I1eim x + R1e−im x ) + f0 (m2 , y )(I2eim x + R2e−im x ) + ∑ An fn ( pn , y )e p x , for x < 0,
1 1 2 2 n
n=1
(11)
∞
and φ
2 = f 0 (m1 , y )T1eim1 x + f 0 (m2 , y )T2eim2 x + ∑B f
n =1
n n ( pn , y )e− p x , for x > 0,
n
(12)
where
 sinh mi (h − H )[mi cosh mi y − K sinh mi y ]

 , for 0 < y < h,
f 0 (mi , y ) =  mi sinh mi h − K cosh mi h (i= 1, 2)
 cosh mi ( y − H ), for h < y < H ,

(13)
and
 sin pn (h − H )[ pn cos pn y − K sin pn y ]

 , for 0 < y < h,
f n ( pn , y ) =  pn sinh pn h + K cos pn h (n= 1, 2, 3, ...)
 cos pn ( y − H ), for h < y < H ,

(14)
An , Bn s ( n = 1, 2, 3, ... ) are unknown constants to be determined. The wave numbers

m1 , m2 are the positive real roots, and pn ’s ( n = 1, 2, 3, ... ) are the purely imaginary
roots of the dispersion relation in ν as given by
(1 − s )v 2 tanh v( H − h) tanh vh − vK  tanh vh + tanh v (H − h ) (15)

+ K 2  s tanh v (H − h ) tanh vh + 1 = 0.
The eigenfunctions f n ( pn , y ) and f 0 ( mi , y ) are integrable in 0 < y < H having a single
discontinuity at y = h and are orthogonal with respect to the inner product as defined by
461
h H
< φ , ψ >= ρ1 φ ( y )ψ ( y ) dy +ρ 2 φ ( y )ψ ( y ) dy.
∫ ∫ (16)
0 h
Applying the continuity of φ x along the porous barrier on x = 0 and invoking the orthogo-
nality relation of the eigenfunctions over 0 < y < H , we obtain
I1 − R1 = T1 , I 2 − R2 = T2 , An = − Bn (n = 1, 2, 3, ...). (17)
From breakwater governing equation (Eq. 9)
∞
h0 ( y ) + R1h1 ( y ) + R2 h2 ( y ) + ∑A g
n =1
n n ( y ) = 0, 0 < y < H, (18)
 im1 I1 f 0 (m1 , y ) + im2 I 2 f 0 (m2 , y ) +


where h ( y ) = 
iω c1ei β y + iω c2 e− iβ y + iω c3e β y + iω c4 e− β y , for 0 < y < h,

im1 I1 f 0 (m1 , y ) + im2 I 2 f 0 (m2 , y ) +
0
 iβ y −iβ y
iω d1e + iω d 2 e + iω d3e β y + iω d 4 e − β y , for h < y < H ,
(19)
  2ω 2 ρ 
 1
− im − 2im G  f 0 (m j , y ), for 0 < y < h,
 ( )
  m 4j − β 4 EI
1 1

hj ( y ) =  ( j = 1, 2)
  2ω 2 ρ 2 
 4 − im1 − 2im1G  f 0 (m j , y ), for h < y < H ,
( )
  m j − β EI
4

(20)
  2ω 2 ρ 
 1
+ p − 2im G  f 0 ( pn , y ), for 0 < y < h,
(
 )
  pn4 − β 4 EI
n 1


gn ( y ) =  ( j = 1, 2, 3, ...)
  2ω 2 ρ 2 
 4 + pn − 2im1G  f 0 ( pn , y ), for h < y < H ,
( )
  pn − β EI
4

(21)
Let, N
Q ( y ) = h0 ( y ) + R1h1 ( y ) + R2 h2 ( y ) + ∑A gn =1
n n ( y ), for 0 < y < H . (22)
462
H
− ∂Q ( y )
Applying the least squares method,
∫
0
Q (y)
∂Wi
dy = 0, (23)
N + 2 linear equations are obtained with N + 10 number of unknowns

c j , d j ( j = 1,..., 4) (embedded in the expression for h0 ( y ) in Eq. (19)) and Wi ’s
where the bar denotes the complex conjugate and Wi = R1 , R2 , A1 , A2 , ..., AN . Another 8
linear equations are obtained from the end conditions and interface conditions on the flexible
structures. These systems of equations are solved to obtain the various physical quantities of
interest.
4.0 NUMERICAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Numerical results on the combined effect of porosity and flexibility of the structure on wave
motion are being discussed to analyze the performance of the porous flexible plate breakwa-
ter in a two-layer fluid for various physical parameters. In the present study there are two
normal incident waves, namely (i) wave in SM and (ii) wave in IM, which impinge on the vertical
breakwater. For convenience, the wave parameters are given in terms of non-dimensional
values of wave frequency m1 H in SM, water depth h / H , fluid density ratio s and the
breakwater parameters flexural rigidity EI , porous-effect parameter G , and mass per unit
length ms . In the present study, breakwater mass ms is kept fixed (ms = 10 kg/m2) through-
out the analysis which otherwise will not affect the performance of the structure as a wave
barrier (Williams and Wang, 2003). The reflection and transmission coefficients are
R1 T R T
defined by Cr 1 = , Ct1 = 1 in SM and Cr 2 = 2 , Ct 2 = 2 in IM, respectively.
I1 I1 I2 I2
4.1 Energy Reflection

In Fig. 2(a and b), depict the effect of plate stiffness EI on reflection coefficients Cr1 in SM
and Cr 2 in IM respectively. In Fig. 2(a) for all values of EI , with increase in m1 H , the wave
reflection in SM reduces from its peak to its minimum and thereafter it follows an oscillating
pattern. The resonance peaks are prominent in case of EI = 1000, 5, 10 in the intermedi-
ate frequency range. In the deep-water region ( m1 H > 3.5) highly flexible
( EI = 0.1 and EI = 5 ) and stiffer structure ( EI = 100 and EI = 1000 ) yields high reflection
peaks. In case of intermediate values of EI considered in the present analysis, the wave
reflection is comparatively small over the entire frequency range of interest. On the other hand,
in Fig. 2(b) the reflection coefficient in IM is found to be increasing as the stiffness of the
structure increases. Smallest reflection coefficient in IM is observed in case of highly flexible
structure ( EI = 0.1) . For all values of EI , the wave reflection in IM is found to be higher than
that in SM. Hence, the flexible breakwater is found to be more effective for waves in IM then
that of waves in SM.
463
The variation of reflection coefficients versus m1 H in both the cases of SM and IM are
plotted in Fig. 3(a and b) respectively for different values of the porous-effect parameter G .
Wave reflection in SM is found to be decreasing with an increase in porous-effect parameter
(as in Fig. 3 (a)) because an increase in porosity allows more waves to pass through the
breakwater. On the other hand, for the waves in IM over the entire frequency range (except
few oscillating peaks) the effect of change in porosity on reflection coefficient is found to be
marginal (Fig. 3 (b)).
The effect of depth ratio h / H of two fluids on the reflection coefficients in SM and IM are
shown in Fig. 4(a and b) respectively. In SM wave motion, it is observed that the reflection
coefficient increases with decrease in h / H ratio, i.e., when interface approaches toward free
surface (Fig. 4(a)). The wave energy reflected back is higher for smaller values of h / H ratio
because with decrease in h / H ratio the wave energy in SM is concentrated in a very thin
upper layer and the vertical plate breakwater reflects this concentrated energy significantly.
On the other hand, high reflection is observed in IM when the interface is nearer to either free
surface ( h / H = 0.1) or seabed ( h / H = 0.9) (Fig. 4(b)). This may be due to the combined
effect of both free surface and internal waves, which is significantly high in case of h / H = 0.1 .
However, the seabed may enhance the reflection when h / H = 0.9 . These observations
suggest that wave load on the structure is comparatively high in the case when the interface
is near to the free surface or the seabed. Minimum wave reflection is observed in the shallow
water region in case of h / H = 0.5 .
4.2 Free surface, interface elevations and breakwater response

Fig. 5 (a and b) show the pattern of the free surface and interface elevation for different fluid
density ratios s . It is observed that amplitude of the free surface elevation increases with
decrease in the value of s . As s approach to one, the amplitude of the interface elevation and
the secondary wave pattern of the free surface elevation amplify. Also, it is observed that with
an increase in fluid density ratio s, the wavelength of the wave generated at the interface
decreases and very short waves are observed when s approaches to one.
As expected in Fig. 6, the breakwater deflection decreases with an increase in breakwater

flexural rigidity and sharp change in the breakwater deflection at the interface is observed for
breakwater with a small flexural rigidity. The sharp change in the breakwater deflection near
the interface is due to the sharp pressure change across the interface. The breakwater
deflection in the lower fluid domain is found to be very small as compared to the deflection at
the free surface because breakwater has a fixed end at the seabed.
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
The performance of a vertical flexible porous plate breakwater, fixed at the seabed and free at
464
the free surface is investigated in a two-layer fluid of finite depth with upper fluid having a
free surface. The introduction of the new orthogonal relation has simplified the mathematical
analysis to a greater extent for the problem in the two-layer fluid. In the case of a two-layer
fluid, the inter-facial wave elevation is much higher than the wave propagating at the free
surface as a result higher wave load is expected at the interface than at the free surface. The
sharp change in plate response at the interface has to be taken into account in the design of
breakwater, as there is a major chance that the breakwater may fail at this location. These
observations are of significant importance in the design of breakwaters either in locations
where there exists a layer of fresh water above the salt water or in estuaries where fluid
stratification plays a crucial role. A similar approach can be utilized to study more general
problems in two-layer fluid having a free surface.
6.0 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
P. Suresh Kumar acknowledges Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur for support as a

research student. This research work is partially supported by Naval Research Board, New
Delhi.
REFERENCES
Chwang, A. T., (1983), A porous-wavemaker theory, J. Fluid Mech., 132, 395406.
Kuznetsov, N., Porter, R., Evans, D. V., and Simon, M. J., (1998), Uniqueness and trapped modes for surface-
piercing cylinders in oblique waves, J. Fluid. Mech., 365, 351368.
Lamb, H., (1932), Hydrodynamics (6th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Reprinted 1993.
Leach, P. A., McDougal, W. G., and Sollitt, C. K., (1985), Hinged floating breakwater, J. Wtrway., Port, Coast, and
Oc. Engrg., ASCE, 111(5), 895909.
McIver, M.,(1996), An example of non-uniqueness in the two-dimensional linear water wave problems, J. Fluid
Mech., 315, 257266.
McIver, M., (2000), Trapped modes supported by submerged obstacle, Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., A, 456, 1851
1860.
Motygin, O. V., (1999), Trapped modes of oscillation of a liquid for surface-piercing bodies in oblique waves,
J. Appl. Math. Mech., 63(2), 257264.
Stokes, G. G., (1847), On the theory of oscillatory waves, Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc., 8, 441455. Reprinted in
Maths. Phys. Papers, Cambridge University Press., 1, 314326.
Wang, K. H., and Ren, X., (1993), Water waves on flexible and porous breakwater, J. Eng. Mech., 119(5),
10251047.
Wehausen, J. V., and Laitone, E. V., (1960), In Handbuch der physik. Edited by S. Flugge. Springer-Verlag, 9, 446
-778.
Williams, A. N., and Wang, K. H., (2003), Flexible porous wave barrier for enhanced wetlands habitat restora-
tion J. Eng. Mech., 129(1), 18.
Yu, X., and Chwang, A. T., (1994), Wave induced oscillation in harbor with porous breakwaters, J. Waterway.,
Port, Coastal., and Ocean Engg., ASCE, 120(2), 125144.
465
Fig. 2. Reflection coefficient in (a) SM and (b) IM versus m1 H for different EI values at G = 1+ 2i ,
s = 0.75 and h / H = 0.75
(a) (b)
Fig. 3. Reflection coefficient in (a) SM and (b) IM versus m1 H for different G values at EI = 40 Nm ,
s = 0.75 and h / H = 0.75
466
(a) (b)
Fig. 4. Reflection coefficient in (a) SM and (b) IM versus m1 H for different h/ H ratios at G = 1+ 2i ,
s = 0.75 and EI = 40 Nm
(a) (b)
Fig. 5. (a) Free surface and (b) interface elevation versus x / λ1 for different s values at m1 H = 0.5 ,
h / H = 0.75, G = 1 + 2i and EI = 40 Nm
Fig. 6. y/H versus plate deflection for different EI values at h / H = 0.75 , s = 0.75 ,
and G = 1 + 2i
467
TWO-DIMENSIONAL HYDRODYNAMIC MODELING OF

COCHIN ESTUARY USING FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
T.I. Eldho* and Naveen Chandra
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400 076
Abstract
Estuaries, coastal water bodies and its adjacent environment are generally characterized by
complex interactions between physical, chemical and biological processes. The engineering
works in such region positively need to be designed for data supplied from the hydrodynamics
simulation. The solution to estuary problems can be obtained through physical models, ana-
lytical solutions or numerical models. The physical models are difficult to make and expensive
and very few analytical solutions are available for simplified problems. In the numerical model-
ing, the hydrodynamic information is obtained by solution of shallow water equations. Very
complex geometry and boundary conditions that are peculiar to estuary problems can be
handled in numerical modeling. In this paper, a two-dimensional implicit finite element model
is used for the simulation of the hydrodynamics of estuaries. The model has been used for the
simulation of the complex hydrodynamics of Cochin estuary and the results were compared
with the observed values and other model results.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Due to the natural and manmade disturbances, estuaries, coastal water bodies and the eco-
system in the vicinity of the estuaries are losing its originalities for the past few decades.
Therefore, understanding of the complex hydrodynamics is very essential in the protection of
estuaries against the environmental degradation. Generally, solutions for the estuary hydrody-
namics problems can be obtained through physical models, analytical solutions or numerical
models. In fact physical model is an attempt to reduce the complex estuary problem into
small observable scale in laboratory. The physical models are difficult to make, time consum-
ing to prove, possibility of scale effects and more expensive. Analytical solutions refer to
closed form solutions of the governing differential equations. Especially for the estuary hydro-
dynamic problems, due to numerous complexities involved in the boundary and various dis-
turbing factors, only a few analytical solutions are available for simplified domain and bound-
ary conditions. A numerical model is a better method to represent the system by solving the
governing differential equations that describe the natural processes and then imposing the
boundary and initial conditions to obtain the solution. The irregular geometry and boundary
conditions that are closely related to estuary problems can be handled with the help of nu-
merical modeling.
*Corresponding author, e-mail: eldho@civil.iitb.ac.in
468
In numerical modeling hydrodynamic information is obtained by the solution of shallow water
flow equations. Finite element method which has advantages of grid flexibility and accurate
representation of irregular boundaries would be more suitable to coastal hydrodynamics simu-
lation if the method is made efficient and stable. In this paper, a two-dimensional finite element
model for shallow water flows in coastal areas is used for the hydrodynamic simulation of
estuaries. RMA 2 (Resources Management Associates), a two dimensional depth averaged
finite element is used here. The Cochin estuary in South India is considered as a case study
for simulation of hydrodynamics of estuaries.
2.0 GOVERNING EQUATIONS AND BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
The governing equations used in the model include the continuity equation and the depth
averaged Navier-Stokes equations (King, 1982; RMA2, 1997) as given below:
∂u ∂u ∂u h  ∂ 2u ∂ 2u   ∂a ∂h 
h
∂t
+ hu + hv −  E xx 2 + E xy 2  + gh +  +
∂x ∂y ρ 
gun 2
+ u2 + v2
1/ 2
( )
∂x ∂y   ∂x ∂x  (1.486h )
1/ 6 2
− ςva2 cosψ − 2hωv sin φ = 0 (1)
∂v ∂v ∂u h  ∂ 2v ∂ 2v   ∂a ∂h 
h
∂t
+ hu + hv −  E yx 2 + E yy 2  + gh +  +
∂x ∂y ρ  ∂ ∂
gvn2
+ u2 + v2 ( )1/ 2
∂x ∂y   y y  (1.486h 1/ 6 2
)
− ςva2 sinψ + 2hωv sin φ = 0
(2)
∂h  ∂u ∂v  ∂h ∂h
+ h +  + u +v =0 (3)
∂t  ∂x ∂y  ∂x ∂y
where h = depth; u, v = velocities in Cartesian directions; x, y, t = Cartesian coordinates and

time; ñ = fluid density; E = eddy viscosity coefficient; g = acceleration due to gravity; a =
elevation of bottom; n = Mannings roughness value; æ = wind shear coefficient; Va = wind
speed; Ø = wind direction; ù = rate of earths angular rotation; φ = local latitude.
The governing equations are solved by using initial and boundary conditions. The simplest
initial condition is that the fluid is at rest with a horizontal water level. This normally does not
happen in reality. The influence of this wrong initial data gradually fades out due to wave
damping by bottom friction. The surface and bottom conditions come in two kinds. The kine-
matic conditions say that water particles will not cross either boundary. For the solid bottom,
this means that the normal velocity component vanishes:
469
∂a ∂a
U +V −W = 0 at Z=a (4)
∂x ∂y
where a is the bottom level, measured from some horizontal reference level at the free surface
and W is vertical velocity. Here things are a little more complicated as the surface may be
moving by itself. Then the relative normal velocity must vanish:
∂h ∂h ∂h
+U +V −W = 0 at Z=h (5)
∂t ∂x ∂y
where h is the surface level measured from a horizontal reference level. At the bottom, the no-
slip condition is used. At the free surface, continuity of stresses is assumed, for pressure, p
=pa where pa is the atmospheric pressure. The absolute pressure level is not important and
hence it can be taken as zero. Some of the other boundary conditions which can be specified
in estuary modeling are (Martin and McCutcheon, 1998): parallel flow boundary condition (i.e.,
slip flow), flow boundary condition, water-level boundary condition (head), stagnation point
boundary condition, reflection/absorption boundary condition, wind field boundary condition
and wave field boundary condition. The most popular set of boundary condition specifications
is a downstream water surface elevation, and an upstream discharge.
3.0 MODELING PROCEDURE
For the hydrodynamics modeling of estuary, here a finite element package called RMA2 is
utilized. RMA2 is a two dimensional depth averaged finite element hydrodynamic numerical
model developed by US Army Corps of Engineers (RMA2, 1997). It computes water surface
elevations and horizontal velocity components for sub-critical, free-surface flow in two dimen-
sional flow fields. RMA2 computes a finite element solution of the Reynolds form of the Navier-
Stokes equations (equations1-3) for turbulent flows. Friction is calculated with the Mannings
or Chezys equation, and eddy viscosity coefficients are used to define turbulence character-
istics. Both steady and unsteady problems can be analyzed. Turbulent energy is represented
by an eddy viscosity analogy. Forces due to bottom friction, wind stress and Coriolis effects
are also included.
The approach used in the model is the Galerkins finite element method, which represents the
continuum as a series of discrete elements connected at nodes and develops a solution for
the reduced system (Reddy, 1993). An implicit finite difference scheme has been used in the
time domain. The time dependent (dynamic) solution method includes all time derivatives and
the solution changes in response to long-wave propagation characteristics. A dynamic solu-
tion is initiated as a coldstart or shock from initial conditions of zero velocity and a flat water
surface.
470
4.0 CASE STUDY
Here the hydrodynamics of Cochin estuary is simulated using the RMA2 model described
above.
4.1 Physiography of Cochin estuary

The backwaters in Kerala are a hydraulic continuum running over 500 km but a lagoon system
can be isolated with fairly restraining boundaries in central Kerala. This is called Vembanad
Lake and locally known as Cochin Backwaters at Cochin. This water body is 105 km long and
its width ranges from less than a kilometer to about 10 km at the widest section. Despite the
existence of a narrow and shallow opening at the northern end-Munambam, 25 km from
Cochin - no effective tidal communication into Vembanad Lake occurs from here. With these
restraining boundaries of Vembanad lagoon, Cochin in the middle becomes the only opening
through which the backwaters are subjected to tidal oscillations. On the landward side of the
lagoon, there are six rivers Pumba, Achenkoil, Manimala, Meenachil and Muvatupuzha all
discharging into the lagoon towards the south of Cochin while Periyar River joins in the north
(Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Location map of Cochin estuary. Fig. 2. Schematic and FEM mesh.
Realizing the prospects of a tranquil harbor basin, with a large tidal storage area for flushing of
its channels, Port facilities were proposed at the mouth of this estuary in the 1920s. An
approach channel, 6.7 km in length was cut through the bar at the estuary mouth to make the
basin accessible for ocean going vessels. Two inner channels, Ernakulam and Mattancherry,
bifurcating from the main channel were dredged. The spoil from dredging was dumped into
space between the channels to form an island. Port facilities were later put up on this island
(Fig. 2). The opening of the bar at the mouth, the cutting of the deep channels and the
reclamation of an island in the path of the tidal excursion has affected the tidal hydrodynam-
471
ics of the lagoon in a big way (Chandramohan, 1996).
4.2 Hydrodynamic features

Outside the backwaters, in the sea, the bed off Cochin has a mild slope of 1 in 500. An
approach channel about 11 km long, 200 m wide and 13.8 m deep below chart datum has
been cut for the Port of Cochin. The channel bifurcates into two inside the basin- Ernakulam
and Mattancherry channels. The Ernakulam channel is deeper (-12.9 m) for a length of
about 4 km and shallower (-9.74 m) beyond this for about 3 km. Thereafter the natural channel
continues. The Mattancherry channel is at 9.74 m to about 4 km and natural depths thereaf-
ter (Fig. 2). The width of the Ernakulam channel varies from 200 m to 500 m and is a maximum
at the turning basin. The Mattancherry channel is hardly 200 m wide at the widest section.
Cochin became a famous port in 1936 with a draught of 9.74 m and width of the channels
less than at present. It was during the early part of the 1980 that the channels were deepened
and widened to accommodate deep draughted vessels. Later siltation has become a major
problem which requires dredging every year (Chandramohan, 1996). The tide at Cochin is
semidiurnal with a marked diurnal inequality. The maximum range of the spring tide is 0.9 m
while the neap tides do not exceed 0.5 m. The tidal period is 12 hours and 25 minutes. The
vertical tide specimen is given in Fig. 3. Though the tidal range is small, the tidal storage is
very large. With a short tidal period and also due to large storage, high velocities are prevalent
at Cochin Gut, the tidal inlet. The river discharges to the estuary depend very much on the
monsoons. The bulk of the rainfall occurs during the southwest monsoon period. The peak
discharge has been estimated to be about 2600 cumecs.
In the present study, the hydrodynamics of Cochin backwaters was simulated as a branched
estuary entity as in Fig. 2. The main channel starts from the Cochin Gut and is aligned along
the south branch of Vembanad lake. The total length of the channel from Cochin Gut is 62700
m. At a distance of 1200 m from the Cochin Gut, the Mattanchery channel branches off from
Ernakulam channel to go around Wellington Island and meet the main channel again. This
channel is schematized as a loop channel 8400 m long. The area considered for the math-
ematical model has been schematized by quadrilateral type finite elements of quadratic varia-
tion as shown in Fig. 2 with 276 elements and 938 nodes. The mesh was generated using
SMS package (Surface Water Modeling Systems, 2002).
For open boundary at Cochin Gut a tide (Chandramohan, 1996) of period 12.5 hours with one
flood and one ebb tide occurring in a day has been considered. Physically, the tidal wave
propagation initiates from the sea at A (Fig. 2). The tidal propagation is simultaneous in all
channels, the wave advancing from A towards B in the initial stage. At B, the wave propagation
starts advancing into three channels - towards C from E, towards C from B and towards G from
F. At C, the waves in EC and BC meet and proceed as a single wave towards D. The reflected
472
wave at D similarly propagates back splitting at C and then joining together at B from all the
three branches. Thereafter, there is single wave propagation back to A. The fresh water dis-
charge in average monsoon condition into main channel is 930 cumecs and in the Vypin
channel is 395 cumecs. With the above details, RMA2 software from SMS (SMS, 2002)
package was used to simulate tidal flow in Cochin estuary. Time step of 0.5 hours is chosen.
The effect of initial condition disappeared after cold start and stabilized results were obtained.
The computed results were compared with observed values and a one-dimensional finite differ-
ence model (Chandra Mohan, 1996). Using RMA2 model, 2 cases were simulated.
5.1 Case 1
This case is of pure tidal simulation without any freshwater input as it is the best way to study
the tidal hydrodynamics. In the case study, it was made possible by introducing
Thanneermukkom salt-water regulator located at 42.9 km from Cochin Gut, to stop the fresh
water inflow in the channel. The model was run with a tidal amplitude of 0.45 m. In this case,
the tidal level oscillations are not distorted by the presence of an external flow. The tidal level
envelope given in Fig. 5 shows magnifying amplitude and a rising tendency suggesting the
beginning of a standing wave formation. Despite the high amplitudes all along the estuary, the
discharges increase slightly at estuary mouth. The tidal velocity shown in Fig. 4 has maxi-
mum value near the sea but as distance from sea increases velocity decreases to nearly zero.
T i dal Vel oci ti es i n Mai n Channel
1. 8
RMA2 Soluti on
FDMSol uti on
1. 6
1. 4
Tidal Velocity (m/s)
1. 2
0. 8
0. 6
0. 4
0. 2
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000

Distance From Sea (m)
Fig. 3. Tidal characteristics at Fig. 4. Tidal velocity variation in main channel
Cochin Backwaters. for pure tide conditions.
473
0.5
Here the0.45hydrodynamics of Cochin estuary is simulated using a two-dimensional finite ele-

ment model,
0.4 RMA2. The results are compared with observed and a finite difference model.
Cochin backwaters
0.35
are a hydraulic entity of unique features. It is subjected to tidal oscilla-
tions from the sea only through Cochin. The irregular channels, abutting islands and complex
Tidal Level (m)
0.3
bathymetry make simulation of the flow field complex. The various channels of different
RMA2 Sol uti on
geometry 0.25
exhibit varying reflection phenomena and the resultant phase lag presents Obs er vedinterest-
Val ues
ing features.
0.2 It was noticed that the introduction of fresh water discharge into the estuary
pushes up0.15 the tidal levels in all reaches except near the sea. As the fresh water inflow in-
creases, 0.1these levels go further up with the tendency for further steeper increase near the
head of the estuary. The siltation in Cochin shipping channels is a big problem which requires
dredging every year. The present hydrodynamics study of Cochin estuary will be useful in
0.05
looking into 0
0
a hydraulic
10000
solution
20000
to the siltation
30000
in the
40000
shipping
50000
channels
60000
through appropriate
discharge management in the channels. Distance From Sea (m)
The support of the Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi (Fast Track Scheme
Project No SR/FTP/ET-133/2001), which made this research possible is deeply appreciated.
REFERENCES
Chandramohan, P.V., (1996), Hydrodynamics, Salinity and Sediment Transport in Branched Estuary Channels,
Ph.D.Thesis, I.I.T.Bombay, India.
King, I.P., (1982), A finite element model for three dimensional flow, RMS 9150, US Army Corps of Engineers
Waterways Experiment Station Hydraulics Laboratory, Vicksburg, USA.
Martin, J.L., McCutcheon, S.C., (1998), Hydrodynamics and Transport for Water Quality Modeling, Lewis
Publishers, London.
Reddy, J.N., (1993), An Introduction to the Finite Element Method, McGraw-Hill, New York.
RMA2, WES Version 4.3, (1997), US Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station Hydraulics
Laboratory, Vicksburg, USA.
SMS 8.0 Users Manual (2002), Brigham Young University-Environmental Modeling Research Laboratory.
474
Fig. 6. Tidal level variation in main channel for case 2.
Fig. 7. Tidal velocity variation in main channel for case 2.
Fig. 8. Velocity vectors in Cochin estuary Case 2.
475
0. 6
0. 5
0. 4
Tidal level (w)
R M A2 Sol uti on
0. 3
Obs er ved V al ues
0. 2
0. 1
0
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000
D i s t a n c e F r o m S e a ( m)
T i dal V el oci t i es i n M ai n Channel
2
R MA2 S ol uti on
1. 8 F DM S ol uti on
1. 6
1. 4
Tidal velocity (w/s)
1. 2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 10 0 0 0 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000
D is t an c e F r o m S e a ( m )
476
PERFORMANCE OF TRIPLE PONTOON FLOATING

BREAKWATER- A NUMERICAL APPROACH
S.S. Amar* and J.S. Mani
Department of Ocean Engineering, IIT Madras, Chennai-600036
Abstract
The performance of a three pontoons rigidly interconnected, as a wave attenuator is evaluated

numerically, considering two dimensional linear diffraction effects. The potentials have been
evaluated by the application of Greens identity method. The effect of gap between the pon-
toons on the performance of the breakwater is evaluated and an optimum gap ratio (Ratio of
interconnectivity gap to width of pontoon) of 0.5 to achieve a transmission ratio of less than 20
percent has been obtained. The transmission and reflection coefficients are obtained for vari-
ous drafts of the breakwater with a fixed optimum gap and the results are presented as the
function of width of float to wavelength ratio.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Floating breakwaters is the best option for the problem of wave attenuation at minor harbors
and to some extent minor ports where the tranquility requirement is low and also at the places
where the marine soil characteristics do not permit the installation of submerged , berm or any
other type of breakwater which require a good foundation. Due to these reasons floating
breakwater has been an important area of coastal and harbor research right from the past.
Several configurations have been reported, tested and deployed by a number of researchers
over the years. One of the earliest reports on the floating breakwater was by Joly (1905).The
subject gained a momentum during the Second World War. The study of floating breakwater
has gained a military importance as it is quicker way to deploy one to get a calm sea on
leeside (Bretz 1988). The use of a Bombardon type of floating breakwater during Normandy
invasion to provide instant harbors to the invasion forces is the most famous example. On the
other hand the floating breakwater was also reported for recreational harbors and small mari-
nas and craft harbors (Richey and Nece 1974).
The problem of wave attenuation as well as the hydrodynamic characteristics of floating break-
water has concerned several authors. Different configurations of floating breakwater such as
scrap tire breakwater, hermaphrodite breakwater, pneumatic and hydraulic breakwater have
been reported by Kowalski (1974.). Mani and Pranesh (1986) studied the interaction of a pile
breakwater two rows of piles with a fixed spacing and a rectangular float in between the piles
was investigated for its wave attenuating capabilities. Importance of the submergence of the
*Corresponding author, e-mail: syed_shafiuddin@yahoo.com
rectangular float in controlling Kt is highlighted. Murali (1996) and Murali and Mani (1997)
have investigated the performance of a cage floating breakwater which can be used for
lesser drafts of pontoons due to the presence of porus structure beneath the pontoons.
Williams and Abul-Azm (1997) investigated the performance of a dual pontoon floating break-
water consisting of a pair of cylinders of rectangular cross section, connected by a rigid
deck and was partly restrained by mooring fore and aft. It was reported that the wave
reflection properties of the structure depend strongly on the width, draft and spacing of the
pontoons and the mooring stiffness, while the excess buoyancy of the system is of lesser
importance. Williams and Abul-Azm (2000) investigated the performance of long floating
breakwater of rectangular cross section theoretically. It was proved that the breakwater
characteristics depend strongly on width. Drobyshevski (2004) presented analytical formu-
lae for the fast computation of Hydrodynamic computations of rectangular structure in shal-
low waters. The radiation problem was solved using asymptotic expansions under the as-
sumption of linear wave theory, by matching two outer flows with the inner flow near the
structure edge.
Due to the importance and practical relevance, the study of floating breakwater has its own
unique place in the field of Coastal Engineering. Present study analyses the hydrodynamic
characteristics of a rigidly interconnected triple pontoon floating breakwater. As given by Mani
(1996) and Murali and Mani (1996) the importance of relative width parameter W/L (Ratio of
width of breakwater to wavelength) has been investigated for the present configuration and
shown in Fig.1.
W G
x
d
Sb
h
S-? S?
Fig. 1. Computational domain for triple pontoon floating breakwater model.
2.0 METHODOLOGY
The solution to the present boundary value problem is given by linear diffraction theory. The
theory assumes an ideal fluid and an irrotational flow field, so that a velocity potential φ

exists. The velocity potential obeys Laplaces equation and a set of linearised boundary
conditions on free surface, sea bed and lateral boundaries. The governing equations and the
boundary conditions adopted in general are as follows,
478
Governing equation
∇ 2φ
( x , y , z, t ) = 0
(1)
Free surface condition

2
1 ∂φ ∂φ
+ = 0 (2)
g ∂t 2 ∂y
Bottom condition
∂φ
=0 (3)
∂y
Body boundary condition:
∂Φ T
= Vn where V is body velocity. n is the outward normal away from the body. For a
∂n n
stationary body as in this case V =0

n
∂Φ T
Hence the body boundary condition is given as = 0 or since Φ T = Φ S + Φ I
∂n
Body boundary condition for the present problem can be given as
∂Φ s ∂Φ I
=− (4)
∂n ∂n
Lateral condition
for scattered and radiated potentials

∂φ
ikφ = 0 x=±∞ (5)
∂x
Wehausen and Laitone (1960) has considered the above problem and derived a form of the
Greens functions by using the complex variables for a two dimensional pulsating horizontal
line source, as given below
( ) ( )
G * x, y; ξ, η; t = g * x, y; ξ, η e− iωt (6)
The spatial part g (x, y; x, h) is written as,
g * ( x, y; ξ, η ) = g1 ( x, y; ξ, η) + ig 2 ( x, y; ξ, η) (7)
where,
∞
 r r  1  k + ν e cosh k (h + y )cosh k (h + η )cosk ( x − ξ ) e − kh 
− kh
1
g1 = log 22 − ∫  + dk
2π  h  π 0 k k sinh kh−ν cosh kh k 
479
ν cosh k ( h + y) cosh k ( h + η)
g0 =
k ν h + sinh2 kh
g 2 = g 0 cos x − ξ (8)
where,
(x, y) - point where the function g* is evaluated
(ξ, η) - point where g* is placed
r= ( x − ξ)2 + ( y − η)2 (9)
r2 = ( x − ξ)2 + ( y + η + 2 h)2 (10)
2
k tanh kh -ν = 0 ; ν = ω /g (11)
m ; i ≥ 1 are positive real roots of the equation

i
m tan mh + ν = 0. (12)
The problem of determining an unknown potential function, over the flow domain W and the
boundary curve S enclosing it is set in the form of integral equations involving the potentials
on the boundary curve S alone using the Greens identity. The application of the Greens
identity to f and g* yields,
∫∫
Ω
[g * ( x, y; ξ ,η )∇ 2φ ( x, y) − φ ( x, y)∇ 2 g * ( x, y; ξ ,η )]dΩ=
 ∂φ ( x , y ) ∂g *( x, y;ξ , η ) 
∫  g * ( x, y; ξ , η ) ∂ n −φ ( x, y ) ∂n  ds +
S  
 ∂φ (ξ , η ) ∂g *( x, y;ξ , η ) 
∫  g * ( x, y;ξ , η ) −φ (ξ , η )  dS ε
Sε  ∂r ∂r (13)
where,
g* (x, y; ξ, η) - the special part of the Greens function satisfying the field equation
and singular at (ξ, η)
n - Normal vector away from the surface S.
r - radial direction to point (ξ, η)
S - surface enclosing (ξ, η )
ε
For evaluation, the integral equation (eqn.15) is examined term wise. It can be seen that,
the integrands on the left hand side of the above equation identically vanish because, both
φ and g* satisfy the Laplaces equation in Ω. The integrands of the first part on the right
hand side also vanish on, S+∝, Sb, and S-∝ because of the fact that both φ and g*
480
satisfy the same boundary conditions on there curves. Evaluation of the second term on
the right hand side at the limit of ε → 0; the integral equation becomes when (ξ, η) is on
S ,
b
1  ∂g *  ∂φ
φ + ∫ φ  ds = ∫ g * ds (13)
2 Sb  ∂n  So ∂n
or in the discrete form,
j
1 i N j ∂ g *( j , i ) N ∂φ (14)
φs + ∑ φ ds j = ∑ g *( j , i ) ds j ; i =1, N
2 j =1 ∂n j j =1 ∂n j
j ≠i
where, N is the number of facets or subdivisions along the body boundary Sb. Application
of greens identity for all the facets would result in N number of equations for the same
number of unknown values of φ, along Sb In equation (16), φ can be either φ (Scattered
. s
potential) or φ (Radiated potential) and accordingly the derivative of φ, appearing on
r
RHS of the above equation The resulting set of complex simultaneous equations can be
solved by any standard elimination procedures to obtain the potentials. Once, the values
of φ on the body surface are calculated, then through Greens Identity the potential over
Ωis obtained. All the variables are defined in Wehausen and Liatone (1960).The
transmission and reflection coefficients are defined as
HT
Kt =
HI
where K H is transmission coefficient, H is transmitted wave height at the lee side of the
Kr = t r T
structure,
H I HI is the incident wave height, Kr is reflection coefficient, Hr is reflected wave
height.
3.0 DISCUSSIONS ON RESULTS
3.1 Validation of numerical model

The performance of triple pontoon floating breakwater is numerically evaluated. Initially a
parametric study has been undertaken to investigate the effect of gap width on transmission of
wave in the presence of triple pontoon floating breakwater.
481
The numerical model is validated for dual pontoon floating breakwater with the numerical
results reported by Naftzer and Chakrabarthi (1979). The results are shown in Fig. 1.
d/a=0.4
d=1
1.4
1.2
d
0.8
Fnorm
PresentNumrical model
0.6 Naftzer and

Chakrabarthi(1979)
0.4
Fig. Validation of numerical model with the results of Naftzer and Chakrabarthi (1979).
0.2
3.2 Effect of W/L on transmission coefficient

0
0.01 0.1
ka
1 10
Fig. 2 illustrates the effect of increasing W/L on the performance of the floating breakwater
with equal gap (G/Wp=0.5) between the pontoons. It can be seen that as the W/L increases
from 0.1 to 0.3 the transmission coefficient decreases from 0.95 to 0.78 and then it gradually
increases till Kt=1.0 at W/L =0.5. after which the value of Kt gradually decreases till it
reaches a value of Kt=0.1 at W/L=0.8 and remains constant thereafter. With an increase in
draft (d/h=0.4) a similar trend is observed but the frequency band in which Kt<0.1 is in-
creased. For this particular draft (d/h=0.4) and 0.46<W/L<0.9 the Kt<0.1. If the draft is further
increased (d/h=0.4) then for 0.35<W/L<0.9 the Kt<0.1. It can be concluded that as the draft of
the breakwater increases the frequency band in which the breakwater can work effectively (a
low Kt region) is increased. But it can also be noted that an increase in draft from 0.4 to 0.6 the
change in band width for low Kt is marginal hence a draft of d/h=0.4 is sufficient for this
configuration to effectively attenuate waves of a wide frequency spectrum (0.46<W/L<0.9).
1.2 d/h=0.2 d/h=0.4 d/h=0.6
0.8
Kt
0.6
0.4
Fig. 2. Variation of transmission coefficient of triple pontoon floating breakwater with varying W/L. W
0.2
0
being constant and G=0.5 Wp.
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
3.3 Effect of W/L on reflection coefficient

W/L
Fig. 3 illustrates the effect of W/L on the reflection coefficient. It closely follows the transmis-
482
sion coefficient in terms of band width. It is observed that the reflection increases largely when
the draft is doubled (increased from d/h=0.2 to d/h=0.4) but the increase is marginal for
increase of draft from d/h=0.4 to d/h=0.6.
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
Kr
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1 d/h=0.2 d/h=0.4 d/h=0.6

Fig. 3. Variation of reflection coefficient of triple pontoon floating breakwater with varying W/L. W being
constant and G =0.5 W
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 p 0.7 0.8 0.9
W/L
4.0 CONCLUSIONS
1. For a gap ratio (G/Wp=0.5) the transmission coefficient is less than 20% for 0.46<W/
L<0.9.
2. As the draft of the structure increases the band width for Kt<0.1 increases.
3. The reflection is quite high for the band of low transmission coefficient (Kt<0.2).
The authors express their gratitude towards the authorities of Indian Institute of Technology
Madras for providing the necessary facilities for the completion of the present work
REFERENCES
Bretz, G.(1988). Deployment of deployable ports may prove vital to U.S. Navy. Offshore, 48(12), 14-18.
Drobyshevski, Y.,(2004). Hydrodynamic coefficients of two dimensional, truncated rectangular floating structure in
shallow water. Ocean Engineering, Vol.31, pp 305-341.
Joly, J., (1905). On floating breakwaters, Royal Dublin Society, Scientific Proceedings, Vol.10, pt.3, pp 378-383.
483
Kowalski, T. (1974). 1974-Floating Breakwater Conference Papers, Marine Technical Report Series Number
24, University of Rhode Island, Kingston.
Richey, E.P. and Nece, R.E.(1974). Floating breakwater - state of the art, Proceedings of the Floating Breakwa
ter Conference, Newport, R.I., pp 1-19
Mani, J.S. and Pranesh, M.R.,(1986). Pile breakwater-floating barrier interaction, 3rd Indian Conference on Ocean
Engineering, B217-228
Murali, K, (1996). Performance of cage floating breakwater, Thesis submitted for the award of Doctor of
Philosophy of Department of Ocean Engineering, IIT Madras.
Murali, K. and Mani, J.S. (1996).Performance of cage floating breakwater. Journal of Waterway, Port, Harbor,
Ocean and Coastal Engineering, ASCE,
Naftzer, R..A., and Chakrabarthi, S.K. 1979. Scattering of waves by two dimensional circular obstacles in finite
water depths. Journal of Ship Research, 23.
WanHausen, J.V and Laitone, E.V. 1960. Surface waves. In: Handbuch der physic, ed. Flugge.S.Springer-
Verlag, Berlin, ix, 446-778.
Williams, A.N. and Abul-Azm, A.G., 1997. Dual pontoon floating breakwater. Ocean Engineering, Vol.24, No.5,
pp. 465-478.
Williams, A.N. and Abul-Azm, A.G., 2000. Floating pontoon breakwater. Ocean Engineering, Vol.27, pp-221-240.
484
PERFORMANCE OF PERFORATED SEAWATER INTAKE AND

OUTFALL SYSTEMS
N. Sudharsan, S. Ramkumar, K. Prasanna Venkatesan and J.S. Mani*
Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai-600 036.
Abstract
Seawater intake and outfall systems are often employed by coastal industries to meet the
demand of either seawater intake or effluent discharge into the marine environment. As the
dimension of the intake and outfall structure is controlled by the quantum of either seawater
intake or effluent discharge, the dimension of the structure becomes so large that they are
subjected to abnormal wave loads leading to complexity in the design of the structure.
This paper explores the possibility of reducing the wave load on the structure without compro-
mising on its dimension. The paper discusses on the performance of a conventional seawater
intake and outfall systems and compares with those of the perforated intake and outfall sys-
tems through numerical and experimental studies. The studies indicate that the force on the
perforated intake and outfall systems would reduce by about 40% when compared with the
non-perforated intake and outfall systems. Further, the variations in water surface elevation
around the perforated and non-perforated systems suggest that the former would minimise the
variation in water surface elevation by 28% when compared with the later.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Due to rapid growth in population, seawater intake and outfall systems form an important part
in coastal structures, which meets the demands of power plants, sewage treatment units,
desalination plants, aquaculture etc. As the cylindrical intake and outfall systems should rest
on the seabed, the concrete structure is provided at the seaward end in order that these
systems withstand the wave forces. As the size of the intake and outfall system is often
decided by the discharge requirements, the system must withstand various environmental
forces such as waves, winds, currents etc., of which the most important factor is waves. The
waves incident upon this system might be compelled to exert large wave force on the struc-
ture, basically due to its size.
This paper presents both the theoretical and experimental investigations on the performance
of the perforated intake and outfall systems. In order to reduce the wave forces on the cylindri-
cal intake and outfall systems, an attempt has been made to provide perforated surface to the
intake and outfall systems. The studies include determination of wave climate in the
neighbourhood of non-perforated cylindrical intake and outfall systems and estimation of wave
forces from the wave climate. Tests were repeated for a perforated intake structure and the
*Corresponding author, e-mail : jaysmani@yahoo.com
wave climate in and around the intake system was obtained and wave forces estimated.
Eigenfunction expansion method was adopted to determine the total potential due to the
perforated body and to estimate the water surface elevations and wave forces. To compare
the numerical results with the non-perforated body, source distribution method was adopted
and related parameters estimated and compared.
The results on the variations in water surface elevation around the perforated and non-
perforated intake and outfall systems are detailed in this paper. Further, variations in force
on the perforated intake system were compared with non-perforated intake system and
details discussed.
This review briefly summarizes theories discussed in the literature. Darwiche et al. (1994)
presents theoretical investigation on the interaction of linear surface waves with a vertical
semi-porous cylindrical breakwater protecting an impermeable cylinder. Linearized potential
flow condition is assumed and the coupled problem of flow in the interior and exterior fluid
region is solved using an eigenfunction expansion approach. The source distribution method
presented by Harms (1979) discusses on the estimation of the scatter potential due to non-
perforated bodies and determination of desired parameters such as pressure, force, and wave
elevation at the structure.
3.0 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
For experimental investigations on the cylindrical intake and outfall structure, waves were
generated in a wave flume of 30 m long, 2 m wide and 1.7 m deep in the Department of Ocean
Engg, I.I.T. Madras. The experimental investigations were carried out using a perforated and
non-perforated circular pipe in a constant water depth of 0.7 m. The dimension of the experi-
mental setup and the characteristics of the wave generated in the flume are detailed in the
Table 1.
Table 1. Experimental details.
S.No Details Range

1. Wave period, T 0.8 – 2.0 sec.
2. Incident wave height, Hi 5 – 20 cm.
3. Diameter of the cylinder, D 40 cm.
4. Diameter of each hole of the perforations 3.3 cm.
5. Porosity 20.77 %
Porosity of the cylinder is obtained by drilling 3.3 cm dia holes, uniformly on the outer surface
with a constant longitudinal spacing of 3.3 cm and transverse spacing of 2.8 cm. Fig. 1 shows
the details of the wave flume as well as the perforated and non-perforated intake and outfall
systems. The measurements were carried out with wave probes to record the water surface
486
elevation in the vicinity of the non-perforated intake and outfall systems.
Wave
Waveprobe
Wave propagation
Wave absorber
1.2 m
0.7 m
30 m
Wave generating
Sectional View
paddles
Perforated intake and outfall sys tem ANon-perforated

D intake and outfall system
2m
B
Plan View
Perforated intake and outfall system Non-perforated intake and outfall system
Fig. 1. Experimental setup for perforated and non-perforated intake and outfall systems.
4.0 NUMERICAL STUDIES
4.1 Non-perforated intake and outfall systems

For non-perforated intake and outfall systems, following expressions to determine water sur-
face elevation and wave force were adopted by Harms (1979). The incident and diffracted wave
potential are expressed as (Equations 2 and 4).
The velocity potential can be expressed as the sum of incident and diffracted wave potential,
φ (x, y ) = φ + φI D
(1)
The incident wave topography function can be expressed as
φ I ( x, y ) = φ 1I + φ 2 I = eikx1 (2)
in which, x1 = x cosθ o + y sin θ o (3)
The diffracted wave potential is given by,
φ D = p + iq (4)
487
p and q can be obtained by solving the following set of simultaneous equations.
1 −  = ∫ [p (s ) Y1 (kr ) + q(s )J 1 (kr ) ] rn ds(5)

 α  k
+ ∫ [u (s ) Yo (kr ) + v(s )J o (kr ) ]ds
1
p
l 2π  4 c 4c
1 −  = ∫ [q(s )Y1 (kr ) + p(s )J 1 (kr ) ] rn ds + ∫ [v(s )Yo (kr ) + (6)

 α  k
u (s )J o (kr ) ]ds
1
q
l 2π  4 c 4c
4.2 Perforated intake and outfall systems

For perforated intake and outfall systems, expressions based on Darwiche et al. (1994) were
adopted. The details are given below (Equation 7).
The wave profiles in both the interior and exterior regions were given by,
ç(r,è,t) = Re[z(r,è)e-iwt] (7)

H m (k o r )
(1)
ζ =
H ∞ m
[
∑ ε m i J m (k o r ) + Amo Fo (0)
2 m =0 H m (k o b )
(1)’
∞ K (k r )  (8)
+ ∑ Amn m n Fn (0)  cos mθ
n=1 K m (k n b )
’

ε m i Qo J m (k o b )
m 1/ 2 ’
Amo = Bmo Dmo (k o b ) −
’ (9)
cosh k o d
(10)
Amn = B mn Dmo (k n b )
’
for n ≥ 1
B mn D mo (k n b ) =
’ − γ iωρ
µk n d
[ ∞
( )
B mo D mo (k o b )E on + ∑ B mq D mq k q b E qn
’
q =1
ε mi J m (k o b ) ’
m
H m (k o b )
(1)
∞ Km kqb ( )

− E on − Amo E on − ∑ Amq E qn 
cosh k o d H m (k o b )
(1)’ q =1 ’
K q kqb ( )


for n ≥ 0 (11)
where γ = a material constant and µ = coefficient of dynamic viscosity.
Wave forces were estimated based on the observed wave surface elevation and expressions
adopted by Chakrabarti (1986) are given in equation (12).
488
H
F = ρgV   tanh kd
 2d 
[ ]
x C M sin Θ + C D 
 H  2kd + sinh 2kd
 cos Θ cos Θ
(12)
 4πD  sinh 2 kd
where V = πD2d/4 is the volume of the cylinder under water; CD and CM are the drag coefficient
and inertia coefficient respectively. The phase angle at which the forces are maximum is given
by,
πDC M 2 sinh 2 kd
sin Θ o = ±
HC D 2kd + sinh 2kd (13)
Knowing this value of sin Θo, the value of cos Θo is obtained from,
2 (14)
cos Θ o = ± 1 − sin Θ o
5.0 RESULTS
5.1 Water surface elevation in the vicinity of the non-perforated intake and
outfall systems
Fig. 2 shows the variation in wave surface elevation (the ratio of η*/ηi, η*:wave surface
elevation in the vicinity of the non-perforated intake and outfall systems, ηi:incident wave
surface elevation) for different wave conditions. The results indicate that the wave surface
elevation on the seaside of the structure increases by 31% when compared with the incident
wave. However, on the lee side of the structure, water surface elevation drops by 11.66%.
The water surface elevation on the either side of the structure is 5% less than that of the
incident wave leading to the conclusion that a wave surface gradient (of the order of 1 in
0.053) exists when the wave interacts with the structure.
Comparison of the experimental studies with the numerical prediction is also shown in the
above figure. Reasonable agreement between the results suggest that the numerical model is
capable of predicting the water surface elevation in the vicinity of non-perforated intake and
outfall systems.
5.2 Water surface elevation in the vicinity of the perforated intake and outfall
systems
Fig. 3 shows the variation in wave surface elevation (the ratio of η*/ηi, η*: wave surface eleva-
tion in the vicinity of the perforated intake and outfall systems, ηi: incident wave surface
elevation) for different wave conditions. The results indicate that the water surface elevation on
489
the seaside of the structure increases by 11% when compared with the incident wave. How-
ever, on the lee side of the structure, wave surface elevation drops by 16%. Comparison of
water surface elevation with non-perforated structure suggests a drop in the wave elevation by
about 30%.
Comparison of the experimental studies with the numerical prediction is shown in Fig. 3
indicate the capability of the numerical model in predicting the phenomena. Further, the re-
sults suggest that in equation (11) a value for γ/µ=1.06x10-4 would be appropriate to represent
the porosity of the structure. The water surface elevation on the either side of the structure is
almost of the same order as that of incident wave.
Wave force estimated based on the water surface elevation in the vicinity of the structure
indicate that the perforated intake system would experience by about 40% reduction when
compared with the non-perforated structure.
1.6 1.2
1.2
0.8
*/ηi
*/ηi
ηn*/ni
ηn*/ni
0.8
Experiment 0.4 Experiment
0.4
Theory Theory
0.0 0.0
0.001 0.003 0.005 0.007 0.009 0.001 0.003 0.005 0.007 0.009
2
Hi/gT^2 2
Hi/gT^2
H i/gT Hi/gT
Location : A Location : B
1.6 1.6
1.2 1.2
*/ηi
*/ηi
ηn*/ni
ηn*/ni
0.8 0.8
Experiment Experiment
0.4 0.4
Theory Theory
0.0 0.0
0.001 0.003 0.005 0.007 0.009 0.001 0.003 0.005 2 0.007 0.009
2
Hi/gT^2 Hi/gT^2
H i/gT Hi/gT
Location : C Location : D
Fig. 2. Variation in water surface elevation in the vicinity of the non-perforated intake and outfall systems.
1.6 1.6
1.2 1.2
*/ ηi
ηn*/ni
ηn*/ni
*/ηi
0.8 0.8
Experiment
0.4 0.4 Experiment
Theory
Theory
0.0 0
0.001 0.003 0.005 0.007 0.009 0.001 0.003 0.005 0.007 0.009
Hi/gT2
Hi/gT^2 Hi/gT2
Hi/gT^2
Location : A Location : B
1.6 1.6
1.2 1.2
n*/ni
*/ ηi
n*/ni
η*/ ηi
0.8 0.8
η
0.4 Experiment Experiment

0.4
Theory Theory
0 0
0.001 0.003 0.005 0.007 0.009 0.001 0.003 0.005 0.007 0.009
H/gT2
Hi/gT^2
i H/gT2
Hi/gT^2
i
Location : C Location : D
Fig.3. Variation in water surface elevation in the vicinity of the perforated intake and outfall systems.
490
6.0 CONCLUSIONS
1. For non-perforated intake and outfall systems, the increase in water surface oscillation on
the seaside of the structure is of the order of 33% whereas in the leeside, the water surface
oscillation drops by 11% when the wave interacts with the structure. There is no appre
ciable variation in the wave surface oscillation on either side of the structure.
2. In regard to the perforated structure, the wave surface oscillation increases by 11% on the
seaside and reduce by 16% on the leeside, implying that by adopting a perforated structure
the wave surface oscillation can be minimized by 30%. .
3. Wave force estimated based on the water surface elevation in the vicinity of the structure
indicate that the perforated intake system would experience by about 40% reduction when
compared with the non-perforated structure.
Authors would like to acknowledge Department of Ocean Engineering, IIT Madras, for the
facilities.
Authors would like to acknowledge Ms. K. Vijayalakshmi, Ph.D scholar, Department of Ocean
Engineering, IIT Madras, for sparing the model for B.Tech. lab work and for the present work.
REFERENCES
Darwiche, M.K.M., Williams, A.N and Wang, K.H., (1994), Wave interaction with semi-porous cylindrical
breakwater, Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering. Vol. 120, 382-403.
Harms, V.W., ASCE, M. (1979) Diffraction of water waves by isolated structures, Journal of Waterway,
Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engineering, Vol. 05, 131-147.
Chakrabarti, S.K. (1986), Hydrodynamics of Offshore structures, Computational Mechanics Publications,

Southampton, Boton. 168-173.
491
HYDRODYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS AND STABILITY OF

RUBBLE MOUND BREAKWATER WITH GEOBAGS AS
CORE
T. Nasar, R. Balaji and V. Sundar*
Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai - 600036
Abstract
A detailed experimental model study was carried out to investigate the performance of
GEOBAGS, as a substitute for core layers in the case of rubble mound breakwaters. The
breakwater sections were tested for the different fractions of the significant wave heights and
their stability was assessed in terms of damage levels. In addition, the reflection and trans-
mission characteristics of the breakwater models were studied. The details of the breakwater
models, instrumentation, testing procedure and results are discussed in this paper.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Breakwaters are structures, constructed to form a harbour and protect it from wave energy or
to deflect the currents. There are several types of breakwaters, existing in the world and their
application at any particular location depends on the wave climate at that location and the
degree of tranquillity required inside the harbour. In general, a breakwater should transmit the
incident wave energy to its leeward side, as less as possible. Though, there are many types
of breakwaters, rubble mound breakwaters are widely used for the formation of artificial har-
bors. In general, these breakwaters are constructed of three layers of rubble stones, namely,
primary, secondary and core layers. Since this type of breakwater allow certain percentage of
wave penetration into the harbour, one has to go in for finer materials in the core layer to
improve its efficiency. Replacement of the core layer with fine sand is possible only if they are
well packed within a woven synthetic bag, which is often called as geobags. The usage of the
finer material for the core is also economical since it replaces the quarry stones. In this
connection, a detailed experimental study was carried out in Department of Ocean Engineer-
ing (DOE), Indian Institute of Technology Madras to understand the hydrodynamic character-
istics of a rubble mound breakwater formed with sand-filled geobags as core layer. For com-
parison purposes, the conventional rubble mound breakwater with quarry stones as core was
also tested. The primary layer for both the sections were tetrapods.
2.0 PHYSICAL MODEL
2.1 General
The modeling of the present wave structure interaction problem consists of modeling of wave
*Corresponding author, e-mail: vsundar@iitm.ac.in
492
climate and breakwater cross sections. For the reproduction of the ocean waves, heights are
modeled according to the basic model scale, λ and periods as λ1/2. The weights of individual
stone units are modeled using the model scale of λ3.
2.2 Modeling of breakwater cross-section

The model scale selected for breakwater in a 6 m water depth for the trunk section was 1:12.6.
This scale was adopted to accommodate the fabricated tetrapods. According to this condi-
tion, for the trunk section at 6 m water depth, the adopted significant wave height for the flume
studies was 0.22 m corresponding to 2.77 m in the field and wave periods were 2.25 sec (8.0
sec in the field) and 2.82 sec (10.0 sec in the field). The weights of the core, secondary and
the armour layers were modeled and the cross-section details of the trunk portion of the model
breakwater with geobag as core are shown in Fig.1.
Armour layer - 2kg tetrapod in two layers of thickness 191mm

Secondary layer 0.135kg to 0.2 kg quarry stones of thickness 95mm
Core layer -5gm to 50gm quarry stones
Toe -0.135 kg to 0.2 kg quarry stones
Filter layer- 2.5gm quarry stones of thickness 0.3 m
All dimensions are in mm
595
Lee side Sea side
+913
1.5 2 +722
+627
M.H.H.W+540
1 1 M.L.L.W+494
238 238 +119

+23.8
+0
2620
2980
4580
Fig. 1. Cross sectional view of breakwater model with geobags as core.
3.0 EXPERIMENTAL FACILITY
The present experimental investigations were carried out in a 72.5 m long, 2 m wide and 2.7 m
deep wave flume in Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras.
A wave maker is installed at one end of the flume and the other end of the flume is provided
with an absorber. Water depth can be varied from 0.5 to 2.0 m. Wave maker can be operated
in two different modes, that is, piston mode for generation of shallow water waves and hinged
mode for generation primarily of deepwater waves. The cross sectional detail of the wave flume
is shown in Fig. 2. For the present study, wave generator in the piston mode that can generate
regular waves is used. The required wave height and wave period to the wave generator was
given through a computer and the same is for data acquisition.
493
A ll d im e n s io n s a r e in m m
50000
P a r titio n W a ll
2000
72500
W ave gu ages W ave guages P e r f o r a te d w a v e

W ave m aker
ab sorber
2700
A lu m in iu m
fo il A b so rb e r fo r
s h a llo w w a te r s
S e c tio n a l v ie w
Fig. 2. Views of the wave flume used for the present physical model study.
4.0 TESTING OF BREAKWATER SECTIONS
4.1 Model laying of breakwater trunk section

The flume was divided into two parts for a stretch of 10 m so as to carry out the tests for both
the conventional breakwater and the one with geobags as core simultaneously. The conven-
tional breakwater layers were laid as per the cross section given. For breakwater with geobags
as a core, initially the filter layer was laid. The geobags of sizes 1.2 mx1.0 mx0.2 m and 1.0
mx0.6 mx0.2 m were filled with sand and placed as core layer as per the section given.
Tetrapods were used as armour layer for both breakwaters as stated earlier. The placement of
geobags and conventional breakwater upto the secondary layer are shown in Photo 1.
Geobags
Secondary layer
Partition wall
Photo 1. Placement of secondary layer and geobags as a core laid in the flume.
4.2 Wave generation and testing

The stability of the breakwater models were tested with wave heights of 50% of significant
wave height, and increased gradually in steps of 25% up to 125% of the significant wave
height. The duration of the tests was for 500 waves, which is about one hour ten minutes for
494
prototype of 8 sec and one hour twenty-five minutes for prototype of 10 sec wave period. The
details of testing program are provided in Table 1. The stability of the both the breakwater
models in terms of damage assessment were evaluated from the visual observations during
the action of waves and after 500 numbers of waves. Testing of the trunk section for the
significant wave condition is shown in Photo 2.
Table 1. Testing schedule for breakwater trunk section.

Scale adopted: 1:12.6, N = 420 Tetrapods, d = 0.54 m, Number of waves = 500
Wave period Wave height Wave period Wave height

Prototype Model Prototype (m) Model Prototype Model Prototype (m) Model
(sec) (sec) (m) (sec) (sec) (m)
8 2.25 1.39 0.116 10 2.82 1.39 0.116
50% of Hs 50% of Hs
8 2.25 2.08 0.17 10 2.82 2.08 0.17
75% of Hs 75% of Hs
8 2.25 2.77 0.22 10 2.82 2.77 0.22
100% of Hs 100% of Hs
8 2.25 3.46 0.27 10 2.82 3.46 0.27
125% of Hs 125% of Hs
Photo 2. Breakwater cross-section subjected to significant wave height Hs..
5.0 BREAKWATER DAMAGE ASSESSMENT
The damage to the armour layer is represented as a percentage of displaced blocks related to
a certain area (the whole or a part of the layer). Damage can be defined as the relative dam-
age, No, which is the actual number of units displaced or rocking related to a width along the
longitudinal axis of the structure of one nominal diameter Dn. An extension of the subscript in
495
No can give the distinction between displaced out of the layer, units rocking within the layer
(only once or more times). The actual number is related to a width of one D n .
Nod = units displaced out of the armour layer (hydraulic damage)
Nor = rocking units and
Nomov = Nod + Nor.
For the tests with a wave period of 2.25 sec, the maximum damage to the structure is found
to be 1.43%. The percentage of damage for the significant wave height, Hs is 0.95%. No
overtopping was observed in all the other cases. For the tests with 125% of the Hs for the
same wave period, slight overtopping was observed occasionally. For the tests with the signifi-
cant wave height for a wave period of 2.82 sec, spilling over the crest was observed occasion-
ally and three stones were found to be rocking continuously when exposed to the action of
500 waves. The maximum percentage of damage is found to be 0.95%. No overtopping is
observed, except when subjected to the action waves of 125% of the significant wave height,
in which case slight overtopping was observed occasionally. The percentage of damage is well
within the permissible limits, i.e., below 5%. These results, in a graphical form, are reported in
Figs. 3a & 3b.
From the tranquillity point of view, the recorded results are given in Table 3. From the results,
it is found that the reflection coefficient (Kr) from the breakwater model with geobags as core
is slightly more than that for the conventional rubble mound breakwater, the transmission
coefficient (Kt) is significantly reduced because of the dense sand-filled geobags in the core.
1.5
1
% of damage
0.5
0
50 75 100 125
Wave height(Hs) = 0.22m, Wave period(T) = 2.25sec
Fig. 3a. Percentage of damage of breakwater section for T = 2.25 sec.
496
1.5
% of damage 0.5
0
50 75 100 125
Wave height(Hs) = 0.22m, Wave period(T) = 2.82sec
Fig. 3b. Percentage of damage of breakwater section for T = 2.82 sec.
Table 3. Reflection and transmission wave data for breakwater section.
Wave period Wave height Rubble as a core Geobags as a core

-2 -2
Tp Tm Hm (m) Hp (m) Kr Ht x10 Kt Kr Ht x10 Kt
(sec) (sec)
8 2.25 2.77 0.22 0.52 0.67 0.03 0.56 0.534 0.025
100% of Hs
8 2.25 3.46 0.27 0.50 0.80 0.03 0.54 0.765 0.028
125% of Hs
10 2.82 2.77 0.22 0.43 1.02 0.05 0.40 0.83 0.038
100% of Hs
10 2.82 3.46 0.27 0.43 1.07 0.03 0.41 0.73 0.026
125% of Hs
7.0 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The results from the present detailed experimental studies have clearly demonstrated that the
geobags can certainly be used as a replacement for rubble for the core of breakwaters. This is
beneficial for sites, where, the availability of natural stones is scanty. The handling of geobags
is much easier and can speed up the construction. It is one time job and washing away of the
core material due to the action of waves during laying would be absent which frequently is a
problem in the case of using natural rock for the core.
8.0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors wish to record their thanks to Ms. Garware Wall Ropes Ltd, Pune for providing the
required materials for the present study.
497
UNCERTAINTIES IN PREDICTED MANEUVERABILITY OF

SURFACE SHIPS ON HYDRODYNAMIC DERIVATIVES
Debabrata Sen* and Amit Tyagi
Dept. of Ocean Engineering & Naval Architecture, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur-721302
Abstract
The influence of hydrodynamic derivatives on the predicted turning and zig-zag maneuvers for
surface vessels are presented. These two are the most important definitive maneuvers, results
from which need to comply to the IMO maneuverability standard for any vessel over 100 m in
length. As during design stage these are assessed based on suitable dynamic models along-
with empirically or otherwise estimated coefficients, the values of these coefficients become
important. While inertia forces or equivalently the acceleration derivatives can be more confi-
dently estimated, it is the damping or velocity-derivatives ( Y ’ , Y ’ , N ’ , N ’ ) on which the
v r v r
simulated trajectories depend more significantly. Of these, the yaw-velocity derivatives are
found to be most important.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Over the recent past, ship maneuvering simulations have become increasingly important for
assessing maneuvering performance of new designs. As such, all ships over 100 m length
need to comply with IMO maneuvering requirements. It is thus of great interest if maneuver-
ability and controllability characteristics can be assessed during the initial design itself as
this will allow exploring various design options for improved maneuverability.
Although great advances being made for computational fluid dynamics (CFD) computations
for flow past ships, simulations of various ship maneuvers are not yet possible or practical
using CFD. Most maneuvering simulations at the present time are thus performed based on
the so-called constant coefficient mathematical model. There are two basic but interrelated
aspects in such a procedure: development of an appropriate mathematical (the dynamic model)
where various fluid forces are represented by means of a set of coefficients or derivatives, and
determining these derivatives. The most reliable method of determining the hydrodynamic
derivatives is through physical experiments using techniques such as PMM (planar motion
mechanism). Such experiments are, however, very expensive and require specialized labora-
tories with equipments, and therefore may not be suitable for exploring various design options
during initial design cycles. For this purpose, a better choice is to determine these coeffi-
cients, in conjunction with the selected dynamic model, by utilizing empirical relations, ana-
lytical means, experience gathered from past ship data and/or combinations of such means.
Several companies and specialized establishments at present exist which claim to do this
*Corresponding author, e-mail: deb@naval.iitkgp.ernet.in
498
task, i.e., assess manoeuvrability through simulations based on derivatives determined from
different means. However, so far there appears to be no internationally accepted standard
mathematical model and a set of standard empirical relations for estimating the derivatives
(see e. g. Barr, 1993), unlike in case of resistance extrapolation method for conventional ship
hulls. The predicted maneuverability performance thus is expected to have some degree of
uncertainty depending on the various factors.
The purpose of the present paper is to study and establish the level of uncertainty associated
with the predicted maneuverability performance on the hydrodynamic derivatives. The dy-
namic model and the empirical formulae to determine the derivatives considered are those
that are commonly in use by different reputed international groups. It is found that the main
difference between the dynamic models lies in the nonlinear terms of various force and mo-
ment expressions. These nonlinear terms along with the associated values of the derivatives
are found to have only marginal influence as far as compliance of the IMO maneuverability
criteria is concerned. The most important terms are the linear terms, and that too the viscous
force or velocity dependent terms. However, some form of non-linearity is essential for as-
sessing some of the criterion, e g., the linear dynamic equations predict a larger turning circle
diameter which may not meet the IMO requirement while inclusion of non-linearities may
result in the criterion being met.
2.0 THE DYNAMIC MODEL
The equations of motion relevant to maneuver of a surface ship can be written as (see e.g.
Fossen 1994, Lewis 1989):
X = m(u&− v r − xG r 2 ); Y = m(v&+ u r + xG r 2 ) ; N = Izz r&+ m xG (v&+ u r ) (1)
These equations are written following a standard right-handed rectangular Cartesian coordi-
nate system with origin located at midship centerplane on the mean free-surface. Here X ,Y , N
represent respectively the surge force, sway force and yaw moment, u, v , r are surge, sway
and yaw velocities, u& , v&, r&are surge, sway and yaw acceleration, m is body mass, I zz is
yaw rigid body moment of inertia, xG is the x-coordinate of the center of gravity (i.e. LCG as
measured from the origin of the coordinate system). The heading angle is denoted as ψ such
that ψ&= r ; ψ&&= r&. X, Y, N can be divided into the following components:
X = X H + X R + X P ; Y = YH + YR ; N = NH + NR (2)
where the subscript H, R and P refer to hull forces, rudder forces and propulsive forces respec-
tively.
In a constant coefficient-based dynamic model (which is the present standard for maneuvering
calculations), the hull forces and moments are expressed as functions of the various motion
and control surface parameters as follows:
499
X H = f x ( u , v , r , u&, v&, r&); YH = f y ( u , v , r , u&, v&, r&); N H = fN ( u , v , r , u&, v&, r&) (3)
In the above, fx , fy , fN represent functional dependence. The various dynamic models depend
on how the right-hand-side of the above, i.e., the functional dependence relations are ex-
pressed by means of hydrodynamic coefficients (also referred to as hull derivatives). These
forces can be further divided into inertia or acceleration-dependent forces and viscous or
velocity-dependent forces (also known as damping forces):
XH = X I + XV ; YH = Y I + Y V ; N H = N I + N V (4)
The complete expressions for inertial forces are well known (e g. see Ankudinov et al., 1993).
These are:
X I = X u&u&+ X vr vr + X rr r 2 ; YI =Yv&v&+ X u&ur + Yr&r&; NI = Nr&r&+ Nv&(v&+ ur&) + (Yv& − X u&) uv (5)
where, X = − Y and X = − Y .
vr v& rr r&
As for the viscous force expressions, the surge viscous force X V is the resistance force (this
is thus not only of viscous origin, but includes contribution of the potential flow wave resis-
tance force also). This can be adequately modeled as:
X V = X uu u 2 + X rr r 2 (6)
The total value of the coefficient X will thus be the sum of the inertial contribution arising in
rr
(5) and the viscous term in (6). The term X u 2 is the standard calm-water hull resistance
uu
during steady forward motion.
The modeling of viscous or damping forces for sway and yaw are based on the following
nonlinear expression (see Barr, 1993 for a discussion on various dynamic models in use):
Y V = Yv v + Yr r + Yv |v | v | v | + Yr |r | r | r | + Yvvr vvr + Yvrr vrr
N V = Nv v + N r r + Nv |v | v | v | + N r |r | r | r | + Nvvr vvr + Nvrr vrr (7)
3.0 HYDRODYNAMIC DERIVATIVES
Several empirical relations are available in literature for estimating the derivatives. The follow-
ing semi-empirical relations for example exist for determining the linear hull derivatives, which
were derived from regression analysis and slender body potential theory (Lewis 1989, Brix
1993):
500
−Yv&’ / K = 1 + 0.16 C B B / T − 5.1 ( B / L )2 ; − Yr&’ / K = 0.67 B / L − 0.0033 ( B / T ) 2
− N v’& / K = 1.1B / L − 0.041 B / T ; − N r&’ / K = 1/ 12 + 0.017 C B B / T − 0.33 B / L
−Yv’ / K = 1 + 0.40 C B B / T ; − Y r’ / K = − 1/ 2 + 2.2 B / L − 0.080 B / T
− N v’ / K = 1/ 2 + 2.4 T / L ; − N r’ / K = 1/ 4 + 0.039 B / T − 0.5 6 B / L
(8)
Here, L is length, B is breadth, T is mean draft, C is the block coefficient and K = p/(T/L)2.
B
The primed symbols represent non-dimensional forms of the derivatives where the non-
dimensionalization is carried out using standard forms (Lewis 1989),
The linear damping coefficients can also be determined from the empirical relations given in
Ankudinov et al. (1993) :
−Yv’ = (π / 2) x1 + 0.8 y Yr = 0.54 CB x + 0.25 CB y

’
; (9)
−N = (π / 4) x + 0.41y
’
v ; − N = 0.4 CB + 0.175 CB y
’
r
where, x1 = (T / L )2 (1+ 1.5 CB T / B ); x = (T / L )2 (1 + 0.5 CB T / B ); y = BT / L2
All the damping coefficients in the adopted nonlinear expression (7) can also be determined
from the empirical relations given by Kijima (1993):
1
Yβ* = π k + 1.4 CB B / L; Yr* − ( m * + m x* ) = − 1.5 CB B / L
2
Yββ* = 2.5 T (1− CB ) / B + 0.5 ; Yrr* = 0.343 T C B / B − 0.07
Yβ*rr = 5.95 T (1− C B ) / B ; Yββ* r = 1.5 C B / B − 0.65
N β* = k ; Nr* = − 0.54 k + k 2 ; *
N ββ = − 0.96 T (1− CB ) / B + 0.066
Nrr* = 0.5 CB B / L − 0.09 ; N β* rr = − (0.5 T CB / B − 0.05) (10)
r = − [57.5(CB B / L ) − 18.4 CB B / L + 1.6]

* 2
N ββ
where k = 2T / L . In (10), the non-dimensionalization is different then the primed symbols,

and thus shown by the superscript (*). (The two systems are related by a constant, e g.,
( )’ = ( )* ×T / L .)
4.0 NUMERICAL COMPUTATIONS
As can be seen, there are several sets of empirical formulae available for estimating the
501
hydrodynamic derivatives. The numerical values of these may differ considerably. To high-
light this aspect, in this paper we carry out a maneuvering simulation study of a passenger
vessel of L =110.00 m, B =18.00 m, T =4.10 m, C =0.680. For this vessel, the estimated
B
coefficients from the above empirical relations are as shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Estimated non-dimensional sway and yaw hull derivatives.

Coefficients Eqn.(8) Eqn(9) Eqn.(10)
Yv&' -0.0058836
Yr&' -0.0002009
Nv'& 0.0
'
r&
N -0.0003527
' -0.0096529 -0.0075757 -0.0102562
Y v
' 0.0021439 0.0016103 0.0029483
Y r
' -0.0025726 -0.0036774 -0.0027785
N v
' -0.0014384 -0.0011499 -0.0012932
N r
' -0.0252160
Y vv
' -0.0005997
Y rr
' -0.0156596
Y vrr
' 0.0154402
Y vvr
' 0.0000655
N vv
' -0.0012503
N rr
' 0.0010653
N vrr
' 0.0095080
N vvr
In addition to the above hull derivative, estimates for the rudder coefficients are also to be
made, as the rudder forces and moments are expressed in terms of these control-surface
coefficients:
X R = X δ r δ r δ r 2 ; YR = Yδ r δ r ; NR = Nδ r δ r (11)
where δ r is rudder angle. These are estimated based on rudder geometry and other details
following the procedure outlined in Lewis(1989), and the relevant values are:
X δ r δ r = 0.0008 ; Yδ r = − 0.0150 ; Nδ r = 0.0075 (12)
The resistance coefficient is estimated by curve-fitting the resistance data and is found to be
X uu = 0.0006 . The other coefficient X rr in the surge force equation gets contribution from
inertial force (= −Y ) and damping force. From Table 1, the inertial contribution is 0.0002. The
r&
viscous part is usually small and is ignored. Thus we have, X = − 0.0002 . The coeffi-
rr
cient X ’ is estimated as X ’ = − Y ’ = 0.005884 ≅ 0.006 .
vr vr v&
502
It is well known that the acceleration derivatives are the added mass coefficients, e g., −Y is
v&
sway added mass, −N is yaw added moment of inertia, and −Y = − N are sway-yaw
r& r& v&
coupled added mass. Usually, these values can be somewhat easily estimated from theory. In
particular, the sway added mass and yaw added inertia, which are the dominant terms in the
equations of motion, can be estimated fairly accurately based on strip theory or any other
similar means. The cross-coupled terms are usually small, can either be ignored or small
values taken: these do not appear to influence the maneuvering trajectories much (note that in
eqn. 8 these terms are not same; here the expressions are from regression of experimental
data).
The most influential terms in the maneuvering of surface ships are the linear damping terms,
Yv’ , Yr’ , Nv’ , Nr’ . As can be seen, all the three sets of available empirical relations provide
estimates for these four terms, but they differ considerably. The purpose of the present study
is to show the influence of these different estimates on the compliance of IMO maneuverability
standard.
IMO requirements are concerned with mainly three aspects related to two maneuvers: the
turning circle maneuver for maximum tactical diameter, advance and initial turning ability, and
zigzag maneuver for first and second overshoot. The turning maneuver is to be conducted at
35 deg. or maximum permissible rudder angle, the initial turning ability is to be checked for 10
deg. rudder, and the zig-zag maneuvers to be performed are 10/10 and 20/20 rudder/yaw
settings. These are standard definitive ship maneuvers and are described in any standard
text.
The trajectory simulation is achieved by integrating the equations of motion and using appro-
priate transformation matrix to transform the various parameters (velocities, displacement)
from the body-axis to the inertial axis. All simulations are performed from an initial steady
velocity, and then activating the rudder depending on the maneuver type. The algorithm is very
robust: trajectories could be simulated for as long as desired. A typical long-term zig-zag
maneuver, where the rudder is repeatedly reversed as the yaw angle reaches a predetermined
value is shown in Figure 1. The robustness of the algorithm in simulating the trajectory is
apparent.
V = 1 6 k n o ts
60
40
angle (deg)
20
0
- 20 0 500 1 0 00 1500 20 0 0
- 40
- 60
t(s e c)
Fig. 1. Long duration 20/20 zig-zag simulation.
503
As can be seen from Table 1, none of the three available empirical relations provide all the
required coefficients. For our present calculations the values of acceleration derivatives
Yv&’ , Yr&’ , Nv’& and Nr’& are taken from eqn. (8) (these values have also been estimated from
strip-theory and they match within 10%). For the damping coefficients, all the nonlinear coef-
ficient values taken are according to eqn.(10), that is from the last column of the above table.
This is to retain consistence between the force modeling and the corresponding derivatives.
Since force modeling adopted is based on eqn.(7) given by Kijima (1993), we chose the
empirical relations given by the same author. As for the most important linear damping coef-
ficients, calculations were made using the values from all three estimates.
Fig. 2 shows the trajectories of turning circle maneuvers at the approach speed of 16 knots
(the trial speed of the vessel) and for 35 deg. rudder angle. The three plots correspond to the
computations with linear damping coefficients from the three different estimates. While all
three predictions comply with IMO requirements (advance < 4.5L, tactical diameter < 5L),
predictions using coefficients estimated from eqn. (9) considerably differ from the other two
plots. Fig. 3 shows the same results for 10/10 and 20/20 zigzag maneuver. For clarity, only
yaw values are shown here. Once again, predictions from using damping derivatives (9) differ
considerably from the rest two predictions. This prediction also does not comply with IMO
requirements (which limits the overshoot angle and path width), while predictions from eqn. (8)
and eqn. (10) meet the IMO requirements. Clearly the values from eqn. (9) predict the ship to
be less directional stable and therefore more easily maneuverable (note that these two re-
quirements, directional stability and maneuverability are opposite in nature).
In order to check the influence of the individual linear damping terms on the trajectories, i.e.,
the sensitivity of the linear damping coefficients on the manoeuvrability predictions, we next
vary each of these four terms, Y ’ , Y ’ , N ’ and N ’ , by 20% either way form the base value.
v& r& v& r&
The results for turning maneuver are shown in Fig. 4. The base values for these are chosen as
given by eqn.(10). This means, the three cases computed are with values of each coefficient
set to its original (as given by eqn. 10), 0.80 times and 1.20 times the original. It is clearly
seen that increasing the absolute numerical values of the sway derivatives causes a tighter
turn. With regard to the yaw derivatives, decrease in | N ’ | causes a tighter turn while the
v&
effect of | N ’ | is opposite. One more feature that is important is the influence of the sway
r&
terms over the yaw terms. To bring out this clearly, we show the plots comparing the changes
in each term in one plot in Fig. 5. It is clear that the influence of N ’ and N ’ on the trajectory
v& r&
are far stronger than the influence of Y ’ and Y ’ .
v& r&
Similar results for the influence of the individual linear damping terms on yaw overshoot from a
10/10 zigzag maneuver are shown in Figs. 6 and 7. It is once again clearly seen that the
influence of the yaw-damping terms are far stronger compared to that of the sway terms. As
504
can be seen, a decrease in | N ’ | causes a larger overshoot while the opposite happens for
v&
| Nr’&| . (This clearly brings out the feature that a tighter turn is associated with larger
overshoot.).
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
y/L
-2
-2.5
-3
-3.5
-4
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Fig. 2. Trajectories from turning circle maneuver. The three curves correspond to simulations with linear
damping derivatives from : (i) eqn. 8 (blue line), (ii) eqn. 9 (green line), (iii) eqn.10 (red line).
80
60
40
20
yaw (deg)
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100
-120
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
t (sec)
Fig. 3. Yaw angles from a 10/10 zig-zag maneuver. The three curves are same as in Fig. 2.
0 0
-0.5 -0.5
-1 -1
-1.5 -1.5
y/L
y/L
-2 -2
-2.5 -2.5
-3 -3
-3.5 -3.5
-4 -4
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
0 0
-0.5 -0.5
-1 -1
-1.5
-1.5
-2
y/L
y/L
-2
-2.5
-2.5
-3
-3 -3.5
-3.5 -4
-4 -4.5
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Fig. 4. Effect of variation in linear velocity derivatives on turning circle maneuver. The coefficients are varied as (i)
same as original (red line), 80% of original (green line), 120% of original (blue line). The derivatives varies are:
(a) Y ’ (top-left), (b) Y ’ (top right), (c) N ’ (bottom left), (d) N ’ (bottom right).
v& r& v& r&
505
0 0
-0.5 -0.5
-1 -1
-1.5
-1.5
-2
y/L
y/L
-2 -2.5
-2.5 -3
-3 -3.5
-3.5 -4
-4 -4.5
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Fig. 5. Effect of variation of the different coefficients on the turning maneuver: (i) Yv&’ : red line, (ii) Yr&’ : green line,
(iii) N ’ : blue line, (iv) N ’ : pink line.
v& r&
30 30
20 20
10
yaw(deg)
10
yaw(deg)
0 0
-10 -10
-20 -20
-30 -300
0 50 100 150 200 50 100 150 200
30
30
20
20
10
yaw(deg)
10
yaw(deg)
0 0
-10 -10
-20 -20
-30 -30
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Fig. 6. Effect of variation in linear velocity derivatives on 10/10 zig-zag maneuver. The coefficients are varied as (i)
same as original (red line), 80% of original (green line), 120% of original (blue line). The derivatives varies are: (a)
Yv&’ (top-left), (b) Yr&’ (top right), (c) Nv’& (bottom left), (d) Nr’& (bottom right)
30 30
20 20
10
yaw(deg)
10
yaw(deg)
0 0
-10 -10
-20 -20
-30 -30
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Fig. 7. Effect of variation of the different coefficients on the 10/10 zig-zag maneuver: (i) Yv&’ : red line, (ii) Yr&’ :
green line, (iii) N ’ : blue line, (iv) N ’ : pink line.
v& r&
Although the nonlinear terms in the force expression have relatively less influence, for tighter
turns however they do influence the results. For example, the case of 35 deg. rudder produces
a reasonably tight turn, and for this case it was found that a purely linear form of the motion
equations predict a larger tactical diameter and advance. In certain cases, this was found
506
not to meet the IMO requirement while the nonlinear form of the equations satisfied the
requirements (due to space restrictions, these results are not presented here).
6.0 CONCLUSION
A study related to the uncertainties in the hydrodynamic derivatives on the predicted maneu-
vering performance of surface vessels is presented. As per IMO requirements, all vessels over
100 m length has to satisfy certain maneuvering standards. The most important of these are
the turning ability, as assessed by the turning circle trial and the handling qualities character-
ized by zig-zag manoeuver. During design stage, these qualities can be checked from simu-
lated results based on mathematical model. Such models require proper estimation of the
associated hydrodynamic coefficient. As there are several means by which these coefficients
can be determined, there is an inherent uncertainty in the numerical values of these coeffi-
cients. In this paper we show that the most important and influential coefficients in this regard
are the linear damping coefficients, and of these the most significant ones are the yaw damp-
ing moments. (An improper value of N ’ in fact leads to failure of the simulation algorithm in
v&
the sense that the predicted trajectory shows chaotic motion.) It is therefore very important to
ensure correctness of these coefficients within say 10% or so.
REFERENCES
Ankudinov, V., Kaplan, P. and Jacobsen, B.K. (1993), Assessment and principal structure of the modular
mathematical model for ship maneuverability prediction and real time maneuvering simulation, Proc. of the
Int. Conference on Marine Simulation and Ship Manoeuvrability (MARSIM93), St. Johns, Canada.
Barr, R.A., (1993), A review and comparison of ship maneuvering simulation methods, SNAME Transactions,
Vol. 101, pp. 609-635.
Brix, J., (Editor), (1993), Maneuvering Technical Manual, Seehafen Verlag.
Fossen, T.I., (1994), Guidance and Control of Ocean Vehicles, John Wiley & Sons.
Kijima, K, (1993), On a prediction method of ship manoeuvring characteristics, Proc. of the Int. Conference on
Marine Simulation and Ship Manoeuvrability (MARSIM93), St. Johns, Canada.
Lewis, E.V., (Editor), (1989), Principles of Naval Architecture : Vol. III. Motions in Waves and Controllability,
SNAME Publication, New Jersey, USA.
507
BREAKING WAVE MODELING AND ESTIMATION OF

ENERGY DISSIPATION
L. Bhaskar Mulagaleti1*, G. Muraleedharan2, P.G. Kurup3 and N. Unnikrishnan Nair4
Dept. of Physical Oceanography, Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kochi-682 016
1
2
IIT Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110 016
3
Amrita Institutions, Ashram Lane, Azad Road, Kochi-682 017
4
Dept. of Statistics, Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kochi-682 022
Abstract
The dissipated wave energy due to breaking in shallow waters is the input energy source for
alongshore currents, littoral drift, wave induced sediment transport etc. which affect the coastal
stability. An accurate estimation of the dissipated wave energy in coastal waters will provide to
implement appropriate measures for the dynamic balance of the coastline with changing wave
conditions due to monsoon and non-monsoon seasons. The Modified Weibull Model simu-
lates the observed breaking wave height distribution better than the other two probabilistic
models by chi-square test at 0.05 level of significance. The concept of a Weibull probability
density function for wave heights and the modified Weibull model for breaking wave heights is
more realistic than considering different probability models. The distribution of the estimated
dissipated wave energy seems to be having the same trend of the computed except for lower
wave heights. The data considered are the daily maximum significant wave height data ob-
tained by the Coastal Engineering Research Center at Duck, North Carolina (depth of wave
recording=8.5 m), daily maximum significant wave height recorded by National Institute of
Ocean Technology, Chennai and the maximum wave heights off Valiathura recorded by Cen-
ter for Earth Science Studies, Thiruvananthapuram.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Breaking of waves is a common sight at any beach and seafarers must have observed waves
for thousands of years. In the ocean, wave breaking is a ubiquitous phenomenon that is often
the dominant mechanism for the transfer of energy and matter into and out of the marine water
body. This includes the entrainment of gases and pollutants such as oil spill. Breaking waves
have also been known to be the waves contributing to the highest wave loads on marine
structures. Often characterized by steep wave fronts with rough and turbulent surface undula-
tions, sprays and post-breaking white-caps due to entrained air bubbles, the process of
wave breaking is rather complex. Due to its complexity, no theory or numerical simulation has
ever been adequate to describe the kinematics and dynamics of wave breaking fully. On the
other hand, field observations and monitoring have also been inadequate due essentially to
the randomness in the spatial and temporal occurrences of wave breaking. The determination
of the breaking characteristics in shallow water is one of the most important engineering
*Corresponding author, e-mail: ml_bhaskar@yahoo.co.in
508
subjects. This subject has been extensively studied but the mechanism of wave breaking on
a slopping beach is not yet clear. Hence there is a need for developing scientific theory and
models to give accurate measures of probability of breaking, how much energy is imparted to
long shore transport and such related shallow water processes.
In the present study we used data collected in both shallow water and deep water. The data
recorded off Valiathura coast (collected at a depth 5.5 m, CESS,1984)) and off North Carolina
coast (collected at a depth 8.5 m, Ochi, 1998) are clearly shallow water data. The deep-water
data (NIOT, 2000) was recorded at 15.500N and 69.250E.
The daily maximum significant wave heights can be used as an alternative for maximum wave
heights as it is the average of the highest wave heights.
Daily largest significant wave heights obtained by the Coastal Engineering Research Center
field station in North Carolina is collected at a location 450 m off the shoreline where the water
depth is 8.5 m on an average. Observation of significant wave heights was carried out four
times a day over 42 months and the table shows the accumulation of the largest value in a
day.
The maximum wave height data was recorded off Valiathura (A region on the Kerala coast,
south-west of India) as a part of the comprehensive wave measurement program under the
wave project of Center for Earth Science Studies (CESS; 1980-1984). The pressure-type
wave and telemetering system are used for recording the waves at a depth of 5.5 m. The
maximum wave height data (Hmax) collected for the months May-October (rough weather sea-
son) were utilized in this study. The data were collected at 9-00, 12-00,15-00 hrs every day.
The daily highest maximum wave height is considered in this study.
The recorded deep-water daily maximum significant wave heights by NIOT for a period of six
months (May-October; 2000) are also considered here to model the deep water breaking
waves.
We tried to simulate the above distributions by using a Modified Weibull model, and avail-
able probabilistic models (Roelvink, 1993).
Waves break when the wave front becomes too steep (Roelvink, 1993). This may be due to
several mechanisms. Here the effect of current or wind on wave breaking is ignored. Even
though the processes involved are extremely complex and no accurate model is available to
predict the probability of breaking in irregular waves. Therefore simple mathematical and
empirical approach are chosen based on the basic assumptions:
1. The probability of breaking depends only on instantaneous wave height and
509
the water depth.
2. All maximum wave heights break.
Roelvink (1993) refers an empirical weighting function model suggested by Thornton and
Guza in 1983 which can be interpreted as the probability of breaking Pb as
n  
2
H 
 H rms   −  max 
 γh  
Pb =   x 1− e
 γh   
 
H - root-mean-square wave height, h -water depth and γ -calibration coefficient.
rms
According to this expression, the probability that a particular wave in an irregular wave train
breaking not only depends on the height of this wave relative to water depth, but also a
characteristic height of the whole wave train (i.e., Hrms).
The second model used is also of the same form given by
 −  H max  n 
Pb = 1 −  e  γh  
 
 
where, h-water depth, the two coefficients γ and n are to be determined empirically.
Modified Weibull model

The Weibull distribution was discovered as early as the later half of twenties in a discussion
relating to the asymmetric distribution of the extreme values in a sample (Muraleedharan,1991).
This distribution is one of the most widely used lifetime distribution in reliability engineering.
The modified Weibull model accommodating a depth factor (Hmax/depth) by mathematical logic
as a breaking wave model is derived as given below:
n
  H max 
b
H H  
 −  max + max 
b
 

 d 


 a d  

Pb = 1 − e  , 0 ≤ H max < ∞
 
 
where, a and b are the scale and shape parameter (model parameters) of the Weibull model
n-calibration coefficient (positive integer).
Hmax is the mean maximum wave height, d-water depth. H max /d is included in the model to
accommodate the shallow water attenuation effects. If other shallow water processes are not
known and their coefficients are not available such as friction, shoaling, refraction etc., or if it
is to be applied for deep water, maximum wave height and breaking wave height distributions,
then instead of Hmax /d, we can use a calibration coefficient a and which is considered in
this work.
510
Dissipation model
The Modified Weibull Model for breaking waves simulates the observed breaking wave height
distribution better than the other two models by chi-square test. Then the expected dissipa-
tion rate per unit area can be found by
D = PbDb
where Pb is the probability that a wave is breaking and Db the expected value of the dissipation
rate in a breaking wave, its energy density is E.
Db=2α1fpE
where fp is mean peak frequency, E is energy density, α is calibration coefficient whose value
is fixed as 1.
Root-Mean-Square Relative and Mean error

These are the indicators of overall accuracy of an expression and are computed as
1 2
 ∑ (P − O ) 
n 
Relative error =
1
∑O
n
∑P −O
Mean error =
∑O
where, n = number of observation, P = predicted value and O =observed value.
The various model parameters (Weibull) and calibration coefficients for various data are
given in Table 1.
Table.1
( Model parameters
) (Weibull) and calibration coefficients.
Wave Data N αa a b
North Carolina 1 0.0, 0.1, 0.5 2.28 2.39
(Shallow Water)
Valiathura 1 0.0, 0.1 2.29 2.81
(Shallow Water)
Deep Water 1 0.0 2.28 2.39
(NIOT)
The first two breaking wave models with the suggested calibration coefficients (Roelvink,
1993) completely fail to simulate the distribution of breaking waves. Hence the theoretical
distributions of these models are not shown here. These may be due to the fact that they are
511
empirically suggested and have no any mathematical logic.
The third model, i.e., the Modified Weibull Model seems to be simulating both the deep and
shallow water breaking wave distributions. Different calibration coefficients (a) are considered
for the model for the same set of data. This according to the probabilistic theory generates
errors but it is insignificant as the range of a values are small (Table.1).
The shallow water daily maximum significant wave heights off North Carolina give a random
walk distribution (Fig.1). The modified Weibull model for breaking waves simulates the ob-
served pattern. It is a multiple peaked distribution and the theoretical curve estimates the
secondary peaks except the highest.
200
180
160 alpha = 0.5
140 alpha = 0.1
Frequency
120 alpha = 0.0

100
80
60
40
20
0
0.4- 0.6- 0.8- 1.0- 1.2- 1.4- 1.6- 1.8- 2.0- 2.2- 2.4- 2.6- 2.8- 3.0-
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2
Significant wave height (m)
Fig. 1. Observed (histograms) and theoretically simulated (modified Weibull curve) for shallow water daily
maximum significant wave height (m) distribution (North Carolina).
The observed deep water daily maximum significant wave heights recorded by NIOT show a
positively skewed distribution (Fig. 2), the modified Weibull curve also takes the same shape.
The distribution is single peaked and the theoretical curve estimates the peakedness. In this
case as the calibration coefficients are n =1 and a =0.0, it is actually the ordinary Weibull
curve simulating the observed distribution.
3 0
o b s e rv e d
W e ib u ll
2 5
a lp h a = 0 .0
2 0
Frequency
1 5
1 0
0
1 .4 - 1 .8 - 2 .2 - 2 .6 - 3 .0 - 3 .4 - 3 .8 - 4 .2 - 4 .6 - 5 .0 - 5 .4 -
1 .8 2 .2 2 .6 3 .0 3 .4 3 .8 4 .2 4 .6 5 .0 5 .4 5 .8
D a ily -o b s e r v e d m a x . S ig . w a v e h e ig h t (m )
Fig. 2. Observed (histograms) and theoretically simulated (Modified Weibull curve) daily maximum
significant wave height distribution (deep water, May-October, NIOT).
512
180
160
o b s e rve d
140 a lp h a = 0 . 0
120 a lp h a = 0 . 1
Frequency
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 .8 - 1 .0 - 1 .2 - 1 .4 - 1 .6 - 1 .8 - 2 .0 - 2 .2 - 2 .4 - 2 .6 - 2 .8 - 3 .0 - 3 .2 - 3 .4 - 3 . 6 - 3 .8 - 4 .0 -
1 .0 1 .2 1 .4 1 .6 1 .8 2 .0 2 .2 2 .4 2 .6 2 .8 3 .0 3 .2 3 .4 3 .6 3 .8 4 .0 4 .2
D a ily o b s e r v e d h ig h e s t M a x im u m w a v e h e ig h t ( m )
Fig. 3. Observed and theoretically simulated (Modified Weibull curve) daily highest maximum wave height
off Valiathura (shallow water, May-October).
The shallow water maximum wave heights off Valiathura gives a normal curve (Fig. 2). The
modified Weibull distribution also takes the normal shape. The observed distribution is multi-
peaked. The curve underestimates the peaks. Anyhow it generates the observed distribution
pattern.
The expected value of the dissipation rate in a breaking wave (Db) for deep water for May to
October (NIOT) and the computed and predicted dissipation rate per unit area are given in
Tables 2 and 3.
By computing the relative root-mean-square error and mean error of the rate of wave energy
dissipation due to wave breaking (relative error = 0.20406, mean error =0.018251), the modi-
fied Weibull model can also be used for its estimation, even though the relative error shows a
higher value (greater than 20%) the mean error comparatively provides a lower value (1.83%).
Table 2. The expected value of the dissipation rate in a breaking wave (Db) for deep water(NIOT).
Daily-max. Computed Expected Mean Energy Db=2α1fpE

Sig. wave Pb Pb Peak Density (E)
height (m) frequency fp
1.4-1.8 0.141844 0.136054 0.811 3214.4 5213.757
1.8-2.2 0.184397 0.156463 0.794615 5022.5 7981.908
2.2-2.6 0.113475 0.163265 0.795 7232.4 11499.52
2.6-3.0 0.134752 0.14966 0.79 9844.1 15553.68
3.0-3.4 0.12766 0.129252 0.77 12857.6 19800.7
3.4-3.8 0.099291 0.102041 0.30714 16272.9 9996.117
3.8-4.2 0.078014 0.068027 0.36636 20090 14720.34
4.2-4.6 0.042553 0.047619 0.0866666 24308.9 4210.301
4.6-5.0 0.035461 0.027211 0.294 28929.6 17010.6
5.0-5.4 0.028369 0.013605 0.085 33952.1 5771.857
5.4-5.8 0.014184 0.006803 0.09 39376.4 7087.752
513
The computed and estimated dissipation rate of energy per unit area for the deep water daily
maximum significant wave heights ( May-October, NIOT) (Fig.4) show a similar trend through-
out except for lower wave heights. The computed peak value is estimated. The estimated
probability of breaking wave heights (Pb) provided by the modified Weibull model for breaking
waves seems to be accurate enough to predict the rate of dissipation of energy.
Table 3. Computed and expected dissipation rate per unit area (deep water, May- October, NIOT).
Dissipation rate per Dissipation rate per unit

Computed Expected Db=2α1fpE unit area area
Pb Pb D = Pb Db D = Pb Db
(Computed) (Expected)
0.141844 0.136054 5213.757 739.5401 709.3525
0.184397 0.156463 7981.908 1471.84 1248.873
0.113475 0.163265 11499.52 1304.908 1877.468
0.134752 0.14966 15553.68 2095.889 2327.763
0.12766 0.129252 19800.7 2527.758 2559.281
0.099291 0.102041 9996.117 992.5245 1020.014
0.078014 0.068027 14720.34 1148.393 1001.381
0.042553 0.047619 4210.301 179.161 200.4903
0.035461 0.027211 17010.6 603.2131 462.8756
0.028369 0.013605 5771.857 163.7418 78.52611
0.014184 0.006803 7087.752 100.5327 48.21798
3000
Observed
--------- Expected
Dissipation rate per unit
2000
1000
1 2 3 4 5 6
Mid values of classes

Fig. 4. Distribution of computed and predicted dissipation rate of wave energy.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The Modified Weibull Model seems to be simulating both the deep and shallow water breaking
wave heights distribution. This stems from the fact that the motivation for considering Weibull
514
model for wave height distribution is empirical and logical. Different wave height distribution
patterns are simulated by the model as the calibration coefficients and the shape parameter b
take care of the changing wave conditions.
The different values for alpha for the same set of data might be due to the discrepancies in the
data as none of the data are actual breaking wave heights rather than the inappropriateness of
the model.
The model seems to be appropriate for estimating the dissipation rate of breaking wave en-
ergy.
The authors are thankful to the Directors, National Institute of Ocean Technology, Chennai,
Centre for Earth Science Studies, Thiruvananthapuram, and The Coastal Engineering Re-
search Center at Duck, North Carolina.
REFERENCES
Long-term Wave and Beach Data of Kerala Coast-I, 1984, Center for Earth Science Studies, Trivandrum, India,
229 pp.
Muraleedharan G. (1991), Studies on Wave Climate Along the Southwest Coast of India, Ph.D. thesis, Cochin
University of Science and Technology.
Ochi, M., 1998, Ocean Waves, Ocean Technology Series-6, Cambridge University Press, 319 pp.
Roelvink, J.A. (1993), Dissipation in random wave groups incident on a beach, International Journal of Coastal,
Harbour and Offshore Engineering, 19,127-150.
515
HYDRODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF A SPACE CAPSULE

IMPACTING WATER
Ravi Challa*, V.G. Idichandy and C.P. Vendhan
Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai-600036.
Abstract
The space capsule recovery experiment (SRE) helps to demonstrate the recovery technology
of space modules from arbitrary space vehicles. Future Indian Space Missions will involve the
acquisition, storage and return of sample materials collected during space flight or planetary
exploration. During reentry, the module will be decelerated by aerobraking and then by a
parachute deceleration system. The final phase of any Sample Return mission requires an
earth entry, descent, and landing capsule (water recovery). This paper presents the results
obtained by a series of drop tests conducted on the model of a space capsule to assess the
hydrodynamic forces acting on the capsule. The determination of hydrodynamic forces expe-
rienced by a body entering the water surface is an extremely difficult task since the sea
surface is not planar and is constantly changing, thus making the impact parameters statis-
tical in nature.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Studies on impact phenomena based on the theoretical work by Von Karman (1963) resulted
in equations for the impact of rigid bodies on a fluid. This approach assumes the reaction of
water is due solely to its inertia. Using an expression for the added apparent mass due to
water, the accelerations and pressures affecting the rigid body have been determined.
Baker and Westine (1967) modeled the structural response of the Apollo Command Module
(ACM) to water impact in both elastic and failure-initiation regimes in accordance with Froude
scaling. The 1/4th scale models tested were fabricated from materials, which were less rigid
and weaker than in the prototype. Data from the model tests were compared with results of
full-scale experiments.
Kaplan (1968) examined the specific problem of the ACM impacting water. He discovered that
the flexibility of the heat shield had a strong effect on the accelerations experienced by the
vehicle, and as seen it increased the amplitude of the peak acceleration. To account for the
flexible heat shield, Kaplan used a mathematical model consisting of two masses attached
by a spring. From theory and experiments, he found that the peak acceleration is proportional
to the square of the impact velocity. Kaplans theoretical results correlated well with the full-
scale ACM impact tests.
*Corresponding author, e-mail: ravichalla_iitm@hotmail.com
516
Geers et al. (1977) developed a technique that treats the fluid response in terms of the fluid
motion rather in terms of the added apparent mass. The fluid was considered inviscid and
incompressible and a finite element mesh simulated the free surface. Solutions for a wedge
and cylinder impacting on water were found to correlate closely with the data from actual
experiments.
Recent efforts to solve the impact problem produced a solution for the problem based on the
investigations done by Brooks and Anderson (1994) on the dynamic behaviour of a Water
Landing Space Module (WLSM) during impact on water. As a part of this investigation, a 1/5th
scale model was tested in a water tank and the results were compared with those obtained
using analytical techniques and computer simulations. They evaluated the response of the
WLSM during impact, in order to identify design choices that are within the physical limita-
tions of crew members and materials. The purpose of their research was to use simulations to
establish trends that occur when the variables of entry speed, angle, and weight are varied.
Their results suggest initial conditions of the full-scale WLSM, which keep impact accelera-
tions under specified limits.
To determine the dynamic response of a WLSC for the future Indian Space Missions, a series
of drop tests were conducted on a 1/6th scale model in the Wave Basin of the Ocean Engineer-
ing Department of the Indian Institute of Technology-Madras. The 1/6th Froude-scale model
was fabricated out of Fiber Reinforced Plastic (FRP) and tested in the wave basin to determine
the hydrodynamic forces experienced by the WLSM during water impact.
2.0 WLSC MODEL: DESIGN CONSIDERATION AND FABRICATION
To simulate the dynamic behaviour of a Water Landing Space Capsule (WLSC) for the SRM,
a 1/6th Froude scale-model has been fabricated, which is essentially a conical shell with
rounded nose. The specifications of the prototype and the model are shown in Table 1. The
model was made up of FRP with a mass of 2.03 kg. The maximum velocity of impact (based
on the velocity achievable in the laboratory) was calculated to be 10 m/s. An important param-
eter influencing the design is the mass of the model. A skin thickness of 5 mm was decided,
with extra thickness at the nose to withstand the force of impact. The model was fabricated in
three parts: the nose, body and the cap. Any ingress of water would increase the weight of the
model. To avoid this, a rubber gasket was placed at the joints and the screws were tightened.
The joints were further sealed with silicon-based sealant (Silicon 732). The model had been
left to dry for 24 hrs, after which it was tested for water tightness.
517
Table 1. Model propertie of water landing spac capsule.
th
Properties 1/6 scale model Prototype
Weight 2.083 Kg 450 Kg
CG location 147.28±10 mm from nose tip 890± 10 mm from nose tip
Thickness of skin 5mm (extra thickness at nose) 25mm
Height 271.5mm 1630mm
Maximum diameter 338mm 2028mm
2.1 Instrumentation
As a preliminary step, in order to assess the range of impact velocities, the model was
dropped; nose down, from various heights. The vertical acceleration of the model was mea-
sured on impact by using an accelerometer (B12-2000-HBM-Germany) placed at the center of
gravity of the model. Aluminum crossbars were fixed at the center of the model to hold a guide
rod, which intern was connected to the accelerometer, to hold it in position.
The maximum touch down pressure to which the model was subjected to, during the impact,
was found by placing a diaphragm type pressure transducer at the nose tip. A 15 mm diameter
hole was cut at the nose of the model and the 5 bar pressure transducer was calibrated and
fixed at the bottom using an adapter. The pressure transducer was connected to an MGC
amplifier with a full Wheatstones bridge having sensitivity of 0.1 mV/V
Before fixing the accelerometer and the pressure transducer, the wires from the model were
connected to the MGC amplifier (two channels), which in turn was connected to computer
with an A/D card. The MGC amplifier was set to Wheatstone bridge (half bridge) with a range
of 10mV/V. The readings of both the channels were directly acquired by the data acquisition
system using an A/D card at 1000 Hz.
3.0 DROP TESTS
The drop tests were performed in the wave basin at the Department of Ocean Engineering, IIT
Madras only under calm water conditions. It was suggested that the maximum attainable
velocity to which the tests were to be performed was 10m/s corresponding to the prototype
velocity of 60m/s. In order to attain this impact velocity, the model was dropped from the
overhead crane achieving a simple drop height of 4.8m above the water surface. Drop tests
were carried out for various heights of 0.5 m, 1 m, 1.5 m, 2 m, 2. 5 m, 3 m, 3.5 m, 4 m, 4.5 m
and 4.8 m. The next phase of the experiment was to determine the acceleration of the model
during the impact and to measure the maximum pressure at the nose. Fig.1 shows the basic
setup with the model hanging above the water surface.
518
Fig 1 Basic setup for drop tests
The time series of acceleration in each drop test was obtained which gives the deceleration of
the body. The time series of pressure was also acquired for analysis. About ten seconds of
data, with a sampling rate ranging from 1000 hz to 5000 hz, were recorded for each drop test.
The accelerometer and pressure sensor were calibrated in the fist few tests. For the acceler-
ometer calibration, 1 Volt corresponds to 11.1 g and for the pressure sensor, 1 Volt corre-
sponds to 0.166 bar. The peak deceleration obtained was used to assess the impact force on
the model. The time series for acceleration and pressure for 4.8 m and 4.0 m drops, for a 5-
millisecond capture are shown in Figs. 2 & 3.
The drop tests were also conducted with sampling rates of 1000, 2000, 3000 and 4000 samples
per seconds to derive accurate estimates of acceleration and pressure for a given height of
drop. Figs. 4 and 5 depict the variation of peak acceleration and impact pressure for the above-
mentioned sampling rates. The next step was to check the behaviour of the peak acceleration
and peak pressure values for a very high sampling frequency by using Oscilloscope capture.
The sampling frequency for Oscilloscope capture varied from 0.01 ms to 1.0 ms. Figs. 6 and
7 depict the variation of the peak acceleration and peak pressure for the higher sampling rates
using Oscilloscope capture.
Sampling Inte rv al : 5 milli se c
2
Acceleration and
1.5 1.494
Pressure (volts)
0.5 0.483
0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3
-0.5
Acce le ration
T ime (S) Pre ssure
Fig. 2. Acceleration-Pressure time series for 4.8 m drop.
519
Sampling Interval : 5 milli sec
1.5
Acceleration and
1.489
Pressure (Volts)
1
0.5 0.459
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
-0.5 Acceleration
Time (S) Pressure
Fig. 3. Acceleration-Pressure time series for 4.0 m drop.
Height of Drop: 4.8 m Height of Drop : 4.8 m

A cceleratio n (m /s 2 )
60
P eak P ressu re (b ar)

52.593 52.59 0.4
50 52.17 52.132
40 0.3
0.2569 0.2578 0.266 0.2561
30 0.2
20
10 0.1
0 0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Sampling Rate Sampling Rate
Fig. 4 Peak Acceleration vs. Sampling Rate Fig. 5 Peak Pressure vs. Sampling Rate
Height of Drop: 4.8 m Height of Drop : 4.8 m

Acceleration (m/s2 )
0.4
Peak pressure (bar)
80
0.35
70 0.3
60 0.25 0.25 0.23
54.2555.26 55.14 56.21 0.2 0.22 0.22
50 0.15
40 0.1
0.05
30 0
20 0 200000 400000 600000 800000 100000 120000
0 200000 400000 600000 800000 1000000 1200000 0 0
Sampling Rate Sampling Rate
Fig. 6. Peak Acceleration vs. Sampling Rate. Fig. 7. Peak Pressure vs. Sampling Rate.
4.0 IMPACT TEST RESULTS
A significant aspect in the assessment of recovery of Space capsule is to determine exactly

the impact parameters such as the peak accelerations and peak pressures. Table 2 gives the
values of the peak pressure and acceleration for the WLSC model. The peak acceleration
multiplied by the mass of the model gives the maximum impact force on the body. The actual
velocity of impact was calculated by numerically integrating the acceleration time series
using Simpsons rule.
520
Table 2. Impact test results on the Water Landing Space Capsule (WLSC) model.
Peak Acceleration and Peak Pressure
Height Pressure Acceleration Force (N) Theoretical Experimental

(m) (bar) (m/s²) Velocity (m/s) velocity (m/s)
4.8 0.2569 52.170 105.905 9.704 9.520
4.5 0.2536 51.612 104.772 9.396 9.279
4.0 0.2448 45.187 91.729 8.858 8.031
3.5 0.2367 38.765 78.692 8.286 8.113
3.0 0.2212 37.785 76.703 7.672 7.300
2.5 0.1993 33.538 68.082 7.003 6.971
2.0 0.1734 30.271 61.450 6.264 6.201
1.5 0.1557 22.867 46.420 5.424 5.312
1.0 0.1231 11.651 23.651 4.429 4.012
Fig. 8 shows a linear relationship between the Square of Velocity and the Maximum Force
acting on the WLSC. Fig. 9 shows a plot of Maximum Force vs. Peak Pressure, which gives
a value of 0.26 bar during the touchdown upon the water surface for a corresponding force of
105.9 N. The graph of Peak Acceleration vs. Velocity (Fig. 10) shows that for drop heights less
than 3m the impact accelerations are directly proportional to the square of velocity of impact.
y = 1.0059x + 14.283 0.28
Pressure (Bar)
R = 0.9586 0.24
Force 0.2
0.16
0.12
0.08
0.04
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Force (N)
Square of Velocity (m/s)
Fig. 8. Force Vs Square of velocity Fig. 9. Maximum force Vs. Peak Pressure.
A c celeratio n (m /s 2)
60
40
20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Velocity (m/s)
Fig. 10. Peak Acceleration Vs. velocity
5.0 OBSERVATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The acceleration time series (Fig. 2) obtained gives the peak acceleration of the body on
impact (4.8 m) as 52.170 m/s² and the peak pressure on touchdown was computed as 0.2569
bars. Peak acceleration multiplied by the mass gave the maximum impact force on the cap-
521
sule and the maximum force was 105.905N. A plot of actual impact velocity and theoretical
velocity shows a deviation of less than 6%. It is also observed that the maximum depth of
immersion from an impact height of 4.8 m is 530 mm. It is observed that the model has a
tendency of overturning on impact, after it emerges out of the water. This can be attributed to
the reason that the instability of the model.
6.0 CONCLUSION
The analytical approaches put forth by Von Karman, Brooks and Anderson, Kaplan and others
provide the beginning for a complete solution of the impact phenomena through experimental
and numerical techniques such as the finite element method. Analysis of the final phase of a
Sample Return Mission is extremely difficult and therefore needs experimental investigations
to determine the hydrodynamic forces on the capsule as it impacts with the water surface and
during its underwater trajectory. Considering the forces on the body, the reentry speed can be
adjusted to allowable limits. It should be ensured that the expensive equipment package
inside the capsule does not get damaged due to impact.
This work, which attempts to calculate the various hydrodynamic forces acting on the WLSC,
needs to be analyzed for a wider range of conditions to include improved tests, witch varying
speeds, weight, and entry angles and under original conditions existing in the oceans. Work
is in progress at the Ocean Engineering Department of IIT-Madras to study the hydrodynam-
ics forces on the WLSC model under the action of waves, simulating the ocean wave climate.
Analytical modeling of the rigid body impact problem is proposed for improving correlation with
the experimental results.
REFERENCES
Ableson, H.I., (1970) Pressure measurements in the water-entry cavity. Journal of Fluid Mechanics. Vol. No.
44, part 1, pp. 129-144.
Bangash, M.H., (1993) Impact and Explosion-Analysis and Design. Blackwell Scientific Publication.
Brooks, J.R., and Anderson, L.A., (1994) Dynamics of a Space Module Impacting Water. Journal of Space
Crafts and Rockets. Vol. No. 31.
Baker, E., and Westine, S., (1967)Model Tests for Structural Response of Apollo Command Module to Water
Impact. Journal of Spacecraft. Vol. No. 2.
Brroks, J.R., and Anderson, L.A., (1994) Dynamics of a Space Module Impacting Water. Journal of Space
Crafts and Rockets. Vol. No. 31.
Geers, T.L., Loden, W. A., and Yee II. C.,(1997) Boundary Element Analysis of Fluid-Solid Impact Computational
Methods for Fluid Structure Interaction Problems, American Society of Mechanical Engineering, New York,
pp-125-138.
Gupta,A., (2002). Water entry dynamics of a space vehicles. B.Tech project report. Department of Ocean
Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology-Madras.
Kaplan, A., (1968) Simplified Dynamic Analysis of Apollo Water Impact, Including Effects of the Flexible Heat
Shield, 11176- 11176-6004-R0-00, TRW, Redondo Beach, CA..
522
WAVE ENVIRONMENT IN THE VICINITY OF AN ISOLATED

STRUCTURE OF ARBITRARY SHAPE - A NUMERICAL
APPROACH
K. Praveen Reddy and J.S. Mani*
Department of Ocean Engineering, IITM, Chennai- 600 036.
Abstract
A numerical model study conducted to determine wave field transformation and wave force on
a single structure of arbitrary shape (circular, oblong) is presented in this paper. In the formu-
lation of the scheme, the boundary-value problem is restricted to two-dimensions and the
solution is written in terms of velocity potential (φ (x, y)) of the waves, which satisfies Laplace
equation. The scattered portion of velocity potential of the wave is solved numerically through
source distribution method. The results indicate that force ratio (Fr= Fmax/ρgD3) increases
with increase in Hi/L. The increase is in order of 70% for the range of Hi/L (0.02 < Hi/L < 0.08).
The force ratio decreases by around 30% from circular shape to oblong shape (b = 1D, h =
1.1D). Wave field studies in the vicinity of circular and oblong shape intake structures, experi-
mental and numerical validation has also been carried out. The paper emphasizes the need
for considering wave environment around the structure for conservative design.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The increase in demand for seawater used for thermal power plants, desalination plants, and
seawater magnesium extraction plants and for aquaculture has necessitated engineers to
design and construct proper and safe seawater intake structures. The geometry considered
here corresponds to intake structure of arbitrary shape (circular and oblong), extending from
the seabed or deep water and piercing the free surface. The structure is presented by a
distribution of two-dimensional wave sources over their horizontal contours. These are sub-
jected to varied environmental forces such as waves, currents, winds etc., of which the most
important factor is the waves. Wave incident upon a large offshore structure generally un-
dergo significant scattering or diffraction and wave force calculations should then take such
scattering into account. This situation, which characterizes the diffraction regime of wave-
structure interaction, is generally considered to occur when the structure spans more than
about a fifth of the incident wavelength. When the wave interacts with an intake structure, the
wave field in the vicinity of the structure is modified and understanding the mechanism of wave
field transformation is necessary while designing the structure. Though attempts have been
made in the past to study the forces on intake structure of circular shape, lack of information
on wave surface elevations and water particle kinematics in the vicinity of an isolated structure
of arbitrary shape lead to conservative design.
*Corresponding author, e-mail: jaysmani@yahoo.com
This paper emphasizes the need for considering wave environment in the vicinity of an
isolated structure of arbitrary shape (circular and oblong) for conservative design. The typi-
cal configuration of circular shape and oblong shape are shown in the Fig. 1. The oblong
shape considered as b = 1D and length h = 1.1D. In the formulation of scheme, the bound-
ary-value problem is restricted to two-dimensions and the solution is written in terms of
velocity potential (Φ(x, y)) of the waves, which satisfies Laplace equation. The boundary-
value problem for the velocity potential of the wave is formulated and solved numerically
using source distribution method. The numerical method involves in determination of scatter
potential due to the interaction between waves and piles and to estimate the resulting wave
environment in the vicinity of the pile group. The usual assumptions of incompressible fluid
and irrotational flow are made within the framework of linear wave theory. Through the
numerical model, change in wave environment in the vicinity of a single structure is obtained
to describe wave-structure interaction. The studies carried out for parameters D = 18 m,d =
10 m, T= 6 sec to 12 sec with incident wave direction 00 (normal to the structure) with
circular and oblong shape. The results are compared with the available literature for similar
configurations to validate the numerical model.
2.0 METHODOLOGY
The problem is restricted to two dimensions, and the usual assumptions of incompressible,
irrotational flow are made within the framework of linear wave theory. The solutions thus can
be written in terms of a velocity potential, Φ (x, y, t ) which satisfies Laplaces equation and is
a harmonic function of the time, t.
The velocity potential is given as the sum of incident wave and scattered wave potentials:
φ = φ0 + φ s (1)
of these, φ0 is known and may be written as

cosh[k (d + z )] − iwt (2)
φ0 = A φ we
cosh kd
in which
A = −igH / 2ω , (3)
and
φw = eikx (4)
Here k is the wave number, x is the horizontal coordinate measured in the direction of propa-
gation, z is the vertical coordinate measure upward from the still water level, ω is the wave-
angular frequency, t is time, g is the gravitational constant, H is the wave height, and the real
524
parts of complex expressions are understood.
Because of the geometry considered here, a separation-of-variables approach is used in which

φ is taken to have a hyperbolic cosine variation with depth and is given in a form
s
cosh[k (d + z )] − iwt
φs = A φs e (5)
cosh kd
the form adopted for φ s ensures that the seabed and linearized free-surface boundary condi-
tions are automatically satisfied and that the body surface condition will be satisfied at all
depths simultaneously. The body surface condition  ∂φ s = − ∂φ 0  for φ s at the body
 ∂n ∂n 

surface and taken in any horizontal plane, where n is distance in a direction normal to the
body surface. φ s also must satisfy the radiation condition. Finally, the Laplace equation for
φ s reduces to the Hemholtz equation for φs :
∂ 2φs ∂ 2φs (6)
+ 2 + k 2φs = 0
∂x 2
∂y
On the basis of potential flow theory, the scattered velocity potential function, φ s , which is to
be determined, can be expressed in terms of a two-dimensional source distribution over the
body section of
∫ f (ξ ,η )G(x, y;ξ ,η )kdL

1
φs = (7)
4π
H
LH
Here f (ξ ,η ) represents the source strength-distribution function corresponding to two-di-

mensional wave sources at the points ξ ,η on the body contour; G( x, y;ξ ,η ) represents a
Greens function for a source located at ξ ,η ; and dLH denotes a differential length taken
around the body section. The Greens function itself must satisfy the Helmholtz equation and
the radiation condition, and may be obtained as
G (x, y;ξ ,η ) = iπH (1)(ka)
0
(8)
where H 0(1 ) is the Hankel function of the first kind and zero order, and
[
a = (x − ξ ) + (y − η )
2 2 1/ 2
]
, which is the distance between the source location ξ,η and the
point x, y.
This result also may be considered as the special case of a three-dimensional point,
wave source distribution over the immersed body surface as that used for more general bod-
ies. Here, these source strengths vary as the hyperbolic cosine with depth. The body-surface
boundary condition reduces (at all depths) to the line integral equation,
∂ 1 ∂φ w
f (x , y ) + ∫ f (ξ ,η )∂ n G (x , y ;ξ ,η )dL (x , y )
1 1
− =− (9)
4π k ∂n
H
2 LH
525
Hence, (x, y ) represents a point on the body contour where the boundary condition is ap-
plied, and n is measured normal to the surface at this point.
A numerical process of discretization is the most suitable form of solution: the body section is
divided into a finite number of small segments and the boundary condition is satisfied at the
center of each segment. In this way, the integral equation is reduced to a finite number of
linear algebraic equations involving the source strengths at the center of each segment.
Once the source strengths are known, the velocity potential function, φ s , may be obtained by
virtue of the discretized version of Eq. 7; from φ s the wave elevations are determined. In order
to determine the scatter potential at any other point in the wave field, following equation is
adopted:
1 ∂G ∂φ 
ϕ sp = 
4 ∫
φs
∂n ∫
ds − G 0 ds 
∂n 
(10)
where φsp represents scattered potential at any point.
From φsp and φ0 , the total potential φtp is calculated as
φtp = φsp + φ0 (11)
Since the velocity potential has a hyperbolic cosine variation with depth, the results may be
written as
ρgH cosh k ( z + d ) iwt (12)
Fz = χe
k cosh kd
ρgHd tanh kd − iwt (13)

F= χe
k kd
in which Fz , F are the forces per unit vertical length and the total horizontal force about the
seabed, respectively, that act on the cylinder, and χ is a vector in the horizontal plane given
as
Y Y
1
( )
2∫
χ= φ + φ n kdLH (14)
0 s
Y Y
where n is the unit vector normal to the cylinder surface, and dLH is the vector of differential
length on the body contour.
526
The results are displayed in the form of diffraction profiles; these are profiles of wave height
along a section parallels to the incident-wave crest line. A sequence of diffraction profiles was
found to reveal quite clearly and efficiently the amplitude topography over a wide region. Fig.
(1) shows the typical configuration of circular and oblong shape.
Fig. (2) shows the experimental validation for the present work. The results indicate that force
ratio (Fr= Fmax/rgD3) is increases with increase in Hi/L. The increase is in order of 70% for
the range of Hi/L (0.02 < Hi/L < 0.08). The comparison of the numerical results with experi-
mental results (Sundaravadivelu et al, 1999) indicates a good agreement, thus validating the
numerical model adopted in the paper.
Fig. (3) shows the shape effect of intake structure on the force ratio. The force ratio decreases
by around 25% at Hi/gT2 = 0.0012 and 35% at Hi/gT2 = 0.0057 from circular to oblong shape
(b = 1D & h = 1.1D).
Fig. (4) shows the numerical validation for the present work. The results show the wave height
distribution on circular cylinder. The diffraction coefficient (Kd = wave height with structure in
place / incident wave height) varies between 2.01 to 0.3 from front side to rear side of cylinder.
The comparison of the present work with numerical results (Harms, V.W, 1999) indicates a
good agreement, thus validating the numerical model once again adopted in the paper.
Figs. (5 & 6) show the wave height distribution around the circular and oblong intake struc-
tures in the form of diffraction profiles. The diffraction coefficient reduces by around 30% in
front of the structure and increases by around 40% at the rear side of the structure from
circular to oblong shape.
4.0 CONCLUSIONS
• The force ratio is increases with increase in Hi/L. The increase is in order of 70%
for the range of H/L (0.02 < Hi/L < 0.08) for isolated cylinder.
• The force ratio decreases by around 25% at Hi/gT2 = 0.0012 and 35% at Hi/gT2 =
0.0057 from circular to oblong shape (b = 1D & h = 1.1D).
• The diffraction coefficient (Kd) varies from 0.3 to 2.01 from front side to rear side of
isolated cylinder for D/L = 1.6.
• The diffraction coefficient reduces by around 30% in front of the structure and in-
creases by around 40% at the rear side of the structure from circular to oblong shape.
527
REFERENCES:
Chakrabarti, S.K, Tam, W.A, and Wolbert, A.L., (1976) Wave forces on vertical circuler cylinder, J.of Waterway,
Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Vol.102, No. WW2, May. pp. 203-221.
Sundaravadivelu, R. Sundar, V. and Suryarao, T., (1999) Wave forces and moments on an intake well. Ocean
Engineering Journal, Vol 26, pp. 363-380.
Harms, V. W., (1979) Diffraction of water waves by isolated structutes. J.of Waterway, Port, Coastal and
Ocean Engineering, Vol.105, No.WW2, May. pp. 131-147.
Praveen Reddy, K, and Mani, J.S., (2003) Prediction of wave forces on large diameter twin intake structures,
International Conference on Coastal and Ocean Technology, December 10-12, 2003. pp. 539-548.
Naftzger, R.A. and Chakrabarti, S.K.,(1979) Scattering of waves by two dimensional circular obstacles in finite
water depths, J. of Ship Research, Vol. 23, March. pp. 32-42
Sheshagiri Rao, Ch., (1999) Wave interference study on pile group in coastal region. A Thesis submitted at IITM
for the award of Master of Technology in BTCM.
Wiegel, R.L., (1964) Oceanographical Engineering. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J, 532 pp.
y
η (x, y )exp(iwt )
r
x Z= 0
∂φ
=0 b = 1.0D
∂n
∂φ
=0
∇ φ =0
2
∂z h = 1.1D
Z=-d
Fig. 1. Intake structure configuration (circular & oblong shape).
528
0.1
0.09
0.08 Source Method
Fmax/pgD^3
0.07
0.06 Sundaravadivelu et.al
0.05 (1999)
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Hi/L
Fig. 2. Variation of force ratio (Fr = Fmax/rgD3) with H/L.
1 .8
1 .6
1 .4 c ir c u la r
1 .2 o b lo n g
Fmax/pgD^3
0 .8
0 .6
0 .4
0 .2
0
0 .00 1 0 .002 0 .00 3 0 .0 04 0 .005 0 .0 06
Hi/g T^ 2
Fig. 3. Variation of force ratio (Fr = Fmax/rgD3) with Hi/gT2 for different shapes of intake structure.
2.50
θ
2.00
1.50
Kd
1.00
D= 18m, d = 10m, T= 6sec

0.50
Harms V.W (1999)
Present work
0.00
0.00 50.00 100.00 150.00 200.00
Theta
Fig. 4. Comparison of present work with Harms (1979).
529
100.00
90.00
80.00
70.00
60.00
Y (distance in m)
50.00
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00 90.00 100.00
X (distance in m)
Fig. 5. Wave height distribution around the circular shape intake structure.
120.00
100.00
Y (distance in m)
80.00
60.00
40.00
20.00
0.00
0.00 20.00 40.00 60.00 80.00 100.00 120.00
X (distance in m)
Fig. 6. Wave height distribution around the oblong shape intake structure.
530
EXPERIMENTS ON RINGING RESPONSE OF VERTICAL

CYLINDER IN WAVES
G.N.V. Prasad, R. Sundaravadivelu and V. Sundar*
Ocean Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology, Madras, Chennai600 036
Abstract
Recent model tests on tension leg platforms (TLP) and gravity-based platforms (GBS) have
revealed strong transient resonant responses during extreme wave-frequency responses. These
responses, termed ringing, are associated with large-crested, steep wave events. Such wave
conditions and the responses are very important for the safety of the structures in offshore
engineering practice. The frequency transient type response has been observed in offshore
system, particularly in TLP and GBS, constructed with vertical cylinders, which may have a
resonance periods 3 to 5 s. These platforms may in high sea-states experience responses of
considerable amplitude suddenly that are generated at this resonance period, which is a
concern with respect to extreme loading. The generation of the higher harmonic loads leading
to ringing of offshore structures is not completely understood yet. Therefore, a need exists for
clear identification of the system characteristics and environmental conditions, which lead to
its onset. A laboratory measurement program on the wave loads acting on a fixed vertical
cylinder has been considered. The aim is to study wave loads, which may generate high
frequency resonant responses of vertical cylinders. This paper reviews model-test measured
responses of a monotower GBS to draw conclusions on the nature of loads causing ringing.
The details of model, instrumentation, analysis of the data and the results are presented and
discussed in this paper.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In recent years, significant interest has been shown in identifying the nonlinear mechanisms
that induce ringing in offshore platforms. This high frequency transient type response has
been observed in offshore systems, particularly in TLP and GBS, formed by vertical cylinders,
may have a resonance period being 3 to 5 s. These platforms may in high sea-states experi-
ence that responses of considerable amplitude very suddenly are generated at this resonance
period, which is a concern with respect to extreme loading. The generation mechanism of the
higher harmonic loads leading to ringing of offshore structures is not completely understood
yet. Therefore, a need exists for clear identification of the system characteristics and environ-
mental conditions, which lead to its onset. Ringing is normally identified as transient-like high
frequency resonant responses, mainly occurring in connection with large, steep individual

waves and are most often considered as an additional to the more stationary springing re-
sponses (Stansberg et al., 1995). Ringing, a potentially dangerous non-linear motion with
burst like characteristics was found in model tests of deep-water oil production platforms.
Very high stress levels within a burst of only a few oscillations occur only during the passage
of very steep waves. The relevant resonance periods are significantly lower than the peak
period Tp of the wave spectrum. The interesting natural periods for a TLP and GBS are about
one fourth and one third of Tp, respectively. This means that third and fourth harmonic load
terms are needed in the analysis. Besides the kinematics of steep waves that generates
ringing, parameters that are probably important are the shape of the columns at the water
surface, interaction between neighboring columns, and the height of center of gravity of the
structure. Motivated by this problem, laboratory measurement of wave loads acting on a
vertical cylinder fixed to the bottom and piercing the free water surface was taken up. The aim
is to study wave loads, which may generate high frequency resonant responses of offshore
structures composed by vertical cylinders. Thus, the wave parameters and the cylinder di-
mensions were selected such that they are relevant for the large-scale conditions, where, high
frequency responses are experienced.
In the recent times, several attempts have been made to analyse this problem both theoreti-
cally and experimentally. On the theoretical side, perturbation methods have been developed
under the assumption of incoming Stokes waves. The objective has been to capture the wave
loads up to the third-harmonic component [Faltinsen Newman and Vinje (1995); Malenica and
Molin (1995); Newman (1996)]. Fully nonlinear methods have also been developed to analyse
this problem [Cai and Melum (1996) and Ferrant (1998)]. Several model tests primarily on
focused waves or irregular waves have been undertaken [Huseby and Grue (2000), Grue,
BjØrshol and Strand (1993); Stansberg et al., (1995); Chaplin(1996); Chaplin et al., (1997)]. To
check the domain of validity of the numerical calculation methods for ringing analysis, it is
desirable to have results on the measurements. The force measurements are performed on
single fixed vertical cylinder in regular and random wave conditions. The force measurements
are compared with available theoretical results, primarily for the first, second and third har-
monic forces.
2.0 THEORETICAL REFERENCE
The experimental results obtained from the present investigations is compared with the theo-
retical long wave approach by Faltinsen et al., (1995), which was later extended to for the
action of irregular waves by Newman (1994). Following the formulation according to Krokstad
et al., (1996) the integrated horizontal wave force on a truncated, surfacing-piercing vertical
cylinder of radius R is given as.
FFNV = F
(1)
+F
( 2)
+F
(3) (1)
532
where
(1 ) 2 0 (Linear) (2)
F = 2 ρR ∫ u t (z)dz
−d
( 2) 2 (1) 2 0
F = 2πρR u t z =0 ζ + πρR ∫ wu z dz (3)
−d
F
( 3) 2 (1)
= πρ R ζ [
u tz ζ
(1)
+ wu z − ( 2 / g )u t w z ] z = 0 + πρ ( R
2 2
/ g )u u t z = 0 β ( d / R ) (4)
where, F (1) , F ( 2) and F (3) are the 1st , 2nd,3rd order force components, u and w are the input
(linear) horizontal and vertical partial velocities, ζ (1) is the linear incident wave elevation and ß
is a factor given by nonlinear long wave diffraction acting locally near the free surface (Krokstad
et al., 1996).
For regular waves the different terms in equations (2) - (4) can be expressed in a simpler form.
Normalizing the forces in terms of the wave amplitude, A and the cylinder radius, R as per
Stansberg (1997) it can written as
(1) 2 − kd
F /( AR ) = 2πρg[1 − e ]
(5)
( 2) 2 2 −2kd (6)
F /( A R ) = πρgk [1.25 − 0.25e ]
(3) 3 2 2
F /( A R ) = −2πρgk (7)
The above stated expressions make it easier to compare the results for cylinders of different
radius.
3.0 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES
3.1 Test model

The experimental investigations were carried out in a wave flume 30 m long, 2 m wide and 1.7
m deep in the Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, India.
At one end of the flume a computer controlled wave maker is capable of generating regular and
random waves. On the opposite end of the wave flume a beach effectively absorbs the incident
waves. The single vertical cylinder model is of PVC pipe of outer diameter (D) 315 mm, length
1100 mm and thickness of 7.5 mm. The cylinder is fixed to the M.S. circular ring having a
diameter of 300 mm, height of 150 mm and 10 mm thick by using 8 nos of 12 mm dia blots.
533
The circular ring is welded to the M.S. circular disc of diameter 300 mm and thickness 10 mm.
The circular disc and load cell is firmly fixed using 4 nos of 12 mm diameter bolts. The another
end of the load cell is fixed to the bottom of the flume by using base plate of 550 x 550 x 12
mm using 4 nos of 12 mm diameter bolts. The holes were drilled to the base plate to fix the
model to the bottom of flume. The portion of the load cell is fully covered by using rubber sheet
of 2 mm thickness to protect the load cell and strain gauges from water. To acquire the
required frequency, the weight of the model is increased by 50 kg, M.S. square plates are
fixed to the top of cylinder by using channel of 100 x 50 x 5 mm, so that the required frequency
of the test cylinder is 5.2 Hz, which is well above the generated wave frequency range of 0.3 to
1.5 Hz. The tests were carried out in a constant water depth; d of 0.75 m.
315
300
Accelerometer wave probes
Test cylinder Wave Maker
1250mm
Absorber
Wp3
750 mm
12mm Wp1
M.S Circular Disk Dia Wp2
M.S Circular ring bolts
Rubber
150
M.S Base Plate Covering
Flume bottom
550mm
Load Cell
10m
30m
Fig. 1. Cross-sectional view of experimental set up.
3.2 Instrumentation
Three wave gauges were positioned at a distance of 5 m from the wave maker to measure the
wave elevation. The distance between the wave probes were determined as per the method
proposed by Mansard and Funke (1980). In addition, one wave probe was positioned in phase
with the centre of the structure to measure the wave elevation in the vicinity of the structure. A
single component box type load cell was fabricated and positioned at the bottom of the
cylinder to measure the in-line wave force acting on the cylinder and accelerometer was
positioned at the top of the cylinder to measure the structural response.
The static calibration of wave gauges, load cell and accelerometer were carried out before
each set of experiments. The calibration constants, in terms of voltages were adopted for all
instruments to convert the measured voltage to the corresponding physical parameters.
534
3.3 Experimental details
The models were subjected to the action of regular and random waves. Random waves de-
scribed by Pierson Moskowitz spectrum and defined by peak period ranging from 1 to 3 s at
an interval of 0.2 s. The peak periods describing the waves were chosen such that the wave
slope kA (k: wave number) was in the range of 0.06 to 0.36. For each of the peak period, five
significant wave heights were adopted for the tests. However, the spectral analysis was per-
formed only on the undisturbed portion of the time histories. The signals from the wave gauges,
load cell and the accelerometer were acquired simultaneously with a sampling rate of 100 Hz
for duration of 60 s for further processing. The ranges of the parameters adopted for the
present study are provided in Table. 1.
Table 1. Range of parameters used for the experiments.
Parameter Cylinder Diameter

(315 mm)
Frequency Ratio, (Natural frequency of cylinder , 6.2 – 15.6
Fn/ Wave frequency, Fw)
Incident wave steepness (Incident wave height, 0.013 - 0.102
Hi/wave length, L)
Slenderness Ratio (kR) 0.129 – 0.452
Relative water depth (d/L) 0.098 – 0.343
Scattering parameter (D/L) 0.041 – 0.143
4.1 Regular waves

The cylinder natural frequency at still water level is fixed at 5.2 Hz such that the tested
conditions is in the different frequency ratios between (6.215.6) to avoid quasi-ringing events,
which occur when a portion of the input wave train contains several successive moderate
amplitude waves that may coincide with the structural natural frequency as reported by Stansberg
(1993). The conditions chosen for the tests falls under the category where, the non-linear
effects are important. Typical plots, showing wave elevation at the structure, inline force time
series and structural acceleration for the cylinder in a water depth of 0.75 m exposed to waves
with T = 2.1 s and H= 0.30 m are presented in Fig. 2. In all the tests, it is observed a gradual
change in the nonlinear signal shape with the wave steepness, from a more or less second
order type in the lowest waves, to a signal with more higher-order content (third-order and
above) in the steepest wave. The higher-order components, relative to that of second-order,
contribute to the ringing problem. The time histories of the measured force were analysed by
adopting the Fourier transform over 10 wave periods, in order to evaluate the higher harmonic
535
components of F, i.e.,
(1) iωt ( 2) i 2ωt (3) i3ωt
F = Re( F e +F e +F e + ..........)
where, ù is the angular frequency of the waves and t is the time.
The variations of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd dimensionless measured force components as a function
of kd are projected in Fig.3. The comparisons of the measured force components with linear,
FNV 2nd and FNV 3rd theories as a function of kA are shown in Fig. 4. The normalized
amplitude of the nth harmonic force is made non-dimensional dividing by g An R(3-n). The mea-
sured non-dimensional first harmonic force is found to be increasing with an increase in kd,
where as, its variation with kA is almost constant. It is found that the first harmonic force is
rather well predicted by the classical equation of Morison et al., (1950). The non-dimensional
second harmonic force is found to decrease with an increase in kd. The comparison between
FNV second order forces with the measured is quite good. The second-order results, however,
in general is observed to be lower than that of the FNV theory, particularly for the lower values
of kA < 0.15. The measured normalized third harmonic force is observed to decrease with an
increase in kd. The measured normalized third harmonic force is in fair agreement with the
FNV theory except for kA>0.2 in which case the theoretical predictions are slightly higher.
Wave Elevation at Structure Wave Elevation at Structure

30 800
25 700
20 600
15 500
P 10 400
F
S
5
300
0
200
8.5 13.5 18.5
-5
100
-10
0
-15
0 1 2 3 4 5
Total Force Total Force
25 900
20 800
15 700
10 600
F (Kg)
5 500
0 400
SF
-5 8.5 13.5 18.5 300

-10 200
-15 100
-20 0
-25 0 1 2 3 4 5
Structural Acceleration
0.6 Structural Acceleration
0.25
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.15
a (m/sec2)
0
8.5 13.5 18.5 0.1
-0.2
Sa
-0.4 0.05
-0.6
0
-0.8 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s) Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 2. Times series and power spectra from regular wave test (H=0.30 m, Tp=2.1 s).
536
8 5
6 4.8
F1 4.6
J$52 4
F1
J$52 4.4
2 Measured
4.2
Linear Theory, d=0.75m
0
4
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
kd
kA
6
1.2
1.1
4
F2
J$2R F2
J$2R 1
2
0.9 Measured
FNV Second Order, d=0.75m
0 0.8
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
kd kA
4
0.6
0.55
F3
J$3
F3
2
J$3 0.5
0.45 Measured
FNV Third Order,d=0.75m
0 0.4
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
kd kA
Fig. 3. Measured first, seceond and third order Fig. 4. Measured first, second and third order
fouriers amplitudes in regular waves Vs. the fourier amplitudes in regular waves Vs the
relative water depth kd wave steepness kA (T=2.1s kept constant)
It is observed from the tests the ringing response of the cylinder due to successive waves with
longer wave period occurs after the transient response of the previous wave dampens whereas
successive waves pass through the cylinder before the transient response of the cylinder
dampens for the shorter wave period and observed that for shorter wave periods the contribu-
tion of higher order terms (2nd and 3rd) is comparatively less than that for long period waves is
evident from Fig. 3.
4.2 Random waves

Typical plots showing wave elevation at the structure, inline force and the acceleration on the
cylinder in a water depth of 0.75 m exposed to random waves with Tp = 1.6 s and Hs= 0.20 m
are given in Fig. 5.
The higher harmonic loads is separated from the force time signal and compared with the FNV
theory. The comparison of normalized first order force with theory, shown in Fig. 6, is found to
be in reasonable agreement for kd ranging between 0.6 and 1.7. The normalized 1st, 2nd and 3rd
order wave loads are found to increase with an increase in kd, the rate of increase of which in
case of the 1st order component is found to be less. The ratio of the width of the wave flume to
the cylinder diameter is 6-10 in this investigation. It is found that the limited width of the wave
flume is not important to the results, however, except when closer to resonance. This means
that a comparison between the experiments and the theoretical models is relevant.
537
Wave Elevation at Structure Wave Elevation at Structure
20 50
45
15
40
10 35
30
5
25
P
F
S
0 20

10 12 14 16 18 20 15
-5 10
-10 5
0
-15 0 2.5 5 7.5 10
Total Force Total Force
24 140
120
14
100
F(Kg)
4 80
SF
60
-6 10 12 14 16 18 20
40
-16 20
0
-26 0 2.5 5 7.5 10
Structural Acceleration Structural Acceleration
0.6 0.012
0.4 0.01
0.2 0.008
a(m/sec2)
0 0.006
10 12 14 16 18 20
Sa
-0.2 0.004
-0.4 0.002
-0.6
0
0 2.5 5 7.5 10
Time(s)
Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 5. Times series and power spectra from random wave test (Hs=0.20 m, Tp=1.6 sec).
8
M ea sure d First O rde r
6 FN V 1st O rde r
F1
4
J$5 2
2
0
0 0.5 kd 1 1.5 2
2
Measured 2nd Order
1.5 FNV 2nd Order
F2
J$ 2R
1
0.5
0
kd
1 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Measured 3rd Order
0.8
FNV 3rd Order
F3
J$
0.6
3
0.4
0.2
0 kd
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Fig. 6. Variations of measured 1 , 2 st nd

and 3 order Fourier amplitudes in random waves with the relative
rd
water depth (kd).
538
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
From the present experimental investigations, influence of the parameters, relative water depth
(kd) and wave steepness (kA) on the higher order wave forces due to regular and random
waves were analyzed and presented. The following are the observations made from the tests
for the selected wave parameters.
Results obtained in regular wave test conditions show a reasonable agreement with FNV First
Order.
The measured second and third order wave force components decreases with an increase in
kd is observed from regular wave tests for 0.6 < kd <1.9.
The measured first, second and third order wave force components are nearly constant with
an increase in the wave steepness i.e. for kA up to 0.36.
Results obtained in Random wave test conditions shows a reasonable agreement with FNV
first order.
The measured second and third order wave force components increase with increase in kd.
The variation of force Vs kd observed in experiments is similar to that proposed by FNV theory
for 2nd and 3rd order force components.
The maximum percentage of 2nd and 3rd order forces, 10 to 15 % of the total force is observed
within the tested range of random wave conditions.
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Chaplin, J.R., (1996). On the mechanics of ringing in offshore structures International Conference in Ocean
Engineering, IIT Madras, 17-20 Dec.1996 pp.717-725.
Cai, X. and Melum, E., (1996). Two fragments of a method for fully nonlinear simulation of water waves In :
Waves and Nonlinear Processes in Hydrodynamics, 1st edition (ed. Grue, J et al., ), Kluwer pp. 37-50, .
Chaplin, J.R., Rainey, R.C.T. and Yemm, R .W., (1997). Ringing of a vertical cylinder in waves, Journal of Fluid
Mechanics, Vol 350, pp.119-147.
Faltinsen, O.M. (1999). Ringing loads on a slender vertical cylinder of general cross-section Journal of Engi-
neering Mathematics, Vol. 35, pp. 199-217.
Faltinsen, O.M., Newman, J.N. and T.Vinje. (1995). Nonlinear loads on a slender vertical cylinder J. Fluid Mech,
Vol. 289, pp 179-198.
Ferrant, P., (1998) Fully non-linear interactions of long-crested wave packets with a three dimensional body,In
: Provisional proceedings, 22nd ONR Symposium in Naval Hydrodynamics, Tuesday/Wednesday sessions,
pp. 59-72.
Grue, J., BjØrshol, G. & Strand, Ø., (1993). Higher harmonic wave exciting forces on a vertical cylinder,
Preprint, No. 2. ISBN 82-553-0862-8, Institute of Mathematics, University of Oslo.
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Huseby, M.and Grue, J., (2000). An experimental investigation of higher harmonic wave forces on a vertical
cylinder J. Fluid Mech, Vol. 414, pp. 75-103.
Krokstad, J.R., Marthinsen, T., Nestegard and Stansberg, C.T., (1996). A new non-slender ringing load approach
verified against experiments, Proceedings, Vol. 1A, the 1996 OMAE Conference, Florence,Italy, pp. 371-
387.
Malenica, S. and Molin, B. (1995). Third-harmonic wave diffraction by a vertical cylinder, J. Fluid Mech. Vol. 302,
pp. 203-229.
Mansard, E.P.D and Funke, E.R, (1980). The measurement of incident and reflected spectra using a least
squares method, Proceedings of 17th International Conference on Coastal Engineering, Sydney, pp. 154-
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Morison, J. R.,OBrien, M. P., Johnson, J. W. and Shaff, S. A. (1950).The forces exerted by surface waves on
piles, Petroleum Transactions, AIME, Vol. 189, pp. 149-154.
Newman, J. N. (1994). Nonlinear Scattering of long waves by a vertical cylinder, Symp. In honour of Professor
E.Palm, Oslo Norway.
Newman, J. N. (1996). The second-order wave force on vertical cylinder, J. Fluid Mech. Vol. 320, pp. 417-443.
Stansberg, C T., 1993, Non-gaussian properties of second-order sum frequency responses in irregular waves:
A numerical study, OMAE, Offshore Technology, ASME, Vol.1, pp. 481-489.
Stansberg, C T., Huse, E., Krokstad, J. R. and Lehn, E., (1995). Experimental study of nolinear loads on vertical
cylinders in steep random waves. Proceedings, Vol. 1, ISOPE Conference, The Hague, The Netherlands,
pp. 75-82.
Stansberg, C.T., (1997). Comparing ringing loads from experiments with cylinders of different diameters - an
empirical study, BOSS97, Delft, July 1997, pp. 95-109.
540
NUMERICAL MODEL OF WAVE FORCES ON SEMI

SUBMERGED OBSTACLE
M.R. Abbasi1*, V. Sundar2 and A Schlenkhoff1
1
Hydraulic Engineering Section, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Bergische University of Wuppertal, Germany
2
Department of Ocean Engineering, I.I.T. Madras, Chennai, India
Abstract
Due to the rapid increase in the computational capability, there has been a steady progress in
numerical modeling of wave structure interaction problems. Several investigators have devel-
oped formulations and mathematical tools to understand the behaviour of fixed and floating
structures in waves. In the present work, a numerical model based on the Boundary Element
Method (BEM) using the Greens Function has been developed. With this numerical model,
the hydrodynamic wave forces and the transmission characteristics of semi submerged ob-
stacles near the free surface have been evaluated and presented as a function of the scatter-
ing parameter. Further, a parametric study has been carried out, in which the effect of the
relative depth of submergence and the geometrical shape of the obstacle is examined. For
this purpose, three different shapes (circular and rectangular cylinder and a thin impermeable
barrier) and five different relative depths of submergence of the obstacle were considered.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The estimation of the hydrodynamic forces due to waves on structural members is vital for an
economic and safe design. A major task of the designer is to find an appropriate model for the
prediction of these forces. With the rapid development and availability of powerful personal
computers, numerical modeling has become easier, faster and a prevalent method. Several
investigators have developed analytical and numerical tools for the evaluation of the forces and
transmission characteristics of different geometrical shapes and different depths of submer-
gence (for instance, Ursell, 1947 & 1948; Morison et al., 1950; Ijima et al., 1976, Naftzger and
Chakrabarti, 1979).
The main objective of the present study is to investigate the effect of the depth of submer-
gence as well as the effect of the shape of semi submerged obstacles on the hydrodynamic
forces exerted on them and also to study their wave transmission characteristics. For this
purpose, a numerical model, based on the Boundary Element Method, has been developed.
For the parametric study, three different geometrical shapes (circular cylinder, rectangular
cylinder and a thin impermeable skirt barrier) have been selected. Further, the effect of the
depth of submergence has been studied by choosing five different relative depths of submer-
gence, a/d = 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, and 0.5, where a is the depth of submergence below the still
water level, SWL and d is the water depth. Further, the pressure distribution on the seaside
*Corresponding author, e-mail: 1mahmoud@abbasi.de
and the variation of the pressure ratio (pressure on the seaside to that on the leeside of skirt)
are reported in this paper. The forces and the reflection coefficient are presented as a function
of the scattering parameter, ka, in which k is the wave number. The definition sketches of the
cross sections considered in this study are given in Fig.1a to Fig.1c.
Fig.1c.
Ci l C li d b R t l C li d Ski t
a. Circular Cylinder b. Rectangular Cylinder c. Skirt
Fig. 1. Definition sketch of the semi-submerged obstacles.
2.0 NUMERICAL MODEL
To determine the hydrodynamic forces and the transmission characteristics of semi-sub-

merged obstacles, a computer code in MATLAB has been developed.
2.1 Governing equation

Referring to Fig. 2, and by applying the Greens Second Identity it can be shown that
( 2 2
)  ∂u ’
∫ φ∇ u ’−u ’∇ φ dΩ = ∫  φ
Ω Γ ∂n
∂φ   ∂u ’
− u ’ dΓ + ∫  φ
∂n  Γε  ∂n
∂φ 
− u ’ dΓ
∂n 
(1)
()
in which, u ’= ln r (2π ) indicates the Greens Function for an isotropic medium, φ : veloc-
ity potential and n: outward normal derivative. The velocity potential and the Greens Function
satisfying the two dimensional Laplace equation, ∇ 2φ = 0 and ∇ 2u ’= 0 leads to
Fig. 2. f Definitionbit
sketch for
b tan arbitrary
l i th obstacle
t din thei water domain.
542
 ∂u ’ ∂φ   ∂u ’ ∂φ 
0 = ∫ φ − u ’ dΓ + ∫  φ − u ’ dΓ
Γ ∂n ∂n  Γε  ∂n ∂n  (2)
Rewriting the Γε boundary term by introducing the Greens Function, u´, and writing dΓ = ε
dθ such that as ε → 0, eqn(2) leads to
 ∂u ’ ∂φ  1  ∂ ln r ∂φ 
φ = 2 ⋅ ∫ φ − u ’ dΓ = ∫ φ
 − ln r dΓ

Γ ∂n ∂n  π Γ  ∂n ∂n (3)
In eqn(3), r indicates the distance between the source point and the observation point.
Now let us divide the boundaries of the problem domain into N number of elements. Then the
numerical solution of eqn(3) is given as
N *
[
φ (i ) = ∑ Eij ⋅ φ ( j )− Eij ⋅ φ ( j )
j =1
*
] (4)
where i indicates the source point and j indicates the observation point and E* and φ* are
the differentials according to the normal derivative of E and φ, respectively. The numerical
formulation of E can be written as
1  r  ∆s j 1  ∆si  ∆s
Eij = ln⋅ (5a) and Eii =  ln − 1 ⋅ i (5b)
π  ho  ho π  2 ⋅ ho  ho
* 1 j
Eij =
( ) ( )
x − xi ⋅ n x ( j ) + z j − z i ⋅ n z ( j )
∆s j
*
Eii = 0
(5c) and (5d)
π r
2
in which, ho is the reference length of the problem domain, ∆sj and ∆si are the length of the j-
th and i-th element, xj and xi are the midpoints x-coordinates of the j-th and i-th element, zj
and zi are the midpoints z-coordinates of the j-th and i-th element and nx and nz are the
projection of the normal derivative in the x and z direction, respectively.
Referring to the Fig. 3, the velocity potential of the regions of 0, 0 and I are denoted as φ0(x,z),
φ0(x,z) and φ0(x,z), respectively. Then the potential functions at the imaginary boundaries
can be written as
Fig. 3. Definition sketch for the illustration of the potentials and the incident, reflected and transmitted wave.
543
ik ( x −l ) −ik ( x −l )
φ 0 (x, z ) = [ e +ψ ⋅ e ] ⋅ A( kz ) (6a)
−ik ( x−l ’)
φ ’0 (x, z ) = [ψ ’⋅e ] ⋅ A( k ’z )
(6b)
where i is the imaginary part, l and l are the distances between the origin and the imaginary
boundaries AB and AB and Y and Y the reflection and transmission coefficient, respectively.
Further A(kz) and A(kz) can be written as
cosh( k ( z + d )) cosh( k ’( z + d ))
A( kz ) = and A( k ’ z ) = (7)
cosh( k ⋅ d ) cosh( k ’⋅d ’)
In the above expressions, z is the point of reference for defining the wave kinematics mea-
sured negative below the SWL, k and k are the wave numbers, where as, d and d are the
water depth at AB and AB, respectively. The linearised Bernoulli eqn leads to the free surface
boundary condition, given bellow
2
∂φ σ (8a) ∂φ * (8b)
( x ,0) = φ ( x ,0) = φ = Πφ
∂z g ∂z
with Π=(σ2 * ho) /g. eqn(8a) can be represented as eqn (8b). Since, the velocity normal to the
rigid boundaries (i.e. CC and BB) is zero,
∂φ *
=φ = 0 (8c)
∂n
Finally, for the imaginary boundaries AB and AB the eqns(6a) and (6b) are rewritten as
* ∂φ
φ 0 = (1 + ψ ) ⋅ A( kz ) (9a) and φ0 = ho 0 = iλ0 (1 − ψ ) A( kz ) (9b)
∂x
* ∂φ ’0
φ ’0 = ψ ’⋅ A( k ’z ) (9c) and φ ’0 = − ho = −iλ ’0 ψ ’ A( k ’ z ) (9d)
∂x
with l0 = kho and l0 = kho. Substituting the boundary conditions in eqn(8) and the potentials at
the imaginary boundaries into eqn(4) leads to the governing numerical formulation given bel-
low.
544
N  N1
( ) ( )
N2
* *
∑  ∑ − δ ij + Eij − Π Eij ⋅ φ ij + ∑ − δ ij + Eij ⋅ φ ij +
i =1  j =1 j =1
( ) ( )
N3 N4
* *
∑ − δ ij + Eij − Π Eij ⋅ φ ij + ∑ − δ ij + Eij ⋅ φ ij +
j =1 j =1
( ) ( )

ψ ∑ − δ ir ⋅ A(kz r )+ Gir A ⋅ (kz r ) + ψ ’ ∑ − δ is ⋅ A(k ’z s )+ G ’is ⋅ A(k ’z s ) =
M M’
r =1 s =1 
N  M
(
∑ − ∑ δ ir ⋅ A(kz r )+ G ir ⋅ A(kz r )

i =1  r =1


)
(10)
with
* * *
Gir = Eir + iλ 0 ⋅ Eir and G ’is = Eis + iλ ’0 ⋅ Eis and G ir = Eir − iλ0 ⋅ Eir
Further, in the eqn(10) δij is the Kroneckers Delta, which indicates for i=j δij = 1 and for i≠j
δij=0 and N= N1+N2+N3+N4+M+M. eqn(10) yields finally to N1+N2+N3+N4+2 set of eqns and
the same number of unknown. The definition of N1 to N4, M, M and the normal derivatives
is given in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4. Cross-section of the problem domain, created for the numerical model.
The potentials once evaluated, the forces on the obstacle can be calculated by
* Fx  iσ ⋅t N 2 
Fx = = Re − ie
 ∑ φ 2 ( j ) ⋅ ∆z j  (11a)
ρ⋅g⋅H 2  j =1 
* Fz  iσ ⋅t N 2 
Fz = = Re ie ∑ φ 2 ( j ) ⋅ ∆x j  (11b)
ρ⋅g⋅H 2  j =1 
545
where ∆xj and ∆zj are the projections of the length of the j-th element in the x and z direc-
tion, respectively.
3.0 VALIDATION OF THE NUMERICAL MODEL
In order to validate the present numerical model, the predicted results have been compared
with results from the existing literature. The comparisons on the variations of Fx* and Fz* on a
cylinder with ka from the present model with the results of the numerical model of Chakrabarti
(1979), the variation of kt with σ2d/g for a cylinder with the experimental of Ijima et al. (1976)
and the variation of kr for a skirt with the theory of Ursell (1947) are projected in Figs. 5a, 5b
and 5c respectively.
The above said comparisons in general are found to be good. To justify the deviation in Fig. 5c,
it is to be mentioned that the analytical formulation of Ursell (1947) considers the skirt in an
infinite water depth.
C a. C
Circular Cylinder C b.CCircular Cylinder S c. Skirt
Fig. 5. Comparison of the results, obtained with the present model with results given in literature.
4.1 Effect of the shape on kr and forces
The variations of the reflection coefficient for the three obstacles with ka for a/d = 0.1 and a/d
=0.5 are presented in Figs.6a and 6b respectively. The rectangular cylinder exhibits the
highest, whereas, the skirt exhibits the least reflection coefficient. The difference for the two
cylinders is quite less particularly for lower ka, whereas, an increase in ka leads to a higher
kr, for the square cylinder compared to that for the circular cylinder. Though, the depth of
submergence as well as the area of cross section are same for both structures, the short
period waves, while, passing the circular section is expected undergo smooth transmission,
while, in the case of the square section, the presence of sharp corners is expected to result in
546
greater reflection of incident wave energy. The large difference in kr, between the cylinders and
the skirt is due to the fact, that the particle motions are intercepted over a larger distance in
the direction of wave propagation leading to a higher reflection of incident wave energy in the
case of cylinders. This length of obstruction in the direction of wave propagation in the case of
a skirt is negligible leading to a lesser kr. Comparing the differences between the shapes for
the different depths of submergence, one can see, that the difference between the kr for the
circular and rectangular sections keep increasing with an increase of the a/d. Further, the kr is
found to increase with an increase in a/d.
/d a.0a/d1= 0.1 b /d 0 5 b. a/d = 0.5

Fig. 6. Effect of the shape of the obstacle on the reflection coefficient.
The variations of the dimensionless horizontal [Fx*] and vertical [Fz*] forces on the two cylin-
ders with ka for a/d = 0.1 and a/d = 0.5 are reported in Figs. 7a and 7b respectively. From the
results, it is seen that the horizontal force is higher for the square cylinder for all ka, whereas,
the vertical force on the circular cylinder is higher than that on the rectangular cylinder. This is
due to the fact, that the area exposed to the waves in the vertical plane is higher for the
rectangular cylinder. Though, the trend in the variation of the forces with ka for both cylinders
is found to be similar, the maximum horizontal force on the square section is found to occur at
slightly lower frequency zone (lesser ka) compared to the frequency of maximum force for the
circular section.
a. a/d = 0.1 b. a/d = 0.5
Fig. 7. Effect of the shape of the obstacle on the forces.
547
4.2 Effect of the relative depth of submergence
It is found, that the effect of the depth of submergence on kr and the forces is not significant for
the cylinders and hence, the above said aspect only for the skirt is discussed herein. The
effect of a/d on the dimensionless pressures [p*= pmax/ 0.5Hγ] on the skirt at a particular
location, z/a = -0.75 is brought out in Fig. 8. Herein, γ is the specific weight of water, pmax is
the peak shoreward pressure and other variables as defined earlier. It is observed that as a/
d increases, the p* is found to increase. The variations of p* along the depth for a constant
depth of submergence, a/d=0.1 are shown in Fig. 9. The ratio of the pressures on the
leeside to that on the seaside, p* leeside /p* seaside as a function of ka only a/d =0.5 is shown in
Fig.10. Almost a similar trend in its variation has been observed for other a/d. It is seen that
the ratio is always less than unity, which decreases as ka increases. The reflection coeffi-
cient within this range of ka has been found to be smaller than about 10%. Beyond ka = 0:2,
the pressures on the leeside decrease up to about 20% of the pressures on the seaside.
Fig. 8. Effect of a/d

ff on fthe pressure on skirt at z/a= -0.75
Fig. Fi
9. Pressure
9 P distribution
di ont ib
the tiskirt for a/d
th = 0.1. Fig. 10. Comparison of the pressures on the
leeside and seaside of the skirt (a/d = 0.5).
548
In the present study, a numerical model has been used to predict the pressures, forces and
the reflection coefficients for different shapes and different depths of submergence of ob-
stacles, fixed near the free surface. To validate the numerical model, the results predicted
from the present theory are compared with the results given in existing literature. In general,
the comparison is found to be good. Further, a parametric study has been carried out, to
obtain the effect of the shape and the effect of the depth of submergence on the forces and the
reflection coefficient. The following are the conclusions drawn from this study:
· the kr increases with an increase in the ka,
· the rectangular cylinder exhibits a higher kr compared to a circular cylinder,
· the kr is found to increase with an increase in a/d,
· Fx* is higher for the square cylinder, whereas, Fz* on the circular cylinder is higher than that
on the square cylinder,
· the effect of a/d on kr and on the forces is not of great significance for the cylinders,
· the ratio of the pressures on the leeside to that on the seaside, p* leeside /p* seaside is found to
be always less than unity and an increase in a/d exerts an increase in p* on the skirt,
· p* leeside / p* seaside decreases with an increase in ka.
REFERENCES
Schäfer, G., (2001) Greens functions in Mathematical Physics, Theoretical Physics Dissertation, University of
Kent, U.K., pp 18-19.
Ijima, T. Chou, C.R. and Yoshida, A. (1976) Method of analysis for 2-D water wave problems, Proc. of Coastal
Engineering, ASCE, 156, pp 2717-2736.
Naftzger, R.A. and Chakrabarti, S.K. (1979) Scattering of waves by 2-D circular obstacles in finite water depth,
J. of Ship Research, Vol. 23, pp 32-42.
Yamamoto, T., Yoshida, A. and Ijima, T. (1980) Dynamics of elastically moored floating objects, J. Applied Ocean
Research, Vol. 2, pp 106-113.
Ursell, F. (1947) The effect of a fixed barrier on surface waves in deep water, Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc., Vol.
43, part 3, July, pp 374-382.
549
ANALYSIS OF FIELD WAVE DATA FOR ASSESSMENT OF

WAVE TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENT THROUGH LOW
CORE PERMEABLE BREAKWATER
V.B. Joshi*, M. Phani Kumar and U.V. Purandare
Central Water & Power Research Station, P.O. Khadakwasla, Pune-411024.
Abstract
Visakhapatnam Port on the east coast is a major port of India with all weather facilities. The
southern breakwater was designed by keeping low core to accommodate 50 T concrete cubes
for protection against southwest monsoon waves. It was reported that excessive ship motion
at Offshore Tanker Terminal (OSTT) was causing difficulties in loading operations during SW
monsoon. Three alternative measures were proposed by the project authorities. However, it
was noticed by officials of CWPRS that the excess wave flux at OSTT was mainly due to
transmission of wave through voids and gaps between 50 T blocks. A proposal of rubble lining
on the lee side of the south breakwater to minimise wave disturbance at OSTT within accept-
able tranquility was recommended after detailed hydraulic model studies at CWPRS, which
was executed by VPT in 2001. Prototype wave data collected during the entire year 2002 have
been analysed and compared with the model results, which confirms adequacy of the reme-
dial measure. Efforts have been made in this paper, to present the detailed analysis of
prevailing wave data, which provide relationship between the rate of wave transmission through
breakwater with various wave and tidal parameters. The case study reveals that comprehen-
sive analysis of model and prototype data as well as desk studies can develop confidence for
design of new type of breakwater and execution of the works at major and minor ports.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
A liquid cargo berth called as Offshore Tanker Terminal (OSTT) was constructed during
1970s in the outer harbour of Visakhapatnam and was used initially by tankers of small
capacity (Fig.1). The problem of excessive ship motions at OSTT was reported in 1997-98 by
captains of larger oil tankers (150,000 DWT), during the SW monsoon season, in contrast to
relatively more exposed wave conditions during NE monsoon. The detailed investigation was
carried out through site inspection and hydraulic model studies. Visakhapatnam Port authori-
ties were contemplating proposals like extension of the breakwater towards west or east,
providing vertical wall along the leeward toe of the breakwater etc. After inspection of site in
July 1998 and desk studies, the root cause of the problem was identified by examining rel-
evant factors such as diffraction along the tip of breakwater, flux entering through gap between
shoreline and western tip of south breakwater etc. It was noted that, wave transmission
through body of breakwater was mainly responsible for wave energy transfer towards OSTT
*Corresponding author: e-mail: vilas09@indiatimes.com
550
on the leeward side of south breakwater, which was causing excessive ship motions. The
detailed hydraulic studies were carried out and a proposal of rubble blanket of 500 m length
on the lee side was recommended. After the execution of the proposal at site, it was qualita-
tively reported to be providing adequate tranquil conditions at OSTT. For examining the
improvement in more detail and for the verification of model proto conformity, request was
made to project authorities to collect post constructional wave data at selected locations on
sea and leeward side of the south breakwater and berthing face of OSTT (Fig. 2) for a period
of one year. The detailed analysis of field data at OSTT have been presented in this paper
relating wave transmission coefficient with various wave and tide parameters.
Fig.1 Visakhapatnam Port Fig. 2. Locations for wave data collection in

Layout. prototype.
2.0 PREVIOUS STUDIES
2.1 Desk studies

The theoretical computations were made for diffraction at both ends of the south breakwater
for the wave field using Wiegels tables and the diffraction coefficient upto 0.12 for SSE waves
and 0.2 to 0.3 for ESE waves were obtained. The estimated wave transmission coefficient
(KT) for permeable south breakwater was found to be about 0.35 and was in agreement with
the 2D wave flume studies carried out separately (1/52 G.S.), which was 0.37. Analysis of
visually observed field wave data during SW monsoon of 1999, collected on lee and sea side
of the south breakwater, indicated a wave transmission coefficient of about 0.30 to 0.40 for the
incident waves from SSE direction prevailing at the site. The ship reported data published in
IMD charts provided information about frequency of occurrence of waves in the region.
2.2 Model studies

The studies were carried out on the existing physical 3D model (1/120 G.S.) for assessment
of separate and combined effect of diffraction of waves at ends of breakwater and transmission
551
of waves through breakwater due to presence of large voids and gaps between 50T cubes on
the wave tranquility at OSTT. In this connection, it may be noted that the south breakwater
section (Fig. 3) is very peculiar having its core top located 1.5 m below C.D. (low water) to
accommodate 50 T cement concrete cubes designed to withstand severe wave attack during
cyclonic conditions, unlike conventional design wherein core is above high water level. These
studies were useful as a tool for identifying the root cause responsible for excessive wave
disturbance. Extensive wave tranquility studies with various proposals lead to recommend
optimal solution of construction of 500 m long rubble blanket along the leeward face of the
breakwater behind OSTT (Figs. 2 & 3). The hydraulic stability of the rubble blanket was
confirmed by 2D wave flume studies (1/52 G.S.) and incident / transmitted wave heights were
recorded for different wave and water level conditions. The proposal was executed by project
authorities during 2000-01 and was found by project authorities to be qualitatively successful
in controlling the excessive ship motions at berth by ensuring desired tranquillity.
Fig.3 Section of South Breakwater with Rubble lining
3.0 POST-CONSTRUCTIONAL WAVE DATA COLLECTION AND ANALY-

SIS
Prototype wave data at selected 12 locations on sea and lee sides of the breakwater (corre-
sponding to simultaneous wave observations recorded in the model studies) were collected for
verification. Wave train for at least 5 minutes at each location within a period of about 2 hours/
day, during which sea state is assumed to be steady was measured. These observations
were taken by wave recording system installed on survey vessel Nirmal available with the
port by measuring the heave motion. The records of the above wave data for 45 days were
available from January to December, except April 2002, covering both SW & NE monsoons.
The frequency of observations was atleast for a day during January to March, while the same
varied from 3 days to 8 days for other months. From Fig. 2, it could be seen that coverage of
locations of data collection provided the extensive wave climate data on lee side of breakwater
for the portions with and without blanket as well as seaside of south breakwater. These
locations were almost the same as those considered in the model studies.
552
The wave transmission through south breakwater in prototype is affected by several factors,
viz. voids/gaps between blocks, low core top and complex mechanism of reflection and trans-
mission characteristics of the breakwater structure, apart from wave parameters viz. signifi-
cant wave height (Hs), maximum wave height (Hmax), their corresponding wave periods and
water level changes due to tidal variation. The comparison of the model and prototype data, for
the wave transmission coefficients and wave tranquility at various locations for monthly and
seasonal variations were in agreement. The available field wave data was further reanalyzed to
assess the correlation of the wave transmission coefficient with wave and tide parameters
such as Hs, Hmax, Tz, Ts, H/L and water level. The readily available research work by various
investigators regarding wave transmission over the submerged breakwater was not applicable
and the data was required to be analysed as a new type of case (Chiranjeevi et al., Hydro-
2001).
The available data on wave flux in the form of wave train for about 5 minutes at selected 10
locations around OSTT and South breakwater was analysed using excel programme on PC
to obtain plots for percentage wave transmission versus wave heights, i.e., Hs and Hmax with
and without rubble blanket at lee side of south breakwater as given by Fig. 4. Data analyses
for other parameters such as wave period, water level, and wave steepness versus wave trans-
mission under same hydraulic conditions are presented in Fig. 5. Attempt was made to
develop the energy frequency plots from the available wave records of 5 minutes. This analy-
sis is presented in Fig. 6(A&B).
4.0 DISCUSSION ON THE RESULTS
From the Fig. 4, it could be seen that correlation coefficient for percentage wave transmission
versus Hs & Hmax with and without blanket is about 0.62 to 0.67. The percentage wave
transmission through the breakwater section without blanket is about 53% for the Hs of 0.6 m
and Hmax = 0.9 m & 25% for the Hs = 2.5 m and Hmax = 3.4 m. Similarly, the percentage of
wave transmission with blanket on lee side of breakwater is about 30% for the Hs = 0.5 m and
Hmax = 0.9 m and reduces to about 15% for Hs = 2.5 m and Hmax = 3.3 m. The observed
data for Hs and Hmax under with and without blanket on lee side of breakwater indicate a
reasonably good correlation with wave transmission.
From the Fig. 5, the correlation between percentage of wave transmission with average wave
period (Tz) and wave period corresponding to Hmax (Ts) shows that correlation coefficient
varying from 0.14 to 0.13 for Tz and from 0.12 to 0.02 for Ts with and without blanket which
indicate poor correlation. Fig. 5 shows lower correlation between percentage of transmission
of the order of 0.07 and 0.05 for water level and 0.12 and 0.15 for wave steepness with and
without blanket.
As such, the percentage transmission has good correlation with Hs & Hmax (0.62 & 0.67) and
wave transmission coefficient indicates trend to decrease with increasing Hs & Hmax. The
553
plots for Fig. 5 for above parameters show larger variations with correlation coefficient of
0.02 to 0.14 for Tz & Ts, which indicate that the variation in wave transmission phenomena is
poorly associated with above parameters. The wave flume studies (1/52 G.S.) carried out at
CWPRS to assess the relation between wave dissipation and transmission coefficients, wave
and water level parameters for section of breakwater at Visakhapatnam indicated good rela-
tion (A.K. Das, et al., 2001).
The energy-frequency plot for sea side (Fig. 6A) and lee side of south breakwater after
transmission with and without blanket (Fig. 6B) indicate that during the process of wave
transmission, apart from loss of energy, the peak frequency of transmitted wave flux shows
shift towards lower frequencies.
The 5 minutes wave records available were analysed which provided qualitative trends about
energy-frequency distribution. 20 minutes record is ideally required for detailed spectral analy-
sis. Also, for assessing effect of water level variations on wave transmission, wave record
covering different water levels from neap to spring would be essential. Since the present
prototype data collection was mainly planned to confirm the wave tranquility, the wave records
were taken for 5 minutes at each location. The comparison with the model results showed
good conformity about wave tranquillity. For assessment of general trend and spectral proper-
ties a minimum of 20-minute wave record at 5 to 6 selected locations and collected over a tidal
cycle would be required to design developmental proposals of VPT in future on the lee side of
south breakwater. The correlation of wave transmission coefficient with respect to stage of
tide could be assessed only on the basis of data as stated above.
1. The proposal of providing rubble lining/blanket on the lee side of the south breakwater at
Visakhapatnam Port recommended by CWPRS and executed by VPT was found to be useful
in reducing wave disturbance at OSTT.
2. The analysis of recorded field wave data for wave tranquillity at selected locations around
OSTT and south breakwater are in agreement with prior desk and hydraulic model studies
carried out at CWPRS, Pune.
3. The correlation coefficients and plots for various parameters such as wave heights, wave
periods, wave steepness and water level changes indicate that wave transmissions through
lined and unlined breakwater are predominantly related to maximum and significant wave
heights.
4. The analysis of percentage transmission indicate that, as the wave height increases, the
wave transmission coefficient reduces for both lined and unlined portions of breakwater.
5. Due to insufficient duration of wave data, spectral analysis of the incident and transmitted
554
wave data was not possible; however, the preliminary analysis with available 5 minutes data-
base indicates shift of peak frequency towards lower side.
6. Collection of 20 minutes wave record at selected locations would be required to provide

assessment of spectral distribution. In order to assess the relation between prevalent tidal
water levels and wave transmission, the above data collection need to be carried out at differ-
ent water levels from neap to spring.
LEGEND: with blanket without blanket

Fig.4 Plots for Percentage of Transmission versus Hs, Hmax.
LEGEND: with blanket without blanket

Fig.5 Plots for Percentage of Transmission versus Tz, Ts, WL, H/L.
555
Fig.6 A : sea side Fig.6 B : lee side
without blanket with blanket
Fig. 6. Energy Spectrums on Sea side and Lee side of South Breakwater.
The Authors sincerely thank Mrs. V.M. Bendre, Director, CWPRS and Dr. L.K. Ghosh, Addi-
tional Director for the encouragement and kind permission to publish this paper. The Authors
are also thankful to Visakhapatnam Port Authorities, in particular, to the technical staff of the
survey team of Marine Department, Visakhapatnam Port Trust for providing field data.
Notation : Hs : Significant Wave Height

Hmax : Maximum Wave Height
Tz : Average Wave Period
Ts : Wave Period corresponding to Hmax
H/L : Wave Steepness
W/L : Water Level corresponding tidal phase
REFERENCES
Purandare, U.V., Joshi, V.B., Wadwankar, S.V. and Phani Kumar, M., Improvement of wave tranquillity at
offshore tanker terminal of Visakhapatnam Port, Proc. of the International Conference on Ocean Engineer-
ing, (2001), Chennai.
Technical Report No.3642 of Central Water & Power Research Station (1999), Pune, India.
Shore Protection Manual (1984) of US Army Coastal Engineering Research Centre.
Chiranjeevi, A., Rambabu and Mani, J.S., (2001), Wave transmission characteristics of submerged breakwa-
ter- A numerical model study, Proc. of Hydro (2001), Pune-24.
Das, A.K., Purohit, A.A., Kudale, M.D., Poonawala, I.Z. and Bhalerao, A.R., Transmission behaviour of rubble
mound breakwater armoured with 50 tonne concrete cubes Conference on Hydraulic Structures,
Bharati Vidyapeeth, Pune.
556
ANALYSIS OF FORMATION OF HARD PATCHES ALONG

THE APPROACH CHANNEL AT NEW MANGALORE PORT
H.B. Jagadeesh*, V.B.Joshi and U.V. Purandare
Central Water and Power Research Station, PO: Khadakwasla Research Station, Pune 411 024
Abstract
Examination of formation of hard patches along the bottom of side slopes in the approach
channel at New Mangalore Port was made by analysing the soil samples from these regions.
The results of the grain size analysis indicated the presence of major percentage of fine sand
in contrast to silty bed in the vicinity. The soil sample data from other region indicated that the
source of fine sand is from the adjacent beaches. After the analysis of wave climate, shore
bathymetry, it is estimated that beach sand is carried along the sandy fillets, which in turn is
guided along the breakwaters into the approach channel. Presence of fine sand and clay
alongwith silt in the approach channel increases the threshold shear stress, resistance to
movement and density of the bed material, which accelerates the consolidation process, due
to which the bed material turns into hard patches. These `hard patches are difficult to dredge
and cause difficulties for navigation. Remedial measures like outward flaring of the breakwa-
ters, construction of groins, sandtraps and submerged spurs are suggested.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
New Mangalore Port, one of the major ports of India, is located on the west coast, between
Mormugoa and Cochin port. It is an artificially developed lagoon type of Port situated 10 km
north of combined outfall of Gurupur and Netravati rivers. The Port facilities were developed
over the past four decades at the New Mangalore Port, due to limitation of old Mangalore Port
to provide deep draft. At the New Mangalore Port basin, the required wave tranquility has been
achieved by constructing 2 breakwaters in stages, which presently have a length of 770 m
each flanking the harbour entrance with centre-to-centre distance of 1362 m near the roots
and 975 m at the outer tips (Fig.1). The approach channel has a bearing of 259oN, almost
perpendicular to the coastline in order to have minimum length and thus requiring minimum
capital dredging. The length of channel is 7200 m, depth 15.4 m and width 245 m with side
slopes of 1:20. Even though the approach channel is facing the critical westerly direction, due
to the phenomenon of wave attenuation along the approach channel, most of the wave energy
passes out of field after refraction along the slope of the channel and thus the tranquility in the
harbour is achieved. During the past decades, many developments have taken place in
stages at this Port to cater to the ever increasing Port traffic, which required deepening of the
Port basin and approach channel alongwith extension of approach channel and breakwaters.
*Corresponding author, e-mail: wapis@mah.nic.in

During the various stages of the developments of the Port, it was noticed that though desired
wave tranquility is obtained, the main problem was the siltation in the Port basin and approach
channel. During stage I (-9.5 m depth) the approach channel was required to be extended
upto a length of 3200 m in 1975, similarly for stage II (-13.5 m depth) the length of the
channel was extended upto 6250m. For the present stage III (-15.4 m depth) the channel
length is 7200 m. The siltation in the approach channel is about 75-80% of the total mainte-
nance dredging at present out of which about 85% of it is silt, 10% clay and 5% sand.
Fig . 1. Index and layout plan showing the location of water and soil sampling.
2.0 DEVELOPMENT OF HARD PATCH
Subsequent to the completion of the stage I development of the Port with a length of breakwa-
ter of 360 m, it was noticed that siltation of material of different composition in the form of
localized hard patch cause difficulties for dredging at the bottom of northern side slopes of
the approach channel between chainages 500 m to 1200 m west of the baseline. The
thickness of such hard patch varied from 0.5 m to 1.0 m extending to about 50 m to 150 m
laterally. The hard patch poses considerable problem for navigation and for carrying out
maintenance dredging. During the maintenance dredging operations, it was very difficult to
dredge these patches by trailer suction dredgers. Hence intensive dredging using cutter suc-
tion dredgers with repeated traverses were deployed, which require additional expenditure.
During the stage II development, the breakwaters were extended from 360 m to 570 m each,
558
similar hard patch zones were noticed in the region of 700 m to 1400 m chainage on the
northern edge of the channel. In the stage III development, the breakwaters were extended to
770 m length each. The location for formation of hard patch was shifted further seawards and
occurred at 1200 m to 1950 m west of baseline (Fig.2). Since the year 2000, one more hard
patch was getting developed along the southern edge of the approach channel on the bottom
of side slope for a length of 500 m between chainages 1000 m to 1500 m while the hard patch
on north side persisted.
Fig .2. Schematic sketch showing hard patch zones fordifferent stages and samples location.
3.0 COMPOSITION OF HARD PATCH MATERIAL
In order to understand the causes for the formation of these hard patches, bed samples
were collected from these regions as shown in Fig. 2.
559
Table 1 : Mineral composition of the samples
p p
Sl Loca- Density Sieve %
% Minerals composition
No tion Fraction analysis
Quartz, Garnet, Chalesdony,
2.6 – 2.8 50 Fine sand 48
1. 1 Calcite, Zeolite, Serpentine,
< 2.6 50 Silt 52
Kaolinite, Malacite
Chrysocola, Gypsum, Zeolite,
<2.8 30 Fine sand 31
2. 2 Dolomite, Garnet, Pyroxene,
>2.8 70 Silt 69
Hemalite(Traces)
2.4-2.6 85 Gypsum, Serpentine, Quartz, Fine sand 66
3. 3
>2.6 15 Garnet, Pyroxene, Dolomite Silt 34
Quartz, Garnet, Chalesdony,
2.6-2.8 50 Fine sand 39
4. 4 Calcite, Zeolite, Serpentine,
<2.6 50 Silt 61
Kaolinite, Malacite
5. 5
>2.6 15 Garnet, Pyroxene, Dolomite Silt 67
6. 6
>2.6 15 Garnet, Pyroxene,Dolomite Silt 33
The result of these analysis indicate that this material is sandy silt with prevalence of upto
60% of sand, compared to dominant silty nature of the bed material in the rest of channel. The
density fraction, mineral composition and sieve analysis results of this material collected in
hard patch zones are as shown in Table1.
4.0 CAUSES FOR THE FORMATION OF HARD PATCH
4.1 Composition of soil

The grain size distribution of hard patch material indicates major composition of sand in
contrast to silty bed. The only source of fine sand is from the nearshore regions on the
northern and southern sides of breakwaters. Due to the presence of breakwaters obstructing
the alongshore movement, material from the nearshore zone gets carried along the fillets
towards breakwater tips due to wave induced currents. The material then enters into the
approach channel, where it is deposited and compacted alongwith silt.
The presence of fine sand increases the threshold shear stress and additional resistance to
movement, which accelerates the process of compaction in this zone. The formation of hard
patch can be attributed to increased binding between fine sand particles and silt resulting in
more compact and dense matrix which is then more resistant to erosion due to increased
density. The laboratory tests with homogeneously mixed beds show that adding up 50% of
sand by weight to the mud increases erosion resistance upto a factor of 2 ( Richard White
560
House et al., 2000).
The formation of the hard patches on the southern side of approach channel, which persists
only after year 2000, can be attributed to the nourishment of the beach south of south break-
water during 1996-1998 by using the dredged material from the south dock arm. This sand
could be the source of the material for the hard patch formation on the south side.
4.2 Wave climate and longshore currents

The incident wave climate analysis revealed that during the period from January to April, waves
are incident from North-West to West with dominant significant wave heights ranging between
0.5 m and 1.0 m with average wave periods being 4 to 6 second. Due to orientation of
shoreline and bathymetry, these waves cause southerly directed longshore currents after
wave refraction upto the surf zone. During the months of May and June, waves are incident
from south and southwest with dominant wave heights of 1.0 m to 1.5 m with average periods
6 to 8 second, causing longshore currents directed towards north along the southern beach.
During the months of June to September, the westerly waves prevail with wave height between
2 to 3 m with periods from 6 to10 second causing southerly directed longshore currents along
the northern and southern beach. Hard patch along the northern edge could be attributed to
waves during pre-monsoon months and southwest monsoon, whereas, formation of the hard
patch along the southern edge of the channel could be attributed to wave climate during the
months of May and June.
Qualitative injection studies carried out on the 3D hydraulic rigid bed physical model also
indicate that the materials from the fillet will be guided towards the breakwater tips and then
into the deeper regions in line with the breakwater alignments.
5.0 REMEDIAL MEASURES
The remedial measures would be outward flaring of the breakwaters or alternatively short
term measures like providing sandtraps along the outside slopes of the approach channel in
the critical areas around hard patch regions (Fig.3). Provision of submerged short spurs
emanating from the sand fillets will help in controlling the entry of sand into the approach
channel. The construction of short groins along the beach adjacent to the breakwaters
would reduce the movement of sand towards breakwaters. All these measures are to be
judiciously planned after elaborate model studies.
561
Fig .3. Sketch showing various remedial measures to prevent the formation of the Hard Patches.
(1) The formation of hard patches at the bottom of approach channel side slopes of the New
Mangalore Port is a very peculiar phenomenon due to mixing of fine sand with silt from the
northern and southern shore of port.
(2) The presence of hard patches cause problem in navigation and require expensive dredg-
ing methods such as use of cutter suction dredger with repeated traverses.
(3) The presence of Kaolinite with sand mixture increases the binding capacity and the
density of mud cage in hard patches.
(4) The mixing of fine sand upto 50% with silt present at approach channel increases the
shear resistance to movement.
(5) The location of hard patches is drifted seawards substantially after each extension of
breakwaters.
562
(6) The possible source of fine sand on southern side hard patches is due to the dumping
of dredged material in third phase development while on northern side, the source through
southerly littoral drift during pre southwest monsoon.
(7) Remedial measures suggested such as extension of breakwater with outward flaring,
provision of sandtrap, use of groins, submerged short spurs and other economical proposals
can be finalised through analysis of additional field data and elaborate model studies.
The authors sincerely thank Mrs. V.M. Bendre, Director, CWPRS and Dr. L.K. Ghosh, Addi-
tional Director for the encouragement and permission to publish this paper. The authors are
also thankful to New Mangalore Port authorities for providing various data, which have been
used in the studies.
REFERENCES
The feasibility study on the improvement plan of New Mangalore Port, Japan International Cooperation Agency,
August 1990.
M.M. Kamath, New Mangalore Port- Past, Present and Future, Shipping and Marine Industries Journal, Vol.3,
April 2000.
Richard White House et al., Dynamics of estuarine muds, Thomas Telford publications, 2000.
H.B. Jagadeesh et al., Long term effects on siltation patterns due to developments at New Mangalore Port,
Conference on Hydraulics and Water Resources Hydro 2003.
563
HARBOUR AREA INFORMATION SYSTEM THROUGH

GIS
Suresh Nayak*, G.S. Dwarakish and S.G. Mayya
Department of Applied Mechanics and Hydraulics, National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal,
Srinivasanagar 575 025
Abstract
The use of Geographical Information System (GIS) in planning of Port will be beneficial from
the construction, expansion and maintenance point of view. GIS plays its own role in fulfilling
the objective of upgrading the ports more precisely and timely. GIS will be useful tool to depict
various locations and its alignment, surface profiling, estimating the dredging volume, vessel
traffic management system etc. New Mangalore Port (NMP) at Panambur, Dakshina Kannada
coast, Karnataka, along the west coast of India is the study area. This port was declared as
the 9th major port of India on 4th May 1974. The objective of the present study is to create the
GIS database and to develop a module for New Mangalore Port Trust (NMPT) using Geo-
Media Professional 5.1 GIS software and Visual Basic 6.0 (V.B.6.0). Both spatial and non-
spatial available data related to NMP are collected from NMPT, minor irrigation department,
port sub-division etc. The present module gives the online information about the past and
present construction activities, location of entrance channel, turning circle, different coastal
and other structures within and adjacent to port area, and other harbour area information.
Thus, handling the entire activity of a port aided by the GIS and V.B.6.0 application opens up
a new frame in the path of development.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The use of GIS is rapidly increasing and advancing in all fields. Its use and benefit derived from
that being felt in various applications. For example, recent use of GIS has been made to
anaylse and helps the tax collection in U.S.A. The use of GIS in planning the port will be
beneficial considering the following facts. The construction of a port is not a one time activity.
Quite often port construction and expansion is taken in phases. During various progressive
stages the plan of the port has to be modified and corrections are made. Also during various
stages the plan handled in the paper form undergoes the distortion and shrinkage. Further
reproduction from these maps will result in increased deviation from the original objects. If this
plan is handled using the GIS the correction or improvement in the plan can be done easily.
Shoreline and bathymetry change detection study by remote sensing (RS) and GIS was
carried out by Bhandari (2003). The RS and GIS analyses were coupled with numerical mod-
eling. Based on this study he has identified different locations of accretion and erosion sites
*Corresponding author, email: sureshnaikt@rediffmail.com
564
which were correlated with micro level study through field measurement and numerical model-
ing.
The Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS) has been developed for Naviga-
tional purposes. New developments in ECDIS promise a quick progress of integration of vari-
ous data sets. Integration of some oceanographic variables, like tides and currents is already
possible in ECDIS and hence objects and attributes for meteorological and various oceano-
graphic data are also possible to merge (Vatsa and Rajesh, 1999).
Remotely sensed data are used for detecting oil spill to support the contingency plan at a
specific location in the Straits of Molacc. There are certain times when visual techniques and
optical satellite image are unsuitable for mapping of oil spill. The remotely sensed data col-
lected in these situations often provide complex signatures which must be deciphered in order
to locate the oil spill (Mansor et al., 2003).
Coastal Zone Information System (CZIS) has been designed and developed in GIS environ-
ment to prepare an effective Coastal Zone Management Plan (CZMP) for the entire Gujarat
coast using RS data and GIS. CZIS can help in providing an effective Coastal Zone Manage-
ment Planning System for sustainable development of Gujarat coast due to its wide informa-
tion retrieval capability along with generation of varied information and automatic map outputs
(Gupta et al., 2002).
In the course of daily operations, ports and harbour managers must make decisions that are
critical to ensure safe operations and economic stability. The challenge lies in the efficient
integration and distribution of this information comprising in partly of bathymetric data, map/
chart information, commercial information and safety of navigation through a user-friendly
environment ( Wilson, 1998).
Navigational charts are a valuable data source for the study of morphological change in estu-
aries as they provide bathymetric information of many estuaries and span of period of time.
Bathymetric charts surveys can calculate sedimentation and erosion rates, the effects of
changes in natural forcing factors (such as sea level rise) on estuarine environments for most
of the coastal area ( wal and Pye, 2003).
1.1 Objectives
By using the available RS and other conventional data, the objectives of the present study are
as follows:
1. To develop a database and to provide user-friendly GIS software to retrieve spatial and non-
spatial information to generate Harbour area Information System (HIS).
2. To record at what aspects the coast and port facilities are changing and where these
changes are taking place.
565
3. Overlay and Integration of the above-derived information using GIS for monitoring and
management of developmental activities.
4. To use Visual Basic 6.0 as front-end and MS Access as back-end to create a modules of
the layers or entities.
5. Development of HIS Module through RS, GIS and Visual Basic 6.0.
1.2 Study Area

The New Mangalore Port Trust (NMPT) is located at Panambur on the west coast of India
about 170 nautical miles South of Mormugao port and 190 nautical miles North of Cochin port
(Fig.1.). The project establishment for the construction of the NMP was set up in the year
1962. The NMP was declared as the 9th major port of India on 4th may 1974 and was formally
inaugurated on 11th January 1975. The port trust board was formed under the major port trust
act on 1st April 1980.Since then, the port has been functioning as the tenth major Port Trust.
2.0 DATA PRODUCTS
The base map is collected from the NMPT Panambur. This base map consists of the various
features, namely breakwaters, entrance channel, turning circle, number of berth, port trust
hospital, administration building etc. Features of the base map also consist of the attribute
information, for example, breakwater its attribute information such as length, width, type of
armour units, construction details etc.
2.1 Conventional data

The various conventional data used in the present study to develop the harbour area informa-
tion system for NMPT is given in Table 1.
Table 1. Conventional data used in the present study.
Sl. Type of conventional

Source/ Location Year Purpose
No data
SOI
NMPT map of scale (Exclusively
1 2000 To prepare the base map
1:20,000 Prepared for
(NMPT)
1997 To investigate the change in
2 Leadline survey data NMPT and bathymetry in the vicinity of NMP
2004 breakwaters
Naval Hydrographic 1998 To Prepare the Digital Elevation

3 NMPT
Chart (NHC) Model (DEM)
Collected in the To validate the SSC algorithm

shallow water region developed using OCM data
4 In-situ water samples 10.04.04
in the (In next phase of MHRD
Vicinity of NMPT Project)
566
3.0 METHODOLOGY
The study area chosen for the present study is New Mangalore Port Trust ( NMPT), Panambur.
The base map (1:20000 scale), conventional and socio-economic data were collected from
NMPT, Panambur. By using Geo-Media Professional-5.1 GIS Software, image registration
was done by using the Latitude/Longitude details. Followed by data encoding and online
digitization has been carried out. After digitization, the attribute data are attached to the differ-
ent entities or layers prepared from the base map. Then all these information are converted
into shape file. Once the shape file for all the entities are ready, layout was created by import-
ing the information from shape file. This layout gives information about any features using the
identity tool (Fig. 2).
This project also involves taking the output of GIS and using it as an input for VB 6.0. It uses
VB 6.0 as front-end and MS Access as back end. MS Access is used to create a database
about the layers or entities of the GIS output. This is linked to Visual Basic 6.0 form using
ADODC connection and displayed in the VB form . Use of VB 6.0 offers a user-friendly environ-
ment (Fig. 3). This project also shows the general information of the port, port facilities, bathym-
etry data, etc. The modules can be updated for the new database and has to be handled by an
authorized person.
GIS Output
Database development of non-spatial data

using MS Access as back-end
Linking MS Access with Visual Basic 6.0
Display of attribute data and photograph by clicking on

the feature
H.I.S. N.M.P.T
Flowchart showing the development of HIS using RS, GIS and Visual Basic 6.0.
In the present study the different layers are prepared and details are stored as shape file.
567
1) NMPT outer boundary
2) N.H.-17
3) Road network
4) Administration building
5) Water tank
6) Turning circle
7) Entrance channel
8) Berthing facility
9) Breakwaters
10) Length of the beach
11) Port Trust Hospital
12) Kudremukh Iron Ore Company Limited (KIOCL)
13) Mangalore Chemical & Fertilizers (MCF)
14) Seawall
The present Harbour area Information System gives the information about the particular
features of NMPT regarding their aerial extent, location details and all other spatial informa-
tions.
The present module gives an idea about shortest routes from one location to other location,
complete information about number of administrative units of NMPT, number of employees
and their designations.
The MCF, which is one of the important industries comes under the hinterland of NMPT is also
considered for the development of HIS. The important features of KIOCL are also obtained
from the present module.
All the details about past and present constructions of different coastal structures are also
available in the HIS. The actual length, depth, width, and other details of breakwaters, seawall,
approach channel and diameter of turning circle are the attribute data which can be obtained
from the present module. All the attribute information of each feature is showed in the data
window of the GIS software. In Visual basic 6.0 all the details of the port including the GIS
output, SSC, Lead line survey data and physical parameters etc. are shown in VB output and
the data can be updated in MS Access which is used as the backend. Present module has
been developed as an experimental basis. After the experience gained by developing the
module, the modification of the module, by concentrating more on developing a user friendly
software can be attempted.
568
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
Based on the data base development using conventional data and collateral data the following
conclusions were drawn.
• A user friendly Harbour area Information System (HIS) module can be developed effec-
tively using Geo-Media Professional 5.1 GIS Software, which gives online information
about the port and harbour activities.
• Visual Basic 6.0 provides a user friendly environment and MS Access can be used to
update the required information.
REFERENCES
Aithal K.N.and Murari.S, (2000), Port Trust Hospital, Shipping & Marine Industries Journal, Vol.23 pp 58 & 71.
Bhandari G. (2003), Study of shoreline and bathymetry changes by remote sensing application for littoral drift
analysis along Digha-Shankarpur Coast on Bay of Bangal, ISPRSWG VII/3 Workshop and ISRS Annual
Convention, Thiruvananthapuram, India, pp. 1-10.
Burrough P.A. and McDonnel R.A. (1998), Principles of Geographical Information Systems, Oxford University
Press, pp.1-135.
Chaung (2002), Introduction of Geographical Information System, Tata McGraw-Hill. New Delhi, India.
Cracknell A.P. (1999), Remote sensing techniques in estuaries and coastal zones - An update. International
Journal of Remote Sensing, Vol.20, pp.485-496.
Dattatri J. and Kamath M.M. (1997), Littoral drift and maintenance dredging at New Mangalore Port, Proceed-
ings of Indian National Conference on Harbour and Ocean Engineering, Thiruvananthapuram, India, Vol.1,
pp.578-585.
Daphne Vander wal and Kenneth Pye. (2003) The use of Historical Bathymetric charts in a GIS to assess morpho-
logical change in estuaries The Hydrographic Journal, Vol. 110 pp. 5%$ 10.
Gupta M.C., Nayak, S. and Singh, T.P. (2002), Coastal Zone Information System for Gujarat. A GIS Based System
for Preparing Coastal Zone Management Plan ISG Newsletter Vol. 9 No1&2, pp. 58-64.
Mansor S.B. Assilzadeh.H. and Ibrahim H.M. (2003), Satellite image monitoring and oil spill detection, GIS
Development, Vol. 7 pp. 25-28.
Mastering Visual Basic 6.0, by Evangelos Petroutsos, BPB publications New Delhi-1.
Vatsa G.S.and Rajesh Kumar. (1999), Integrated Marine GIS approach in Navigational Charting.
www.GISdevelopment.net/Application/Natural Resource Management.
Wilson K. (1999), Bathymetric Information Management in Ports and Harbours Port Technology International pp29-
31.
Web sites:www.mangalorechemicals.com, www.newmangaloreport.com., www.kudremukhaore.com
569
Fig. 1. NMPT base map.
Fig. 2. GIS Output.
Fig. 3. Visual Basic 6.0 Output.
570
DEVELOPMENT OF A MINI FISHERY HARBOUR AT

THOTTAPPALLY
Kunhimammu Paravath* and P.I.Sheik Pareeth
Harbour Engineering Department, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala 695 009
Abstract
Thottappally coast is an open seacoast with an artificial outlet called Thottappally spillway
that is almost closed for the entire annual season. It is a good fishing region in Alappuzha
District. Therefore, it is imperative to develop this region into a fishery harbour. This paper
highlights the details of investigation, surveys, model studies, planning, design and estima-
tion for the development of a mini fishery harbour at Thottappally. The detailed project report for
the development of harbour is prepared based on the studies. The economic evaluation of the
project is also carried out.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Thottappally is a good fishing region in Alappuzha District of Kerala due to the presence of
mudbank formation, a unique phenomenon on Kerala coast during southwest monsoon.
Mudbanks always provide a tranquil condition and safe monsoon season harbourage facility,
which accelerates the fishery activities in the area. But as these mudbank formations are
alive only for a shorter period, a calm area is not available throughout the year. The fishing
vessels, therefore, find it extremely difficult to land their catches on this beach. The mudbank
formations are also observed to be migrating towards south. So there is persistent demand
from the local people for a mini fishery harbour at Thottappally, which will provide tranquil
condition throughout the year.
Thottappally coast is an open seacoast with an artificial outlet called Thottappally spillway
that is almost closed for the entire annual season. Therefore, it is imperative to create a
tranquil area artificially near the seashore, to enable the fishing vessels to land their catches
safely. Hence detailed field surveys and investigations were carried out. Using the investiga-
tion data numerical model studies were conducted to arrive at the optimum layout for the
harbour, economical cross-section of the breakwaters, quantum of dredging, etc. The plan-
ning, design, estimation for various works and economic evaluation of project were also car-
ried out. The detailed project proposal was prepared based on these studies. These aspects
are briefly explained in the following sections.
*Corresponding author
1.1 Study Area
The proposed site lies between the latitude 901916N and longitude 7602245E. The site is in
Alappuzha District situated 30 km north of Kayamkulam fishery harbour, which is presently
under construction. The fishery harbour at Cochin is at a distance of 80 km towards north of
the proposed site. The location is well connected to the National Highway 47. Fig.1 shows
the location of the proposed site.
2.0 BACKGROUND INFORMATION
2.1 Marine fish production in Kerala

Fishing industry occupies an important role in the economy of Kerala. Keralas share in the
national marine fish production is about 20-25%. The fishermen population of the State is
estimated to be of the order of 9 lakhs with more than 1.50 lakhs households in 300 villages
along the coast of Kerala who depend mainly on fishing and other allied activities for their
livelihood. The total fishing fleet in the State consists of about 4194 mechanised fishing
vessels and 28,198 traditional crafts. Among the traditional crafts, 13219 crafts are motorized
and the rest are non-motorized (SIFFS, 1998).
According to the available estimates of the potential fishery resources of the west coast,
particularly in southwest coasts, Kerala possesses the richest fishing grounds in the area.
The latest picture regarding the exploitable marine resources of Kerala coast is the one fur-
nished by the expert committee on marine fisheries in Kerala headed by Kalawar, et al.(1985)
Table 1 illustrates the potential resources of Kerala coast.
572
Table1. Potential resources of Kerala coast.
Stock Resources in tonnes in different depth zones
0-20 M 20-80M 80-200M Total
Demersal 37935 90432 17040 145407
Pelagic 307539 732908 137863 1178310
Total 345490 823352 154875 1323717
Maximum sustainable yield (MSY)
Demersal (60%) 22761 54259 10224 87344
Pelagic (60%) 184786 440349 82831 707956
Total MSY 207547 494608 93055 795300
As against the above estimated maximum sustainable yield of about 8 lakh tonnes, the
present level of fish production in the state is about 5 to 6 lakhs tonnes/annum. Hence, about
2 lakhs tonnes of maximum sustainable yield is left unexploited. This can be achieved only
by increasing the number of fishing days, improving the fishing gears, increasing the operating
range of vessels by providing safe landing and berthing facilities wherever possible.
2.2 Fishery activities in the project region

The total marine fish production in Kerala State and Alappuzha District from 1990 to 1999
(Fisheries Department, 2002) is furnished in Table 2. The present share of fish production in
Alappuzha district is in the range of 7 to 20%.
Table 2. Marine fish production in Kerala State and Alappuzha District.
Year Quantity in tonnes Percentage share

In Kerala state In Alappuzha
district
1990 662890 117358 17.70
1991 564161 93444 16.56
1992 560742 49639 8.85
1993 574739 44585 7.75
1994 568034 113062 19.90
1995 531646 56805 10.68
1996 572055 72340 12.65
1997 574774 107524 18.71
1998 542698 79459 14.64
1999 580773 114633 19.74
As per the 1990 statistics there are about 244 mechanised vessels in this district. At present
due to lack of proper landing and berthing facilities, operation of mechanised crafts from this
area is very difficult. Now, most of these vessels operate from nearby fishery harbours. If
harbour facilities are provided at Thottappally, it is expected that more numbers of vessels can
be operated from this place. However, for working out the economics the numbers of mecha-
nized vessels, which are expected at Thottappally are limited to 125.
It is estimated that the total number of traditional fishing fleet in Alappuzha District is 3457.
The total non-motorized and motorized crafts in the fishing villages, which will make use of
573
Thottappally harbour are 311 and 771 respectively. However, for the economic evaluation,
additional landings from 600 traditional crafts are considered.
3.0 INVESTIGATION, SURVEYS AND MODEL STUDIES
Preliminary reconnaissance survey was conducted by Harbour Engineering Department for

fixing the location of the harbour. The following investigations and surveys were carried out at
the proposed location.
3.1 Topographic and hydrographic survey

Topographic survey are conducted and based on this a detailed topographic map of the area is
prepared. Hydrographic surveys were also conducted during April 2003 and the hydrographic
chart is prepared.
3.2 Wind and wave observation

Continuous wind and wave observation were conducted for one year. The predominant direc-
tion of the prevailing winds along the shore is from west and north-west during May to Septem-
ber. The predominant direction of waves is from west. The average angle of wave approach is
247ºN. and the average wave height is 1.8 m. The maximum wave height observed is 4 m and
the period of wave is 8 to 12 seconds (HED, 2003).
3.3 Tidal observations and chart datum

Continuous tidal observations were made and based on this tidal levels were fixed. The values
are given hereunder (HED, 2003).
MHHWL + 0.72 m
MLHWL + 0.60 m
MHLWL + 0.39 m
MLLWL + 0.15 m
The chart datum is fixed by the Hydrographic Survey Wing of Government of Kerala. The value
of chart datum (CD) is 2.73 m below the marking on the north-east corner of plinth of watch-
man shed on the north of Thottappally bridge. MSL is 2.13 m below that point, i.e., chart
datum is 60 cm below MSL (HED, 2003).
3.4 Tides and tidal currents

The tides are semi-diurnal and have a range less than 1 m. Tidal currents are significant near
574
river mouths and estuaries. It is to be noted that there is no coastal inlet connecting the
backwater system to the sea in Alappuzha-Purakkad area except an artificial spillway at 1 km
south of Thottappally coast. This spillway is open to sea only during monsoon season. On
the open coast of Thottappally, appreciable tidal currents do not occur.
3.5 Currents
The surface currents in the Arabian Sea are characterized by the seasonal reversal of circula-
tion. In the open water of Arabian Sea, the general circulation of the surface water is clockwise
during the southwest monsoon and anticlockwise during the northeast monsoon. Corre-
spondingly the coastal currents also show a reversal of direction. As per these observations,
northerly long shore currents during November to January are observed on Kerala coast.
During the period from February to October, these currents reverse to southward direction.
3.6 Mudbanks
Mudbanks are observed every year amidst the period of high wave activity along the Kerala
coast during southwest monsoon. With the arrival of high waves, the bottom mud gets churned
up and brought into suspension. The churning action of coastal waters may be attributed to
the effect of shoaling monsoon waves on loose bed. The water during this period is found to be
brackish in odour. Consequent to this, the waves get attenuated successfully in time and
space resulting in calm conditions due to increase of density of seawater due to high turbidity.
Wave height and wave direction undergoes changes in the vicinity of the mudbank. The mud-
bank influences the equilibrium of neighbouring coastline. There is accretion on the northern
side of mudbank formations and eroding tendency on southern side.
3.7 Beach profile

The beach is composed of medium to fine sand (0.125 to 0.5 mm) along Thottappally coast
and across the profile (HED, 2003). The berm sediment becomes finer with the advancement
of monsoon and becomes coarser as the monsoon retreats.
Generally, the beach profiles reach the highest level in the pre-monsoon months. The lowest
level of the beach is observed in July when the wave intensity is at its maximum. During the
monsoon months the profiles exhibit characteristic of storm profiles with steep foreshore.
Generally, non-monsoon season favour deposition and the beach attain its maximum level.
The deposition and consequent build-up in the profile is reported from October to January.
3.8 Subsoil investigation

Borings along the alignment of breakwaters and wharf are conducted to study the subsoil
575
condition at the site and the results are used for design purposes.
3.9 Littoral drift

Littoral drift varies with the seasons of the year but it is predominantly from north to south
along Kerala coast. Based on the current data and field observations on sand bar formations
at Thottappally, it can be concluded that there is southerly littoral drift during the period from
February to October and northerly littoral drift during the period from November to January.
3.10 Model studies

The model studies of the scheme were entrusted to the National Institute of Ocean Technol-
ogy, Chennai. Accordingly, numerical model studies were conducted. From the model stud-
ies, the alignment, length and cross-section of breakwaters are obtained. The tranquility con-
dition inside the harbour basin is assessed to evolve an optimum alignment.
After evaluating all the above parameters and examining different proposals, NIOT have sug-
gested two rubble mound breakwaters of length 410 m and 120 m, encircling the existing
facilities of fish landing centre (NIOT, 1999). The clear width of approach channel provided is
60 m. As per the model study results, the wave tranquility conditions inside the harbour and
channel were within the specified limits and also the siltation in the harbour is very insignifi-
cant (NIOT, 1999).
4.0 PROJECT PROPOSALS
The proposed harbour at Thottappally is intended for providing safe landing and berthing facili-
ties for mechanized as well as traditional crafts. At present, some facilities are available in
the existing fish landing centre, which include an auction hall, locker room, administrative
office, repair shed, peeling shed, parking area, ice plant and lavatory block etc. Even though
these facilities are available the fishing vessels could not land with their catches in the centre.
The boats have to anchor at distant places and to wait for small vessels to carry the catches
to the landing centre.
Proposals are formulated to construct two rubble mound breakwaters of length 410 m (main)
and 120 m(leeward) and to construct wharf of 60 m length by the side of the leeward breakwa-
ter for 125 mechanized crafts and beach landing facility for a length of 175 m for traditional
vessels. In addition, an auction hall of 60 m length, conveying platform of 17 m wide, water
supply and sanitary arrangements, drainage and sewage treatment system, parking area,
internal road, electrification works etc. are planned, designed and estimated. The general
layout is shown in Fig. 2. The detailed cost estimate is prepared for each component and total
cost of the project works out to Rs.1585.00 lakhs.
576
5.0 ECONOMIC EVALUATION
The evaluation of the project is carried out based on the integrated approach. The integrated
project includes construction of breakwaters and wharf by utilizing the existing fish landing
centre and ancillary facilities. The total period of evaluation is kept as 15 years. The capital
investment on the harbour establishment will be actually incurred in about 5 years but the
period of implementation of the project is taken as zero years. The entire capital expen-
diture on the harbour complex is assumed to incur in the 0 year. In the first year itself
cash inflow will be started and the activities will be stabilized. The additional fish catch due to
increase in fishing days is anticipated from 1st year onwards. The economic activities will be
completed by the end of 15th year. A salvage value of 65% of the capital cost of the harbour is
assumed at the 15th year.
Fig. 2. General layout of the harbour.
The major benefits due to the construction of harbour will be incremental landings by the
existing fishing vessels due to increase in number of fishing days. It is assumed that due to
the introduction of the harbour, the fishing days in a year will increase from 200 to 280.
However, for economic evaluation the number of fishing days is taken as 250. Due to this a
yearly incremental landing of 4461 tonnes valued at Rs.1427.56 lakhs is expected from the
existing 125 mechanized and 600 traditional crafts (HED, 2003). The construction harbour will
contribute to the social benefits also.
Based on the above projections, cash inflow and cash outflow of the project are calculated.
The internal rate of return (IRR) of the project comes to 33.36%. The details are presented in
Table 3.
577
Table 3. Cash outflow versus cash inflow of the integrated project.
Items/Year 0 1 2 3 4 to 13 14
Cash outflow
Capital cost
Shore 1585.00
establishment
Harbour complex 60.00
Operating cost 861.41 872.51 883.61 894.70 894.70
Cash inflow
Additional fish 1427.56 1427.56 1427.56 1427.56 1427.56
catch
Salvage value 1030.25
Balance -1645.00 566.15 555.05 543.95 523.86 2457.81
IRR 33.36 %
6.0 CONCLUSION
The proposal for the development of a mini fishery harbour at Thottappally is presented in this
report. The main component of the proposal is construction of two rubble mound breakwaters
so as to create a tranquil basin for the safe landing of vessels in all seasons. The other
facilities proposed are construction of wharf, auction hall, internal roads and parking area,
water supply and sanitary arrangements, electrification works, drainage and sewage treat-
ment system etc.
This scheme would generate additional fish landings to the tune of 4461 tonnes/year. The
total estimated cost for the project is Rs.1585.00 lakhs. The internal rate of return of the
project is 33.36%. This fishery harbour will contribute to the socio-economic development of
the area especially to the downtrodden fishermen folk and also provide employment to thou-
sands of people both directly and indirectly. The studies reveal that the project is technically
feasible and from the analysis of resource potential and investment, it is found to be economi-
cally viable.
REFERENCES
Fisheries Department, 2002, Facts and figures 2000, Fisheries Department, Government of Kerala,
Thiruvananthapuram, 212 pp.
HED, 2003, Mini fishing harbour at Thottappally, detailed project report, Harbour Engineering Department, Govern-
ment of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, 170 pp.
Kalawar, A.G., Devaraj, M., Arun. H. Parulekar, 1985, Report of the expert committee on marine fisheries in Kerala,
Submitted to Government of Kerala, 467 pp.
NIOT, 1999, Numerical model studies and planning of layout for fish landing facility at Thottappally, Technical
report, National Institute of Ocean Technology, Chennai, 69 pp.
SIFFS, 1998, A census of the artisanal marine fishing fleet of Kerala, South Indian Federation of Fishermen
Societies, Thiruvananthapuram, 132 pp.
578
NUMERICAL MODEL STUDIES FOR THE PROPOSED

FISHING HARBOUR AT MAHE
V. Sundar1*, S.A. Sannasiraj1, V. Sriram1, G.V. Chitra Devi1, R. Balaji1 and P.I. Sheik Pareeth2
1
Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras,Chennai-600 036
2
Chief Engineer, Harbour Engineering Department, Thiruvananthapuram Kerala-695 009
Abstract
The tranquility conditions of proposed breakwater alignments for the formation of the fishing
harbour at Mahe for the maximum prevailing wave heights approaching from different direc-
tions were investigated through a numerical model. The appropriate alignment of the breakwa-
ters was arrived based on the numerical results. From the analysis of the wave data, the
annual sediment transport rates along the considered coastal area were also estimated based
on well-established methods. The details of wave conditions, littoral drift, tranquility conditions
for different alignments and the results are presented in this paper.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The formation of any harbour requires a detailed study of various aspects, among which the
investigation on the wave tranquility conditions inside the harbour basin is extremely impor-
tant. It is proposed to form a fishing harbour at Mahe, located between 11o42' & 11o43'N
latitude and between 75o31' & 75o33'E longitude in the State of Kerala, to provide proper
landing and berthing facilities for the fishing activities. The location and bathymetry map of
study area is shown in Fig. 1. The proposed site is towards the south of the Mahe River. The
proposed fishing harbour can also be used as a refuge harbour during the rough season. In
this connection, Department of Ocean Engineering (DOE), Indian Institute of Technology Ma-
dras, carried out a detailed numerical model study on the alignment of the breakwaters for
required tranquility as well as on the prediction of the shoreline evolution due to the shore
connected structures envisaged in the project.
2.0 WAVE CHARACTERISTICS
The present study area falls under grid number 8 in the Wave Atlas published by the National
Institute of Oceanography (1990). The wave data, shown in Table 1 (wave height, wave period
and wave direction) from this atlas were used for the present study.

Fig. 1. Location and bathymetry map of the study area.
Table 1. Prevailing wave characteristics near the proposed harbour layout.
Month T (sec) α
a o0 (deg) H (m) θq (deg)
January 6.5 -60 0.93 -36
February 6.5 -60 0.93 -36
March 6.5 -60 0.93 -36
April 6.5 -30 1.13 -20
May 6.5 +10 1.64 +6.8
June 7.5 +10 2.42 +6.0
July 7.5 -10 2.67 -6.0
August 7.5 -10 1.9 -6.0
September 6.5 -40 1.52 -26.0
October 6.5 -20 1.16 -13.5
November 6.5 -80 0.57 -42
December 6.5 -80 0.57 -42
3.0 LITTORAL DRIFT AND BREAKWATER ALIGNMENT
3.1 Sediment transport rates

The wave data has been analyzed to obtain the average wave height, wave period and wave
direction, from which the average breaking wave characteristics were arrived. The results
indicate that the mean breaker height for the study area varies from about 0.9 to 1.9 m and
wave direction is towards north only during the months of August and June, whereas, for all
other months it is towards the south. The monthly sediment transport has been estimated
based on Energy Flux method (CERC, 1984), the method of Komar (1976) and by integrating
the distribution of sediments within the surf zone as suggested by Komar (1976). The details
about the model is given by Sundar et al. (1987). The results obtained by all the three methods
580
have yielded comparable results. The net drift is observed to be about 0.944 x 106 m3 towards
the South. The northern and southern sediment transport rates are about 0.18 x 106 m3 and
1.134 x 106 m3 respectively.
3.2 River flow and littoral drift

The variation of the ratio of the monthly average of littoral drift (M) and monthly discharge (Q)
provided by the Harbour Engineering Department (HED), Govt. of Kerala is shown in Fig. 2. It
is observed from these results that the value of discharge from the river is more compared to
the littoral drift along the coast. In addition, as the ratio M/Q is less than 7, the drift would be
passed by the tidal flow (Brunn and Gerristen, 1958).
0.14
0.12
M : Average Monthly Litoral Drift
M/Qavg
0.1 Q avg : Average Monthly Discharge
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month
Fig. 2. Monthly variation of average M/Q.
3.3 Alignment of the breakwaters

From the wave characteristics, it is seen that the predominant wave approach the study area
from southwest direction. The four different alignments of breakwaters considered for the
present study are shown in Figs. 3a to 3d. As the net sediment transport is towards the south,
the breakwaters have to be constructed so as to deflect the sediments from depositing inside
the approach channel. Any breakwater alignment having mouth open in northern and western
direction is likely to lead to siltation near the entrance channel. Due to this reason Alternative
I (Fig. 3a) can be deferred. In addition to this reason, the construction of the breakwaters
through the existing outcrops would be difficult forcing us to rule out Alternative IV. Hence we
are left with options of II and IV.
The Alternative II, which has the advantages of avoiding the siltation of discharge near the
mouth of the channel from the river and protection from the predominant wave directions, was
selected for further study. In addition, it is to be mentioned that the Chombal fishing harbour is
581
just a few km south of the proposed harbour at Mahe. The southerly drift will result in slight
erosion on the south of the Southern Breakwater (SBW) of Mahe harbour, which however, will
be restricted by the presence of the northern breakwater of Chombal harbour. Though, the
Alternative IV has disadvantages of siltation of sediment along the entrance channel, for com-
parison purposes, its tranquility conditions has also been carried out.
4.0 WAVE TRANQUILITY STUDIES
4.1 General
The DOE has developed numerical models for harbour tranquility studies. The model is devel-
oped using the mild slope equation because of its generality in dealing with complex wave
fields and accounts for the combined refraction and diffraction of waves. The mild slope equa-
tion is solved by generalized conjugate gradient method as it has a fast convergence rate. The
details of the model are reported by Ganesh and Sundar (2001).
a. Alternative I b. Alternative II
c. Alternative III d. Alternative IV

Fig. 3. Different alternatives of the breakwater alignments.
The area considered for the model study is 2.28 km stretch along the shore (about 712.5 m on
either side of the proposed breakwaters) and up to 6.2 m water depth in the offshore. The
582
study area is discretised with a grid size of 20 m along shoreline and a grid size of 20 m
normal to the shoreline. After interpolation, the grid size is reduced to 2.85 m in the both
directions.
4.2 Alternative II
The wave tranquility studies have been carried out for the wave characteristics as reported
earlier. The distribution of wave height and wave phase contours for all the months were
estimated. The results show that the wave height is less than about 0.1 m in certain pockets
inside the approach channel. In general, the wave height is mostly less than 0.2 m inside the
basin.
For the months, January to March (H = 0.93 m, T = 6.5 sec and θ = - 36°), the wave height
and phase contours are shown in Fig. 4a.The results clearly show that the entire harbour
basin experiences only about 20% of the incident wave height. Due to the presence of
outcrops as well as due to the irregularity in the bathymetry, the waves are found to steepen
at certain locations in the area towards the sea away from the breakwater. The reflection of
waves from the western breakwater (that is the one inclined and is in continuation with the
northern breakwater) is clearly observed. The phase contours clearly demonstrates the phe-
nomenon of wave diffraction. The bending of the wave fronts and penetrating into the shel-
tered area, that is, the harbour basin is clearly seen.
4.3 Alternative IV
In the similar manner, the typical results on the wave height distribution for layout IV for the
months, January to March (H = 0.93 m, T = 6.5 sec and θ = - 36°) is shown in Fig. 4b. The
wave height is found to be less than about 0.1 m inside the harbour basin, however, the waves
are higher near the approach channel. Here again, the phenomenon of wave diffraction is
clearly seen.
4.4 Choice between Alternatives II and IV

For alternative IV, the results show that the wave height is about 0.1 m in certain pockets
inside the basin, while, it is quite large near the approach channel and at the mouth of the
basin. In addition to the above, if the mouth is open towards the West/North, the southerly
drift, which occurs during January to April and July to November, will directly gets silted up
near the mouth, thus leading to manoeuvrability problems. The silting up of the mouth of the
harbour in Chombal, south of the present site is a standing example. Based on the foregoing
discussion, alternative IV can be eliminated.
583
4.5 Extension of western breakwater
The tranquility conditions for the Alternative II were not that satisfactory near the approach
channel. Hence, an extension of western breakwater for an additional length of 75 m was
considered. Accordingly, the breakwater was extended and numerical model was executed.
The typical results for this layout for the month January to March is presented in Fig. 4c. The
tranquility conditions for this layout have considerably improved inside the harbour basin as
well as in the entrance channel. A comparison can be made from visualizing the results for this
layout with the results obtained for the Alternative II.
a. Alternative II
b. Alternative IV
Fig. 4. Wave height and wave phase distribution for the months of January March
(offshore wave climate: H = 0.93 m , T = 6.5 sec, q = -36).
584
5.0 NUMERICAL MODELING FOR SHORELINE EVOLUTION
The numerical model developed by DOE (Janardanan and Sundar,1994) to predict the
shoreline evolution due to the shore-connected structures has been used to predict the
shoreline changes due to the proposed breakwater. The numerical model was applied only
for the final layout. The predicted results of the shoreline change due to the proposed
breakwater alignment for the mean wave characteristics for different months are shown in
Fig. 5. The results indicate the shoreline advancement towards the ocean on the north of
Northern breakwater (NBW) effectively over a distance of about 300 m for a period of 20
years. The shoreline near the breakwater is expected to advance to a distance of about 75 m
towards the ocean. However, the discharge from the river Mahe will wash away the sediments
into deeper ocean, particularly during the months June to August. In order to ascertain the
washing away of the sediments that is likely to be deposited near the mouth, the fall velocity,
W was calculated for the mean grain size, D of 0.25 mm using the empirical relationship W=
6.5D½ , where, D and W are in m and m/s respectively. In this way, the fall velocity works out
to be 0.1 m/s, which is small compared to the velocity in the river Mahe. On the southern
side, the erosion is seen to take place over a period of 20 years, which is however, very less.
As discussed earlier, the presence of harbour in Chombal will be quite effective in trapping
the sediment due to southerly drift.
Fig. 5. Variation of shoreline.
6.0 CONCLUSIONS
Based on the study, the final layout of breakwaters for the formation of fishing harbour at
Mahe, is a pair of breakwaters, of which, the SBW will be of length 541 m and the NBW will
be of length 981 m. The width of the approach channel will be about 100 m. If erosion
adjoining the breakwater is observed, particularly on south of SBW, stone pitching with 1 T-
quarry stones is recommended.
585
REFERENCES
Bruun, P., and Gerritsen, F., (1958), Natural bypassing of sand at coastal inlets, J. of Waterways and Harbours Div.,
85, pp.75107.
CERC (1984), Shore Protection Manual, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Vicksberg, U.S.A.
Ganesh,G. and Sundar,V (2001), Numerical modeling of combined refraction and diffraction of waves and its
application, Second International Conference on Theoretical, Applied, Computational, and Experimental
Mechanics, ICTACEM2001, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India, Paper no :050.
Janardanan, K. and Sundar, V. (1994), Development and application of a numerical model for shoreline simula-
tion, HYDRO-PORT 94,Yokosuka, Japan, pp.11411156.
Komar, P.D. (1976), Longshore currents and sand transport on ocean engineering III, ASCE , pp. 333-354.
Sundar, V., Ananth, P.N. and Sharma, K.G.S.(1987). Distribution of long shore currents and sediment transport
rates in the surf zone off Paradip, Proceedings of Oceans 87, Halifax, Canada, Vol. 3, pp. 970-974.
_________(1990) Wave Atlas for Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal, National Institute of Oceanography, Goa,
India.
586
DEGRADATION OF CORAL REEFS IN GULF OF MANNAR,

SOUTHEAST COAST OF INDIA - WITH SPECIAL
REFERENCE TO LAND USE/LAND COVER CHANGES: A
REMOTE SENSING AND GIS APPROACH
M. Thanikachalam1* and S. Ramachandran2

1
Department of Civil Engineering, Sona College of Technology, Salem-636 005
2
Department of Ocean Development, Anna University, Chennai- 600 025, Tamil Nadu
ABSTRACT
Coral reef and land use/land cover maps were prepared using multi-date remote sensing data
to assess the current status and changes of coral reefs and land use/land cover in Gulf of
Mannar. The changes in land use/land cover indicate that the major changes occurred in crop
land, fallow land, agriculture plantation, forest plantation, scrub land, sandy area and tanks.
Data also reveals a reduction of 25.52 km² in coral reef lost over a period of ten years, due to
changing land use/land cover and other anthropogenic activities along Gulf Mannar coast.
This study also reveals that in Gulf of Mannar, nearly 67.2% of the corals were dead, 13.1%
coral reefs are directly removed by coral mining and remaining 19.6% were live corals.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Coral reefs are called the rain forests of the ocean because they are among the richest
marine ecosystems in species, productivity, biomass, and structural complexity. Due to the
multifaceted use of the coral ecosystem they face many threats, of which some are of natural
origin. The majority of damage to coral reefs around the world has been through direct anthro-
pogenic stress and due to the pressures applied by human beings on the coral reef (Grigg and
Dollar, 1990).
In South India, coral reefs are used on a large scale as a raw material for calcium carbide
industries and in lime mortar making. During the period 1964-1967 at least 170-250 m3 of
corals have been reported to be removed daily from the reefs of Palk Bay (Pillai, 1975). Over-
exploitation of reef associated living resources like fishes, algae and shell by fishermen also
adds to coral reef degradation. Blasting and dredging activities result in high sedimentation
rates on the coral reef of Gulf of Mannar thereby leading to its degradation (Nammalwar,
1996). The coral reefs of Tuticorin group of islands in Gulf of Mannar have been damaged due
to the discharge of effluents from petrochemical industries and other industries along the
coast, and fly ash discharges from thermal plants (Ramanujam and Mukesh 1998). In gen-
*Corresponding author, e-mail: aisuwariyaa@yahoo.com,
eral, coral reefs along Tamil Nadu coast could be categorised as degrading, and hence,
protection and conservation of these valuable marine resources are of prime importance. In
order to protect and preserve the health of these treasured and important ecosystems, it is
essential to monitor coral reefs.
To study coral reef areas effectively and to monitor changes over time, accurate, rapid and
cost-effective mapping techniques are required. Remote sensing is an ideal tool to monitor
coral reef and related ecosystems (Holden & Ledrew, 1999). Satellite images cover large
geographic areas and repetitive images can be captured consistently over time. Furthermore,
the information recorded on a satellite image allows for objective quantitative analysis. This
paper analyses (i) the current status and changes occurred in coral reef and coastal land use/
land cover during the years between 1988 and 1998 using multi-date remote sensing data and
GIS techniques and (ii) the land use/land cover changes, socio-economic activities of coastal
community and their influence on coral reef degradation in Gulf of Mannar.
1.1 Study area
Gulf of Mannar (Fig. 1), extends 140 km in the SW-NE direction between 78º5 and 79º30E
longitudes and 8º47 and 9º15N latitudes and it covers an area of about 10, 500 km². There
are 21 islands, situated at an average distance of about 8 km from the coast and running
almost parallel to the coastline. Gulf of Mannar is endowed with a combination of ecosystems
including mangroves, seagrass, seaweed and corals reefs. Gulf of Mannar exhibits various
types of reefs such as fringing, patch, and coral pinnacles. During 1989 Gulf of Mannar was
declared as a Marine Biosphere Reserve jointly by the State Government of Tamil Nadu and
the Government of India.
Images of IRS LISS-II (April 1988) and IRS LISS-III (May 1998), and Survey of India Toposheets
(1969) were used in this study. To fulfill the objectives of this study, three kinds of approaches
have been attempted, such as (i) visual interpretation of multi-date optical remote sensing
data for detection and mapping of changes in coral reefs, (ii) visual interpretation of multi-date
remote sensing data for mapping and change detection in land-use/land cover and (iii) study
the socio-economic activity of coastal peoples and its influence on coral reefs.
Geocoded IRS LISS-II (April 1988) and IRS LISS-III (May 1998) imageries on 1:50,000
scale were visually interpreted based on image characteristics (Bahuguna and Nayak, 1998),
identified and mapped various coral reef categories in Gulf of Mannar. In the present study,
the classification system was developed by Space Applications Center for the national coral reef
588
mapping project (Bahuguna and Nayak 1994) has been adopted. After identification and
delineation, an accuracy test was made for 112 sample points on Survey of India (SOI)
Topographic sheets. The study area map was divided into grids and intersecting points of
each grid within the area were taken as sample points for validation of classified satellite data
in ground truth checking. Over the ground, out of the 112 sample points, 95 points were
found to be correctly interpreted and it gave an accuracy of about 84.82 percent. The geo-
referenced coral reef maps were digitized, edited, assigned corresponding labels and pro-
jected using ARC-INFO. Finally, a coral reef map was generated using intercept statistics of
coral reef classes in the map.
Geocoded multi-date IRS (1A LISSII of April 1988 and 1D LISSIII of May 1998) imageries
on 1:50,000 scale were visually interpreted based on image characteristics, and various land
use/land cover categories were identified and mapped around Gulf of Mannar. The basic infor-
mation like transport network, tanks, rivers etc. are transferred from SOI toposheet. After
identification and delineation, an accuracy test was made for 150 sample points on SOI
toposheet. The study area map was divided into grids and intersecting points of each grid
within the study area were taken as sample points for validation of classified satellite data in
ground truth checking. Over the ground, out of the 150 sample points, 139 points were found
to be correctly interpreted and it gave an accuracy of about 92 per cent. The georeferenced
land use maps of 1988 and 1998 were digitized in ARC/INFO and were overlaid using TIC
coordinates of the study area. Digitized maps were edited and labeled. Finally, a temporal
land use/land cover change map was generated using intercept operation of ARC/VIEW.
Socioeconomic data were collected through questioner and secondary data from various de-
partments. The result of this approach is expected to provide information on (i) various eco-
nomic activities of coastal communities in Gulf of Mannar and (ii) identification of coral reef
degradation due to economic activities.
3.1 Coral reef mapping

The coral reef maps derived from IRS LISS-II and IRS LISS-III imageries are shown in Fig. 2
and 3. The total coral reef area in Gulf of Mannar based on the present study (1998) is about
61.01 km², of which reef area covers 48.18 km², reef vegetation covers 10.15 km² and de-
graded coral occupies 2.68 km². Multi-date satellite data used in the present study enabled
observing the changes in coral reef area in Gulf of Mannar from 1988 to 1998. Over the past 10
years, areas of some reef classes have decreased and some classes have increased (Table
1).
589
Table 1. Areal distribution of coral reefs and its changes observed during the period from 1988 to 1998.
Area (km²) Area (km²) Changes

Category
1988 1998 1988-1998
Reef area 73.70 48.18 -25.52
Reef vegetation 12.31 10.15 -2.16
Degraded reef (Coral mining) - 2.68 +2.68
3.2. Land use/land cover mapping

The land use/land cover maps derived from IRS LISS-II and IRS LISS-III imageries are shown
in Figs 4 and 5. The areal distribution of various land use/land cover classes for the years
1988 and 1998 and their changes are shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Areal distribution of land use/land cover and its changes observed during the period from 1988
to 1998
Area(sq. km) Area (sq. km) Changes observed

Land Use/ Land Cover Classes
1988 1998 from 1988 to 1998
Settlement 22.070 34.930 +12.860
Crop land 539.860 417.660 -122.200
Fallow land 50.170 52.560 +2.390
Agricultural plantation 185.560 192.570 +7.010
Natural Forest 3.860 0.062 -3.800
Forest plantation 115.290 145.020 +29.730
Mangroves 0.651 1.510 +0.860
Island vegetation 3.810 2.280 -1.530
Salt affected area 19.910 6.800 -13.110
Water logged area 3.620 7.070 +3.450
Marsh vegetation ---- 0.375 +0.375
Scrub land 243.480 294.020 +50.540
Rocky coast ---- 2.540 + 2.540
Mud flat 2.860 4.700 + 1.840
Sandy area 39.280 36.800 -2.480
Tanks 70.840 74.850 + 4.010
Salt pan 27.730 48.930 +21.200
Aquaculture ponds ---- 3.170 +3.170
Flood affected area ---- 0.800 +0.800
Multi-temporal satellite data used in the present study enabled observing the land use and
land cover changes in the study area from 1988 to 1998. Over the past 10 years, areas of
some land use classes have increased, areas of some classes have decreased and some
categories have changed into another category in the study area (Table 3). These changes
590
have taken place due to the increase in population in towns and villages along the coast and
various other developmental activities. The major land use/land cover changes has occurred in
the following classes: (1) cropland area has reduced from 539.86 km² to 417.66 km², (2)
fallow land increased has from 50.17 km² to 52.56 km², (3) agricultural plantation has in-
creased from 185.56 km² to 192.57 km², (4) forest plantation has increased from 115.29 km²
to 145.02 km², (5) scrublands has increased from 243.48 km² to 294.02 km², (6) sandy area
has reduced to 36.80 km² and (7) tanks area has increased from 70.84 km² to 74.85 km².
Table 3. Land use and land cover changes in the study area from 1988 to 1998.
2
Landuse/ Land use/Land cover Changes by 1998 in km
Landcover
Flood
in 1988 Crop Fallow Agricultural Forest Scrub Salt Aqua- Affected
Forest
Settlement Land
(Area in Land Plantation Plantation Land Pan culture Blank
2) Land
km
Crop Land 3.44 -- 27.33 76.46 20.29 76.23 1.86 0.59 0.048 --
(539.86)
Fallow -- 27.52 -- 0.55 4.05 12.41 -- -- -- --
Land
(50.17)
Agriculture -- 18.72 6.56 -- -- 33.24 0.97 -- -- --
Plantation
(185.56)
Forest -- 2.46 -- 6.19 -- 1.17 -- -- -- 4.54
Plantation
(115.29)
Scrub 7.10 34.90 7.60 12.18 4.31 -- 2.59 -- -- --
Land
(243.48)
Sandy -- -- -- 3.72 5.03 -- -- -- -- --
Area
(39.28)
Tanks -- 4.15 -- 1.27 -- 2.95 0.03 -- -- --
(70.84)
3.3 Socio-economic study

Fishing has been the sole occupation of several thousands of fishermen families living along
the coast of Gulf of Mannar. They have been in close proximity with the sea, so that, their life-
style, culture, community and social life have centered around the sea. The main livelihood
activities of the fishermen residing in the villages adjoining the study area are (i) fishing, (ii)
seaweed collection, (iii) chanks collection, (iv) coral mining, (v) fire wood collection and (vi)
agriculture.
3.4 Degradation of coral reefs in Gulf of Mannar

The degradation of coral reefs in the Gulf of Mannar has been well noticed and many authors
have reported that the degradation is quite severe due to the human stress (anthropogenic)
591
and also by natural agents (Mahadevan and Nayar, 1972; Pillai, 1975; Wafar, 1986; UNEP/
IUCN, 1988; Venkataramanujam and Santhanam, 1989; Ramanujam and Mukesh, 1998;
Thanikachalam and Ramachandran, 2002 a & b, 2003 a & b). Arjan Rajasuriya et al., (1999)
are of the opinion that the coral mining for lime, sand mining, pollution, sedimentation, fisher-
ies, mangrove cutting, population pressure, commercial shell collection and industrial devel-
opment have led to the increase in coral reef degradation in Gulf of Mannar.
The analysis of multi-date satellite data indicates that nearly 25.52 km² area of coral reef and
2.16 km² area of reef vegetation were lost over a period of ten years (1988-1998). Through
remote sensing the demarcation of dead coral is not possible. During the time of extensive
ground truth verification (random check), it was identified that nearly 67.2% of the corals were
dead corals, 13% of coral reefs are directly removed by coral mining and the remaining 19%
were live corals. The major anthropogenic and developmental activities causing degradation of
coral reef were (i) destructive fishing method, (ii) sea-weed collection, (iii) commercial shell
collection, (iv) coral mining, (v) poor land use practices and land use/land cover changes, (vi)
coastal urban development, (vii) harbour and dredging activities and (viii) industrial develop-
ment and pollution.
Destructive fishing practices have seriously damaged most of the worlds richest and most
diverse coral reefs (Nancy Mackinnon, 1997). Fishery is the primary economic activity of the
people of the coast of Gulf of Mannar. There are about 50,000 fishermen engaged in fishing
activity. The marine fish catch from Gulf of Mannar during 1992-1996 was between 0.55 and
1.02 lakh tons, with an average of 78, 511 tons. The pelagic fishes formed 54.38%, demersal
fishes 34.85%, crustaceans 5.69% and mollusks 5.08%. Nearly 20% of total fishes in Tamilnadu
are being caught from Gulf of Mannar, of which 44,600 tons consist of pelagic fishes and
35,200 tons of demersal fishes. The fishermen collect holothurians by diving in shallow reef
areas. Much of the fishing is carried out on/and near the coral reef area. In many areas in Gulf
of Mannar, the majority of the reefs have been destroyed by fishing due to modern fishing
techniques like mechanised launches with trawling net and gill net and also by destructive
fishing practices such as dynamite fishing near Tuticorin area. These destructive methods
cause direct damage to the corals and indirectly affect their growth by increasing turbidity and
suspended sediment in the coastal waters and reducing the clarity of seawater and increasing
sediment loads on reefs.
Seaweeds form one of the most commercially important marine living resources. In the study
area there is a good growth of seaweeds, particularly around the twenty-one islands and is
very clearly observed from satellite imagery. Because of their commercial value, the seaweeds
are harvested by fishermen for agar industry. More than 1000 fishermen and women are en-
gaged in seaweed collection in the study area. In the Gulf of Mannar nearly 5000-7000 tons
(dry weight) seaweeds are harvested annually. The continuous harvesting of seaweeds results
in the decrease in areal extent of seaweed area, which was estimated to be about 2.16 km²
area over ten years (1988-1998). This trend may lead to coastal erosion and increase in
592
turbidity and suspended sediment loads on reefs.
Coral mining activity has caused extensive degradation of reefs, coastal erosion and sedimen-
tation in a number of countries all over the world. In the study area coral mining is the major
human activity, which causes coral reef degradation. Various authors have studied coral min-
ing in Gulf of Mannar, notable among them are Pillai (1975), Mahadevan and Nayar (1972),
Venkataramanujam et al., (1981). In Tuticorin group of islands this activity is still very active
and the corals have been used for building, industrial and chemical purposes. The rapid devel-
opment of lime based industries in and around Tuticorin has accelerated the coral mining.
Nearly 250 skilled divers and about 50 boats are engaged in the coral reef mining. The use of
explosives for reef mining has created very serious problems to the coastal and marine eco-
systems like coastal and island erosion and sedimentation, coral reef degradation and reduc-
tion of marine faunal population. Venketaramanujam et al., (1981) reported that about 15,000
tons of the corals are removed from Tuticorin group of islands annually. Present study indi-
cates that nearly 2.68 km² of coral reef area has been mined over a period of ten years from
1988 to 1998 and nearly 0.267 km² of shoreline of Tuticorin group of islands have been eroded
over a period of thirty years from 1969 to 1998. The net result of removal of corals is that the
depth has increased to about 1 m.
Poor land use practices, such as agricultural activities, changing land use practices and
deforestation etc., which increases land derived sediment flowing onto coral reef. In the present
study it was observed that nearly 470.22 km² of land behind the coast of Gulf of Mannar has
been under agriculture land, of this nearly 417.66 km² area fall under the category of cultivated
land. Cultivation in this area is poor and intensive method of cultivation is generally practiced
during rainy season. The poor agricultural practices increase the agriculture waste like pesti-
cides and fertilizers, which are dumped into the coastal water through surface runoff during
rainy season and through rivers. This encourages rapid algal growth, which chokes coral
polyps and cut off the supply of light and oxygen. This problem is common in Tuticorin group
of islands, Vembar group of islands and Keelakkarai group of islands.
Another major cause for the coral reef degradation is changing land use practice. The analysis
of multi-date satellite data indicates that nearly 2.45 km² of cropland has been converted into
saltpan (1.86 km²) and aquaculture pond (0.59 km²); 2.74 km² of agriculture plantation has
been converted into cropland (1.77 km²) and saltpan (0.97 km²); 10.74 km² of forest plantation
has been converted into agriculture plantation (6.19 km²) and forest blank (4.54 km²). Nearly
68.78 km² of scrubland has been converted into settlement (7.10 km²), saltpan (2.59 km²),
aquaculture ponds (0.18 km²), forest plantation (4.31 km²), agriculture plantation (12.10 km²),
fallow land (7.60 km²) and cropland (34.90 km²) over a period of ten years (1988-1998) along
the coast of Gulf of Mannar. Another important human activity encountered in Gulf of Mannar
is destruction of natural forest and island vegetation. Through remote sensing it has been
clearly identified that nearly 3.80 km² of natural forest has been destroyed for fuel wood and
cultivation beings along the coastal plains of the study area, and nearly 1.53 km² of island
593
vegetation has been cut down for fuel wood over a period of ten years (1988-1998). These
changing landuse practices, destruction of natural forest and island vegetation accelerate
the soil, coastal and island erosion and increases the input of inland derived suspended soil
into coastal waters. The increase in suspended soil and other suspended materials in coastal
waters smoother the reefs and cause their degradation.
Increasing urban population along the coastal area has led to pollution due to sewage dis-
charge into the coastal waters. Discharge of sewage is also responsible for the loss of coral
reefs in large quantities. Along the coast of Gulf of Mannar, five coastal towns are located and
due to rapid growth of population, the urban areas have increased in area from 22.07 km² to
34.92 km² over a period of ten years (1988-1998). As a result of this rapid urbanization there is
an increase in the amount of discharge of sewage waste into coastal waters, which has
caused the death of corals in Gulf of Mannar.
Dredging and other harbour related activities like anchoring and ship grounding have increased
sedimentation in the coastal waters and caused the degradation of coral reefs (Brock et al.,
1966). In the study area the New Tuticorin harbour has been constructed at the upstream side
of the Tuticorin group of island. This harbour has a breakwater, which has changed the current
flow pattern and sediment movement along the Tuticorin coast and islands. The periodic
dredging operations at the entrance of the harbour and anchoring of ships have increased the
amount of silt plume, which in turn has increased water turbidity, and lowered the light inten-
sity, leading to coral death. This problem has been extensively observed in Tuticorin group of
islands.
Industrial development and their waste discharge into coastal water affect the coral reefs. The
coast of Gulf of Mannar is experiencing an accelerated growth in the rate of industrialization,
since the New Tuticorin port became operational. The industrial development has led to ma-
rine pollution and coral reef degradation. The dumping of fly ash slurry into Karapad Bay by the
Tuticorin thermal power station resulted not only in filling up of an extensive portion of the bay,
but also letting out of ash directly into the sea causing extensive damage to the coral reef. In
Tuticorin power station, presently five units which produce 210 MW of electricity, consume
2800 tons of coals per day and produce a huge quantity of ash (10-25% of coals used).
Dharangadhare Chemical Works Ltd, Plastic Resins and Chemical Ltd and Tuticorin Alkali
Chemical Ltd are the major chemical industries in Tuticorin area, which discharge their efflu-
ents into coastal water. These effluents contain mercury, sodium carbonate, ammonium chlo-
ride and sodium bicarbonate etc. which are harmful to the coral reefs and the environment.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Visual interpretation of IRS LISS-II and IRS LISS-III imageries helped in demarcating various
coral reef features and land use/land cover classes. The present study reveals that remote
sensing and GIS techniques are more useful in studying the current status of coral reefs and
594
the changes that have occurred in the coral reef ecosystem and land use/land cover over a
period of time (1988-1998). Over the past ten years land use categories have changed
considerably in the study area. Changes in land use/land cover could be attributed to urban
sprawl (due to enormous growth of population) and increasing activity in fisheries and other
coastal and marine resources exploitation.
The present study indicates that the coral reef degradation in the Gulf of Mannar is severe. The
degradation of coral reef is due to destructive fishing practices, seaweed collection, commer-
cial shell collection, poor land use practices, coastal urban development, harbor dredging,
industrial development, pollution and increasing suspended sediment load in the Gulf of Mannar
area. In order to protect the coral reefs and their ability to sustain the livelihood of coastal
communities, the Gulf of Mannar biosphere reserve area should be continually monitored and
the activity causing the environmental degradation should be banned and/or regulated.
The authors are thankful to Shree. A. Dhirajlal, Secretary, Sona College of Technology, Salem
for financial assistance. Authors are also thankful to Dr. P. Hari Prasad, INCOIS, Government
of India, Hyderabad and Dr. J. Devasenapathy, Science City, Government of Tamil Nadu for
their help in the field.
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Brock, V.E., Van Heukelem, W., Helfrich, P., 1966, An ecological reconnaissance of Johnson Island and effect of
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and utilization, Proceedings of Symposium on Coral Reef, Mandapam, 181-190.
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Bay and Gulf of Mannar along the Indian coast, Seafood Export Journal, Vol.7, 1-13.
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images/abstracts.pdf
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their conservation, Proceedings 4th International Coral Reef System, Manila, Vol.1, 259-262.
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596
78° 00 79° 30’
9°
9° N 25 ’
25’
Mandapam
Kottangudia Kappla Rameswaram
Gundar
Krusadi Tivu
Keelakkara Pumurichan
Shingle
Kovi Tivu
Palar Manalli and Manalli Putti Tivu
Talairi Muli Tivu
Appa Tivu Musal Tivu
Palliyarmunai Tivu Valai Tivu
Dhanuskodi
Vaippa Vemba Anaipar Tivu Puvurasanpatti Tivu
Shalli Tivu
Nalla Tanni Tivu
Uppu Tanni Tivu
Kallar Kariya Shuli Tivu

Vilangu Shuli Tivu INDIA
TAMIL NADU
Koswari Tivu
GULF OF MANNAR
Van Tivu
8° Tuticorin 8°
45’ 45’
78° 00’ 79° 30’
Fig. 1. Location map of the study area (Gulf of Mannar).
9°
25’ 9°
N 25 ’
10 0 10 20
Mandapam
Krusadi Tivu
Rameswara
Keelakkara Pumurichan Shingle
Valai Kovi Tivu

Gundar Pala Talairi
Palliyarmunai Dhanuskodi
Musal Tivu Manalli and Manalli Putti
Muli
Anaipar Appa Tivu
Shalli Puvurasanpatti
Nalla Tanni
Uppu Tanni
Vaippar
Legend
Kariya Shuli
Main land Mud flat
Vilangu Shuli
Sandy beach Scrub
Koswari Tivu Reef Island vegetation
GULF OF MANNAR vegetation Forest plantation
Van Tivu
Water body Agricultural
8° Tuticor 8°
45’ T k l i 45’
78° 00’ 79° 30’
Fig. 2. Coral reef map of Gulf of Mannar derived from IRS LISS-II (1988) satellite data.
78 00
9° 9°
N 25 ’
25’ 10 0 10 20
Mandapa
Rameswara
Krusadi Tivu
Keelakkara
Pumurichan Shingle
Gundar Pala Kovi Tivu
Muli
Appa Tivu Talairi
Manalli and Manalli Putti Dhanuskodi
Palliyarmunai
Valai Musal Tivu
Anaipar Puvurasanpatti
Vaippar Shalli
Nalla Tanni
Uppu Tanni
Legend
Kariya Shuli Sandy beach Mud flat
Vilangu Shuli Reef Scrub
vegetation Degraded coral (Coral
Koswari Tivu Water body mining)
Tank Island vegetation
Van Tivu
Rocky coast Forest plantation
8° Tuticor GULF OF MANNAR
R f A i lt l l t ti 8°
45’ 45’
78° 00’ 79° 30’
Fig. 3. Coral reef map of Gulf of Mannar derived from IRS LISS-III (1998) satellite data .
597
78° 00 79° 30’
9° 9°
N
25’ 25 ’
10 0 10 20
Mandapam
Rameswara
Krusadi Tivu
Pumurichan Shingle
Gundar Pala Keelakkara
Musal Tivu
Kovi Tivu
Talairi Muli Manalli and Manalli Putti

Palliyarmunai
Valai Dhanuskodi
Anaipar Appa Tivu
Vaippar Shalli
Nalla Tanni Legend
Uppu Tanni
Roa Forest
Railw Natural
Sand/Beach/ Agricultural
Kariya Shuli Crop
Water body
Koswari Tivu
Fallow Mud
Tan Salt affected
Van Tivu
Settleme Water logged
Tuticorin Mangrov Island
8° GULF OF MANNAR 8°
45’ 45’
78° 00’ 79° 30’
Fig 4. Land use/land cover map of Gulf of Mannar coast derived from IRS LISS-II satellite data (1988).
78° 00 79° 30’

9°
9° N 25 ’
25’ 10 0 10 20
Mandapam
Rameswara
Krusadi Tivu
Pumurichan
Gundar R Kovi Tivu
Shingle
Keelakkara Musal Tivu
Talairi Muli Manalli and Manalli Putti
Palliyarmunai Valai Dhanuskodi
Anaipar Appa Tivu
Shalli
Vaippar R Nalla Tanni
Legend
Uppu Tanni Road
Railway
Sand/Beach/Spit
Forest plantation
Flood affected area
Natural forest
Crop land
Kariya Shuli Agricultural plantation
Water body (Sea/Lagoon)
Aquaculture ponds
Fallow land
Scrub
Tank
Koswari Tivu
Saltpan
Marsh vegetation
Mud flat
Van Tivu Settlement
Salt affected land
Rocky coast
Water logged land
8° Tuticorin GULF OF MANNAR Mangroves
Island vegetation 8°
45’ 45’
78° 00’ 79° 30’
Fig. 5. Land use/land cover map of Gulf of Mannar coast derived from IRS LISS-III satellite data (1998).
598
REHABILITATION OF RUBBLEMOUND BREAKWATER

BY PROVIDING A WIDE TOE-BERM
I.Z. Poonawala, M.D. Kudale*, A.A. Purohit and S.P. Kulkarni
Central Water and Power Research Station, Khadakwasla, Pune-411 024.
Abstract
A concept of providing a wider toe-berm to the rubblemound breakwaters was successfully

used for rehabilitation of damaged breakwaters. In the conventional rubblemound breakwater,
the structure is provided with a small toe having a berm width of about 3 m to 5 m, which acts
as a seat to the armour layer. However, in the wide toe concept, a toe having a berm width of
about 15 m to 25 m is provided, which reduces the wave energy attacking the armour layer
and thereby reduces the required stable weight of armour units. The concept of a breakwater
with a wide toe-berm is very useful in rehabilitation of damaged rubblemound breakwaters.
The seaward portion of the damaged mound can be utilised as a wide toe for the rehabilitation
works. Studies indicated that a toe-berm of about 20 m width just at the low water level and
having stone weight of 1/5 to 1/10 of the armour units of conventional breakwater, reduces the
required weight of stable armour units by more than 50%. The use of wide toe-berm concept
in the rehabilitation of damaged breakwater reduces the cost of rehabilitation of breakwater by
about 30% to 40% as compared to conventional breakwater.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Rubblemound breakwaters are flexible marine structures, which are constructed to provide
tranquil conditions in harbours. The main components of the breakwater are seaside armour,
toe-berm, crest, leeside armour, secondary layers, core, and bedding layer. The toe-berm
plays an important role in hydraulic stability of rubblemound breakwaters. It acts as a seat to
the armour layer and helps in dissipating a part of wave energy incident on armour layer.
In the design of conventional rubblemound breakwaters, structures are provided with a toe
having a berm width of about 3 to 5 m below the Low Water Level (LWL). Since the armour
layer in conventional breakwaters bears the brunt of the wave attack, it requires heavy stones/
concrete blocks in the armour. Cost of construction of breakwaters is high due to requirement
of heavy armour units and high-capacity cranes. A new concept of providing a wider toe-berm
was introduced by Poonawala, (2001) to reduce the wave attack on the armour and thereby
minimizing the required weight of armour units. This reduces the cost of construction of break-
waters. In this concept, a wide toe having berm width of about 15 m to 25 m is provided below
the LWL. The main aim of providing such a wide toe berm is to dissipate part of wave energy
incident on the armour.
*Corresponding author, e-mail: Kudale_md@yahoo.co.in
The flexible structures are generally designed by allowing minor damage under extreme wave
conditions, and needs to be repaired whenever it occurs. However, it has been observed that
less attention is paid on monitoring of these structures. As such, minor damage to the struc-
ture progresses due to the constant attack of waves and leads to collapse of the structure. In
majority of the cases, the damage is initiated either due to failure of toe berm or overtopping of
the structure. The rehabilitation of breakwater is a challenging job for the coastal engineers.
The debris spread in haphazard manner consists of several types of stones, concrete armor
blocks, parapets etc. The damage profiles at various chainages along the length of breakwater
are not uniform. The aspects, such as stability of rehabilitated structure, ease in construction
as well as optimization of the cost need to be considered while evolving the design for resto-
ration of damaged rubblemound structures.
The concept of a wide toe-berm is particularly useful in rehabilitation of damaged rubblemound

breakwaters. The seaward portion of the damaged and flattened mound of the breakwater can
be utilised as a wide toe for the rehabilitation works. In fact, the idea of providing a wide toe-
berm was conceived while evolving solution for the rehabilitation of damaged rubblemound
breakwater. The concept was successfully utilised for the rehabilitation of damaged rubblemound
breakwaters at Veraval and Porbandar Ports along the west coast of India in Saurashtra. The
details of the studies carried out for the rehabilitation works using wide toe-berm concept, its
advantages over the conventional toe berm and cost economics are described in the paper.
2.0 DESIGN OF CONVENTIONAL RUBBLEMOUND BREAKWATER
The stability of rubblemound breakwaters depends primarily upon the stability of individual
armour units on its seaward slope. A major aspect in the design of rubblemound structures is
the optimum weight of the armour units on the seaward slope, required to withstand the
design waves. Extensive studies were carried out on the hydraulic stability of individual
armour units on the seaward slope and several empirical formulae such as, Hudsons formula
(SPM,1994) and Van der Meer formula (Van der Meer,1994) have been derived for the estima-
tion of the required stable weight. The common practice followed for designing the rubblemound
breakwaters is to use the existing design formulae for each individual component of the break-
water and evolve a conceptual design. The overall stability of rubblemound breakwater is,
however, not only a function of the stability of each individual component but also of the
interdependence of other components. Therefore, in the next step, the conceptual design of
the breakwater is further tested and optimised through hydraulic model studies in a wave
flume or a wave basin.
Toe-berm is a significant part of rubblemound breakwater. The function of the toe-berm is to

support the armour layer and to prevent the armour units from sliding down. The toe also
dissipates part of the wave energy, incident on the breakwater. During deep wave run-down /
down-rush, the toe is exposed not only to high velocities but also to high hydrostatic pressure
600
from inside the mound. Therefore, the toe itself has to be strong enough to resist the destabi-
lizing forces. Normally, quarry stones are used for the construction of the toe-berm.The weight
of stones in the toe is generally taken as W/3 to W/5 or even as low as W/10, where W is the
weight of armour unit. A minimum three-layer thickness with berm width varying between 3 m
and 5 m is normally used. However, thickness and berm width are decided on the basis of
physical model studies in a wave flume.The berm width affects the weight of the armour units.
The level of the toe-berm is kept below the low water level. By reducing the depth of water over
the toe, i.e. by increasing the toe-berm level, breaking of the waves can be effected. Wave
breaking over the toe-berm is responsible, to some extent, in dissipating part of the wave
energy, which ultimately strikes the armour layer.
The interdependence of the various components of the breakwater is important in the design.
Recently, a few studies have been reported on the interactions in the stability of toe-berm and
main armour of rubblemound breakwaters. Donnars et al.,(1996) conducted a series of labo-
ratory tests in a wave basin to investigate mutual influence of toe-berm and main armour of the
breakwater on its overall stability. The results of their tests showed that when the toe-berm is
stable, the armour layer remains stable. However, when the toe-berm is unstable, higher
damages occur to the armour. The damage to the toe-berm increases as the stone size in the
toe decreases.
Aminti and Lamberti (1996) conducted wave flume tests to describe and quantify the interac-
tion between main armour and toe-berm. They concluded that an effective berm (high, wide
and stable) could reduce significantly the damage of a steep armour layer, particularly in
deep-water conditions. Van der Meulen et al.,(1996) conducted studies to confirm the Gerdings
formulae (Van der Meer, 1995) for the stable weight of stones in the toe-berm. Their studies
indicated that the density of the stones does not have effect on the stone stability expressed
in the relationship proposed by Gerding. Their computations and experiments also showed
that the water depth in front of the breakwater has significant effect on the stability of the toe.
If the stones in the toe have the same weight as in armour, the toe will be stable. However, the
weight of the stones in the toe can be reduced as it is below low water level. Some empirical
relations are available for determining the stable weight of stones in the toe-berm. Brebner and
Donnelly (SPM, 1984) tested the stability of toes to vertical faced composite breakwaters
under monochromatic waves.
3.0 REHABILITATION OF BREAKWATER AT VERAVAL
Veraval is a fisheries harbour formed by two breakwaters, viz. the Eastern breakwater (440
m long) and the Western breakwater (334 m long). The western breakwater was originally
constructed using 10.5 t dolos blocks on 1:2 armour slope. The breakwater is located in an
601
average water depth of 9 m and was designed for 6.35 m high waves. The breakwater suffered
major damage during severe storm conditions. The visually observed waves during the storm
were of the order of 8 m. As such, the design wave height was modified to 7.0 m. Since the
water depth at the breakwater is of the order of 9 m and 7 m waves would be breaking in this
water depth, the design was governed by breaking waves.
Various alternative methods were studied in the wave flume for rehabilitation works. In view of
the damaged mound existing at the site, many constraints were faced in evolving the solution.
For the breaking wave height of 7.0 m, a conventional rubblemound breakwater needed 25 t
tetrapods in the armour (Fig. 1a). Due to various constraints, such as difficult site conditions,
availability of cranes and other equipment to handle heavy tetrapods of 25 t weight, casting of
heavy blocks in a short time etc and high cost of construction, the Project Authority sought an
alternative design/solution. Furthermore, construction of toe-berm and armour layer to the
required level and slope was not possible due to presence of debris of the damaged breakwa-
ter. Removal of debris was impractical and a costly affair. In view of all these constraints, idea
of utilising the existing mound as a toe-berm was considered. In the modified section, 12 t
tetrapods were used in the armour on 1:1.5 slope (Fig. 1b). The existing mound in front of the
armour layer was covered with 3 to 5 t stones to form a 20 m wide toe-berm just at the LWL.
Extensive stability tests were carried out and the section was found stable even under the
action of breaking waves in the maximum water depth. The design thus evolved avoided the
use of heavy armour units and heavy equipment thereby reducing the cost of construction.
The rehabilitated breakwater has withstood well against severe wave conditions during the last
couple of monsoons, including the severe storm of June 1998, which hit the Saurashtra Coast.
Thus, the use of 20 m wide toe-berm with 3 to 5 t stones at about the LWL effected the
reduction of armour unit weight from 25 t to 12 t.
Fig. 1. Breakwater at Veraval.

4.0 REHABILITATION OF BREAKWATER AT PORBANDAR
602
Porbandar Port is formed by a 2621 m long rubblemound breakwater constructed using 12 t
tetrapods on 1:1.5 slope in the armour. The seaward portion of the breakwater is located in an
average water depth of about 14 m and was designed to withstand 6.0 m high waves. Severe
storm of June 1998 caused total damage to the 600 m portion from seaward end including the
roundhead. The visually observed wave height reported during the cyclone was more than 8.0
m. The wave hindcasting studies considering the past 100 year storm data indicated that
significant wave height (Hs) of the order of 6.8 m is likely to occur at Porbandar with 100-year
return period. Since the water depth at the breakwater is more than 14 m, and most of the
waves will be non-breaking on the structure, the equivalent wave height of H1/10 i.e. 8.5 m was
considered for the design of breakwater (SPM, 1984).
Accordingly, the design wave height was modified and a section for rehabilitation was evolved
through wave flume studies. A conventional breakwater with 6 m wide toe-berm needed 49 t
tetrapods in the armour layer (Fig. 2a). As such, similar to Veraval breakwater, a wide toe-
berm was considered and the existing mound was covered with 3 to 5 t stones to form a 20 m
wide toe-berm (Fig. 2b). However, the level of the toe berm was kept at 2 m below the LWL. 15
t tetrapods were used in the armour on 1:1.5 slope and crest level of the breakwater was
increased to +12 m from +10 m. Extensive stability tests were carried out on the section,
which were found stable upto 9.5 m high waves. The rehabilitated breakwater at Porbandar
has also withstood well against severe wave conditions during the last couple of monsoons.
(a)CONVENTIONAL RUBBLEMOUND BEAKWATER
(b) BEAKWATER WITH WIDE TOE-BERM
Fig. 2. Breakwater at Porbandar.
603
5.0 COST ANALYSIS

For comparison of cost between conventional breakwater with smaller toe berm (5 m) and
breakwater with wide toe berm (20 m), cost analysis has been carried out. The analysis
revealed that the use of wide toe berm in rehabilitation of breakwater results in substantial
saving in the cost of armour (tetrapods), which is about 50% to 60%. Though, the cost of
constructing a 20 m wide toe berm with stones is about 50% higher than that of smaller berm
(5 m), the overall saving in the cost of construction of a breakwater with a wide toe berm is
about 30% to 40% than the conventional breakwater. This saving is in addition to the cost for
removal of underwater debris of the damaged structure, which will be very high.
6.0 CONCLUSIONS
Reconstruction of the breakwater with conventional rubblemound section is difficult due to

presence of debris of the damaged structure. Removal of debris is impractical and a costly
affair. The concept of a wide toe-berm was successfully used for rehabilitation works of
rubblemound breakwaters, where the damaged mound was utilised to form wide toe-berm.
The wide toe-berm reduces the required armour weight compared to that in the conventional
breakwater. The use of 20 m wide toe-berm with 3 to 5 t stones near the LWL effected reduc-
tion of armour unit weight from 25 t to 12 t for Veraval breakwater and from 49 t to 15 t for
Porbandar breakwater. Although, the volume of the stones in the toe-berm appears to be
large, increase in the cost is minor when compared with savings achieved in the overall con-
struction of the rehabilitation works. The wider toe berm facilitates ease in construction, sav-
ing in concrete, avoiding the use of heavy equipment and finally overall savings in the cost of
construction. The studies indicated that a toe-berm of about 20 m width below LWL and
having stone weight of 1/5 to 1/10 of the armour units of conventional breakwater, reduces the
required weight of stable armour units by more than 50%. The wide toe berm concept not only
reduces time required for the rehabilitation of breakwater but also reduces total cost of reha-
bilitation by about 30% to 40%.
Basic studies involving extensive wave flume tests, have been taken up at the Central Water
and Power Research Station (CWPRS), Pune for establishing relationship between the weight
of armour units and the dimensions of the toe-berm in terms of width and depth of submer-
gence.
The authors are grateful to Mrs. V. M. Bendre, Director, Central Water and Power Research
Station (CWPRS), Pune, India for her kind consent to present this paper.
604
REFERENCES
Aminti, P. and Lamberti (1996), Interaction between main armour and toe-berm damage, Proceedings of 25th
International Conference on Coastal Engineering, ASCE, Orlando, Florida, USA,
Donnars, P. et al., (1996), Interaction in the stability of toe-berm and main armour for rubblemound breakwaters
An experimental study, Proceedings of the 25th International Conference on Coastal Engineering, ASCE,
Orlando, Florida, USA,
Poonawala I.Z., et.al (2001), A new concept of rubblemound breakwaters with wide toe-berm, International
Conference on Port and Maritime R&D and Technology, Singapore.
Shore Protection Manual (1984), U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Vicksburg, MS: Coastal Engineering Research
centre, USA.
Van der Meer J.W. (1994), Conceptual design of rubblemound breakwaters, Proceedings of International
Workshop on Coastal hydrodynamics, Sediments and Structures, HYDROSS`94, Pusan, Korea.
Van der Meulen, et al., (1996), Toe stability of rubblemound breakwaters, Proceedings of the 25th International
Conference on Coastal Engineering, ASCE, Orlando, Florida, USA, pp.1971-1984.
Van der Meer J.W. et al., (1995), Toe structure stability of rubblemound b reakwaters, Proceedings of Coastal
Structures and Breakwaters, ICE, London, U.K.
605
MODEL STUDIES FOR THE PROPOSED FISHING

HARBOUR IN RAMESWARAM
V. Sundar1*, P.K. Suresh2, A. Selvarajah2, M. Jayapalan2
1
Dept of Ocean Engg, IIT Madras, Chennai - 600036.
Institute of Hydraulics and Hydrology, Poondi-602 023.
2
Abstract
Rameswaram is an Island located along the south east coast of Tamilnadu. A fishing harbour
is proposed to be constructed due to high potential for fishing activity. The layout that was
arrived was verified based on numerical model studies. In addition, it was finalised after validat-
ing with physical model studies. The effect of post harbour construction on the shoreline was
also assessed. The details of the analysis are presented and discussed in the paper.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The Department of Fisheries, Government of Tamilnadu has envisaged developing a Fishing

Harbour at Rameswaram, situated in Ramanathapuram District of Tamilnadu along southeast
coast of India. The site is located in 9016'30"N latitude and 79019'E longitude as shown in
Fig.1. This is about 11 km east, north-east of Pamban and about 16 km north-west of
Dhanushkodi. The Central Institute of Coastal Engineering for Fishery (CICEF), Bangalore
prepared the feasibility technical report on the development of a fishing harbour in Rameswaram.
The layout consists of a pair of breakwaters. The northern breakwater is straight and of length
400 m and the L shape southern breakwater is of length 1100 m as shown in Fig. 2. It is
designed to accommodate about 750 mechanised fishing vessels. The bathymetry for the
study area, covering a length of 2.0 km along the coast and 1.4 km towards the sea was
provided by the CICEF. The depth contours upto (-) 2 m were found to be nearly parallel. The
maximum water depth contour of (-) 5 m was available at about 1.3 km from the shoreline. The
southern breakwater is terminated at (-) 3 m, while, northern breakwater at (-) 2.75 m.
From the Wave Atlas prepared by the National Institute of Oceanography (NIO), Goa following
are the wave characteristics in general:
Wave height - 2 m to 7 m
Wave direction - ENE, NE, NNE, E, ESE
Period - 5 to 7 sec
Both numerical and physical model studies were carried out, the results of which are dis-
cussed in this paper. In addition, the results on the prediction of the shoreline evolution due to
the shore-connected breakwaters are also reported in this paper.
*Corresponding author, e-mail: vallamsundar@hotmail.com
606
2.0 NUMERICAL MODEL STUDIES
2.1 Wave tranquillity

The numerical model is based on solving the mild slope equation. The combined refraction-
diffraction equation that describes the propagation of periodic, small amplitude surface gravity
waves over an arbitrarily varying mild sloped seabed is (Berkhoff, 1972)
Cg
∇ (C Cg∇ Φ) + σ 2 Φ = 0 (1)
C
where, Φ: velocity potential, σ: wave frequency, C: phase velocity, Cg: group velocity.
Using the relations of Mehaute et al., 1990 given as
∇ [C Cg] 0.5
Φ = Φ (C Cg)0.5 and k2 = k2 -
[C Cg] 0.5
The equation (1) is transformed into a Helmholtz equation of the form.
∇2 Φ + k2 (x,y) = 0 (2)
where, k - wave number, k and Φ are modified wave number and velocity potential.
The numerical solution of the above system of equations is arrived using generalised Conju-
gate gradient method. The details have been reported by Ganesh and Sundar (2001).
The numerical model results were validated with experimental data and mathematical solu-
tions. The numerical model results of wave propagation were compared with the experimental
data for elliptical shoal configuration and with the finite element solutions of Berkhoff et al.,
(1982). The agreement was found good. The present model is based on linear dispersion
relationships.
The offshore boundary is modelled as open boundary along the lateral boundaries, shore and
breakwaters partial reflecting boundary conditions were used with reflection co-efficients. The
model requires the wave characteristics and water depth at all grid points.
2.2 Shoreline evolution

The east coast is highly sensitive to littoral drift and any artificial interference will obstruct the
flow of sediments. The monthly sediment transport rates were calculated from CERC expres-
sion.
Q = 1290 Pls
where Pls - Long shore energy flux and Q - Littoral drift in M.cum/year
607
The quantity of net drift works out to 0.35 M.cum towards north. The changes along the
shoreline due to the construction of harbour were studied by an one line numerical model. The
governing equation is
∂y - ∂Q
(b+Dc) = + q(x)
∂t ∂x
where y - Shoreline position

b - Height of berm
Dc - Limit of actual sand transport
Q - Wave induced long shore sediment transport
Q(x) - Quantity of sediment added per unit length of shoreline by various agencies
like sand deposited or dredged.
The model was solved by a numerical scheme proposed by Kraus and Harikai (1983) using
finite difference scheme. The details of the model are provided by Janardanan and Sundar
(1994).
3.0 PHYSICAL MODEL STUDIES
Physical Model studies were conducted at Institute of Hydraulics & Hydrology, Poondi. A
semi-rigid model to a scale of 1:100 was constructed. The model was moulded from (+) 2 m to
(-) 5 m contour as shown in Fig. 3. The model was proved initially by creating the wave heights
obtained at (-) 5 m by theoretical studies. The model trial runs were made for both southwest
and northeast monsoon conditions. The waves were created for both monsoons by wave
paddle mechanisms. Both high tide and low tide levels were simulated in the model. Then, the
trials were performed for the movement of sediments. The bed of the model was moulded
using powdered coal. The movement was noticed after each season trial.
The wave height distribution obtained from the numerical model studies indicates that over the
entire harbour region, the water height is less than 0.30 m for all the directions. Only a typical
plot for Ho= 2.9 m, T=5.21 s and θo = 300 is shown in Fig. 4, Photo 1 & 2.
The physical model was carried out for waves representing southwest and northeast mon-
soons. The wave height was varied from 1.0 m to 7.0 m and period from 5 sec to 7 sec. For all
these conditions, the proposed layout was found to give good tranquillity of waves inside the
608
harbour area. The wave heights inside the harbour basin were found to be about 1/10th of the
deep-water wave height.
The results on the shoreline evolution due to the presence of the proposed breakwater ob-
tained from the numerical model are shown in Fig. 5. The results indicate an advancement of
the shoreline on the south of southern breakwater and shoreline erosion on the north of the
northern breakwater. This is mainly due to the net drift in the study area is about that it would
take about 0.35 X 106 m3 per year directed towards the north. Similar trend in the variations
of the shoreline was observed in physical model tests. Further, the results also indicate that it
would take about 30 years to bypass the southern breakwater.
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
From the studies performed, the following conclusions are inferred:
1) The layout of the breakwater gives good tranquillity condition.

2) The net drift of 0.35 X 106 m3 towards north will get interrupted.
3) The sediments will bypass the breakwater after 30 years.
REFERENCES
Berkhoff, J.C.W. (1972) Computation of combined refraction diffraction. Proceedings of 13th International Con-
ference of Coastal Engg., Vancouver, Canada, 471-490.
Berkhoff, J.C.W. et al. (1982) Verification of numerical wave propagation models for simple harmonic linear water
waves. Coastal Engineering, 6, 255-279.
Ganesh,G. and Sundar, V. (2001), Numerical modeling of combined refraction and diffraction of waves and its
Application, Second International Conference on Theoretical, Applied, Computational, and Experimental
Mechanics, ICTACEM2001, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India, Paper No : 050.
Final Report on model studies conducted for the proposed fishing harbour at Rameswaram in Tamilnadu, I.H.H.
Poondi Report No. 16/1999.
Janardanan, K. and Sundar, V. (1994), Development and application of a numerical model for shoreline simulation,
HYDRO-PORT 94,Yokosuka, Japan, pp.11411156
Kraus, N.C. et al. (1983) Numerical model of the shoreline changes of Oarai beach, Coastal Engineering, 7, 1-28.
Mehaute, B.L. et al. (1990) The Sea, Ocean Engg Science, 9, Part-A, Wiley International Publication, New York.
Shore Protection Manual (1984) U.S. Army Coastal Engineering Research Centre, Washington, D.C.
609
Fig. 1. Rameswaram fishing harbour - INDEX MAP.
Fig. 2. Rameswaram fishing harbour - Layout and field particulars given by C.I.C.E.F., Bangalore
610
Fig. 3. Rameswaram fishing harbour - Model setup.
Fig. 4. Rameswaram fishing harbour - Wave height distribution for the months of January
and December, (H0 = 2.9 m, T = 5.21 s, θ0 = 300).
611
Fig. 5. Rameswaram fishing harbour - Shoreline evolution.
Photo 1. Model during southwest monsoon.
Photo 2. Model during northeast monsoon.
612
IMPOUNDED SOLUTION FOR KANDLA PORT

P.V.Chandramohan
Gouri Sadan, Azad Road, Kaloor, Kochi - 682017, Kerala
Abstract
In locations of high tidal ranges, the natural choice is to put up berths inside an impounded
dock. Along the Indian coast, the tidal ranges are found to increase towards the north. History
has it that three docks were constructed at Bombay. Docks were put up at Calcutta also.
These were all put up by the British during their time. In free India, docks at Haldia and
Bhavanagar were put up in the seventies and sixties. They were designed by foreigners. But
this was not done later in other locations with higher tidal ranges. The paper deals with the
proposal for an impounded dock near Kandla where the tidal range is 7 m.
1.0 HYDRAULIC PARAMETERS
The Port of Kandla was commissioned in 1955. It is located inside Kandla creek at the head
of the Gulf of Kutch. Natural deep draughts are available in this creek due to various reasons.
The creek is subjected to high amplitude tidal oscillations. Maximum tidal range is about 7.0
m. Various tidal levels are given below:
Highest High Water (HHW) : + 7.59 m

Mean High Water Springs (MHWS) : + 6.66 m
Mean High Water Neaps (MHWN) : + 5.70 m
Mean Sea Level (MSL) : + 3.88 m
Mean Low Water Neaps (MLWN) : + 1.81 m
Mean Low Water Springs (MLWS) : + 0.78 m
Lowest Low Water (LLW) : - 0.40 m
The terrain of the surrounding area is almost at High Water Level and is flat. The tidal excur-
sion goes to a long distance inland. This has resulted in a large tidal prism. Kandla consists
of a complicated creek network. Adjacent to this network lies the Hansthal creek system.
These two creek networks are inter-connected by small creeklets. Because of the tidal lag,
flood waters from the Hansthal system passes into Kandla creek. This has resulted in the
efflux being larger than the influx in this creek. The accompanying high ebb velocities and
consequent bottom shear stresses erode the cohesive material in the bed. This has given rise
to high suspended sediment concentrations in the creek. High concentrations are present for
some distance outside in the Gulf also, in its narrow stretch near the outfall of the two creeks.
But in Kandla creek, sediments are prevented from settling due to the high velocities. This is
not the case in the Gulf. The bathymetry of the Gulf gives the picture of shallow banks with a
Corresponding author, e-mail: irpvchandramohan@yahoo.co.in
deep channel in the middle. The flow is channelised through this deeper channel. The flanks
have shallow depths and flat slopes.
The shipping channel takes an almost 90o turn at the creek outfall. The flow crosses the
channel at this location. The flow velocities slow down at the crossing. So, sediments are
deposited in this region. There is a patch of 2.3 km where there is intense shallowing. Depths
are maintained here by dredging. This is a shallow patch through which all vessels are to
pass. Presently, the bed here is at 6.3 m. So at a HWL of +6.0, a water depth of 12.3 metre
is available. This is the present draught constraint of the port.
2.0 IFFCOs INITIATIVE
Indian Farmers Fertilizer Co-operative (IFFCO) has a fertilizer plant at Kandla. They are mak-
ing phosphatic fertilizers for agricultural purpose. A major raw material required by them for
this is phosphoric acid. This is presently being imported. The import is expensive. IFFCO
considered the prospective of indigenously making phosphoric acid. This would enable IFFCO
to obtain this raw material cheaper. This necessitates putting up a phosphoric acid plant in the
vicinity of the present plant. Location of the plant is governed by a bye-product disposal
criterion. The bye-product is Gypsum. The quantity will be about 7500 t/day. This low-density
material will occupy a large space. So in the first place, the location is governed by availability
of a large area for disposal of gypsum.
IFFCO had identified a location near the village of Veera for the plant based mainly on the by-
product disposal criteria. Another factor affecting the viability of the proposal was the import of
rock phosphate and sulphur. They required 1.5 million tons of the former and 0.5 million tons
of the latter annually.
2.1 The constraints

The ocean transport had to be in 13.5 metre draughted Panamax vessels for economics of
scale. So a water depth of about 15 m was required. Natural depths of those magnitudes off
Veera were available about 10 kilometre from the shoreline. This is because of the flat bathym-
etry on the flanks of the Gulf. Cutting a channel across the flow direction in those silt charged
waters would amount to creation of a virtual silt trap. Such a channel would have been silted
up in no time. Besides such a berth will be exposed to wave climate of the region also. The
operation of handling of solid bulk would not have tolerated such wave disturbances. So,
locating a berth off the coast of Veera became a non-starter on account of the unviable ap-
proach length, siltation prospects of the channel or lack of tranquility conditions. IFFCOs
proposal was facing a hopeless situation.
614
3.0 THE IMPOUNDED SOLUTION
3.1 Operational problems without dock

It was at this time that solution came in the form of an impounded dock. An impounded is the
right solution for locations of high tidal ranges. In Kandla, the tidal rage is about 7 metre.
Berthed vessels go up and down by 7 metre with every tide. The berthing structure has to be
higher by this 7 metre. The structure becomes unwieldy and expensive. This is more so for
structures in seismic zone V locations. This creates operational safety problems as well.
During a falling tide, the mooring ropes are to be constantly tightened as the ships come
down. Otherwise, the vessel will drift away from the berth. This is an operation, which has to
be done day and night meticulously to avoid mishaps. There are occasions, when the deck of
smaller, loaded vessels goes down below the deck level of the berths. During such an event,
the ropes are to be loosened gradually. Any laxity in doing so will end up in calamity. Water
surfaces without much of a fluctuation are desirable for smooth and safe operation.
3.2 Principle of impounded dock

The principle of an impounded dock is to retain the high water without allowing it to go down.
The advantage of the high water can be retained at all stages of the tide. It must be remem-
bered that port activities at Kandla had been facing the rigors of the tide. Kandla had been
putting up with all these difficulties during the past. It is time that Kandla took advantage of the
large tidal variation rather than being harassed by it. Retaining the water level is done by
means of gates and retaining structures. The gates are similar to those used in dry docks.
The dock is essentially an enclosure bounded by a water retaining structure. This enclosure
shall not allow water to pass through its body. Inside the dock, water level will be kept at a
reasonably high level. Outside, water levels will go up and down with the tide. At Tekra, the site
of the dock is out in the waters. Approach to the dock from land will be by an approach
embankment. Landward movement of cargo will be over the road and railway to be put up on
this embankment. Retaining structure of the dock will also be in the form of earthen embank-
ment. This has to be made impervious by a cut off wall. The lock also will be retained by
earthen embankment of a similar nature. Beyond the lock, into the waters, there will be a lead-
in jetty from where vessels will be warped into the lock.
3.3 Lock entrance

Entrance to the dock can be of two types. A single gate can be provided. On the dock side of
this gate, water will be at a higher level when the tide is low. The gate cannot be opened at this
stage, due to two reasons. One is that there will be differential water pressure on the gate. In
the face of this massive force it is physically impossible to open the gate. If somehow, water
level in the dock is lowered by dewatering, there will be loss of draught inside the dock. This
615
will ground the berthed vessels inside. All this means that vessel movements can take place
only during the tidal window only. Incoming or outgoing vessels will have to wait for the tidal
window. To offset this disadvantage, a lock enclosed with two gates are provided. A lock is a
moderator between the tidal water body outside and the impounded dock inside. Water levels
inside the lock can be varied either by impounding or dewatering. It can be made equal to the
level outside or that inside the dock. The vessel can be taken inside or outside at any stage of
the tide. It should be remembered that a lock is time saving device. So, it is imperative that
high capacity pumps are provided for pumping.
A D D
A
B C B C
B
PLAN
Fig. 1. Layout of a single dock.
(+) 9000 (+) 9000 (+) 9000

(+) 6000
(+) 5000
(+) 4000
(-) 3000 1000Ø
(-) 9000 (-) 10000 (-) 10000 (-) 9000
Fig. 2. Longitudinal section of the dock.
616
3.4 Gates
In the olden times, mitre gates were the only arrangement. These gates used to be made of
wood if the size is small, while bigger ones were made of steel with wooden butting faces.
However, these gates have serious disadvantages. They are prone to leakages. They also
require highly polished butting surfaces for effective water sealing. Besides, they are direc-
tional. Generally water level is kept at a higher level inside the dock. But during the tidal
window, when the water level outside rises, higher than that inside, the gate automatically
opens even if one wants it to be kept closed. Repairs to these gates are a difficult proposition.
Floating caisson gates are a modern alternative. They are made of steel and have rubber water
seals. These water seals butt against stainless steel plates embedded in the dock wall.
Perfect water sealing can be obtained. These gates can span larger distances. They are to be
usually ballasted down to the sill level.
4.0 OPERATION
Vessels coming in from the mouth of the Gulf will turn and come alongside the lead-in jetty.
This jetty is supported on piles to minimise obstruction to flow. Fixed and rotating bollards and
capstans are provided along this jetty for warping the vessel. If the water level inside the lock
is different from that outside, then there will be differential water pressure, acting on the gate.
In this condition, the gate cannot be opened. If the water level outside is lower, then commu-
nicating culverts between the two water bodies are opened to lower the water level inside the
lock. Pumping out can also be resorted to, to reduce the time. Once the water levels are equal
on both sides, the gate can be pulled to one side into a recess. The gate is a floating steel
caisson. On both sides of it, rubber water seals are provided. The water seals will butt against
the walls of the dock, if differential water pressure acts from the opposite side. More the water
pressure, better will be the sealing. A recess is provided on one side of the lock to accommo-
date the gate. An endless rope passing through a winch drum and pulleys facilitate the move-
ment of the gate to and fro. Once the gate is in the recess, the vessel at the lead-in jetty can
be warped into the lock. This can be done manually by two mooring gangs, leading the bow
and stern ropes or using capstans. Once the vessel is inside the lock, the outer gate is pulled
back to block the lock. The water level inside the lock now, is lower than that in the dock. The
lock is now impounded by pumping in water. The inner gate can be opened when the water
levels become equal. The vessel is now taken into the dock. Dock tugs take over from here
and lead the ship to the allotted berth. A similar operation is required for taking out a vessel.
5.0 SITE SELECTION
Bathymetric survey of the bed off Veera, Sanghad and Tekra revealed that better depths were
available nearer to the shore off Tekra Island rather than at other places. So, it was decided to
617
site the dock at this location. Bed levels of 9 m are available at a distance of 2000 m from
the high water line. So, the lock entrance was located there. The bed landwards of this
location is sloping steeply for a small distance. Within a distance of 400 metres, the bed
climbs to +1. So depth of the retaining structures reduces drastically landwards of this point.
The size of the dock in the initial stage will be 750 m x 620 m. Initially, there will be six berths
in the dock. These berths will be piled platforms. Cargo handling operations can go on, on
these berths. Conveyance of cargo will be through the approach embankment. If the traffic
builds up, and more berths are required, then the dock can be expanded landwards as
shown in the sketch. No berths shall be put up on the rear embankment. The dock can be
expanded in stages.
TO BE REMOVED TO BE REMOVED
FINAL STAGE STAGE 2 A STAGE 1 D D

A
B C B C
PLAN
Fig. 3. Future expansion.
6.0 FIXING THE PARAMETERS
There are important decisions to be taken during design of a dock. Certain parameters
cannot be altered later on. Firstly, length of the longest vessel to be taken into the dock has to
be decided. Length of the lock very much depends on this dimension. This cannot be altered
at any stage during the life of the structure. In this case, the length of the lock has been fixed
as 350 m. Another governing factor is the maximum width that can be catered to. The barrel
width of the lock has been fixed as 45 m. This is considered sufficient for the foreseeable
future. The sill level is a major factor. This decides the ruling draught of the vessel which can
be taken in. If the sill is kept below the natural bed level, the ensuing siltation will interfere with
the movement of the gate. If the sill is above bed level, then the maximum draught that can be
catered to gets reduced to that extent. In the instant case, the sill level is kept at 9 m. The
water level in the dock is another big decision. Operation of gate and warping of the vessel
will require some time. This duration has to be provided for during the high water. In effect,
618
on one hand, the tidal window should be sufficient for ship movements, on the other hand, if
a larger than necessary window is provided, then the available water depth inside the dock
will be reduced. From the co-tidal and co-range graphs of the Gulf of Kutch, it was found that
the tide at Tekra was 0.93 times that at the tide gauge station at Kandla. However, prototype
data is to be collected. With the available tidal data, a water level of +6 is proposed, yielding
a water depth of 15 m.
7.0 CONCLUSION
An impounded dock proposed at Tekra is an essential facility for the future of Kandla Port.
This is essential from the angle of smooth ship handling operations. Inside the impounded
dock, ships are not subjected to, either currents, waves or water level variations. The dock
floor will not be subjected to any appreciable siltation also. Impounded dock takes advantage
of the large tidal variation to increase the water depth available for the ships at the berth at all
stages of the tide. As such, this is the natural answer for a location like Kandla.
619
ARCHAEOLOGICAL REMAINS OF THE ANCIENT

HARBOURS ALONG THE WEST COAST OF INDIA: A
LEGACY OF OUR MARITIME HERITAGE
A.S. Gaur*, Sundaresh and Sila Tripati
National Institute of Oceanography, Dona paula, Goa-403004
Abstract
The maritime activity has played a vital role in the emergence of well-developed civilizations
around the world during mid-Holocene period. Cultural interaction, exchanges of technology,
trade and commerce led the human society to reach at present day height. However, this
development is the result of a well-organized town planning, construction of jetties and harbours
in the past. The archaeological explorations during last one century brought to light a large
number antiquity related to ancient Indian harbours and maritime activities.
Archaeological excavations brought to light a jetty at Kuntasi in Rajkot district of Gujarat,

dating back to Harappan period. The site is located on the river-bank and it is believed that
during high tide boats were reaching the site. It is generally believed that Lothal on the head
of Gulf of Khambhat, was an international trade centre during Harappan period. Marine ar-
chaeological explorations by the Marine Archaeology Centre of NIO brought to light the exist-
ence of harbours at Dwarka, Bet Dwarka, Somnath, Vijaydurg, Sindhudurg, Gopakapattana
and Poompuhar. Identification of ancient harbour is based on the discovery of archeological
evidences like stone anchors, stone structures etc.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Archaeological and literary evidence have indicated that the maritime activities by the ancient
man led to the development of many civilizations along the coasts across the world. Coastal
navigation and safe harbour played a pivotal role in cultural and technological interaction
between the civilizations in the past. The urbanization of Egypt, Mesopotamia and Indus
Valley Civilizations can be attributed not only to the high productivity of their respective re-
gions but also to the ease with which the produce could be moved from one place to another
through the sea and river routes (Gaur, 1991). India has a long coastline and is netted with the
rivers, which facilitated the ease movements of products and this facility has always been the
attraction for the foreign invaders from the ancient period.
The ancient Sanskrit words like Pattana and Dronimukha (Roy, 1994) have been used for
coastal port city where national and international ships and boats were harboured. The oldest
reference to the harbour came from the Mesopotamian text where mention has been made
about the boats from Meluhha were anchored in Agade harbour datable to the mid- 3rd millen-
*Corresponding author, e-mail: asgaur@darya.nio.org
620
nium BC (Kramer, 1964). Archaeological excavations brought to light a jetty at Kuntasi in
Rajkot district of Gujarat, dating back to Harappan period (Dhavalikar, et al., 1996). The site
is located on the tidal river-bank and it is believed that during high tide boats were reaching up
to the site for cargo handling. It is generally believed that Lothal on the head of Gulf of
Khambhat, was an international trade centre during Harappan period (Rao, 1979). There are
several references in Mesopotamian inscription about the trade and commerce with the Indus
Valley Civilization. Mesopotamians were importing particularly semi-precious stone, shell
artifacts and teak-wood. During the historical period several ports along the Indian coast were
active such as Dwarka, Porbandar, Somnath, Bharuch, Sopara, Elephanta, Goa, Malpe, Muziris
on the west coast and Korkoi, Poompuhar, Vasavasamudram, Arikamedu, Machlipatanam,
Palur and Tamralipti on the east coast. During early medieval period Arabs were dominating
power in the Indian Ocean and they traded nearly for 1000 years. Their trade activities were
spread from China, Malaysia, and Indonesia on the east and Mombassa, east African coast
and Red Sea on the west. Indian spices, semiprecious stones and teak-wood has always
been the attraction for the foreign navigator to venture Indian coast.
Changes in coastline and river courses due to natural factors led to the abundance of the
ancient ports and remains are either lying submerged or located far hinterland (Gaur and Vora,
1999). There are several instances where no archaeological traces of ancient ports have
been found despite of references in ancient literatures. Primary reason for the absence of the
remains of the port installation, may be the fact that the most of the settlements were situated
either on the river banks or the bank of backwaters which would have been served as an
excellent natural harbour. Excavations at Poompuhar brought to light a wharf situated on the
bank of old course of the river Kaveri (Soundar Rajan, 1994). Similarly, onshore excavation at
Elephanta Island yielded a wharf dating back to the early centuries of the Christian era.
Marine archaeological explorations by the Marine Archaeology Centre of the NIO brought to
light the remains of harbours at Dwarka, Bet Dwarka, Somnath, Porbandar, Vijaydurg,
Sindhudurg, Gopakapattana and Poompuhar. Identification of ancient harbour is based on the
discovery of archeological evidence like stone anchors and structures etc., (Gaur, et al, 2000).
2.0 ANCIENT HARBOURS AND JETTIES
2.1 Lothal
One of the best known Harappan site at Lothal is located about 80 km south west of the
Ahmedabad. The excavations at Lothal brought to light a brick structure in trapezoidal shape.
It measures about 214 X 36 m and the height is 3.3 m with 42 brick courses. The excavator
identified this structure as first dockyard of the world (Rao, 1979). There are few perforated
stones, which have been suggested as anchors. Other supportive evidences include ware-
house in south-western corner of the dockyard. However, a number of serious objections have
been expressed against the hypothesis of dockyard such as (i) why the dockyard built away
621
from the river side and very close to the residential area (Possehl, 1976), (ii) what is the
function of outlet channel if it was a tidal dock (Gaur, 2000) and lastly (iii) what was the
coastline during Harappan times as the dock is located about 12 m above sea level (Pandya,
1977). Despite of all these concerns Lothal had been active an international trade center
during Harappan time as a large number of antiquities of ancient Egypt and Gulf countries
have been recovered from the site.
2.2 Kuntasi
Harappan site at Kuntasi, is located on the southeastern coast of the Gulf of Kachchh and
lying on a tidal river. The excavations at Kuntasi brought to light two fold cultural sequence
namely mature Harappan (2300-1900 BC) and late Harappan (1900-1700 BC). A structure
was exposed on the southern side of the site measuring 9.5 m x 4.1 m are set with large
stones in mud masonry. The excavators believe that this must have served as a landing
platform for going down to the river for loading and unloading cargoes in the boats (Dhavalikar
et al., 1996).
The excavation of Kuntasi indicates that it was not an agricultural settlement but was a center
for acquiring and processing raw material for export. The geomorphological studies suggest
that Kuntasi might have been a creek port during Harappan period (Dhavalikar, et al., 1996).
2.3 Inamgaon
A chalcolithic site at Inamgaon in Maharashtra was excavated during the early 70s which
yielded a landing platform built on the slope towards the river reaching right up to the river bed.
The structure is 9.8 m long and 4.5 m wide. Dhavalikar et al. (1988:248) opine that the struc-
ture might have been still larger but due to successive annual floods, got destroyed and
reduced in its size. However, available evidences are enough to suggest that the structure
might have served as a landing platform for boats for descending and ascending to and from
the river. It is relevant to mention here that small boats with high pro and stern and with oars
have been depicted on spouted vessels recovered from the burial sites (Dhavalikar, et al.,
1988). These paintings stand in support of river navigation in this area.
2.4 Dwarka
Dwarka is situated on the extreme west coast of Indian territory. The glorious town of Dwarka
was submerged by the sea just after the death of Lord Krishna. As Dwarka has the historical
importance and association with the Mahabharata the site has attracted archaeologists and
historian besides scientists. Marine Archaeology Centre of the NIO has been carrying out the
exploration since 1983 (Rao, 1990). However, here we refer the explorations carried out be-
tween 1997 and 2001.
622
Fig. 1. Location of archaeological findings off Dwarka.
Underwater visual explorations were undertaken about 200 m westward from the
Samudranarayan temple and opposite to the mouth of Gomati creek, which revealed a large
number of stone structures (Fig. 1). These structures are found between 3 and 6 m water
depths and are mainly consisted of semicircular and fallen walls.
A few semicircular structures are partially intact and some have jointed with hard binding
material. Structures with 2-3 courses have been noticed at least at 10 locations. The semicir-
cular structures were constructed by using L-shaped blocks with provision for dowels. The
average size of a block of semicircular structures is 95 x 55 x 25 cm. The sizes and shapes
of the blocks are similar to those noticed onshore.
Besides semicircular blocks, a large number of rectangular blocks have been noticed in this
area. They are scattered over a vast area and do not form any regular plan. However, at a few
places 2-3 courses of blocks noticed which are the remains of fallen structures. These struc-
tures are found close to the semi-circular structures, which indicate that these may be the
part of some larger structure. The rectangular blocks have various sizes and important ones
are 120 x 60 x 16 cm, 115 x 50 x 17 cms, 110 x 50 x 18 cms and 45 x 30 x 14 cm (Gaur, et
al., 2000). Most of the structures are lying exposed on rocky seabed, however, a few of them
are partially buried in sand. The exposed portion of the structures is covered with thick vegeta-
tion. A few circular structures and others have been noticed in the inter tidal zone of Dwarka
(Fig. 2) and these are very much in alignment with the offshore structures.
623
Fig. 2. A circular structure of ancient jetty, exposed during low tide.
These structural remains appear to be the remains of an ancient jetty. Similar type of struc-
tures have been noticed during low tide in Rupen Bundar, which is located about 2 km north of
Dwarka. Local fishermen inform us that these are the remains of an ancient jetty. Therefore it
is relevant to conclude that these submerged remains at Dwarka could be the part of a jetty
(Gaur, et al., 2004). The other supportive evidences along with these structures are a large
number of stone anchors discovered in Dwarka waters. Their characteristic features and
varieties are mentioned below.
2.5 Vijaydurg
A sheltered dockyard is located about 3 km upstream on left bank of the river Vaghotan. It was
built by the Angre of Chief of Maratha Army during 17th century AD and further enlarged and
renovated by Anand Rao Dhulup. Ship with 500 tonnage capacity can be anchored in this port.
The length of the dockyard is 110 m and width 75 m. The width of entrance is 7.5 m wide at the
bottom and 11.5 m on the surface. The walls in South and north directions, made of natural
rocks served as protection walls while north and west sides walls constructed with dressed
stone blocks. Presently dockyard is filled with 2 m thick sediments. This dockyard was
generally used for repair and maintenance of ships. The ships generally used to enter into the
dock during high tide. A raised platform was noticed in the central part of the dock, which was
used for the repair of the bottom of the ships (Sila et al., 1998). The significance of the
dockyard of Vijayadurg is that this dock is the first of the type of Maratha period to be found in
this region. The dockyard was built at such a place that it is difficult to locate, which shows
the defense strategy of the Maratha navy.
2.6 Porbandar
Famous port of Porbandar is located between two important Hindu religious centers, Dwarka
and Somnath. The place is also famous as the birthplace of the Father of the Nation M.K.
Gandhi. Inscriptional and traditional history of the region suggest that Porbandar was estab-
lished around the 5th century AD. However, the recent onshore exploration brought to light the
624
remains of a late Harappan settlement known as Kotada in Porbandar. Besides, of above site
the exploration also revealed four ancient jetties locally known as Juna Dhakka were noticed
in the creek area in a stretch of about 3 km. The location and description of each jetty is given
below.
A. The first jetty (the upper most part of the creek) is situated near the present Kanya
Gurukula and opposite to Porav Mata temple. The major portion of the jetty has been de-
stroyed and the length of remaining part is about 10 m and visible height is 1.5 m and made of
irregular huge limestone blocks. The jetty was constructed parallel to the creek. The local
information suggests that this jetty was used as passengers jetty and small size boats with
sails used to visit this jetty.
B. Second jetty is located about 200 m south of the present bridge between Bhokhira and
Porbandar over the creek. The jetty is well preserved but is partially covered under the present
metallic road. The remaining portion of the jetty measures more than 50 m in length and 3
courses are visible. The jetty is made of fine dressed and uniform limestone blocks. It is
constructed parallel to the creek. As per local information, this jetty was used for loading and
unloading cargoes such as cotton and woolen cloths, wood, grains etc. The boat having a
length of 10-15 m used to reach at this jetty.
C. Third jetty is noticed about 100 m south of the earlier one and it is in very poor state. A few
irregular scattered limestone blocks can be noticed during low tide.
D. The fourth jetty is located near the present cremation ground on the creek. The major
portion of the jetty is covered with a modern structure. As per local tradition this jetty was used
to ramp the creek by bullock carts as the remains of the same were noticed. This jetty was
constructed perpendicular to the creek and part of the same extended a few meters in the
water (Fig. 3). The jetty is made of uniform and dressed limestone blocks.
Fig. 3. Remains of an ancient jetty at Porbandar.
625
Ancient jetties in the Bhokhira creek suggest that this was an important maritime trade cen-
ter. The location of jetties suggests that these were used as tidal jetties. During high tide
boats could reach up to the jetty and again boats would move out during high tide. These
jetties are also indicative of the advancement in harbour architecture during medieval period.
However, to ascertain the date of these jetties we need some more data and finds like anchors
or nearby ancient habitational site. So far, no parallel structure has been discovered from the
coastal area, yet some remains of ancient jetties have been reported from offshore area of
Dwarka and Rupen Bandar (Gaur, et al., 2003) in Okhamandal region. The tradition of con-
struction of jetty and dockyard is as old as Harappan period in Gujarat (Dhavalikar et al., 1996;
Rao, 1979) but they are presently located either at a higher level in far hinterland. As per local
information these jetties were in use till late 19th century AD.
While interviewing aged fishermen, they informed that stone anchors were present in Porbandar,
however, due to reclamation of the land for construction of the new port, most of the ancient
remains might have been destroyed and buried under modern structures. A few local fisher-
men have mentioned that stone for anchors, used to come from Barda hills which is of basalt.
3.0 ANCHORS
3.1 Dwarka
Stone anchors are the fundamental requirement of navigation as every ship need to be an-
chored in the sea. The explorations in Dwarka waters brought to light the largest number of
stone anchors in the world. They are of various shapes and sizes. They include triangular type
(Fig. 4) with a circular upper hole and lower two square holes with often even thickness,
grapnel type is rectangular in shape with a upper circular hole and lower two rectangular holes
on either face. The third variety is circular in shape with an across hole in the center. The
amount and varieties of anchors from Dwarka suggest that maritime contacts of Dwarka were
with various countries in different phases of history. Similar type of stone anchors have been
discovered from several places across the world and variously dated between 4500 years BP
and modern period. The study of stone anchors along the Indian coast suggest that these
could be dated between 2000 years BP and 300 years BP (Gaur, et al., 2001 and Sundaresh
et al., 1999).
Fig. 4. Triangular stone anchor from Dwarka.
626
3.2 Bet Dwarka
Bet Dwarka island is situated in the mouth of the Gulf of Kachchh. It can be approached by
boat and the nearest port is Okha. Bet Dwarka played an important role in maritime activities
of the Okhamandal region from the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC (Vora, et al., 2002).
The exploitation of marine resources has been observed from early times. The island has been
under occupation since the late Harappan period and habitation continued till date. The pri-
mary reason for the early settlers is the availability of marine resources along the Bet Dwarka
coast such as conch shell and fishes. This is also confirmed by the discovery of one of the
biggest fishhook from this island dating back to the late Harappan period (Gaur and Sundaresh,
2004). Bet Dwarka island has been referred as Baraca by the Periplus of Erythreanean Sea.
Author says that it is very difficult to navigate in the Gulf of Baraca as several invisible reefs
cause the grounding of ships (Schoff, 1974). A large number of Roman amphorae have been
discovered from this place (Fig. 5). The presence of Roman amphorae suggests that perhaps
Roman boats also reached Bet Dwarka waters.
Fig. 5. Lower portion of Roman period amphora from Bet Dwarka.
The presence of a large number and variety of stone anchors in Bet Dwarka suggests that this
was one of the important ports during the historical period. The most interesting aspect of the
island is a long cultural sequence, which commenced with the remains of the protohistoric
period (4000 years BP) and continued till the present time (Sundaresh & Gaur, 1998; Gaur et
al., 2000). The water around the island is rich in conch shell, varieties of fishes and corals,
which must have been the reason for the habitation of protohistoric man and its continuation.
The anchors have been observing near the present Bet Dwarka jetty between the inter-tidal
zone and 8 m water depth. This area falls in a low and high tide current, which has a maximum
speed of 6 knots. Therefore, heavy artifacts like stone anchors can remain under the sea.
627
However, a large quantity of pottery, partially buried in the sediment, was found from this area
including a few sherds of Roman amphorae. This evidence indicates that this could have been
an anchoring place for boats since the early centuries of the Christian era. Most of the an-
chors are made out of limestone, which is locally available in the Okhamandal region. The
material of a few composite anchors is porous and fragile, while rock of other composite and
grapnel anchors is fine-grained and with a smooth surface; however both types of rocks are
available in this region.
3.3 Somnath
Somnath is situated 5 km east of the present Veraval port. Somnath also known as Prabhash
Patan has been a historical town as it finds the mention in the Mahabharata. Archaeological
excavations at this place brought to light the remains of Harappan settlement dating back to
4200 years BP (Rao, 1991). Marine archaeological explorations off Somnath temple yielded a
large number of stone anchors of various types, however, majority of them are ring stones
(Gaur, et al., 2002). They are made of either basalt or limestone (Fig. 6). The discovery of
these anchors indicates that this was an anchoring point during early period. This port decline
because of the rise of present Veraval port about 5 km west of the Somnath temple.
Fig. 6. Ringstone anchor in Somnath waters.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Archaeological discoveries along the Indian coast have indicated that maritime traditions are
as old as its civilizations. Harappans used Gujarat coast as the most potential area for the
maritime activities and also the exploitation of marine resources like shells, fishes and salt.
Offshore explorations at Dwarka and Bet Dwarka confirmed their important role in the history
of maritime activities. Onshore explorations in Porbandar brought to light for the first time the
remains of a late Harappan settlement dating back to the 16th-14th century BC, which is very
628
similar to that from Bet Dwarka. This is another evidence to suggest that Harappan legacy of
maritime activity continued till late Harappan period on the Saurashtra coast. The discovery of
ancient jetties along the Porbandar creek signifies the importance of Porbandar as an active
center of maritime activities in the past. Probably these jetties were built during medieval
period. The siltation of the creek and emergence of new port are the important causes of
disuse of these jetties. Marathas built a well developed dockyard on the bank of Vaghotan river
near Vijayadurg. All above findings are suggestive of the prosperous and well developed
harbour engineering during ancient India.
We are thankful to the Director NIO, for permission to present this paper in the conference.
We also thank to Shri. K.H. Vora, for providing facilities for the study. Shri. S.N. Bandodkar
provided photographs and Shri. S.B. Chitari prepared line drawings, we thank them.
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630
DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSHIPMENT CONTAINER

TERMINAL AT NEW MANGALORE PORT
Kiran G. Shirlal1*, Bhaskar Dharani1 and T.R. Bhatt2
1
Department of Applied Mechanics and Hydraulics, NIT, Karnataka, Surathkal, Srinivasnagar-575 025
2
Retired Chief Engineer, NMPT, Panambur
Abstract
The desire for self sufficiency, savings and expansion of trade has seen larger container
vessels coming into service. This has given rise to establishment of Transhipment Terminals
all over the world. Major portion of Indian container traffic is transshipped through some
neighbouring foreign ports, thereby draining huge amount of foreign exchange. Hence, there is
need for establishing a Transhipment Terminal in India. Authors have put forth the case of New
Mangalore Port as a possible location for establishing such a terminal.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
For international trade, transportation by sea is the cheapest. Port is an infrastructure, offering
the transit facilities for improvement for import/export of the cargo. Thus, port is an important
infrastructure for socio-economic development. More than 95% of foreign trade of India is
handled through ports. India has a vast coastline of about 6000 Kms consisting of 12 major
ports and 148 intermediate and non-major ports. The traffic through the ports has been in-
creasing at a rate of 8 to 9% annually. The total traffic handled by Indian ports in year 2001-02
and 2002-03 is 383.98 million tonnes and 414.23 million tonnes respectively. Among the
major ports, New Mangalore Port (NMP) located on the west coast in between the ports of
Cochin and Mormugao, has shown the highest growth of 22% during the year 2002-03. It is a
lagoon type, artificial harbour with two symmetrical breakwaters protecting the straight chan-
nel of 7.5 Kms length and 15.4 m depth. It is the deepest inner harbour in the country. Nearly
90% cargo consists of bulk commodities like POL, LPG and Iron Ore. The traffic through the
port has been growing steadily and the cargo handled during the year 2002-03 was 21.34
million tonnes. Several traffic surveys have predicted a bright future for containerization of
Indian cargo. The ports of Colombo and Singapore are the main Transhipment Ports for con-
tainers and 75% of their container traffic is transhipment cargo. 75% of Indian containers are
handled at Colombo as transhipment cargo. Seeing the bright future of containerization in
India, handling containers in the country is highly beneficial. Hence, an attempt has been
made in this paper to project NMP as a possible site to locate a transhipment container
terminal (TCT).
*Corresponding author, e-mail: kshirlal@rediffmail.com

2.0 GLOBAL SCENARIO OF CONTAINER TRAFFIC
The world container traffic has been increasing at a rate of 6 to 7% per annum. The global
container traffic increased from 135 million TEUs in the year 1995 to 200 million TEUs by the
year 2001. As per UN studies carried out for ESCAP region and considering this trend and
future economic development in the various regions, it is estimated there will be an annual
growth of 6.3% in the world container traffic. However, the growth in the Asian region will be
higher at 7.2% and the major contribution will be from China, Malaysia and India. The esti-
mated growth will be 12% for China and Malaysia, 10% in the case of Sri Lanka and about
9.4% for India and Bangladesh. In order to handle this increased traffic, a total of 434 new
berths will be required in the ESCAP region and China alone will require 160 new berths.
Singapore will require about 43 berths. The above growth prospects emphasize that new
container berths will be required in the region involving a huge sum of US$27.0 billion up to
2011. (UNESCAP, 2001).
2.1 Container ships of future

Containers are handled in specially built ships called generation vessels. To reduce the cost
of transportation large numbers of containers are stored in a ship, which means longer length,
widths and draft for vessels. The trend is to keep the depths minimum to keep the draft at
barest minimum. The size of container ships has been increasing. Total capacity of container
ships exceeds 6.0 million and about 470 ships were on order (1.60 billion). As size of con-
tainer vessels increase, there will be pressure on ports to provide matching facilities. Only
limited number of ports will be available for servicing these large vessels. Probably, there will
be 3 to 4 shipping companies owning these large vessels and handling more than 75% of the
total container traffic in future. With increase in size of the ships, the outreach of the cranes
will also increase. However, most of the shipping companies are trying to restrict the draft
requirement to about 14.0 m. Considering the present trend, we may adopt a size of 6800 TEU
ships with a length of 300 m x 43 m beam x 14 m draft in the immediate future. (UNESCAP,
2001).
3.0 NECESSITY OF TRANHSIPMENT COTAINER TERMINAL IN INDIA
World over containers are handled by a system of transhipment which means large container
carriers dumping the containers in a particular port (transhipment port) from where the con-
tainers are further shipped to the final destination ports by feeder ships. Large container
carriers (mother ships) with deep draft are unable to call on smaller ports and also reluctant to
call on ports where small containers are transshipped and therefore, take equatorial shipping
lines (East to west or vice versa) and call on such transshipment ports and leave the contain-
ers to be picked up by feeder ships to the smaller ports. At present nearly 1.4 million TEU of
container traffic is being handled through the ports of Mumbai, JNP and Kandla. This consti-
632
tutes nearly 72% of the Indian container traffic. These are mostly being transshipped through
Singapore, Colombo, Dubai and other foreign ports. If this traffic could be directly handled
through any of the Indian ports in this region there would be considerable saving because of
elimination of feeder shipping and transhipment costs. This saving conservatively estimated
at Rs 3500 per TEU (assuming all the containers are transshipped through Colombo port
only) results in an overall saving of Rs 490 crores per annum, which justifies development of
facilities for handling mainline container vessels in Indian ports. With expected increase in
traffic in 20 to 25 years the cost saving could be considerable and also due to transshipping
outside the country, Indian exports could become less competitive in international market
(Perspective Plan for Indian Port Sector, Vision 2020).
4.0 INDIAN SCENARIO OF CONTAINER TRAFFIC AND THE

POTENTIAL OF NMP FOR DEVELOPMENT AS TCT
The container traffic through the Indian ports has been growing at a rate of 16 to 17% per
annum. Total Container Traffic for major ports in India has increased from 12,249 thousand
tonnes in 199394 to 37,229 in 20012002 (Rama Krishna, 2003). The U.N. studies have
estimated traffic of 6.41 M.TEUs for the Indian scenario by the year 2011. Rites in their
Perspective Plan Vision 2020 have forecasted container traffic of 14.15 M.TEUs by the 2016.
As already brought out, there is no transhipment or Hub Port in India for handling bigger
vessels drawing drafts more than 11.50 m. The growing trend in the containers should be
utilized by the country for creating Hub port for containers with capacity to receive vessels of
3500-6500 TEUs for the present and more than 6500 TEUs size in future. It will be in the
interest of India that one or two Transhipment Container Terminals are planned and con-
structed early. Considering the vastness of the country and the destination of imports and
exports 3 TCTs may by ideal- one on the East Coast, one near the Northern India on the West
Coast and the third one at South India, which, will be nearer to the International Route. We are
concerned with the third TCT in south India. A quick comparison of various sites available on
the West Coast leads us to 3 sites - New Mangalore, Cochin, and Tuticorin. However, the
straight 7.50 km channel with a depth of 15.4 m, virgin land area of 160 acres inside port, good
connectivity by rail, road and air to the rest of India, and midway location on the west coast
and nearness to the International Route, favours the location of New Mangalore. All the exist-
ing infrastructure facilities like the straight channel, harbour crafts and navigational aids etc.
can be readily used without any extra expenditure or time lag. The layout of the port also
facilitates multistage planning of TCT. The existing general cargo berths can also be used for
feeder operations.
5.0 JUSTIFICATION FOR TCT AT NMP
It is learnt that Cochin Port Trust is planning a separate Container Terminal for Transhipment
Containers at an Island, viz. Vallarpadam at a huge cost. The total cost of the proposed
633
Container Transhipment Terminal is reported to be around Rs 1500 crores, with about Rs 800
crores for the first stage. The proposal also consists of construction of breakwaters, dredg-
ing a deep channel, reclamation, a turning circle of about 600M diameter and other facilities
like construction of berths etc. The time required will be minimum 5 to 6 years sanction.
There are also environmental problems as New Port is created at an Island. This Island also
requires connection with the mainland by road and rail involving construction of bridges,
roads etc., which require additional investment. It is reported that another major port, Tuticorin
Port Trust has also planned to construct a transhipment container terminal at Tuticorin with a
massive investment in the coming years. The Tuticorin Port Trust has proposed to construct
an outer harbour to provide the transhipment container terminal. The investment proposed is
reported to be of the order Rs. 7500/- crores in about 20 years time. The construction of
outer approach harbour consists of very long breakwaters on north and south, extending into
deep waters from the existing harbour. Each breakwater will be about 3.5 to 4 Kms in length.
Inter-connection to the main land will be through narrow bridge, which will be restraint in the
development of the port. The area required for the container yard is to be reclaimed from the
sea by using the dredged materials.
The New Mangalore Port occupies a strategic position in the maritime map of our country. It
is midway on the west coast and is near to the shipping route, offering the deepest channel in
the country with a dredged depth of about 15.4 m. Ships with more than 14 m draft could be
easily handled without any additional cost of dredging. The master plan of the port has been
prepared in such a way that adequate area is available for development of container tranship-
ment terminal on the western side of the Eastern Dock with 100 acres for stacking of contain-
ers. The investment required is also minimum, i.e., only in the form of deep water berths and
container handling equipments as other infrastructure facilities are already available. Com-
pared to the neighbouring Ports of Tuticorin, Cochin, Goa, Mumbai and JNP etc. New Mangalore
Port offers the best and the most economical solution for the development of a Transhipment
Container Terminal (Hub Port) at minimum cost and minimum gestation period (See Fig. 1)
The NMP is the deepest inner harbour in the country with dredged depth of 15.4 m and 15.1 m
in the outer channel and lagoon respectively. Ships with 14 m draft are handled at present at
all times and 15 m at high tides. The port has initiated action for deepening the channel and
bulk berths to a depth of 17 m. In the case of NMP, a deep channel with breakwater protection
is already available. A berthing length of 800 m on the eastern side of western dock could be
constructed within 2 years with necessary equipments and pavements. The port is well con-
nected with the hinterland through Konkan railway, Bangalore-Mangalore railway, this is under
conversion from M.G. to B.G. and southern railway. Further National Highway 17 and 48 also
pass through Mangalore, with lot of other state highways located nearby.
6.0 TRAFFIC ANALYSIS FOR TCT AT NMP
The container traffic that the proposed transhipment terminal will handle includes traffic from
the ports of Cochin, Tuticorin, Mormugao and NMP hinterland and also the traffic from ICDs
634
in central and southern India. Since major portion of the traffic to be handled by NMP TCT
originates from (or destined to) the ports of Cochin, Tuticorin and Mormugao, feedering by
sea proves to be more economical to these ports than by rail or road. Hence, it can be
assumed that about 80% of the transhipment traffic of NMP comes by (or goes to) feeder
vessels. The remaining 20% of traffic goes by rail and road. For estimating the transhipment
traffic for NMP, traffic projections are done upto 2015 for Cochin, Tuticorin, Mormugao and
NMP hinterland separately using time series method and they are summed up along with
some assumed projections of traffic from the ICDs of Bangalore, Coimbatore and others in
central and southern India. The container traffic projections of Cochin, Tuticorin, Mormugao,
NMP hinterland and the assumed rail/road traffic are shown in Table1.
Table 1. Estimated transhipment traffic through NMP (TEUs).
Year Cochin Tuticorin Mormugao New Rail/road Transhipment

Mangalore Through NMP
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F) (A+B+C+D+E+F)
2005 209403 294321 50000 50000 196270 800000
2010 356330 580449 90000 90000 283221 1400000
2015 507887 831200 125000 125000 410913 2000000
The estimated traffic for the TCT is distributed among the different generations of feeder and
mainline vessels are shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Transhipment traffic distribution through NMP (TEUs).
Year Traffic Traffic Total Traffic Distribution in various

In In Handling classes of vessels
Mainline Feeder Under Feeder Vessels Main line Vessels
vessels Services Quay 2nd 3rd 5th 6th
cranes Gen. Gen. Gen. Gen.
2005 800000 605000 1405000 363000 242000 400000 400000
2010 1400000 1117000 2517000 670200 446800 700000 700000
2015 2000000 1590000 3590000 954000 636000 1000000 1000000
7.0 PLANNING OF THE TERMINAL
The terminal facilities are to be planned for mainline vessels of 5th and 6th generations. The
details of the design vessels adopted for the planning of the terminal are as shown Table 3.
Table 3. Design vessels for the NMP TCT.
Design DWT Container Length Width Draft

Vessel Capacity (o.a.) (m) (m)
Main Line 78500 6800 300 42.5 14
Main Line 51100 5500 275 40.0 14
Feeder Vessel 33800 3000 215 32.2 11.5
Feeder Vessel 30000 2500 200 29 11.5
The optimum number of berths required for each type of vessel is found by queuing theory and
635
the berth lengths are provided as per recommendations (UNCTAD, 1985) are shown in the
Table 4.
Table 4. Details of berths required by the year 2015.
Expected No. of Optimum No. of Required Total Berth

Vessels/annum berths required Berth length (m) utilization
Main line vessels 462 3 1070 61.5%
Feeder vessels 925 5 1270 75%
Berths nos 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 are for feeder vessels and the berth nos 10, 11, and 12 are for
main line vessels. Locations of the berths are as shown in the Fig1. Storage areas required
for stacking various types of containers is calculated (Frankel, 1987) and is shown in Table
5.
Table 5. Storage area for the stacking of containers.
Year 2015
Total Annual Throughput = 2000000 TEUs
Loaded Empty Reefer Hazardous Repair
% of total 90% 10% 2% 5% 0.5%
Total Total Loaded Loaded Loaded
Throughput 1800000 200000 36000 90000 9000
Area in Hectares 73.79 9.91 3.37 3.69 1.18
In addition to the above mentioned areas, additional space is required for circulation, equip-
ment operation, access clearance etc. Total area required will be 100 hectares by the year
2015. The storage area required is provided in the form of 3 stacking yards as shown in Fig. 1.
7.1 Handling equipment

The major handling equipment required by the year 2015 are 14 nos of high speed post
panamax cranes with a handling rate of about 40 containers per hour for ship to shore opera-
tion and for yard operations 34 nos of rubber tyred grantry cranes, 4 nos of rail mounted gantry
cranes, and 116 nos of tractor trailers. In addition to these front end loaders and reach stackers
are also required for handling special type of containers. All the required equipments are
calculated (Frankel, 1987).
8.0 SUMMARY
At present, there is no suitable TCT on the Indian coast. Only JNPT is handling a portion of
the containers by mainline ships. A growth of more than 10% per annum is expected in the
636
Indian container traffic. It will be necessary to provide at least one TCT for north India, one
on the west coast and another on the East coast; New Mangalore Port is the ideal site for a
TCT due to its strategic location and straight and deepest channel. The TCT at NMP will be
highly viable and requires only two years for commissioning the first stage.
The authors wish to thank the Department of Applied Mechanics and Hydraulics, N.I.T.K,
Surathkal for the facilities provided during the course of work done. The authors are also
indebted to New Mangalore Port Trust for the data provided.
REFERENCES
Frankel E.G., 1987, Port Planning and Development, John Wiley and Sons Inc, New York.
UNCTAD, 1985, Proceedings of United Nations Conference on Trade and Development and Antwerp Port
Engineering and Consulting.
UNESCAP, 2001, Regional Shipping and Port Development Strategies, Maritime Planning Policy Model.
www.unescap.org.
Ministry of Shipping, 2001, Perspective Plan for Indian Port Sector, Vision 2020, Volume 1, RITES Ltd, April.
Ramakrishna, R., 2003, Scenario of Port Handling and Vision, Journal of Indian Ports, October, 5-16.
637
Fig.1. Layout of TCT at New Mangalore Port.
638
ESTIMATION OF DESIGN WAVE HEIGHTS OVER THE

NORTH INDIAN OCEAN USING SATELLITE DATA
Raj Kumar*, Jignesh Kshatriya, Abhijit Sarkar and Vijay K. Agarwal
Meteorology & Oceanography Group, Space Applications Centre (ISRO), Ahmedabad 380 015
Abstract
The knowledge of ocean waves is of great importance to the engineers for design of offshore
structures, their operations and ship routing. The radar altimeter onboard satellites is one of
the useful sensors being used for estimation of surface wind and wave parameters. For the
present study, 10 years of TOPEX radar altimeter data have been analysed and 50 and 100
year return values of wave height and wind speed using satellite data have been estimated.
Since, the satellite data is not available at each and every location, the estimates have been
carried out in 20 x 20 bins. The Gumbel distribution has been fitted to the satellite wave data
in each bin. The estimated values of extreme wave height are found to be higher in the
Western Arabian Sea with values of the order of 8-9 m, whereas the extreme values in the Bay
of Bengal region are approximately 5-6 m.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Industrial and commercial activities in the offshore and coastal waters are increasing at a
rapid pace. This is accompanied by increasing concern for the safety and efficiency of the
engineering structures, used in the operations. These include platforms and towers, ships and
boats or drifting and moored buoys. These structures are normally designed to last for suffi-
ciently long time and therefore are expected to withstand extremes of the physical param-
eters in the marine environment. The most impacting parameters are the surface wind speed,
significant wave height and wave period. The Indian Ocean, being one of the data sparse
oceanic regions, has very few observation systems and possibly inadequate for deriving return
values for extreme winds and waves. The availability of now long-term space borne observa-
tions of oceanic winds and waves has thrown new opportunities in computation of the return
values. This new approach may have a few limitations in comparison with the conventional
approach. However, it has distinctive advantages such as regional consistency. These issues
have been discussed later. Global pictures of extreme wind and wave conditions at 50-100
year timescales have been absent till the work of Chen et al. (2004) using eight years of
TOPEX/POSEIDON (hereafter referred as T/P) Altimeter data. The present work deals with the
10 years (1993-2002) of T/P data. In a companion study (Kshatriya et al., 2001) we have
compared the wave height and period values obtained using satellite data with buoy observa-
tions made in the Indian Ocean region. These parameters can be accurately obtained for a
particular location using the in-situ buoy data; however, to derive a climatology over a long
*Corresponding author, e-mail: rajkumar_62@rediffmail.com

period and for a larger spatial scale, one has to depend upon spaceborne sensors. Satellite
altimeters are generally able to provide the wave height information every second along the
track of approximately 8 km area with the tracks being repeated every few days. Since the
launch of Geosat altimeter in 1985, at least one radar altimeter is always in the orbit to provide
wave data at regular interval. In 1992, US had launched the T/P altimeter, which since then is
providing sea surface data at regular interval of 10 days at exactly the same location.
The accuracy of the satellite data has already been proved without doubt in earlier scientific
investigations. Since the satellite data is not available at each and every location, the esti-
mates of return values have been determined in 2o x 2o bin. In general, more than 300 points
have been found in each grid for the analysis.
2.0 DATA
This work makes use of T/P borne altimeter Generation B merged Geophysical Data Record
(Benada et al., 1997). The TOPEX satellite system carrying the state of the art altimeter
sensor, launched on August 10, 1992, has been providing wind and wave (besides sea level)
information over global oceans regularly. This information is available every second, corre-
sponding to approximately at 7 km resolution along satellite tracks. The spacing of the tracks
is nominally 316 km (127 revolutions per repeat cycle) at the equator and much smaller at
higher latitudes. The revisit period of each track is 9.92 days (Fu, et al., 1994). Such resolu-
tion and density of data cover make it an ideal sensor for studies on regional wave climatology.
The T/P Geophysical Data Record includes the significant wave height (SWH), radar back-
scattering coefficient and surface wind speed. The SWH, is derived from the shape of the
return pulse of the radar returns. The T/P altimeter sends 4000 pulses per second, which are
subsequently averaged for generating wave height values. For wind speed retrieval there are
several algorithms. The one used for T/P geophysical record is that of Witter and Chelton
(1991). T/P derived wind speed values pertain to winds at the height of 10 m.
In-situ data for wind and wave in the present study have been taken from National Data Buoy
Programme (NDBP) and US based NDBC buoys. Under the NDBP, Department of Ocean
Development has started deploying coastal and open ocean buoys in the Indian Ocean region
since 1997 onwards. These buoys are able to provide wind and wave parameters at selected
locations.
3.0 METHODOLOGY
The present work first establishes the accuracy levels of the T/P derived wave parameters and
surface wind speed in the north Indian Ocean. This is carried out by comparing collocated and
concurrent buoy measured wave parameters and wind speed. For qualifying T/P altimeter
wind-wave data from accuracy point of view, a comparison exercise was required to be carried
640
out with in-situ data. Authors of this study in their earlier work (Kshatriya et al., 2001) had
created satellite-buoy wind/wave data matrices for the north Indian Ocean and convincingly
shown that T/P measured SWH and wind speed have rms deivations of ±0.3 m and ±1.6 m/s
respectively. This was followed by an exercise on computation of optimum time interval be-
tween the observations for a reliable estimate of N-year return period values of SWH in the
Pacific Ocean. This exercise is similar to the one carried out by Panchang et al. (1999). Due
to lack of continuous time-series of Indian Ocean buoy observations, this exercise could not
be carried out in the Indian Ocean region. However, the time interval of 10 days, found opti-
mum for the Pacific is assumed to be valid for the Indian Ocean too. The T/P repeat cycle of
10 days is therefore considered ideal for return values computations.
An exercise of evolving optimum sample radius was also carried out. For this purpose, TOPEX
data and in-situ data of different buoys in the Indian Ocean region were analysed. For a
particular buoy, several data sets for different distances, viz. 0.2, 0.5, 1 and 2 degrees be-
tween TOPEX and in-situ data were generated. The rms values for all the combinations were
analysed to define the optimum radius. The typical rms values of wind speed, wave height and
wave period were found to be 2.22 m/s, 0.23 m and 1.46 sec respectively for 2 degrees
distance for DS1 buoy, whereas the rms values for 1 degree distance for the same buoy were
marginally less, viz. 2.23 m/s, 0.17 m and 1.4 s respectively. It can also be seen from Fig. 1
that the comparison between TOPEX and Buoy data, for a particular Buoy DS1 in Arabian Sea
for a distance of 2o, is quite good. This exercise shows that the data with a radius of 2o match
fairly well with the in-situ observations.
7
6
Wave Height (m)
5
4
3
2
1
0
1 51 101 151 201
Time Sequence
Buoy TOPEX
Fig. 1a. TOPEX and Buoy data comparison within 1o distance.
641
7
6
Wave Height (m)
5
4
3
2
1
0
1 51 101 151 201 251 301 351
Tim e Sequence
Buoy TOPEX
Fig. 1b. TOPEX and Buoy data comparison within 2o distance.
This was followed by the extreme value analysis, which in our study consists of following
steps:
(i) The T/P altimeter derived data (surface wind speed and SWH) are binned in grid cells of size
of 2o. The PDF and CPDF of each grid are obtained by generating the histograms. The theo-
retical PDF employed in the analysis is the Gumbel Law of the type:
P (SWH<x) = exp[-exp(-a(x-b))] (1)
where x is a given wind speed or SWH, and a, b are regression coefficients. The above
equation can also be written as
-ln{-ln[P(SWH< x)]} = a(x-b) (2)
(ii) The coefficients a and b are determined by applying Maximum Likelihood Estimate method
(Panchang, 2004) to TOPEX data.
For each grid, Gumbel distribution has been fitted and coefficients a and b obtained. A sample
plot of CPDF of TOPEX data and fitted distribution has been shown in Fig. 2. A very good
match between the theoretical curve and observations is evident.
(iii) The n-year return value of x has a probability of 1/n to be exceeded in one year, then
P(n) = 1.0 - 1/sn, where s is number of points per year.
From equation (1) P(n) = exp[-exp(-a(xn-b))] (3)
or, xn = (1/a)[-ln{-ln(P(n)}]+b
or, xn = (1/a)[-ln{-ln(1-1/sn)}]+b (4)
642
Using the above, extreme values in each grid have been obtained. The values of the coeffi-
cients a and b for each grid are found to be of the order of 1-3 and 1-2 respectively for the wave
height. For the wind speed, a is approximately 0.4, whereas variation in b is larger ranging
between 1 and 5. The 50 year and 100 year return period values of wave heights and wind
speeds have thus been derived for the north Indian Ocean region.
1
0.8
CPDF of SWH
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Frequency Bins (m)
TOPEX Data Fitted Gumbel Distribution
Fig. 2. CPDF of SWH for a sample Grid.
4.0 RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS
Figs. 3a & b show the 50 and 100 year return period of wave heights. The values of the order
of 4-9 m are seen in the Arabian Sea region for the 50 year period. It also clearly shows the
higher value of the order of 8-9 m in the western Arabian Sea region. Higher return values are
oriented along the axis of Somali jet. Similar pattern of higher values along the Somali jet is
also found in the study by Chen et al. (2004). As expected, still higher values (more than 9 m)
are seen for the case of 100 years return period. Similarly for the wind speed, the 50 year and
100 year return period values (Figs. 3c & d) are seen to be higher in the Arabian Sea than in
the Bay of Bengal. In the Arabian Sea, the highest 50 year return period values are 30-35 m/
s, whereas in Bay of Bengal maximum goes upto 25-30 m/s. For the wind speed the differ-
ences in the two regions are not very high. It is somewhat surprising to have lower values of
extreme wave heights in the Bay of Bengal region. According to the observations, number of
cyclones develop in the Bay of Bengal and propagate towards the Indian coast, so this region
is supposed to have high sea state conditions. To ascertain this fact, time series of the
dataset has been plotted for Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal (Figs. 4a & b). The time series
plot also shows that there are hardly any wave height values above 5 meters in the Bay of
Bengal region, whereas in the Arabian Sea on a number of occasions, wave height crosses 5
m and reaches up to 6 m. The reason for not able to detect high wave height values in the Bay
of Bengal region may also be due to the large separation in the tracks. Due to which, it might
have missed the high values in the Bay of Bengal region. Since, TOPEX satellite is having
Exact Repeat mission, observing the same location every 10 days, it may not be having
643
observations over certain high sea state pockets. This feature can be studied in future by
combining the other satellite altimeter data of ERS, GEOSAT, ENVISAT and JASON.
Fig. 3a. 50 Yrs Return SWH. Fig. 3b. 100 Yrs Return SWH
Fig. 3c. 50 Yrs Return Wind. Fig. 3d. 100 Yrs Return Wind.
Fig. 4a. TOPEX derived SWH for Arabian Sea.
644
Fig. 4b. TOPEX derived SWH for Bay of Bengal.
We have tried to estimate the extreme values for 100 years return period of wave height and
wind speed. The extreme value pattern of the two figures is similar with the higher values by
1 meter in the case of 100 years return period. The extent of the higher value has also ex-
tended more towards northern side in the Arabian Sea.
The return period of wind speed for the 50 years is higher of the order of 35 m/s in the Arabian
Sea region, with higher values in a few pockets. In the Bay of Bengal region, the return period
of wind speed are found to be of the order of 25-30 m/s. The 100-year return period values of
the winds are not changed much in both the regions. In the Arabian Sea, the values have
increased to the extent of 40 m/s in the Western Arabian Sea.
As discussed above, in the absence of long series of in-situ data, the satellite data can be
very much useful for the extreme value analysis. The limitation arising due to the separation
between tracks in individual satellite data can be overcome by combining of several satellites
for more accurate extreme value analysis. A comprehensive study using different probability
distribution functions and various satellite altimeter data is planned for the Indian Ocean re-
gion to generate extreme values in a finer spatial grid.
The authors wish to acknowledge Dr Vijay Panchang, Texas for useful discussions during the
work. They also wish to thank National Data Buoy Program of DOD for providing in-situ data.
The authors are also thankful to PO.DAAC, JPL, NASA, USA for providing TOPEX altimeter
data, without which this work could have not been completed.
REFERENCES
Benada, R., 1997. TOPEX/Poseidon merged GDR generation B users handbook, JPL Rep. D-11007, JPL,
Pasadana, California.
645
Carter, D.J.T., (1993), Estimating extreme wave heights in the NE Atlantic from GEOSAT data, Health & Safety
Executive Report, OTH93-396, pp 20.
Chen, G, Bi, S-W and Ezraty, R., (2004), Global structure of extreme wind and wave climate derived from TOPEX
altimeter data, Int J Remote Sensing, Vol 25, No 5, 1005-1018.
Fu, L. L., Christenen, E.J. and Yamarone, C.A., (1994). TOPEX/POSEIDON mission overview, JGR, 99,C12,
24369-24381.
Kshatriya, J., Sarkar, A. and Raj Kumar ( 2001), Comparison of TOPEX/POSEIDON Altimeter derived wind speed
and wave parameters with ocean buoy data in the North Indian Ocean, Marine Geodesy, Vol 24, No .3, 131-
138.
Panchang, V., Liuzhi Zhao and Demirbilek, Z (1999), Estimation of extreme weave heights using GEOSAT
measurements, Ocean Engineering, 26, 205-225.
Panchang, V., (2004), Personnel communication.
Witter, D.L., and Chelton, D.B., (1991). A Geosat altimeter wind speed algorithm development. JGR, 96: 8853-
8860.
646
EVOLUTION OF BERTHING STRUCTURES IN KANDLA

P.V. Chandramohan
Kandla Port Trust, Gandhidham, Gujarat-370 201
Abstract
Port of Kandla is located in a creek. The location is subjected to severe environmental

conditions. From the early fifties, berths were being put up on one bank of the creek. Since
the berths were built one after the other, in a straight line, the changes were quite visible. The
technology available during the fifties imposed severe constraints in the design. So these
structures were vulnerable to environmental calamities. As time passed, technology devel-
oped. The design engineer was presented with improved construction techniques and design
tools. The paper reviews the various structures over a half century; from structural and func-
tional angles.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The location of the port, presented severe environmental conditions. Kandla creek is sub-
jected to high amplitude tidal oscillations, maximum tidal range being over 7 m. This means
that above chart datum, a very high free-board has to be provided. So, the unsupported height
of the structure gets increased to the extent of the tidal range. Besides the large tidal prism
has given rise to high current velocities, of the order of 2 m/s. Structurally, berthing structures
here have to cater to large current forces acting on ships. Kandla region is subjected to high
wind velocities. The basic design wind speed is 50 m/s. Berthing structures are to combat
very high mooring forces caused by the wind on ships.
This region is categorized as seismic zone V by the Bureau of Indian Standards. As per
I.S.1893, all important structures are to be designed for a horizontal seismic coefficient of
0.12. A berth is a top heavy structure with the mass being concentrated at the top. Besides,
berths are subjected to heavy live loads from cargo stacking. This means that the structures
are to cater to horizontal loads of high magnitude.
Kandla was the first port to be constructed in free India. Design and construction of port
structures was beyond the reach of indigenous technology. So, berthing structures at Kandla
were designed and constructed by foreigners. German engineers were involved in the design
and construction. Today, technology in one corner of the world becomes available anywhere in
the world without much of a time lag.
Corresponding author, e-mail: irpvchandramohan@yahoo.co.in

2.0 FIRST THREE BERTHS
At Kandla, three berths were proposed to be put up in the first phase. Design parameters
were evolved by the consultants. The superimposed uniformly distributed load for cargo
stacking on deck was stipulated as 3.28 t/m2 (6cwt/sft). Apart from the udl, the deck was
designed to cater for the wheel load of a 70 t tracked vehicle. This is similar to the present
day IRC 70R loading or class AA loading. As was the old practice, three railway tracks were
aligned on the deck between the crane tracks. This practice was noticed in many other old
ports also. The engine loading was converted into an equivalent udl for the design of the
deck. The deck was also designed to carry two crane tracks at a gauge of 13.716 m (45 ft).
This was subjected to the corner loading of a 6 t crane lifting capacity. The load of one corner
was 55.4 t distributed over two wheels, each carrying 27.7 t at a spacing of 0.9 m (3 ft). Out of
645 m of the berth proposed in the initial stage, the final (southern) 183 m of the track was
designed for operating a 10 t capacity crane. The corner loading was 79.2 t distributed over
four wheels each carrying 19.8 t at an equal spacing of 0.9 m. An impact factor of 20% was
also taken into account. The concept of horizontal acceleration imparted by seismic activity
was very much in vogue. A horizontal seismic coefficient of 0.10 was incorporated. This
compares well with the factor of 0.12 stipulated presently. The coefficient was operative on half
the live load also as at present.
Incidentally there was no design vessel for which the berth was designed. So forces like
berthing and mooring forces were assumed. Berthing force was assumed as 4.1 t/m (1.25 t/
ft). Since the structure was in blocks of 22.86 m (75 ft) longitudinally, with joints in between,
force at a single fender point worked out to be 94 t. Fender points and bollards were made to
coincide. The bollard pull was not calculated based on wind and current forces. It was as-
sumed as 100 t for one bollard. So, the design had the advantage of catering to a bollard pull
of 100 t and a fender thrust of 94 t at the same point.
A typical cross section of the berthing structure is given in Fig. 1. Longitudinally, the structure
is divided into blocks of 22.86 m (75 ft) with gaps in between. In the cross section also there
are two platforms. The width of the frontal platform is also 22.86 m (75 ft). This platform has a
special kind of deck. The portion where the locomotive tracks are supported, is a 60 cm (2 ft)
thick slab. This is kept at a lower level to accommodate the rails for the locomotive tracks. The
crane tracks are located at the two edges of this slab. The section here has been proportioned
to be deeper to cater to the heavier crane loading. Recess for the crane rails, cable duct and
pipe lines are inbuilt into the thick slab at the front side. The rear platform is much wider
36.58 m (120 ft). Transit sheds, parking areas and roads are located on this platform. The
deck consists of a network of beams and slab panels. Concrete was designated as B225 as
per Din 1045. Steel reinforcements had a safe strength of 1428 kg/cm2.
The foundation of the platforms consisted of hollow cylindrical spun piles. The outside and
inside diameters were 500 mm and 350 mm respectively. They were driven by a hammer to
648
the required level. Piles were founded at 14.64 m below chart datum. The subsoil consisted
of a thin sand layer at 14 m. Presumably, the pre-cast piles could not be driven to penetrate
the sand layer. So, the design was made accordingly. Piles were spaced at 3.66 m laterally.
For supporting crane tracks, spacing of the piles were reduced to 2.06 m. In the longitudinal
direction, the spacing was 3.66 m. The safe vertical load carrying capacity of the piles was
assumed to be 90 t. At +3.04 m (+10 ft), all the piles were connected together by a network of
bracings. Above the bracings, 450 mm (1.5 ft) square columns were cast in-situ, connecting
to the deck. Generally, the frontal platform had only vertical piles.
The wider rear platform was supported on a combination of vertical and raker piles. The slen-
der hollow, spun piles were to combat only vertical loads. The low penetration into the soil also
was a constraint against fixity in the soil. So this platform, on its own would not have been
able to take the horizontal loads from berthing, mooring or seismic activity. Besides, since the
deck had a high moment of inertia compared to the piles, bending due to imposed vertical
loads were not passed on to the piles. The rear platform was to take all the horizontal forces.
The rear platform was provided with a large number of piles raking in the cross direction. The
frontal platform was anchored to and butting against the rear platform. Specially made large
diameter anchor rods passed from the frontal platform to the rear one through the joint gap. To
prevent corrosion at the exposure in the gap, the rods were wrapped with lead sheets and
bitumen. These arrangements would have taken care of forces exactly in the direction perpen-
dicular to the berthing face. But forces were also to be expected in the parallel direction also.
There were components of the fender reaction and mooring forces acting parallel to the berth.
Token provision was provided to cater to these small forces by incorporating some raker piles
in the frontal platform. These rakes were made to slope in the direction parallel to the berth.
Special crane rails were unknown in those days. So ordinary BS 90 rails of railways were used
for the crane tracks. The large tidal variation necessitated special detailing. During low tide,
there were occasions when the deck of loaded vessels goes down to below the deck level of
the berth.
& 1 1 ( & 7 , 1 * % ( $ 0 $ 1 ' 3 , / (
: $ 7 ( 5 & 2 1 ' 8 , 7

P P
7 + . 6 / $ %
& $ % / ( & 2 1 ' 8 , 7

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23

6/ 23
6/

+ 2 / / 2 : 3 , / ( (; ,67,1 *
$ % & ' ( ) * + , $ ' ' , 7 , 2 1 $ / 5 2 : 2 ) P P

3 , / ( 6
P W

Fig. 1.1 Cross-section of 1 to 5 berths.
649
In the above situation of the ships deck falling below, the ropes will rub against the edge of
the berth and will be cut. So, in Kandla, bollards are fixed on projected blocks. It is then
imperative that this projecting point becomes the berthing contact with the vessel. So fenders
had to be provided at these points.
Buckling type of fenders was not developed at that point of time. Small diameter cylindrical
fenders were the only means to absorb the impact of berthing. Since the tidal range was
around 7 m, the ships would have made contact anywhere along the inter-tidal zone. So three
7 m long cylindrical fenders were bunched together. A wooden fascia was provided to take the
rubbing of the vessel. For preventing lateral displacement of the fenders during impact, these
units were housed in a groove. These grooves will restrain any lateral movement, passing on
corresponding forces to the structure. It is ironical that even after the development of buckling
type of fenders and frontal frames with low friction resin boards, the practice of locating fend-
ers in grooves continued till recently.
One salient feature of the deck was the provision of shear keys. As mentioned earlier, each
block in the frontal platform is of size 22.86x22.86 m. In order to integrate various blocks for
transfer of forces, horizontal shear keys in the deck were provided. It was assumed that soil
below the platform would slope up at an easy 1:3. This bed soil consisted of soft clay. But it
was later noticed that fine sand from the outer channel finds its way into the inner channels.
This mixture of clay and sand is capable of making steeper slopes, if allowed to settle. Under
the berth, flow velocities are low and this mixture made up a slope of 1:1. During seismic
activity, the mixture got liquefied and started flowing towards the channel imposing horizontal
forces on the slender piles. This was one of the reasons for the distress during the devastating
earthquake of 2001.
During the earthquake of 2001, the rear platform with its transit shed on the deck, imposed
considerable horizontal dynamic forces on the foundation. The raker piles resist horizontal
forces effectively. They do it without undergoing any deflection. Lack of any resilience during
dynamic activity, increases the forces. At Kandla, the connection of the raker piles with the
superstructure was sheared and the structure moved forward. This imposed horizontal forces
on the vertical piles of the frontal platform and piles showed distress. Out of a total of 3000
piles, 1669 developed cracks below the bracings.
3.0 FOURTH AND FIFTH BERTHS
Next serious expansion in berthing structures was taken up in the late sixties. Though, this
was more than a decade later, it was somehow preferred to go in for the same type of structure
making use of the same design. Perhaps, the port wanted to stick to a proven structure, which
had stood the test of time. Besides, the location was still far away from the mouth of the creek
and bed levels were almost same. With this, expansion, total length of the berthing face went
up to 1143 m.
650
4.0 SIXTH BERTH
It was in the beginning of the eighties, that extension in the berthing face was proposed. The
berth was designed at a time when the construction technology was much improved. The
design concept also had undergone drastic changes. Unfortunately, a copy of the design
calculations was not available for scrutiny. Only drawings could be referred. The structure has
a length of 273.96 m in continuation of the earlier structure. Basically, the structure was a
piled platform. The width of the platform is 65.35 m. There were no retaining structures at the
rear. This was similar to the previous structure. During seismic activity, the dynamic effect on
the backfill is to increase the lateral force and also to raise the level of action of the same.
Presumably it was decided to avoid catering to such a force. For some reason, the size of the
blocks was fixed as 30.44 m. There were joint gaps between the blocks. A fender point was
located at the center of each block. The same arrangement of combining the fender point with
the bollard location was very much in vogue. So the bollard/fender point was projected out.
Long small diameter cylindrical fenders were accommodated in a groove as was done previ-
ously. By that time, the technology of bored cast-in-situ piles had come into being. These
piles were becoming popular. There was the added advantage of installing large diameter
piles. The latter specially became handy in building up large moment of resistance against
bending. In the sixth berth, the first five rows were made up of 1200 mm diameter piles at a
spacing of 5 m. This was followed up with 1000 mm piles at 6m spacing. Spacing along the
berthing face was 4.5 m. Piles were founded at 27.5 m. Though the unsupported length of the
piles was large, no bracing was done between piles as in the previous structure. This became
possible because of the large moment of inertia of the piles. The deck consisted of a thick
slab between the crane tracks like the older structure. This was similarly cast at a lower level
to accommodate locomotive tracks. Thick wearing coat was provided to make up the level.
But the number of locomotive tracks between the crane tracks was reduced to just one
against three earlier. This was laid at the rear only. The trend in this matter is clear. This time,
the crane tracks were spaced at 15m, a little wider than earlier. Specially rolled crane rails
were installed. CR60 rails were used. The dimensions of the various members of the deck
show that a heavier loading was considered at the front of the berth than at the rear. The
practice at Kandla is to call the former as quay area and the latter as transit area. The beams
in the quay area are deeper than those at the rear. For the first time high yield strength
deformed bars were used in the construction of the berth (Fig. 2).
651
0 .2 4 m F I L L C O N C . & W E A R IN G C O A T
0 . 2 0 R .C .C . S L A B 0 .2 4 m R C C S L A B & W E A R IN G C O A T
C E N . RO A D SLA B
1 .1 0 T H IC K C A P I N G B E A M
R L .( + ) 9 .1 4 m D EC K SLA B
R L . (+ )8 .7 4 m
R L .(+ ) 7 .8 m R L .( + ) 8 .2 4 m
R L .(+ ) 7 .3 5 m
R L . ( - ) 3 .0 0 m
R L .(- ) 6 .0 0 m
R L .(- ) 9 .0 0 m
R L . ( - ) 1 7 .0 0 m
R L .(-) 1 8 .0 0 m
R L .(-) 2 7 .5 0 m
$ % & ' ( ) * + - . / 0
1 2 7 ( $ / / ' , 0 ( 1 7 , 2 1 $ 5 ( , 1 0 2 7 + ( 5 : , 6 ( 0 ( 1 7 , 2 1 ( '
Fig. 2. Cross-section of sixth berth.
5.0 SEVENTH BERTH
It can be seen that berths at Kandla had never been proportioned for any particular design
vessel. This is true with the structural aspects as well as the geometry. The length of the first
three berths constructed was 686 m. A length of another 457 m was added later on. These
had the same structural arrangement and so the length had to be in multiples of 22.86 m. The
sixth was proportioned to have a length of 273.96 m. The parameters taken for arriving at this
dimension is not known. Though strange, the seventh berth was made out to have a length of
342.9 m. Though width of the blocks deviated to 30.44 m in the sixth berth, in this berth, the
same dimension of 22.86 m was brought on for some reason. Here again, design calculations
of the structure were not available for reference. Fender points were located at the midpoint of
the block. One important point to be noticed at this stage is that location of the berth has
moved substantially towards the mouth of the creek. The location of the first berth was about
1.5 km into the creek. There was a considerable increase in the tidal prism at the location of
this berth compared to the first. Flow velocities are higher. This has resulted in deeper bed
levels at the berthing face and generally below the berths also. Though the width of the berth
was increased to 67.37 m, to maintain the required slope, a small retaining wall was located
at the rear side for the first time. This was to reduce the width of the berth. The wall was
provided from +5.29 to the deck level and was supported horizontally on the rear row of piles.
The first four rows of piles were 1000 mm in diameter and spaced at 5.0 m. The nine rows were
of 750 mm at a spacing of 5.83 m. Longitudinal spacing of the piles was 6.2 m. The piles were
founded at 27 to 34 depending on the soil strata. Like 1 to 5 berths, horizontal bracings
were provided at a level of +4.54. This was done, presumably to reduce the unsupported
length of the piles. It may be noted that in the front rows, against 1200 mm diameter in the
652
sixth berth, only 1000 mm piles were provided in the seventh. These were 1000 mm and 750
mm respectively in the rear rows. The obvious principle was to replace the large diameter long
piles with slender ones braced at a reasonable depth. Clearly there had been optimization of
the design. Above the bracings, square columns were cast in situ.
The deck consisted again of a thick slab in the front, cast at a lower level, made up with
wearing coat. This was done in previous berths to accommodate railway lines. But for the first
time, locomotive tracks were dispensed with under crane tracks, on this berth. But the prac-
tice of a lower level thick slab continued. The so-called transit area was made up of a network
of beams supporting the slab. Crane tracks were laid at a gauge of 15 m. There was an
improvement in the provision of crane rails. CR80 rails were provided keeping in mind utiliza-
tion of heavy duty cranes. The design proposed buckling type of V-type fenders for the first
time. But during construction, the old arrangement of cylindrical fenders was adopted (Fig. 3).
TOP OF DECK SLAB WITH GRANOLITHIC TOP OF DECK SLAB WITH ASPHALTIC
CONCRETE (M25) FINISH IN THE QUAY AREA
CONCRETE FINISH IN THE TRANSIT AREA
BEAM 0.30 RCC SLAB

790x1460 15m C/C DISTANCE OF CRANE RAILS
RL.(+)9.14m RL.(+)9.14m
DUCT 1.0m X1.04m 750Ø COLUMN INFILED WALL

1000Ø COLUMN BEAMS 1.00X1.406 BEAMS 400X800 0.3 mt. Thick
column 750 mm Ø
RL.(+)5.64 m 1000Ø COLUMN
RL.(+)5.29m RL.(+)5.29m
BEAM RL.(+)4.54m
1000X750 (+)3.00m RL.(+)4.54m
BEAMS 750X750 100mmTHICK
PCC
(1:4:8-TVP.)
RL.(+)0.30m
e
L in
e
dg
re
D
.5
:1
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DL.(+) (-) 9.80m 1200mmØ PILE
RL.(-)20.0m
RL.(-)27.0m to 34.0m
(AS PER SOIL STRATA)

1 0 / . - * ) ( ' & % $ $
127($//',0(17,21 $5(,1027+(5: ,6(0(17,21('
Fig. 3. Cross-section of seventh berth
Construction of this berth saw a calamity also. The land behind berth had to be consolidated
using sand drains along with substantial preloading. This was being done when the slender
piles were still open ended, i.e., they had not, at that stage been connected at the top either
by bracings or by deck. The piles were highly vulnerable to lateral loads then. The preloaded
soil was being monitored for possible movements by suitable instrumentation. However, on
one day, there was sudden lateral movement of the soil water-wards down the slope. Many of
the open-ended piles were either broken or badly bent. The remedial measures included
653
installing additional piles. It is a coincidence that the calamity occurred to a berthing struc-
ture where the design had been meticulously optimized. It is unfortunate that the blame to
some extent had to be taken by the slender piles. This also points to the fact that safety
during various stages of construction is also important.
6.0 EIGHTH BERTH
The eighth berth was constructed in the late nineties. It was designed to cater to the param-
eters of a design vessel. The parameters are as under : Dead weight tonnage:35000 t, Dis-
placement tonnage: 45500 t, Length overall: 214 m, Beam: 27.99 m, Draught (laden):10.9 m,
Moulded depth: 14.85 m.
Length of the berth is 204.6 m. This was made up of four blocks. The outer blocks are 59.1 m
long while the inner ones are 43.2 m in length. It can be seen that the old arrangement of
smaller blocks with one fender point each was done away with. Two or three fender points
were located on each block. Bollard points were projected out and coincided with the fender
points. Cell type fenders were provided for energy absorption. Because of the large tidal range,
three fenders had to be installed vertically one above the other to prevent the ship from making
contact with bare concrete. It was assumed that all the three fenders took the impact equally.
The reaction force was arrived at as 100 t. But the old practice of locating the fenders in
grooves continued. It was later on found that at 22% deflection, the buckling of the fender was
hampered by the edges of the groove, thus steeply increasing the reaction force. Bollard pull
was 100 t.
The superimposed load for cargo stacking was taken as 5 t/m2 as per the relevant Indian
Standards. The deck was also designed for wheel loads of IRC class AA and 70R vehicles
with 20% impact. Crane tracks were provided at a spacing of 15 m. A corner load of 171 t + an
impact of 25% = 214 t was considered for design. This was to be transmitted through four
wheels at a spacing of 1.5 m. A maximum current velocity of 1.5 m/s was taken into account.
0.6 m high waves with 8 to 10 second periods were considered for arriving at wave forces on
piles. A wind speed of 78 kg/m2 was assumed. The bed levels were becoming deeper and the
width of the berth was fixed as 55.3 m. This was made possible by providing a retaining wall at
the rear from +4.0 m upwards. The wall was horizontally supported on the rear row of piles.
The longitudinal spacing of piles is 7.2 m. To support the retaining wall, intermediate piles
were installed in the rear row so that the span of the wall reduces to 2.4 m. This arrangement
was later on adopted in further berths. Along the cross section, there were four rows of 1200
mm piles in the front at a spacing of 5.0 m. Eight rows of 1000 mm piles at a spacing of 4.7 m
were arranged behind this. Piles were founded at 30 except the rear row, which was founded
at 25 m. M30 grade concrete was used. Please see Fig. 4 for typical cross section. Structur-
ally this berthing structure can be said to be the forerunner of further berths in Kandla. One
interesting fact is that the practice of casting a thick slab in the quay area for locomotive
654
tracks had been dispensed with at this stage.
7 5 M M T H IC K W E A R I N G C O A T
1 0 0 M M T H IC K C A S T IN S IT U S L A B
1 5 0 M M T H IC K P R E C A S T S L A B
DUCT 750 X 1200 B E AM
R L . ( + ) 9 .1 4 m R L .(+ )9 .1 4 m
250 TH
R L . ( + ) 7 .6 8 5 m R CC W ALL
R L .(- ) 2 .0 0 m
L IN E R T I P
R L .(- ) 4 .0 0 m
R L .(- ) 5 .0 0 m
D L . ( - ) 1 0 .7 0 m
L IN E R T I P ( - ) 1 8 . 0 0 m
1 2 0 0 Ø P IL E
R L .(- ) 2 2 .0 0 m
1 0 0 0 Ø P IL E
R L .(- ) 2 8 .0 0 m
R L .(- ) 3 0 .0 m
% & ' ( ) * - . /
1 2 7 ( $ / / ' , 0 ( 1 7 , 2 1 $ 5 ( , 1 0 ( 7 ( 5 2 7 + ( 5 : , 6 ( 0 ( 1 7 , 2 1 ( '
Fig. 4. Cross-section of eighth berth
7.0 NINTH BERTH
This berth was commissioned in 2003. This berth was designed to cater to Panamax vessels.
Parameters of the design vessel are : Dead weight tonnage: 65000 t, Displacement tonnage
: 80000 t, Length overall: 235 m, Beam: 32.5 m, Draught (laden): 13.5 m, Moulded depth: 18
m.
The alignment of this berth also marked a deviation. At this point, the creek was taking a turn.
So the berthing line was given a quink of 18o. The berth was designed for a seismic coefficient
of 0.12. Since this coefficient was high, and berths are top-heavy structures, design of most
rows of piles was governed by the seismic criteria rather than berthing forces. To absorb the
berthing energy of 125 t/m, two cell type rubber fenders were provided one above the other;
connected by a frontal frame. Fenders were again placed in the groove during design stage but
the grooves were removed during construction. The mooring pull was calculated by consider-
ing a service wind velocity of 28 m/s and water current velocity of 1.5 m/s acting on the vessel.
Bollards of 100 t capacity were provided at projected locations as usual. Fenders were also
fixed on these locations, though this has ceased to be a structural necessity. The big vessel
and corresponding berthing energy, resulted in large fenders. So the berthing line had a con-
siderable set off from the face of the berth. Container handling with ships gear posed difficul-
655
ties as this gear did not have the required reach. The deck was designed for a udl of 5 t/m2
for cargo stacking, like in the previous berth. It was also designed for the wheel loads of IRC
70R vehicles. The crane tracks were designed for a corner loading of 336 t. This load was
transmitted through a set of eight wheels each carrying 42 t. The spacing between crane
tracks is 18 m, against 15 m provided in the last berth.
1 2 7 ( $ / / ' , 0 ( 1 7 , 2 1 $ 5 ( , 1 0 2 7 + ( 5 : , 6 ( 0 ( 1 7 , 2 1 ( '
Fig. 5. Cross-section of ninth berth
The berth was proportioned to have a length of 281 m. This was arranged in four blocks of 59
m and one block of 45 m. Fenders were provided at a spacing of 21 m. Width of the berth was
fixed as 54.6 m. The bed was becoming deeper. The retaining wall had to go down to deeper
depths. As per the original design, the bottom of the wall was fixed at +4.0. But in small
creeks, the wall to go down up to even 0.00 level at certain places. The details are given in
Fig.5.
8.0 TENTH BERTH (PROPOSED)
Parameters of the design vessel are: Dead weight tonnage: 75000 t, Displacement tonnage:
90000 t, Length overall: 235 m, Beam: 40 m, Draught (laden): 13.5 m, Moulded depth: 18 m.
So next berth will be for a bigger vessel. The bed levels there are going to be deeper. The
starting point coincides with the outfall of a creek bigger than any crossed so far. This will be
a tricky task. It is also proposed to make the berth functionally and structurally better. The first
point is to revamp the fendering system. The arrangement of installing one fender above the
other and connecting with a long frontal frame is not desirable. Performance of these fenders
656
had been anything but satisfactory. With such a large tidal range, floating pneumatic fenders
are the best choice for Kandla. Another change warranted, is the segregation of fender and
bollard points. In Kandla, it is an operational requirement that the bollard points are to be
projected out. If large fenders are to be installed beyond these projections, then the ship will
be berthed far away from the jetty face. This has to be avoided to reduce the outreach of the
gantry cranes. So fenders will be located between bollard points.
9.0 CONCLUSION
Berthing structures at Kandla has to put up with severe environmental conditions. When the
first structure was designed more than a half century back, technology and indigenous know-
how available was very much limited. Construction methods and design concepts available at
that time had constraints. For example, pre-cast piles were the only means. These could not
penetrate sand layers with the method of installation available then. The method of resisting
horizontal loads was with A-frame anchorages. Only planar action was considered in design
while seismic waves could transmit from any direction. So these structures showed distress
in the face of a devastating earthquake in 2001. But as time passed, technology developed
and provided solutions for many of the problems of yesteryears. In the coming years, it should
be the endeavor of mankind to use advanced technology to improve and improvise structures
for the functions they have to be put to.
657
STABILITY OF CORE-LOC ARMOURED RUBBLE

MOUND BREAKWATER
V. Sundar*, S.A. Sannasiraj and R. Balaji
Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai-600 036
Abstract
A detailed experimental study was carried out to check the stability of mound breakwater with
CORE-LOC as the armour layer proposed for Pawas bay on the west coast of India. After a
comprehensive review of the different alternatives for the breakwater trunk and head sections,
the modified sections were tested for the specific wave climate and water depth conditions in
a wave flume. The breakwater sections were tested for the different fractions of significant
wave heights and their stability was assessed in terms of damage levels. The details of the
review of the design, breakwater models, instrumentation, testing procedure and results are
discussed in this paper.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The hydrodynamic stability of rubble mound breakwaters is an important criterion, in their

design as it consists of layers of stones of different weight placed to form a predefined slope.
In the recent times, there has been a rapid development in the shape of new artificial concrete
blocks focusing on their ability in withstanding severe wave climate by improving its interlock-
ing capability. CORE-LOC is one such type of armour blocks, which is an advanced version of
the Accropode units. It is proposed to construct a breakwater, with CORE-LOC blocks as
armour units, of length of about 810 m, at Pawas bay, situated 10 km away from Ratnagiri
District (Latitude: 17000, Longitude: 730190) on the west coast of India. To assess the
stability of the proposed breakwater cross-sections, a detailed experimental study was car-
ried out in Department of Ocean Engineering (DOE), Indian Institute of Technology Madras.
The primary objective of this study is to check the stability and to assess damages, if any to
the trunk and head portions of the breakwater sections for the specified design wave condi-
tions.
2.0 PHYSICAL MODELING
2.1 General
The present physical model tests involve modeling of the wave climate and breakwater cross-
sections. For the reproduction of the ocean waves, heights are modeled according to the
basic model scale, l and periods as l1/2. The weights of individual stone units are modeled
using the model scale of l3.
658
2.2 Modeling of trunk section
The model scale selected for the breakwater in a water depth of 15.0 m for trunk section is
1:41. This scale was adopted to accommodate the pre-fabricated CORE-LOC models of CORE-
LOC International (CLI). According to the selected scale, the adopted significant wave height
(Hs) for the flume studies was 0.15 m corresponding to 6.35 m in the prototype and the wave
period was 1.56 sec corresponding to 10.0 sec in the prototype. The weights of the core,
secondary and armour layers were also modeled accordingly. The details of the cross-section
of the trunk portion of the breakwater model are shown in Fig. 1.
1 Core-Loc(R) 167.8gm. of 6.3cm thick

2 Under Layer 10 - 25 gm of 4.4cm thick
3 Core 1.5 - 7.5 gm
51.22
50.73
4 Toe Layer 15 - 30 gm of 10.48cm thick
44.42 5 Rock 40 - 75 gm of 6.58cm thick
40.02
6 Beddding Layer 0.1 - 1.5gm of 1.7cm thick
3
35.36(CD) 2 1 4
MLWS 5 2 3
3
12.2
7.31 12.18
7.31 1.7
4 4 6.4 0 cm CD
6
Geotextile filter
SCALE
0.0 30.5 cm 61cm
Model Scale : 1 : 41
Fig. 1. Details of the model breakwater trunk section.
2.3 Modeling of head section

The model scale selected for breakwater at 15.0 m water depth for the head section is 1:49.
This scale was adopted to accommodate the pre-fabricated CORE-LOC. The significant wave
height for the present scale was 13 cm corresponding to 6.35 m in the prototype and the wave
period was 1.43 sec corresponding to 10.0 sec in the prototype. The details of the cross-
section of the head portion of the model breakwater are shown in Fig. 2.
3.0 EXPERIMENTAL FACILITY
The experiments were carried out in a 72.5 m long, 2 m wide and 2.7 m deep wave flume in
Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras. A wave maker is
installed at one end of the flume and the other end of the flume is provided with an absorber.
Water depth can be varied from 0.3 m to 2.0 m. Wave maker can be operated in two different
modes, that is, piston mode for the generation of shallow water waves and hinged mode for the
659
generation primarily of deepwater waves. The cross-sectional detail of the wave flume is shown
in Fig. 3. For the present study, wave generator in the piston mode that can generate regular
waves was adopted. The wave maker was driven through computer controlled signals and the
same computer was used for data acquisition.
1 Core-Loc(R) 125.7g. of 5.7cm thick

2 Under Layer 6.8 -14.5gm of 4.08cm thic
3 Core 0.85 -4.2gm
31.6
7.15 42.85
4 Toe Layer 8.5 - 17 gm of 8.77cm thick
37.16 5 Beddding Layer 0.08 - 0.85 gm of 1.42cm
33.08
30.6
M HWS 28.5
1 M SL
2 4
3
10.2 10.2
3
19.4 1.42
4 0 CD
5
G eotextile filter
SCALE
0.0 25.5cm 51cm
Fig. 2. Details of the model breakwater head section.
25000m m
2000mm
Test m odel
72500m m
W ave guage
Plan view
W ave guage
W ave m aker Perforated
absorber
2700mm
Absorber fo r
shallow w a ters N ote: A ll dim ensions are in m m
Section al view
Fig. 3. Plan and sectional views of the wave flume used for the model study.
660
4.0 TESTING OF BREAKWATER SECTIONS
4.1 Placing of breakwater trunk section layers in the flume

Initially, the core and secondary layers of the model were placed in the wave flume. The model
CORE-LOC armour units for both trunk and head sections of the breakwater models were
placed as per the guidelines prescribed by CLI (2002). The unit weight and height (C) of the
CORE-LOC used for testing the trunk section of the breakwater were 167.8 gm and 68.7 mm,
respectively. As per the specifications given by CLI, thus, the spacing in horizontal direction
(across the flume width) is 75.7 mm (DH=1.11C) and at both ends having 72.2 mm clear
spacing against the flume wall. The vertical distance between each CORE-LOC model armour
units is 37.8 mm (DV=0.55C). The number of units in horizontal (N) and vertical mesh is
calculated by following expressions.
L − (DH / 2 + C) where L is the flume width.

N=
1.11C
Based on these parameters, the number of units in a horizontal mesh is 26 for the flume width
of 2.0 m, as calculated by case II CLI (2002) and for a vertical mesh it works out to be 19 rows.
The placement of CORE-LOC on the seaward side of the trunk section is shown in Photo 1.
4.2 Wave generation and testing

The breakwater trunk section was tested for its stability and damage assessment initially with
wave heights of 50% of significant wave height, which was increased gradually in steps of 25%
up to 125% of the significant wave height. The breakwater model was subjected to 1000 to
1500 waves corresponding to 6-hour severe storm wave in the field. The details of testing
program are provided in Table 1. The breakwater trunk portion was continuously subjected to
the mentioned wave characteristics and its behavior was closely monitored both by visual and
video observations. Testing of the trunk section for the significant wave condition is shown in
Photo 2. After every stage of the tests, the breakwater sections were assessed for its damage
levels, which are clearly detailed in the following section.
Table 1. Testing schedule for breakwater trunk section.
Stages Percentage of Prototype Model (1:41)

Increase (H s) % H s(m) Duration (h) % H s(m) Duration (min)
1 50% 3.15 3 0.075 28
2 75% 4.80 6 0.11 56
3 85% 5.40 6 0.13 56
4 100% 6.35 6 0.15 56
5 125% 8.00 6 0.19 56
661
4.3 Placing of breakwater head section layers and testing
In another set of testing program for the breakwater head section, the unit weight and height
(C) of the CORE-LOC used for testing the trunk section of the breakwater were 125.7 gm and
62.4 mm, respectively. For this dimension of CORE-LOC, the required number of units at the
bottom most horizontal mesh was calculated as 25 numbers for which the center-to-center
distance between each unit was 75.0 mm (1.2C). The spacing between individual units was
decreasing progressively towards the top of armour slope. When there was no more space to
place a unit, one unit was skipped and the placement was repeated. Because of this proce-
dure, the horizontal grid was varying on each of the row. The placement of CORE-LOC on the
head section is shown in Photo 3. The testing procedure for the head section was similar to
that adopted for the trunk section and the damage level was assessed. Testing of the head
section for the significant wave condition is shown in Photo 4.
5.0 BREAKWATER DAMAGE ASSESSMENT
The damage to the armour layer can be given as a percentage of displaced blocks related to
a certain area (the whole or a part of the layer). Damage can be defined as the relative
damage, which is the actual number of units displaced or rocking related to a width along the
longitudinal axis of the structure of one nominal diameter Dn. An extension of the subscript in
No can give the distinction between displaced out of the layer, units rocking within the layer
(only once or more times). The actual number is related to a width of one Dn.
Nod = units displaced out of the armour layer (hydraulic damage)

Nor = rocking units and
Nomov = Nod + Nor.
6.1 Tests with breakwater trunk section

For the tests with 50% of Hs, the breakwater cross-section was observed to be stable and the
CORE-LOC armour units on the seaward side of trunk section were intact. A similar kind of
behavior was also observed for the test with 75% of Hs. However, slight amount of overtopping
leads to the rocking of armour units on the leeward side. The typical observation details of
behavior of the breakwater for the tested waves of 100 and 125% of Hs are reported in Fig. 4.
It was observed from the results that there is no damage of CORE-LOC armour units on the
seaward side of the breakwater trunk section for the entire experimental conditions. Due to
the immediate contact of heavy over topped waves, the armour stones on the leeward side
were dislodged, however, the damage level even for 125% of Hs is well below 5%.
662
2.5
2
% of damage
1.5
0.5
0
50 75 85 100 125
% of Hs
Fig. 4. Percentage of damage of breakwater trunk section.
6.2 Tests with breakwater head section

For the test with 50%, 75% and 85% of Hs, the round head section of the model breakwater
experienced no damage. The CORE-LOC units were found to be rocking only for the waves
with 100% and 125% of Hs, which may be due to the reflection from the sidewall of the flume,
in which case, the structure gets exposed to more severe wave conditions due to the com-
bined effect of reflection and diffraction. The amount of damages of the round head section in
terms of percentage is provided in Fig. 5. Even for a 125% of the significant wave height, the
model breakwater head section is found to be stable.
The stability of the CORE-LOC armour units was checked through an experimental study and
found to be suitable within the tested range of design wave and water depth conditions. There
is moderate overtopping on the trunk section, which can be avoided by adopting suitable
remedial measures. The head section proposed is found to be stable for the design conditions
and can be adopted without any modifications.
2.5
2
% of damage
1.5
0.5
0
1
50 752 853 1004 125 5
% of Hs
Fig. 5. Percentage of damage of breakwater head section.
663
REFERENCE
CLI (2002) CORELOC Physical ModelingPlacing Instructions, October 2002, Draft Proprietary Information, CLI,
Core-Loc International.
Lee Side
Photo 1. Placement of CORE-LOC on the seaward side of the trunk section.
Lee Side
Photo 2. Breakwater trunk section subjected to 100% of Hs..
664
Photo 3. Placing of CORE-LOC on the round head model.
Photo 4. The round head section is subjected to 100% of Hs..
665
CONCEPT OF A MATHEMATICAL MODEL FOR

PREDICTION OF MAJOR DESIGN PARAMETERS OF A
SUBMERSIBLE DREDGER/MINER
Sritama Sarkar1*, Neil Bose, Mridul Sarkar2 and Dan Walker3
Memorial University of Newfoundland, Department of Ocean and Naval Architectural Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, St. Johns, Newfoundland, Canada A1B 3X5
2 Excavation & Equipment Manufacturing (P) Ltd., Calcutta, India
3
Oceanic Consulting Corporation, St. Johns, Newfoundland, Canada
Abstract
The use of surface floating dredgers in deep inland reservoirs, shelf areas and tidal inlets is
limited by several operational restrictions and mobilization problems. Deployment of small,
modular, autonomous to semi-autonomous submersible dredgers/ miners with parallel opera-
tions in these areas is expected to reduce the operational and mobilization constraints. Most
of the existing submersible dredgers/ miners use tracks for locomotion on submerged ground.
Legged locomotion is however favored in these natural unstructured terrains. A small, modular,
walking submersible dredger/ miner is designed and a prototype is constructed. Prediction of
the major design parameters of such a system requires a mathematical model integrating the
processes of excavation, transportation of the excavated material and locomotion processes
of the vehicle while moving on submerged ground. This paper describes the designed vehicle
and the overall concept of the mathematical model for the vehicle.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Maintenance dredging, reclamation dredging, new construction dredging and mining activities
are common in both inland and offshore areas. This paper addresses dredging and mining
activities in deep inland reservoirs, shelf areas and tidal inlets. These include the necessity of
dredging and mining, available equipment and their disadvantages, and the development of
suitable new equipment for the above mentioned areas.
Worldwide demand of potable and irrigation water lead to the construction of dams and asso-
ciated reservoirs in the 20th century (Richardson, 2002). The depths of the reservoirs vary from
20 to 120 m (Richardson, 2002). The flushing gate systems of such reservoirs are sometimes
not effective in removing the sediments. This results in the cumulative sedimentation effects
around the flushing gates and in the reservoirs.
Surface floating cutter suction and bucket dredgers are used in shallow reservoirs, while grab,
airlift technology, and submersible pumps are used for deep reservoirs (Richardson, 2002).
*Corresponding author, e-mail: sritamasarkar@hotmail.com

666
Small surface floating dredgers are constrained by the ladder length. Big surface floating
dredgers with longer ladder length are unable to operate in such small confined areas.
It may be difficult to transport big surface floating dredgers to many of these sites if good
approach roads are not available. Modification of such big vessels is difficult if not impossible.
Van der Steen (1989) suggested the use of submersible dredgers for deep inland reservoirs.
Submersible dredgers performing locomotion on the bottom sediments are expected to be
more effective in dredging operations than their surface floating counterparts.
In shelf areas dredging is done for maintenance of navigational channels, reclamation works
and new construction purposes. Shallow and deep water dredging and trenching operations
are necessary for offshore oil and gas and communications industries.
Kuo (1994) discussed the importance of various types of marine wealth including mineral
resources for human well being. Increasing demand and depletion of land mineral resources is
leading the world to consider the oceans as the future source of minerals for sustaining
industrial developments (Desa, 1999).
Korea is forced to evaluate the possibility of obtaining a stable long-term supply of strategic
mineral resources from the sea due to poor reserves of land mineral resources (Moon et al.,
1997). Some mineral resources from the sea are already undergoing exploration while others
are under consideration for future prospect. In this paper placer minerals occurring in the shelf
areas like diamonds, gold, heavy mineral sands, sands and gravel are considered. Explora-
tion and exploitation of these minerals occur in different parts of the world today (Barker et al.,
1990; Denovan, 1996; Desa, 1999). Great challenges lie in developing technologies for the
exploration of prospective detrital deposits with 50 m thick overburden lying in the east and
west shelf areas of Indonesia (Mangkusubroto, 1995). In India dredging is a common method
for mining the rare earths in coastal areas (Kerala, Orissa).
Use of surface floating dredgers in shelf areas and tidal inlets has several disadvantages. In
shelf areas dredging is inhibited by currents, waves and winds (Herbich, 2000; Nakamaru et
al., 1992). Tidal inlets are very dynamic zones dominated by fluctuating currents affecting the
dredging operation. The floating pipelines, floats and winch wires are obstacles to navigational
paths for other surface vessels (Pita, 1998). High investment costs are involved in building
high capacity dredgers. It is also difficult to modify such systems once they are manufac-
tured.
Use of submersible dredgers/ miners is a suitable solution to the above-mentioned problems

(Herbich, 2000; Van der Steen, 1989). The Institut für Konstruktions (IKS), Siegen, Germany
and the National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT), India have jointly developed and tested
a sub-sea crawler with flexible riser system for sand mining from depths of 400 m (Deepak et
al., 2001; Handschuh et al., 2001). Remotely operated submersible tracked dredgers are
667
used for sampling and mining offshore diamonds from depths of 200 m by the offshore
diamond mining industries of Namibia and South Africa (Boezeman et al., 2000; Denovan,
1996; Jonge et al., 2001; Van der Steen, 1998-1999). The Japanese company Penta-Ocean
Construction Ltd. developed a submersible walking auto dredger (SWAD) (Nakamaru et al.,
1992). The SWAD has eight passive legs attached to two moving frames. Successive move-
ments of the frames enable the vessel to move.
Tracks are robust, speed effective and easy to control, but require a continuous rolling con-
tact. Continuous rolling contact is not possible when the density of obstacles increases. They
are unable to negotiate terrain slopes exceeding the designed limit. In uneven terrain tracks
are not effective in keeping the vehicle body horizontal. Legged locomotion is preferred over
unstructured natural terrains as it is effective in obstacle avoidance and slope negotiation. The
vehicle body can be kept horizontal with individual leg movements, which is preferred for
dredging/ mining operations. However, legs are not effective for speed.
A collaborative research project of Memorial University of Newfoundland (MUN), Canada, and

Excavation & Equipment Manufacturing (P) Ltd. (EEM), India came into existence to develop
a design for a small, modular, walking submersible dredging/ mining vehicle. EEM is an inland
dredging company from eastern India, which has designed, built and operated modular sur-
face floating dredgers for the last 25 years. The designed vehicle is expected to provide both
economical and operational advantages over conventional surface floating dredgers. A proto-
type is being constructed in the workshop of EEM in India.
Development of a mathematical model, which will be used for simulation studies in the time
domain to predict the major design parameters of the vehicle under varying operational and
environmental conditions, is emphasized within the scope of the research. Such simulations
are necessary for designing controllers for automation of the dredging and locomotion pro-
cesses. The major challenge for developing such a mathematical model is the accurate repre-
sentation of the complex interrelationships between excavation, transportation of the exca-
vated material and locomotion processes.
This paper gives a brief description of the designed vehicle. It also discusses the concept of
the mathematical model developed, based on the designed vehicle. However, the model struc-
ture is generic in nature and can be easily adopted for any walking submersible dredger/
miner. The model will be validated by tests on the prototype vehicle.
2.0 THE DESIGNED VEHICLE
The designed submersible dredger/ miner is divided into the following systems: 1) Hull, 2)
Excavation, 3) Transport, 4) Positioning and Navigation, 5) Locomotion, 6) Instrumentation,
Automation and Control, 7) Power, 8) Auxiliary (Launching, Recovery, Safety etc.). A brief
design overview of the different systems, except the Auxiliary system, is discussed next. A
schematic of the designed vehicle is shown in Fig. 1.
668
The designed submersible dredger/ miner is a catamaran type vehicle where modular dry
pressure hulls having either vertical or horizontal orientations are attached to the main body
frame. Individual pressure hulls are mounted on resilient material for reducing vibration. The
advantages of such a design are: 1) a catamaran hull is more stable than a mono hull design;
2) availability of more space; and 3) segregation of vibrations of individual pressure hulls.
Ballast tank Nose module
Suction mouth
Main body frame
Cutter
Ballast tank Pressure hulls
Foot
Leg
Leg guide Ladder structure
Cutter
Cambered
sheet
Leg grousers
Fig. 1. Schematic of the designed vehicle (not to scale).
The excavation system includes the ladder assembly and the mechanical cutters. The ladder
assembly, consisting of a boom and a dipper arm, has three degrees of freedom, including a
swing motion and a lifting/ lowering motion of the boom and the dipper arm. The ladder is
attached to a rotating yoke, which is fixed to the main body frame (Fig. 2). Two hydraulically
operated interchangeable mechanical cutters are mounted at the end of the ladder assembly.
The cutters, which rotate in opposite directions, are positioned on either side of the suction
mouth (Fig. 1). The cutter axes are parallel to the vehicle axis. Overcutting is envisaged for
both the cutters to reduce spillage. A new type of tapered drum cutter is designed (Fig. 3). The
designed cutter profile is expected to penetrate the soil easily and maintain larger soil contact
during subsequent excavation. Depending on the type of material to be excavated either teeth
or picks can be attached to the cutter profile. The arrangement of teeth or picks along the
length and circumference of the cutter (pick lacing) determines the cutter performance (pro-
duction, spillage, blockage, cutting force generated etc.).
669
A centrifugal dredge pump will be used to transport the excavated material to the surface by
self-floating pipelines. It is placed on mountings fixed to the main body frame.
Work on the vehicle positioning and navigation system is not included within the first phase of
the research, and hence is not addressed in this paper.
Ballast tanks are present on both sides of the catamaran hull. The main function of the ballast
tanks is to control the bottom load by adjusting the amount of ballast water.
Rotating
yoke
Fig. 2. Ladder assembly. Fig. 3. Profile of the designed cutter.
Four hydraulically operated legs with pinned feet are used to perform locomotion on sub-
merged ground and also on land if necessary. Legs are pinned to the main body frame and
thus sudden loads from the legs are transferred to the main body frame and not the pressure
hulls. A unique simple, easy to manufacture leg linkage has been designed having a lifting/
lowering and a swing motion. The vehicle body can be kept horizontal by the individual move-
ments of the legs. It is necessary to keep the vehicle body horizontal in order to move the
ladder assembly and the cutters along the desired trajectory. Both forward and backward
motions and obstacle avoidance is possible with the designed leg linkage. Grousers present
on the underside of each foot (Fig. 1) provide greater friction and reduce the chances of
vacuum generation. A cambered sheet with ribs is to be fixed on the bottom of the vehicle,
with which the vehicle can slide on its belly over very soft soil (Fig. 1). The cambered sheet
provides greater surface area as the vessel sinks and this reduces the pressure exerted on
the soil. The ribs prevent generation of a vacuum (Fig. 1).
A unique modified simulated crawling motion is proposed for the designed vehicle. The loco-
motion cycle is shown in Fig. 4. During dredging or mining operations the vehicle is stationary.
Continuous locomotion is not envisaged. This helps the vehicle to correct for any errors gen-
erated in following a desired trajectory before proceeding for the next locomotion cycle. The
major limitation for such a legged locomotion is speed, especially when the vehicle has to
move between widely separated workspaces. It is intended that the designed vehicle could
670
use thrusters to move between widely separated workspaces, although these will not be fitted
on the prototype.
The processing and computational tasks for the movement and operation of the submersible
dredger/ miner will be distributed between onboard and off board components depending upon
the complexity and time critical factors of the desired tasks. Primary electrical power supplied
through an umbilical will drive the secondary hydraulic circuits.
The concept used for developing the mathematical model based on the designed vehicle is
discussed in the next section.
Fig. 4. Locomotion cycle.
3.0 MATHEMATICAL MODEL
The major design criteria of a walking submersible dredger/ miner are the average produc-
tion over a period of time and the load acting on each foot under varying operational and
environmental conditions. The vehicle geometry and the individual geometries of the excava-
tion, transportation and locomotion systems control the average production and the load at
each foot.
In hydraulic dredging, the production is defined as the flow rate of solids through a dredging
pipeline. It is obtained by multiplying the flow rate of mixture through the pipeline by the
delivered volumetric concentration of solids. The complex interrelationships between the
excavation, transportation and locomotion processes determine the average production of a
submersible dredger/ miner. The excavation process is controlled not only by the operating
parameters of the excavation system, but also by the operating parameters of the transporta-
tion and locomotion systems. The same is true for the transportation and locomotion sys-
tems. Environmental parameters including current and wave conditions and the terrain char-
671
acteristics influence the excavation, transportation and locomotion processes. Table 1 shows
the relevant geometric, operational and environmental parameters controlling the excavation,
transportation and locomotion processes and thus the average production of a walking sub-
mersible dredger/ miner.
The load at each foot is a function of the vehicle weight, operation related forces, environ-
ment related forces, overall vehicle geometry and individual system geometries. Operation
related forces include the excavation, transportation, locomotion umbilical and hydrostatic
forces. The excavation force includes the cutting force, frictional force due to soil/ cutting
tool interactions, swing and lifting/ lowering forces of the ladder assembly. The transportation
force consists of forces generated from dredge pump operations, impact forces due to
sudden pipeline blockage and vibrations due to change in density of the mixture. The loco-
motion force constitutes drag forces generated due to leg and vehicle body movements and
the frictional forces at the foot/ soil interface. The drag and frictional forces are to be
balanced by the leg hydraulic cylinders. The excavation, transportation and locomotion forces
are functions of the geometrical, operational and the terrain parameters as given in Table 1.
Inertial forces and moments together with added mass arise due to linear and angular accel-
erations of the vehicle, legs and ladder. The mechanics of the umbilical and discharge
pipeline advancing with respect to the water consist of the umbilical force (Kalske, 1997).
Hydrostatic forces and moments arise from the buoyancy force on the vehicle.
Table 1 Geometric, operational and environmental parameters determining the average production of a
walking submersible dredger/ miner.
Processes Geometrical Operational parameters Environmental parameters

parameters
Kinematics Kinetics Fluid Terrain
Excavation Cutter diameter Cutter trajectory Cutter power Waves Slope
Cutter contour Cutter RPM Currents Obstacle
Teeth or pick Depth of cutting Dredging depth Non-cohesive soil:
Pick design lacing? Direction of cutting Friction angle
including number of Ladder speed Permeability
picks Ladder angle Porosity
Ladder geometry Swing speed Relative density
Swing angle
Cohesive soil:
Adhesive strength
Cohesive strength
Undrained shear
strength
Transportation Pump design Pump RPM Pump Waves Particle size

Pipeline length and characteristics Currents distribution
configuration Dredging depth Particle shape
Locomotion Leg geometry Overall speed Locomotion power Waves Bearing capacity
Lift/ lower speed Currents Settlement and
Lift/ lower distance failure
Swing speed Slip
Swing angle Slope
Step size Obstacle
*Arrangement of picks along the circumference and length of the cutter.
672
Environment related forces include the wave and current forces and the soil reaction forces.
Waves and currents affect only the umbilical and delivery pipeline in deeper waters, but will
also affect the vehicle directly in shallow waters. The soil reaction forces include the normal
reaction forces and the frictional forces at the foot/ soil interface. In deep inland reservoirs
the soil reaction forces act on the vehicle and other environmental forces are small or
absent.
In the first phase of the research, current and wave forces and their influences are not included
in the mathematical model. Calculations of umbilical forces are also not included. Only the
excavation, transportation and locomotion forces are considered in developing the mathemati-
cal model.
During dredging operation the vehicle is stationary and supported either on its belly or four
legs. The weight of the vehicle, excavation and transportation forces and the leg configurations
(swing angle) will contribute to the load distribution at each foot. The supporting area is more
when the vehicle is supported on its belly and the chances of soil settlement and failure are
reduced. During a locomotion cycle each foot remains in one particular position while the
swing angle for each leg changes. The load at each foot is a function of the locomotion force
and the joint parameters of the legs, i.e., swing angle and lifting/ lowering distances. The step
size of the vehicle determines the chances of foot placement on previously loaded soil (either
from dredging or previous locomotion cycle). Repetitive soil loading and remoulded soil struc-
ture will affect the settlement and failure patterns. The settlement at the foot/ soil interface
determines the functionality, stability and safety of the designed vehicle under different sub-
merged soil conditions. The gait planning, attitude control and static stability criteria also
depend on soil settlement and failure at the foot/ soil interface. Continuous optimization of the
operational parameters is thus necessary to obtain a desired average production and to keep
the load at each foot within acceptable limits, which will be done by the mathematical model.
The prototype is shown in Fig. 5. The interrelationships between the different parameters (as
shown in Table 1) in developing the design are conceptually shown in Fig. 6.
Rotati n
Bal l ast
Le g
Mai n fram Ladde r
Foot
Su ction
C u tte r
Fig. 5. Prototype Golden Tortoise.
673
Start Subdredge
Define: Define: Define:

Operational parameters Environmental parameters Machine parameters
Overall, Excavation,
Desired Soil characteristics
Geometry Transport,
production output
Locomotion
Water Overall, Excavation,

Maximum terrain
characteristics Weight Transport,
slope
Locomotion
Maximum allowable Water depth
Kinematics Transport,
settlement
Locomotion
Other operational
Kinetics Transport,
factors
Locomotion
Transport
D E
production
B
Static force at Dynamic force at
each leg each leg
Excavation
production C
Total load at
Soil settlement each leg
Locomotion models
production
Load distribution
at
foot soil interface
Average
production
Settlement and
failure
Fig. 6. Interrelationships between different parameters.
674
4.0 CONCLUSIONS
From the above discussion it can be concluded that any mathematical model, which will be
used to predict the major design parameters of a submersible dredger/ miner must integrate
the excavation, transportation and locomotion processes. Modeling of the complex interrela-
tionships between these processes is the major challenge of developing the mathematical
model. The prototype under construction is suitable only for deep inland reservoirs up to an
operating depth of 30 m. It is a slow speed vehicle. Presently on land tests it will be performed
with the prototype. In the second phase tests in water will be performed.
The authors acknowledge the financial support from the Atlantic Innovation Fund Project,
Subsea Engineering - Underwater operations, robotics and intelligent systems, under the
Pan-Atlantic Petroleum Systems Consortium and Memorial University for a graduate fellow-
ship to Ms. S. Sarkar for carrying out this research project. The authors are also thankful to
EEM (P) Ltd., India, for their knowledge exchange, involvement, construction and testing of
the prototype.
REFERENCES
Barker, J.C., (1990), Marine placer development and opportunities in Alaska, Journal of Mining Engineering, Vol.
42(1), 21-25.
Boezeman, A.H., Angevaren, C.A., Bos, W. van den, Vlasblom, W.J., (2000), Structural and dynamic analysis of
sub-sea diamond miner MKII, Terra et Aqua, No. 81, December, 2000.
Deepak, C.R., Shajahan, M.A., Atmanand, M.A., Annamalai, K., Jeyamani, R., Ravindran, M., Schulte, E., Handschuh,
R., Panthel, J., Grebe, H., Schwarz,W., (2001), Development tests on the underwater mining system using
flexible riser concept, Proceedings of 4th Ocean Mining Symposium of Int. Society of Offshore and Polar
Engineers.
Denovan, R.C., and Norman, R.V., (1996), Engineering philosophies associated with subsea diamond sampling
and mining, Proc. of Offshore Technology Conference, Vol. 1, 589-609
Desa, E., (1999), Opportunities for offshore mineral exploration in the Indian Ocean, Proceedings of the 3rd.
ISOPE Ocean Mining Symposium, ISOPE, 6-13.
Handschuh, R., Grebe, H., Panthel, J., Schulte, E., Wenzlawski, B., Schwarz, W., M.A., Atmanand, Jeyamani, R.,
Shajahan, M., Deepak, R., Ravindran, M., (2001), Innovative deep ocean mining concept based on flexible
riser and self-propelled mining machines, Proceedings of 4th Ocean Mining Symposium of Int. Society of
Offshore and Polar Engineers.
Herbich, J.B., (2000), Handbook of Dredging Engineering, McGraw Hill Inc.
Jonge, L.D., Vlasblom, W.J., Bos, W. van de, Boezeman, A.H., (2001), Modeling and testing of Sub Sea Diamond
Mining Machine, CEDA Dredging Days 2001, November, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
Kalske, S., (1997), Motion simulation of underwater vehicles, Technical Research Centre of Finland, VTT.
675
publications, 138 pp.
Kuo, C., (1994), Realizing engineering potential in ocean wealth generation, Proc. of the Institution of Mechani-
cal Engineers, Part E: Journal of Process Mechanical Engineering, Vol.208, No. E2, 107 -122.
Mangkusubroto, K., (1995), Indonesias ocean resource developments, Proc. of 1st ISOPE Ocean Mining
Symposium, 229-233.
Moon, J.W., Kim, K.H., Lee, K.Y., (1997), Korean deep sea bed mining exploration, Journal of Sea Technology,
Vol. 38, No.12, 29-35.
Nakamaru, E. et al., (1992), The design and operation of a dredging robot system, Proceedings of the XIII th
World Dredging Congress, 7-10 th April, 1992, Bombay, India, p- 846868.
Richardson, M.J., (2002), The dynamics of dredging, (ed. Richardson, S.) Placer Management Corporation,
Irvine, California, USA.
Steen, T.V.D., (1989), An engineering strategy for reservoir clearance, Summary paper, ESCAP Workshop,
New Delhi, 16-20 Oct., 1989.
676
DESIGN OF SAMPLING PROGRAM FOR WATER QUALITY

MANAGEMENT CASE STUDY OF ENNORE ESTUARY
Rajat Roy Chaudhury1*, Prince Prakash Jebakumar1, B.K. Jena1, Vijaya Ravichandran1,
Asokan S. Sundarrajan2
1
Coastal & Environmental Engg. Div., National Institute of Ocean Technology, Chennai 600 036
2
Tamilnadu Pollution Control Board, Chennai
Abstract
A Waste Load Allocation (WLA) study was conducted for wastewater discharges from the
North Chennai region along the coast. The receiving water bodies are tidal backwaters, the
Ennore creek and coastal water bodies between Chennai Port and Ennore Port. Objective of
the field-sampling program was (i) to monitor point sources and receiving waters simulta-
neously and (ii) to calibrate a water quality model for the WLA. The dynamic nature of the
receiving waters and wastewater discharges required sampling over a 48-hour period at a
frequency of six hours. Higher frequency of sampling was constrained by resources and
logistics.
The sampling program design was initially based on the considerations specified in the Total
Maximum Daily Load (USEPA) approach and reviewed initial measurements and reconnais-
sance surveys. Surveys were carried out during three seasons (pre monsoon, post monsoon
and fair weather). This paper highlights the design considerations based on past data, water
quality issues, water quality standards, modeling requirements, logistics and resources. The
results of the sampling program indicate that the goals of the sampling program were met,
given the ability to identify key phenomena and water quality kinetics.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In India, water quality management needs and objectives have been summarized by the Cen-
tral Pollution Control Board in a document - Scheme for Zoning and Classification of Indian
Rivers, Estuaries and Coastal Waters (CPCB 1979). The objectives address the Boards
need to:
a) lay down water quality standards for surface and ground waters
b) designate best use of the water, develop a water use map
c) determine a rational basis for evolving effluent standards and allocation of load to achieve
the water quality and set discharge standards for effluents
d) sustain the zoned class of the receiving water; and
e) set minimum treatment requirements for pollutant sources.
*Corresponding author, e-mail: chaudhur@niot.ernet.in
677
Current implementation of the 1978-79 CPCB objective centers around the issuance of
discharge permits based on the nature of the point source, i.e., technology based control.
Additional efforts in the coastal areas are required to expand the list of water quality param-
eters, designated best use classification and allocation of waste loads (WLA) for the estua-
rine or coastal waters based on the assimilative capacity of the receiving waters. The termi-
nology Waste Load Allocation (WLA) is derived from the US Environmental Protection Agency
(USEPA).
The objective of the field-sampling program was to define the dissolved oxygen and patho-
genic pollutant water quality kinetics of Ennore creek and North Chennai coastal waters.
Monitoring of hydrodynamics, water quality in receiving waters and discharge of point sources
needed to be done simultaneously, primarily due to the dynamic nature of tidal flows, point
source discharge/intake conditions and in particular for Ennore, the characteristics of the bar
at Ennore Creek mouth. The study was designed to sample at the point sources and receiving
waters simultaneously to verify and calibrate models capable of defining water body responses
to a specific set of loadings. Sampling program design is the crux of any WLA, as system
characteristics are qualitatively defined by the results of field study and enable models cali-
bration. A calibrated model would enable modeling of the system for WLA.
1.1 Sampling design considerations

The field sample collection program was designed based on:
a) Study objectives
b) System characteristics
c) Data presently available
d) Modeling approach selected
e) Quality requirements
f ) Project resources (equipment, boats, funds, personnel)
1.1.1 Study objectives

The objective of the study was to:
a) estimate and monitor the pollutant loadings and receiving water responses to the pollutant
loading;
b) model this behavior of water quality and hydrodynamics in the Ennore estuary and the
coastal waters off the North Chennai coast so as to calibrate a water quality model;
c) apply the calibrated model to determine a waste load allocation that would meet the water
quality criteria.
678
1.1.2 System characteristics
The characteristics of Ennore Creek that were taken into consideration for designing the
location, frequency and parameters were:
a) Frequent closure of mouth and flows into the creek from the Kosasthalaiyar, Kortalaiyar,
Amullavoyal Canal;
b) Dominant processes in the creek such as cooling water withdrawal and release;
c) Inputs from municipal and industrial wastewaters;
d) Location of cooling water discharge and intake points;
e) Semi-diurnal tides at Ennore having two peaks and two lows every day and in the
duration between new and full moon days (spring and neap);
f ) Entry of tidal waters into Ennore Creek through Kosasthalaiyar river;
g) Seasons of Ennore influencing its oceanographic characteristics, i.e., strong winds
during the SW and NE monsoons and cyclonic winds that produce larger waves.
1.1.3 Past data

Initial decisions on the location and frequency of sampling and the parameters of concern
were made from data available from previous studies in the Ennore Creek. Past data for the
Ennore creek area was obtained from the Coastal Ocean Monitoring and Predictive System
(COMAPS) program of the Department of Ocean Development (DOD). Data was collected by
the nodal agency - Central Electro Chemical Research Institute (CECRI), Chennai, from 1993
to 1997. Evaluation of the COMAPS study for the Ennore Creek indicated violations of DO &
Total coliform in Ennore creek and Royapuram outfall location in the coastal waters. The
Ennore creek points recorded lower DO values and higher coliform values in comparison to the
CPCB standard for SW-IV during 1994, 1995.
Based on the review of the past COMAPS data, the design focused on the following criteria:
Ennore creek : Water quality tidal and current data, water quality to focus on DO and
faecal coliform concentrations.
Eutrophication problems to be incorporated in sampling design. Toxics to
be considered also, depending on analytical and financial resources.
Coastal waters : Currents, tides, fecal coliform, temperature, suspended solids.
1.1.4 Model selection

The WLA requirements of the coastal and creek waters are different and therefore it was
decided to delink the two waters and use separate models for the two domains. For modeling
of the Ennore Creek, it was proposed to evaluate the adequacy of a one-dimensional model
679
or a longitudinally vertical, two dimensional model, while the coastal waters required a two
dimensional model. These model input data requirements and sensitivity of the models to
processes and parameters were considered while developing the sampling plan, frequency
of data measurements, parameters and experiments. Three surveys were planned to allow
calibration of a model with two survey data and validation with the third.
1.1.5 Quality
The quality and quantity of data determine, to a large degree, the confidence that can be
placed on the modeling results:
a) The quantity of data requirement was taken into consideration before selecting the number
of sampling locations with appropriate justification for sampling location selection;
b) The degree of quality control that could be provided in the laboratory analysis and sample
collection was evaluated before selecting a particular parameter for analysis.
Location of the laboratory and deep freezer was in Chennai, about 25 km away from the
sampling location and therefore it was considered essential to have a field laboratory at Ennore
where the land, coastal and estuarine samples were collected and preserved before being
transferred to the laboratory in Chennai.
For the Ennore WLA, data collection program planning was as follows:
a) Sampling was designed for a total 48-hour period in 6-hour intervals. Therefore two teams
with twelve-hour shifts were assigned to each area, making a total of six teams for the three
areas.
b) One sampling crew over a 48-hour period was assigned for each of the three domains of
interest, i.e., coastal, estuarine and industrial sources.
c) The sampling focused on tide and diurnal variations resulting from algal productivity. There
fore samples were collected for high tide and low tide periods. Each team with their twelve-
hour shifts would store the samples in ice till they were brought onshore to the field labora
tory and transported to the deep-freezer in the laboratory within 24 hours. Parameters such
as NH3, fecal coliform and chlorophyll-a needed to be analyzed within 24 hours.
d) In-situ tests were conducted for physical parameters like DO, temperature and salinity
using insitu probes.
1.2 Sampling Plan

Table 1 gives salient features of the sampling study. The location of sampling stations are
shown in Fig. 1.
680
Table 1. Salient features of sampling study.
p g y
Parameter Period Location
Hydrodynamics – Three seasons, 15 days per season; Tides – Ennore Creek
Tides and Currents Minimum one tidal cycle from spring to Currents – Coastal waters
Spring/neap to neap tides. (15 days)
Water quality Three seasons during high and low Coastal & Ennore Creek
tides locations, municipal sewage
outfalls, industrial sources
1.3 Selection of sampling sites
1.3.1 Receiving waters - Ennore creek

The backwaters of Ennore creek (Fig. 1) have a number of manmade, natural and industrial
effluent point sources entering the system. The sampling points on Ennore creek represent
water quality at the mouth region, i.e., the quality of flood flows from coastal water or ebb
flows from the Ennore creek after receiving wastewater and other inputs. The coastal sam-
pling near the Ennore mouth represented the boundary condition water quality at the mouth.
A second station (ENC2) represents the confluence of Kosasthalaiyar and Ennore. ENC3
represents intake water quality to ETPS as well as a calibration point between Buckingham
canal and Korataliyar. ENC4 represents a calibration point between the headwaters and
Korataliyar.
1.3.2 Point sources

There are over 30 discharges into the receiving waters. The design flows for each of these
discharges were collected from the Tamilnadu Pollution Control Board (TNPCB), together with
the monthly effluent monitoring data. The average concentration of each water quality param-
eter was multiplied by the discharge to provide the mass loading in kg/day. These mass
loadings were ranked. The top five discharges were selected for sampling. In theory, these
discharges accounted for more than 90% of the discharge. Non-point sources were not
accounted for in the ranking. Selection of sampling locations were based on the following
criteria:
1)Ennore Thermal Power Station (ETPS) ranked first in the discharge of Total Suspended
Solids (TSS) and Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD). ETPS accounts for over 98% of TSS
and 82% of BOD of the total mass of the 23 industries considered. Therefore, the cooling
water and ash slurry discharge point into the coastal waters was considered;
681
2)North Chennai Thermal Power Station (NCTPS) ranked next to ETPS in terms of TSS
loading making this point source also significant and therefore considered;
3)Other point sources into the Buckingham Canal such as Madras Refineries (MRL), Manali
Petrochemicals (MPL), Madras Fertilizers (MFL), Tamilnadu Petroproducts (TPL) etc., were
considered in the order of their ranking and discharge of combined trade effluent into the
Buckingham canal; and
4)The Royapuram sewage outfall discharges mostly untreated municipal sewage directly into
the coastal waters and thus a significant contributor to the coastal water quality.
Since the ETPS withdraws water from the Ennore Creek and discharges into the coastal
waters, it is expected to reflect the combined loading from the permitted point sources dis-
charging into the Ennore creek/Buckingham canal as well as the unsewered and unmonitored
discharges by the pollution control authorities.
ENNORE
CREEK
SAMPLING
LOCATIONS
682
S OTHERS
0.17% TSS 7.05% BOD
MPL NCTPS
0.21% 0.88% MRL
MRL
5.63%
0.11%
MPL
2.20%
NCTPS
2.55%
ETPS
ETPS 82.58%
98.63%
Fig. 2. TSS and BOD loadings from point sources.
Fig. 2. shows loadings for TSS and BOD from authorized discharges. ETPS is the highest
contributor with 98.6% and 82.6% loadings for TSS and BOD respectively. The key point to
note is that ETPS is essentially the Ennore creek water discharged into the coastal water with
the addition of heat. Ideally, the ETPS loading should not exceed the combined loading of the
other point sources (Fig. 2). Considering the fact that all known discharges into the Ennore
Creek and Buckingham canal is 884 kg/day of BOD (as per TNPCB records), the ETPS
discharge therefore should ideally be limited to this load. However, the measured BOD is
5075 kg/day indicating that atleast 4190 kg/day enters from unknown sources. This anomaly
explains that the unauthorized / unsewered / untreated wastewaters far exceed the permitted
treated point sources. A better representation of the input/output at ETPS would be as shown
in Fig. 3
UNAUTHORISED SOURCES
BOD 4190 Kg/d
AUTHORIZED DISCHARGES
BOD 884 Kg/d
ETPS BOD 5075 Kg/d
f S
Fig. 3. Anomaly of inputs at ETPS sampling location.
1.3.3 Coastal waters
The coastal sampling stations were selected to represent the dispersion of the effluent in
nearshore and offshore locations. CST1 and CST10 shown in Fig.1, represent the southern
and northern boundaries respectively for the coastal sampling. Table 2 gives the summary of
coastal locations.
683
Table 1. Summary of coastal locations
y
S.No Location Closest outfall Frequency / Period
1 CST2 (nearshore) Royapuram sewage outfall 48 hour sampling during high
and CST3 (offshore) and low tides during each
2 CST 4 and CST5 MRL submerged outfall sampling season in February
99, May 99 and December 99
3 CST6 and CST7 ETPS cooling water and ash
discharge outfall
4 CST8 and CST9 Ennore Creek mouth
Three surveys were conducted as per the design of the study, i.e., 48 surveys with the com-
plete list of parameters in coastal, creek and point sources. A fourth sampling program was
added to the survey to confirm an observation made during the first two surveys, where distinct
pollution plumes could be not be identified in the coastal stations. It was hypothesized that
the signal was limited to the mixing zones and/or transported by the littoral currents. Thus, a
close grid sampling was also carried out along the coastal stations for a limited number of
parameters.
The close grid survey was conducted with 96 stations (Fig. 4) with 3 hourly intervals and
included beach samples. The survey was limited to fecal coliform, BOD, DO, salinity, tem-
perature and TSS measurements. However, this type of survey could not be continued for the
other seasons due to the high cost involved in handling/analyzing large number of samples.
However, the survey indicated that the plume was primarily transported along the coast by the
littoral current.
Analysis of biological characteristics suggest that the Ennore Creek stations are heavily
polluted due to excessive organic loading from untreated municipal waters from the Buckingham
Canal and nutrient inputs from (fertilizer) industrial discharges from the Amullavoyal Canal.
Fig. 5 shows DO swings with the time of the day in the Ennore Creek sampling locations
indicating eutrophication.
Analyses of the samples indicate for the coastal stations, fecal coliforms and BOD are the
major issue, while for the Creek system in addition to BOD, fecal coliforms; nutrients are the
primary cause of excess productivity. Therefore, the first step for the creek system would be
to model DO/BOD, as secondary treatment can remove BOD and fecal coliforms. Modeling of
nutrients may be taken up based on the results of DO/BOD modeling, as removal of nutrients
requires tertiary treatment, which can be expensive unless controlled at source.
684
13.16
13.16
13.15
13.15
13.14
13.14
Fishing
(a) Close grid sampling locations Harbour
13.13
80.30 80.30 80.31 80.31 80.3
Fig. 4. Fecal coliform variations at close grid sampling locations along North Chennai Coast.
3.0 CONCLUSIONS
This study constitutes a comprehensive water quality survey for designing a scheme for meet-
ing receiving water quality standards. Sampling study design is the crux of any water quality
management program. Systematic design based on site-specific criteria enabled determina-
tion of frequency, number of locations, type of samples and parameters to meet the end
objectives.
The selection of the creek sampling stations enabled identification of authorized and unautho-
rized / unmonitored discharges. Without field study, the Buckingham Canal alone with the
sewage discharges would have been considered as a source, but the presence of a large
number of non-point municipal sewage and industrial effluent sources were manifested in the
analysis.
The close grid sampling along the coastline enabled identification of the longshore transport of
the pollutants indicating that beach exposure is critical for municipal outfalls located along the
shoreline.
Analysis and scientific interpretation of the results of the survey at each sampling location
facilitated focus on key water quality issues. Modeling was thus directed towards generating
a solution for the critical issues.
685
8
ENC1 ENC4
ENC2
ENC3
6
DO (mg/l)
CPCB CRITERIA
0
02/19/99 05:00:00 02/19/99 09:00:00 02/19/99 13:00:00 02/19/99 17:00:00 02/19/99 21:00:00 02/20/99 01:00:0
Fig. 5. DO fluctuations observed in the Ennore Creek locations.
This paper is based on the studies carried out for Waste Load Allocation (WLA) and Waste
Assimilative Capacity (WAC) for selected estuaries in India as a part of the Coastal and
Marine Area Management Component under the Project Environment Management and Ca-
pacity Building funded by the World Bank.
REFERENCES
Ambrose, R.B., Connly, J.P., Southerland, E.,Branwell, T.O. and Schnoor, J.L. (1988), Waste load allocation
models (WLA). J. Water Pollution Control Federation, 60(9), and 1646-1956.
Criteria for classification and zoning of coastal waters, COPOCS/6/1993. Central Pollution Control Board, Delhi.
Mahajan, A.U., Chalapatirao, C.V. and Gadkari, S.K. (1999). Mathematical modeling Toll for coastal water quality
management. Wat. Sci. Tech. 40 (2), 15 157.
Technical Guidance Manual for performing Waste Load Allocations Book III Estuaries, EPA 823 R 92 005.
686
SCOPING - AN EFFECTIVE TOOL FOR ENHANCEMENT OF

EIA STUDY
Vijaya Ravichandran* and Rajat Roy Chaudhury
Coastal & Environmental Engg. Div., National Institute of Ocean Technology, Chennai-600 036
Abstract
Scoping is a priority setting activity in the EIA process. It identifies environmental issues that
are likely to be adversely affected by the proposed project activities and focuses the assess-
ment on the most important (significant) issues. Given the knowledge of baseline environ-
ment and type of development, environmental parameters having impacts that are considered
minor, may be sampled at lower spatial or temporal resolutions. The objective of scoping is to
conduct an EIA study efficiently and effectively. This is done by judiciously allocating time
and resources to baseline assessment and prediction of impacts thereby focusing the study
on critical issues of concern. Scoping involves identification of (i) critical impacts for detailed
study, (ii) parameters for primary data collection and (iii) issues requiring prediction.
End result of the scoping exercise may be development of Terms of Reference (TOR) for the
EIA study, viz., environmental parameters requiring baseline assessment, extent of prediction
of impacts, type of environmental management plans / mitigation measures required etc. If a
consultant does scooping at the proposal stage, it provides a competitive advantage over
other offers. Advantages of scoping are that:
· It enables integrated project planning.

· It helps to identify key issues and environmental concerns in the early project planning
stage.
· It reduces time and cost-overruns from structured planning of the EIA study.
· It helps in confining the baseline study and prediction of impacts to an essential set of
significant environmental parameters thereby allowing judicious allocation of time and re
sources for assessing relevant environmental issues in detail.
· It reduces the likelihood of a deficient EIA.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
· There may be several impacts due to a development project. The impact characteristics
such as nature (positive, negative, direct, indirect), magnitude (small/large scale, incremen
tal), timing (construction / operation phase), duration (short-term, long-term), extent (area/
volume), uncertainty (frequency) and reversibility determine the criteria for impact evaluation.
*Corresponding author, e-mail: vijaya@niot.ernet.in

· A combination of the above criteria with the location of receptors / environmental status of the
project location, determines whether an impact can be considered significant or not.
· The scoping process enables step by step identification of impacts of project activities and
preliminary evaluation of impact significance based on impact characteristic and background
site data.
· Given the environmental setting at the project location and type of project activity, impacts
are excluded and/or included in the EIA study, with appropriate justification for both the
cases.
· This enables focusing the EIA study to a set of issues significant to that project and its
environs alone thereby resulting in substantial cost reduction.
· In the absence of scoping exercise, the data collection program would be a scientific evalu
ation of the entire environmental setting of the project and result in data unnecessary for
evaluation of the project. Given the resource constraint either too little or too much superfi
cial data would be collected.
· Presentation of the scoping study in the EIA report enables the reviewer/decision maker
evaluate whether the EIA is sufficient enough to accept / reject the project proposal.
Application of scoping process is explained using the case study of a project proposal for a
Port and Harbor along the Tamilnadu coast. Table 1 describes the proposed project activities.
1.1 Steps in scoping process
1.1.1 Evaluation of environmental setting

Evaluation of the environmental setting in and around the vicinity of the proposed project
location enables assess the site suitability from environmental / ecological viewpoint. It en-
ables planning of project activities during construction and operations stage itself. Alterna-
tively, in critical situations it enables changing the project or site at the pre-feasibility stage so
that loss of time and investment can be minimized if project is likely to result in a no-go
situation due to critical environmental resources or siting / environmental criteria. Table 2
presents evaluation of the site around the project location for the case study based on criteria
specified by the Ministry of Environment & Forests (MoEF).
From Table 2, it may be concluded that the project is NOT sited in an ecologically sensitive
area. The project operations are carried out within the port area. The proposed cargo handled
is hazardous/toxic and therefore there is RISK involved in the operation stages of the project
under abnormal conditions or accidents.
688
Table 1. Proposed project activities.
Table 1 P oposed P oject Activities
Phase Landside Activity Waterside activity
Deepening of navigational channel

Construction Land reclamation (Dumping of dredged materials • Capital dredging
on land) • Dumping of dredged
materials at sea
Operation - • Maintenance dredging
Iron-ore, coal, multipurpose, marine liquid berths

Construction • Transportation of raw materials • Construction of berths
• Laying of internal road network and railway
tracks
• Construction / Precasting / Fabrication /
Welding
• Labor force for all activities
Operation • Storage & Stacking of iron-ore, coal, liquid • Shipping operations
cargo
• Loading of iron-ore, coal through conveyors
• Handling of liquid cargo, containers, dry bulk
Table 2. Evaluation of environmental setting according to MoEF criteria1.
S.No. Environmental siting criteria within 10 km radius of Evaluation of Remarks

the proposed project site criteria
1 Is there a national park, sanctuary, biosphere NO
reserve or reserved forest in the area?
2 Are there any coral reefs in the area? NO
3 Are there mangroves/seagrass beds in the YES Sparse stunted mangroves are
area? found in upstream areas of the
Ennore Creek
4 Are there significant areas of breeding/spawning NO Ennore Creek is a polluted
grounds in the vicinity? backwater. Pulicat lake is 15
Kms away
5 Does the area form a part of migratory route or NO
nesting grounds for aquatic and avi -fauna?
6 Are there endangered species in the area? NO
7 Does the area have religious, historic places, NO
archaeological monument sites etc.
8 Does the project require land acquisition and NO
resettlement
9 Is there any defense installation in the area NO
10. Are there rivers/streams/seas/estuary YES Bay of Bengal, Ennore creek
11 Does the project satisfy CRZ criteria YES No withdrawal of groundwater.
Only facilities requiring
waterfront are located.
Activities fall under clause 3 (ii)
of the CRZ Notification.
12. Is there a lake, reservoir or dam? YES The Pulicat Lake is located at
about 10 –15 km north
13 Is the project situated in a seismically active NO The project area falls under
zone? seismic zone category II
1
Annex II of MoEF EIA Manual
689
1.1.2 Preliminary assessment of project environs
A preliminary (reconnaissance) survey, comprising visual inspection of the project site and its
surroundings for the existing infrastructure/conditions was carried out to evaluate the significant
issues. The background information of the site, described in Table 3, is based on previous
studies and literature.
Table 3. Overview of site characteristics (background data).

( g )
S. No. Criteria Assessment for the project site
1 Air pollutant sources Ennore (NCTPS, ETPS), Manali
2 Air quality Good to medium at Kattupalli village
3 Receptors of impact Villages and residential located 10 Kms
away
4 Water bodies and sources of water supply Estuarine & coastal waters
5 General water quality Good coastal waters and medium to poor
estuarine waters
6 Wastewater / effluent discharge sources, Industrial and domestic in Ennore creek.
disposal methods / location of disposal
7 General aesthetics Medium to poor along
8 Landuse Rural, industrial and agriculture
9 Landscape and terrain around the Ennore Port Plain
10 Prominent Installations in the project site Ports, thermal power plants
1.1.3 Identification of likely impacts

Identification of the likely impacts of a project is done to determine all the issues of environ-
mental concern. Based on significant issues, parameters for baseline data and issues requir-
ing prediction for future conditions are determined. This also aids in incorporating mitigation
measures in the project/process design at the planning stage itself. Table 4 presents an
overview of likely impacts of the proposed project.
1.1.4. Evaluation of impact characteristics

Impacts of the project take place during construction and operation stages of the project. The
impacts of the proposed project are characterized as follows:
Nature (positive, negative, direct, indirect)

·An increased employment opportunity is a direct-positive impact.
·Direct-negative impact may occur due to change in land-use pattern along the
proposed terrestrial pipeline route
·Human health problems, impacts on marine organisms due to water quality
deterioration from oil spills may be indirect-negative impacts.
Magnitude (size)
·Accidental release of crude oil may cause large scale impacts on human and
aquatic life
690
Table 4. Overview of likely impact.
Activities for future Environmental Parameters
proposals
Air Noise Land Water* Sediment Ecology Socio-
Economics
Proposed deepening of navigational channel

Capital dredging vü
? ü
v? v? ü v ?ü
v v? v
ü ü ü
Land reclamation / dredge spoil
dumping at sea
Maintenance dredging v ü v ü v ü
Proposed construction activitie s
v? v
ü ü
Construction material handling/
transportation of raw materials
v? v? v v?
ü ü ü ü
Construction activities (marine
terminals, railway tracks,
roadways)
Labour force v ?ü ü
v? v ü
Construction of jetty on piles v ü
Operations of Iron ore & coal terminals
Vehicular traffic v ü v ü
Storage & stacking of iron ore v ü v
ü
v
ü v
ü
v v v v v
ü ü ü ü ü
Loading / unloading of iron-ore
and coal through conveyors
Ship Operations v ü v
ü
Operations at Marine Liquid terminal
Transfer of liquid cargo from
ship to pipeline
ü
v
ü
v
ü
v
Storage of POL products in

tank farms ü
v
üv ü
v
üv ü
v
ü
v
Pipeline operations ü
v üv ü
v üv vü
v
ü ü v
ü
v
üv v
ü
Effluent discharge from tank
clean up
v ü Impacts expected undernormal
normal operating Impacts expected
expectedunder accidents and/or
Impacts expected under operating
üv Impacts under accidents an
conditions
conditions abnormal operations
abnormal operations
* Water environment consisit of marine & fresh water resources ** Ships are already in operation
Extent/location (area/volume covered, distribution)

·Spatial distribution of liquid cargo release (risk contours), extent of area affected due
to overpressures from explosions
Duration (long-term, short-term, intermittent, continuous)

·Oil spills during transfer operations may be short-term
·Impacts on benthic ecology from dredge dump disposal is long-term, while piling
is intermittent
691
Reversibility/irreversibility
·Restoration of the environmental quality to pre-existing stage is defined as reversible.
Generally impacts during construction stage are reversible as the impact ceases
after the activity is stopped.
·Likelihood (risk, uncertainty)

·Oil spills, during transfer operations occur less frequently but have a high conse
quence
Evaluation of impact characteristics is carried out by for environmental parameters likely to be

affected by each of the activity, and their level of significance is assessed to enable identifica-
tion of issues of environmental concern. All impacts identified are included or excluded based
on their level of significance, which is determined by overlaying the project impacts on the
surrounding environment. Fig. 1 describes the advantages and steps in the scoping process.
1.2 Scoping outcome for the case study

·The proposed deepening of the navigational channel is a requirement for handling deep draft
vessels
·Dredging, land reclamation and dumping may cause impacts on water/sediment quality,
benthic ecology, bathymetry and shoreline;
·Transfer of LPG, chemicals & POL products at the marine liquid terminal through the pipeline
and storage in the tankfarms has risk involved under abnormal operations or accidental
conditions.
·The proposed iron ore terminal construction is an expansion activity of the existing port and
hence any impact may be incremental on existing conditions;
·Handling of iron ore may cause air quality impacts from dispersion of particulate matter
·Construction activities causing air quality impacts are temporary, intermittent and reversible;
·Impacts on noise quality from piling and dredging operations shall be temporary and limited
to the project site
·There is no land acquisition/resettlement issues;.
692
Initiation of Project
Identification of Project Components / Activities
Background data of project environment /

Reconnaissance survey
Identification of environmental parameters likely to be

affected by project activities
Scoping
(Evaluation of impact characteristics & Planning
of EIA study)
• Identification of all the project impacts

• Reasons for exclusions of minor /
insignificant impacts explicitly stated
• Design of focused baseline study
• Issues requiring predictions identified
Minor environmental impacts Identification of significant environmental

impacts & priority setting
Background data / past literature Focused field data collection only for
/ reconnaissance surveys environmental parameters likely to be affected
Environmental Assessment (Evaluation of

background)
• Savings on time, resources and cost
• Focus on priority issues
•
Prediction of impacts for critical issues
Enables comprehensive analysis of
essential parameters
Summarization of impacts (Overlay of predictions on environmental data)

Preparation of Environmental Management Plans (EMP)
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
Fig. 1 Enhancement of EIA study by scoping.
1.3 Design of Study

Based on the outcome, the following aspects need to be considered for prediction
Impact on water, sediment, benthic ecology due to dredging and dumping (during construction
phase)
693
Risk Assessment for marine liquid terminal and LPG handling in the marine environment
(during transfers), terrestrial pipeline transfers and storage in tankfarms
Assessment of air quality impacts from dispersion of particulate matter from stockpiles and
during loading onto vessels
Air quality impacts due to transportation of raw materials during construction phase and
vehicular emissions and ship emissions during the operations phase.
Noise levels at receptor during piling and dredging operations (during construction phase)
Given the knowledge of the project setting, present environmental conditions, baseline status
of the study area through previous investigations, the following assessments have been con-
sidered significant and are required to be assessed.
Prediction of impacts on water quality from dredge dump disposal and impacts on benthic
ecology at disposal site
Risk assessment for hazardous cargo handling
Assessment of air quality impacts from dispersion of particulate matter from conveyors during
loading operations
Impacts on air & noise quality due to construction activities shall be short-term and cease to
exist after construction is completed. While these can be considered insignificant, assess-
ments are required to be done to obtain a quantitative estimate.
2.0 ADVANTAGES OF SCOPING
Planning of any study including an EIA study essentially starts with scoping. For an EIA the
extent of impact of each of the environmental attribute is determined while determining signifi-
cance, This enables determining the depth of study for the environmental attribute including
frequency, timing, locations etc. This also defines monitoring of critical parameters at a later
date. Significance also determines the extent of Environmental Management Planning.
As every impact (significant and insignificant) of project activities are evaluated, the likelihood
of ignoring a critical parameter is minimized. This essentially saves time and resources, as
considerable time is lost in fieldwork, mobilization/demobilization if a critical environmental
attribute needs to be measured at a later date.
Scoping enables focusing the studies on critical issues only thereby resulting in judicious
utilization of time and resources.
Results of the scoping study needs to be presented in the EIA report along with the inclu-
sions/exclusions to enable the reviewer evaluate whether all the likely impacts are considered
694
for EIA study. This enables the reviewer determine whether the EIA study is complete and
forms the basis for acceptability of a project proposal.
The danger is that the EIA consultant may not emphasize the logic of scooping, leading to
demand for deeper studies.
3.0 CONCLUSIONS
While there are several impacts likely due to development, only a few may be significant from
environmental viewpoint while other impacts are mitigable / manageable / sustainable.
The potential of scoping is that it can identify the requirement for primary data collection.
Based on this, EIAs for some projects may be based on secondary data available without the
requirement for primary data collection, thus enabling focus of the EIA study only on issues of
concern with judicious allocation of time and resources.
When all the impacts of a project are insignificant, scoping exercise itself may form the end of
the EIA study without requirement for baseline data collection and/or prediction owing to the
nature of project activities and its environmental setting.
This paper is a spin off of the Guidelines for Environmental Impacts of coastal infrastructure
projects developed by the authors as a part of the Coastal and Marine Area Management
Component under the Project Environment Management and Capacity Building funded by
the World Bank.
REFERENCES
Ministry of Environment and Forests EIA Notification New Delhi, the 27th January 1994 (As amended on 04/05
1994 till 21/11/2001), CRZ Notification (19th February 1991 as amended till October 2001).
·
Indian Environmental Legislations.
Environmental Guidelines for Ports and Harbor Projects, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India
United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP) EIA Training Resource Manual, by Environment Australia
(Environmental Protection Group) Canberra, Australia under the guidance and technical support of UNEP
International Working Group on EIA (URL: http://www.environment.gov.au/epg/eianet/manual/manual/title.htm)
February 1997.
World Bank Technical Paper Number 154, Environmental Assessment Sourcebook, Volume III Guidelines for
Environmental Assessment of Energy and Industry Projects, Environment Department, The World Bank
Environmental Assessment, R.K. Jain, L.V. Urban, G.S. Stacey, H.E.Balbach., McGraw-Hill, Inc
Environmental Engineering - A design approach, Arcadio P. Sincero, Gregoria A. Sincero, Prentice Hall
Environmental Impact Analysis Handbook, Edited by John G. Rau and David C. Wooten, University of California
at Irvine, McGraw-Hill Book Company
695
DREDGING STRATEGIES FOR THE SUSTENANCE OF

NAVIGATION CHANNELS IN LARGE TIDAL RANGE
REGIONS: KANDLA PORT A CASE STUDY
U.V. Purandare*, T. Nagendra, N. Ramesh and S.H. Kulkarni
Central Water and Power Research Station, PO Khdakwasla Research Station, Pune, India 411024
Abstract
The development of navigation channels for ports located in large tidal range regions, gener-
ally, involves continuous maintenance dredging in the channel, often on a daily basis. The
navigation channel in the approaches to Kandla Port, located in the Gulf of Kutch, on the west
coast of India, is one such example, where the maintenance of the channel is carried out
continuously. Unlike the ports of Mormugao and Mangalore the dredging at Kandla is required
to be done on a daily basis and the total annual dredging is of the order of 4 Million m3. The
tidal currents at Kandla are very strong due to the large tidal range of up to 7 m and therefore
the flux of sediments in suspension is also very high. This results in large amount of siltation
in the approach channel, due to reduction in the transport capacity in dredged channel. Prob-
lems of deterioration of channel depths arise, during disruption of maintenance dredging, due
to the requirement of dry-docking of the dredger for routine maintenance. Under such circum-
stances, the decision about the optimum period that can be allowed for the disruption of
dredging becomes very vital for sustaining navigable depths in the channel. The siltation as-
pects in the Sogal channel at Kandla, during various periods of break in the dredging activity,
were examined based on the hydrographic surveys of the channel and the hydrodynamic
model simulations using a mathematical model to decide the maximum permissible period for
the disruption of dredging.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The Kandla Port is located in the north eastern extremity of the Gulf of Kutch (Latitude 23001
N and Longitude 70013 E), on the west coast of India, and the typical feature of this area is the
extremely dominant effect of the tides on the local hydrodynamics and morphology. The exact
location of the port is on the west bank of Kandla Creek and the creek is part of a complex
network of creek system connected to the eastern end of the Gulf of Kutch (Fig. 1). Kandla is
exclusively a tidal port and the ship movements in the approach area from the Gulf are carried
out at high stages of tide, due to very shallow depths. The tidal range at Kandla varies from 4.0
m during neap tides to 7.0 m during spring tides. The large tidal range generates strong
currents of magnitude varying from 1.0 to 1.8 m/s. This results in high concentration of sedi-
ments in the flow and the typical observations show concentrations of the order of 1000 to
696
3000 parts per million (ppm). Thus, the strong currents cause large flux of sediments predomi-
nantly as suspended load. The bed material mainly comprises fine sand mixed with silt. The
presence of large tidal range and strong currents results in a very dynamic morphology in the
approach area with frequently shifting shoals (sand bars) and channels. The network of creeks
and the approach area are flanked by vast reaches of inter-tidal flats which get inundated
during high water springs. Another very important feature is the total absence of any fresh
water flow, even during the monsoon season, thus there is no density stratification or gravita-
tional circulation.
Fig. 1. Study area.

The planning and maintenance of an approach channel in a dynamic situation like Kandla Port
becomes very critical, which is not only dictated by tides of large range but also extreme
conditions induced by cyclones and earthquakes. The pressure of expanding the port to
accommodate vessels of higher drafts further complicates the situation and requires judicious
planning of the approach channel and evolving effective maintenance dredging strategy, based
on model studies and well documented site observations. It would be necessary to identify the
source of sediments; critical areas of siltation; the siltation rates and rate of maintenance
dredging; size of dredger to be deployed; suitable disposal sites for the dredged material;
training works, if necessary, for inducing favourable hydrodynamic conditions in the channel or
preventing flux of sediments in the critical reaches etc, for deciding the maintenance dredging
strategy for the channel. Some of these aspects have been presented by Purandare et al.
(1996, 2001) and Nagendra et al., (2003). The present paper focuses on the rate of mainte-
nance dredging and the maximum permissible period for the disruption of dredging in the
navigation channel at Kandla Port. This analysis is mainly based on the hydrographic surveys
and the data on maintenance dredging, in addition to the hydrodynamic simulations using
mathematical model.
697
2.0 ALIGNMENT OF APPROACH CHANNEL AND SILTATION ASPECTS
The Gulf of Kutch gradually reduces in cross section and width to a funnel shape from the
Arabian Sea to the eastern end where it is met by the two major creeks, Kandla and Hansthal
including the vast intertidal area flanking the two creeks. The tidal wave amplifies as it propa-
gates along the Gulf of Kutch. The tidal range at Okha near the entrance of the Gulf is 3.0 m
and the range increases to 6.0 m at the mouth of the Kandla creek. The influence of the shape
of the Gulf, bathymetry and the bottom friction is evident. The geomorphology of the vast creek
system and the approach area appear to be of deltaic origin of an ancient period where an
active river might have been debauching into the Gulf. The present flow into the creek system
is fully tide dominated, with almost negligible fresh water discharge. This forms a unique
feature for the approach area where the flow and morphological characteristics are exclusively
controlled by the tidal flow.
The approach area to the Kandla creek from the gulf is very shallow with many shoals and
bars (Fig. 2). Advantage was taken of the available natural channels, in between the shoals,
for developing a suitable approach channel. Due to the very dynamic nature of the morphology
in the approach area, with frequent shifting of shoals, it was often required for Kandla port to
shift and suitably locate the approach channel. The present approach channel, known as the
Sogal channel, has been in use since 1984. The approach channel is maintained by perennial
dredging and the depths in the critical shallow zone have been progressively increased from (-
) 3.7 m in 1984 to (-) 5.2 m below CD in 2001. The present maintenance dredging of about 4.0
million cu m per annum is carried out using 4500 cu m hopper capacity TSHD. The navigation
channel extends from the Outer Tuna Buoy (OTB) up to the mouth of the Kandla creek and is
Fig. 2. Bathymetry and digital terrain map of approach area.
698
approximately 17 km long. The portion between buoys 6 to 12 is generally known as the Sogal
channel.
The effect of waves is not very significant in the Kandla approach area. The wave data obser-
vations carried out by CWPRS near Outer Tuna Buoy (OTB) for tidal power project showed
that maximum wave height up to 2.0 m occur for a brief period in the month of April. It is
generally known that the spring tides play a dominant role in the sediment dynamics. The
hydrodynamic simulation results for typical spring tide are shown in Fig. 3. The simulation
results show that the maximum currents in the approaches are of the order of 1.5 m/s and that
in the Kandla creek are of the order of 2.0 m/s. Thus at Kandla the energy of the tidal currents
is much greater and is mainly responsible for the numerous shoals and channels dotting the
approach area. The shoals may dissipate any existing wave energy and thus are helping to
protect the inner parts of the Kandla creek. The wave energy from the gulf is also spent on the
southern and northern coastline of the gulf and therefore does not reach up to Kandla creek.
The strong tidal currents may also modify the wave climate.
Fig. 3. Speed contours in the approch area.
The source of sediments at Kandla is mainly from the offshore region and there is no sediment
source of alluvial nature from the creek system as it is devoid of any fresh water discharge
from the landward side. Another important feature influencing the morphodynamics is the
distinct separation of flow streams during flood and ebb tide in the direction of the two major
creeks, viz., Kandla creek and Hansthal creek. The now partially existing flamingo flat area
which extends up to the mid-shoal region lies in the separation zone of the tidal flow streams.
Another important feature is the converging flow towards the Kandla creek due to the orienta-
699
tion of the shoals and channels at the outfall of the creek. Due to the funnel shaped orientation
the incoming flood tide is progressively compressed into a decreasing cross sectional area as
it moves up towards the Kandla creek entrance. As a result the velocity of the tidal currents
would increase until the effect of this amplification is counter balanced by the frictional dissi-
pation. The prototype data collected by the Kandla port in the approaches also corroborate
these findings. The frictional effect is expected to be high in the approach area and is evident
from the velocity variations over a tidal cycle observed in the approach area from the model
simulations.
3.0 MAINTENANCE DREDGING STRATEGY IN SOGAL CHANNEL
The existence of large tidal range and strong currents in the approaches to Kandla Creek
makes it essential to evolve a proper maintenance dredging strategy not only for optimizing
the dredging efforts but also to achieve long term stability and enhanced depths in the chan-
nel. The strategy adopted for Sogal Channel after its commissioning in 1984 has been very
effective and the major achievement has been progressive improvement of depths of about 2.0
m without any increase in the maintenance dredging quantity. But to have a stable channel it
is very essential to ensure continuous dredging in the Sogal channel. This has been a crucial
point in the maintenance dredging strategy and the effect of break in dredging and its impact
is analysed to decide the maximum permissible period for the disruption of maintenance
dredging.
Fig. 4: Sogal channel and zone of maintenance dredging.
700
The maintenance dredging in Sogal Channel is confined to a critical reach on the west bank
between Buoy Nos. 8A and 12. The alignment of the channel in this reach is such that the
sediment laden flood flow approaching from the south of Khengarji Bet crosses the channel at
an oblique angle. The reductions in the sediment transport capacity due to crossing of the
deep channel trigger settlement of sediments and siltation along the west bank of the chan-
nel. The siltation rates all along the channel are not uniform. The computation of sediment
transport using the method of Van Rijn (1986) showed that the reach in the immediate north
and south of the Buoy No. 10 would experience the maximum siltation. Based on the rate of
siltation and for zone wise monitoring the maintenance dredging reach is divided into following
four zones (Fig. 4):
Zone I: Buoy Nos. 8 and 9 to Buoy Nos. 8A and 9A

Zone II: Buoy Nos. 8A and 9A to Buoy Nos. 10 and 11
Zone III: Buoy Nos. 10 and 11 to Buoy Nos. 12 and 13
Zone IV: Buoy Nos. 8 and 9 to Buoy Nos. 6 and 7
The monthly rate of maintenance dredging in Sogal Channel varies from 0.3 to 0.4 million Cu
m per month. About 60% of the dredging is carried out in Zone III and Zone II, in the north and
south of Bouy No. 10, along the west bank of the channel. Due to bend in the channel the
eastern bank does not require any maintenance due to natural flushing during ebb tide. It is
important to note that the channel alignment in relation to the flood and ebb flow has very
important role in determining the siltation and natural flushing in different reaches of the chan-
nel. The siltation in Sogal Channel is mainly due to mechanisms like crossing of sediments
laterally from the west into the critical zone between Buoy No. 8 to 10; lateral exchange during
flood and ebb tide; settling of sediments during slack period; sediment exchanges and distri-
bution occurring due to channel bend etc. The major source of sediments is, however, due to
the transport occurring from the west side.
The Sogal Channel at present has depths of about 6.0 m below Chart Datum (CD) and the
channel width is 250 m. In the beginning when the channel was opened in 1984, it was
maintaining depths of 4.3 m below CD. The capacity of the dredger also plays a critical role in
not only achieving the required rates of maintenance dredging but also in enhancing the
depths in the channel. Due to small depths and very high siltation rates along the banks a
shallow drafted dredger would be required. The dredger also should not interfere with the
navigation which occurs at high stages of tide. A shallow drafted Trailing Suction Hopper
Dredger (TSHD) of minimum 4500 cu m capacity is found suitable for maintenance of Sogal
Channel.
Due to large tidal range and strong currents the location of disposal grounds for the dredged
material is also important. Considering the shifting nature of the shoals and other channels in
the approach area, the disposal of dredged material can be planned to have beneficial use in
enhancing the influx and efflux into the Sogal Channel, thus achieving more natural flushing of
701
the sediments from the channel. At Kandla, the disposed dredged material has been suc-
cessfully used in altering the bathymetry of the adjacent area of the navigation channel by
choosing suitable disposal sites. Thus the bathymetry was modified for inducing favourable
hydraulic conditions for the natural flushing and achieving long term stability for the channel
(Nagendra et al., 2003).
3.1 Break in maintennce dredging and its impact

In a dynamic situation like Kandla where continuous maintenance dredging on a daily basis is
carried out, the monitoring of the dredging activity is very important. This is done by periodical
hydrographic surveys, zone wise monitoring of dredging activity, assessment of solids in the
hopper of dredger, prototype sediment concentrations, traverse of the dredger etc. The analy-
sis of the above data not only reveals the response of the channel to the dredging but also
helps in planning future enhancement of depths and model studies. Though continuous main-
tenance dredging is stipulated in the dredging contract, often the dredger is taken for dry
docking for maintenance, thus causing a break in the dredging activity. The data indicates that
the disruption in the maintenance dredging results in very fast siltation of the channel with
encroachment of the shallow contours along the west bank in the vicinity of Buoy No. 10.
The dredging activity in the Sogal Channel was disrupted for Radio Active Tracer (RAT) studies
and the dredger was sent for dry-docking from 18-11-2001 to 17-1-2002. There was a disrup-
tion in the dredging activity for 57 days. The monitoring of the behavior of the channel was
done by taking the hydrographic surveys and the surveys were analyzed to assess and verify
the siltation rates in the four zones. The 2 D plot of the hydrographic surveys of November
2001, July 2002 and July 2003 are shown in Fig. 5, which shows the encroachment by sedi-
ments from the west. It can be seen from the plots that the impact of the break in dredging
persists for a long time even after resuming the dredging. In the present case the dredging was
resumed in January 2002.
702
Fig. 5. 2d plot of the hydrographic surveys of Sogal Channel.
The assessment of the quantum of siltation was carried out with the comparison of cross
sections in the Zone I to IV for the period 17-18 November 2001 and 15-17 January 2002. The
siltation computations were made for the entire length of Sogal Channel from Buoy No. 6-7 to
Buoy No. 12-13, within a limiting contour of -5.2 m as well along the centerline of the naviga-
tional track of 180 m width. Net siltation was observed to be along the western edge of the
navigational track and net erosion along the eastern bank was also noticed in some reaches
of the channel. The increase in depths along the eastern edge could be partly due to shifting
of the deeper portions of the channel towards the east. Thus, the encroachment of the channel
from the western banks in Zones I, II and III tried to shift the deeper portion of the channel
towards the east.
The quantum of siltation in each zone has been computed taking cross sections of the chan-
nel from November 2001 and January 2002 bathymetry surveys. The computed results indi-
cated maximum siltation in Zone II followed by Zone I, Zone IV and Zone III. The analysis
indicated that due to the non-dredging activity, in a period of 57 days, the net siltation in the
navigation track and the channel was of the order of 0.213 million cu m and 0.444 million cu m
respectively. The above analysis had shown that the reach of channel between Buoys No. 8
9 to 10-12 has been affected in general and more prominently in the reach between Buoys No.
8A-9A to 10-11, i.e. Zone II. The average rate of siltation worked out to be 14800 cum/day and
3550 cu m/day within the limiting contour of -5.2 m and the 180 m wide navigational track
respectively.
703
The break in dredging for a period of 57 days had major impact on the channel. Siltation
computations immediately after resuming the dredging indicated that a total siltation of about
4.4 million cu m took place in the Sogal channel. The channel was not able to sustain the
depths gained during 2001. Gradual encroachment and spread of siltation was seen in the
channel though there was some erosion and shifting of the channel towards the eastern side.
It may be mentioned that siltation causes reduction in the depths and needs to be corrected
whereas erosion in places other than the navigation channel is not suitable for giving the
benefit for navigation and also weakens the natural flushing of the sediments. The analysis
showed that it is not desirable to keep the non-dredging period in the Sogal Channel for more
than a fortnight. Considerable morphological changes were seen in the periods one month
after resuming the dredging with abrupt increase in the siltation from the eastern and south-
eastern edges of the channel. This could be partly attributed to the sliding of side slopes due
to initial excessive scour and also partly due to change in flow conditions from the side of old
Breach channel caused by deepening of eastern edges of the channel. The analysis revealed
that in the event of disruption of dredging the progressive equivalent siltation rate increases
considerably and drastic changes in the channel configurations occur both along the western
and eastern edges of the channel. For effective maintenance of the channel such extreme
siltation rates are not desirable and the stoppage of dredging in the Sogal Channel needs to
be kept to bare minimum.
Prior to the break in dredging in November 2001 the Sogal Channel had deeper depths of -6.0
m and more and was showing signs of progressive improvement and sustaining of these
depths. But this trend had totally reversed during the break in dredging from 18th November
2001 to 27th January 2002. In this context the initial period of 2002 after resumption of dredging
from 27th January is important to assess the response of the Sogal Channel in regaining the
pre-November 2001 position. The quantum of dredging carried out from February 2002 to
August 2002 is 0.3 to 0.4 million cu m per month and 70% of the dredging efforts were mainly
concentrated in Zone III alone. Despite increase in the monthly rate of dredging, it was ob-
served that the position of Sogal Channel prior to November 2001 has not been achieved till
August 2002. It is thus evident that the backlogs of maintenance dredging have adverse effect
for many months unless substantial enhancement in dredging efforts is made by deploying
additional dredgers.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The hydrodynamics and morphology in the approach area at Kandla is dominated by the tidal
circulation. The other unique feature is the total absence of wave effects and gravitational
circulation in this region. Due to the large tidal range and strong currents the navigation
channel in the approach area is very sensitive to dredging and any break in dredging activity
results in shallow depths along the western bank. In a dynamic situation like Kandla the
frequent monitoring of maintenance dredging is very essential. Continuous dredging efforts are
704
required for not only to sustain the declared depths but also to enhance the depths in the
channel for future expansion. Thus, the disruption in the maintenance dredging at Kandla can
be only for a maximum period of fortnight and should be avoided as far as possible, to have a
stable channel and for optimizing the dredging efforts.
The authors would like to thank Mrs. V.M. Bendre, Director, CWPRS and Dr. L.K. Ghosh,
Additional DirectorI, CWPRS for the encouragement and permission to publish this paper.
The authors are also grateful to the Kandla Port Authorities, especially to Dr. G.S. Rao,
Hydraulic Engineer, KPT.
REFERENCES
Brahme, S.B., Bapaye, V.M. (1985) Studies for the development of new approach channel for the Port of
Kandla 21st IAHR Congress, Melbourne, Australia.
BARC Report on Radio Active Tracer study on the transport of bed sediments at Kandla Port February 2002.
Nagendra, T., Ramesh, N., Kapileshwar, P.S., Berde, P.V., Purandare, U.V. (2003) Successful disposal strate-
gies for dredged material at Kadla Port, Dredging Symposium India 2003 (EADA), Mumbai, India.
Purandare, U.V., Abdulla, P.K. and Gupta, R.S. (1996) Hydraulic aspects for morphological changes of the sogal
channel at Kandla, International Conference in Ocean Engineering COE, Chennai, India.
Purandare, U.V., Nagendra, T., Ramesh, N. (2001) Hydraulic aspects of siltation processes at Kandla Port and
dredging challenges, XVI World Dredging Congress (EADA), Kaula Lampur, Malaysia.
Rijn, L.C. Van (1986) Sedimentation of dredged channels by currents and waves Journal of Waterways, Ports
and Coastal Engineering, Vol. 112, No. 5.
Vaidyaraman, P.P., Purandare, U.V., Nagendra, T. (1992) Behavior of Sogal Channel at Kandla Port XIII World
dredging Congress, Bombay, India.
Viadyaraman, P.P. and Purandare, U.V. (1993) Dredging and siltation in Sogal Channel at Kandla Port, Dredging
Symposium, Chennai, India.
705
DISPOSAL OF CONTAMINATED DREDGED SEDIMENTS

USING GEOTUBES AND GEOCONTAINERS
Yee Tack Weng1* and Pradip Dutta2
1
Ten Cate Nicolon Asia, Petaling Jaya, Malaysia
2
Z-Tech (India) Pvt. Ltd., Kolkatta, India
Abstract
Contaminated dredged sediments emerged as an environmental issue in the 1980s. Recent

development of containment and dewatering technology using geotubes and geocontainers
widened the options for handling and disposal of contaminated dredged sediments.
Geocontainers are used to confine sediments during dumping in open water. Geotubes are
used as containment dykes to construct confined disposal facility in nearshore areas adja-
cent to dredging works. Geotubes are also used to contain and dewater contaminated dredged
sediments to reduce quantity of material to be transported to landfill. Further economy is
achieved when dewatered sediments can be left within geotubes at site, subject to eventual
capping.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Dredging may be defined as raising material from the bottom of a water-covered area to the
surface and pumping it over some distance. The reasons for dredging to be carried out may
be mining for minerals or materials for construction; capital dredging involved with construc-
tion or coastal defence projects; maintenance dredging to remove sediment from harbours,
rivers, canals, lakes and reservoirs to restore either navigability or water capacity; and for
environmental improvement.
Unless the dredged sediments may be beneficially suitable for various purposes like reclama-
tion, creation of wildlife habitats, etc disposal may be the only practical option. Conventional
disposal options for dredged sediments include open water dumping, contained aquatic dis-
posal and placement within confined disposal facility (dyked containment area nearshore,
island or land based).
According to the Marine Board (1989) contaminated sediments are those that contain chemi-
cal substances at concentrations which pose a known or suspected environmental or human
health treat. In the 1980s the problem of contaminated marine sediments emerged as an
environmental issue of national importance in the United States of America. The pervasive and
widespread nature of the problem resulted from decades of using coastal waters intentionally
*Corresponding author, e-mail: Yee_Tackweng@tcn-asia.com
706
or unintentionally for waste disposal. Harbour areas in particular have been found to contain
high levels of contaminants in bottom sediments due to waste from urban, industrial and
riverine sources, as well as from navigation. There is increasing awareness and pressure on
the need to find uses to dredged sediments. However, the presence of contaminants may limit
the scope or prevent the reuse of the dredged sediments.
2.0 CONTAMINATED SEDIMENTS
Most oceanographers feel that domestic sewage, agricultural and industrial wastes are the
most serious form of marine pollutants today, especially in the nearshore areas. Each can
reach the ocean by different pathways, including rivers, runoff, and outfalls. They may be
flocculating with suspended particles and ultimately settling into the sediment of marine
harbours and estuaries. Some of these contaminants are persistent and remain buried in
sediments while others are less persistent and may rapidly degrade to non-biologically avail-
able materials.
2.1 Contaminant profiles

The focus of scientific and regulatory concern centers on five major types of contaminants
associated with sediments. They include excessive nutrients, organic hydrocarbons (e.g. oil
and grease), halogenated hydrocarbons, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons or PAH (e.g. pe-
troleum and petroleum by-products) and metals. Some of these warrant special mention.
2.2 Excessive nutrients

Nearshore waters may receive large amounts of industrial and human waste that contain
nitrogen and phosphorus nutrients. If this creates an oversupply of these nutrients, or if the
waste is not sufficiently circulated, the excess can cause extremely heavy growth of algae
and other phytoplankton. Red tides may occur as a result of rapid blooming of dinoflagellates,
a type of phytoplankton. The phytoplankton themselves generally are not poisonous to the
fish, mussels and clams that feed on them. However, toxins produced within these animals
sometimes can kill the fish as well as poison humans who eat organisms that have fed on the
dinoflagellates.
2.3 Halogenated hydrocarbons

These compounds tend to be resistant to decay and may concentrate in organisms to much
greater quantities than normally exist in water through a process known as biological magni-
fication (see Fig. 1). A classic example is dichlorodiphenyltrichloro-ethane (DDT), which has
been phased out in the United States by 1973. In an exceptional example, oysters exposed
continuously to waters containing only 0.1 ppb of DDT were able to concentrate up to 7 ppm
707
of it in their tissue, representing a 70,000 times magnification. Its presence in some marine
birds causes them to lay eggs with very thin shells, making reproduction difficult if not impos-
sible. Photosynthesis is significantly reduced in some phytoplankton when DDT is present in
concentration of as low as 10 ppb.
Another example is polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB). Until recently PCB was used in making
plastics, electrical insulation, fire retardants, and in heat exchangers. Toxic effects of PCB
were noted in the 1930s, but it became illegal to manufacture only in 1979. Over 600,000 tons
of PCB have entered the ocean. Studies in the Great Lakes reveal that some salmon and trout
have PCB contents 100,000 to 1,000,000 times that of the surrounding water. PCB have
shown to reduce the growth rate of some phytoplankton at even amounts as small as 10 ppb.
Fig. 1. Biological magnification of DDT at various levels of food chain (Ross, 1995).
2.4 Heavy metals

Among the more dangerous pollutants are the so-called heavy metals, introduced into the
marine environment by waste and sewage. These include mercury, cadmium, lead, etc and
metalloids such as arsenic and selenium. In certain situations marine plants and animals
concentrate these metals without apparent harm to themselves. If humans consume these
organisms, however, health problems can result.
3.0 REGULATORY FRAMEWORKS
There are generally no accepted definitions of contamination that trigger consideration of

remedial action. The sites that requirement most urgent attention are reservoirs of contamina-
tion that have the most severe impacts on health and the environment. Clean-up dredging or
708
the deliberate removal of contaminated material for human health and environmental protec-
tion purposes has been carried out in the past with mixed results.
3.1 The regulatory approach

The regulatory approach to handling and disposal of dredged sediments is typified by that
adopted in Rotterdam where there is a very distinct relationship between the degree of con-
tamination and location. Extensive studies have shown that the sediments in the harbour can
be divided into four classes:
Class 1: Relatively clean material which is encountered in the lowest reaches of the Rhine
and which is permitted for dumping at sea
Class 2: Moderately contaminated material found in the middle section of the harbour and
which must be deposited in confined disposal facility such as the Slufter facility
(unlined)
Class 3: More contaminated material found in the upstream parts of the harbour which
must also be deposited in confined disposal facility
Class 4: Highly contaminated material found concentrated around a limited discharge
points which must be stored in the high-integrity Papegaaiebek facility (lined)
In Hong Kong, a regulatory approach has also been introduced, largely due to a lack of
options stemming from a shortage of land area for onshore disposal or processing, coupled
with intense dredging and reclamation. The Works Bureau Technical Circular (WBTC) No.3/
2000 sets out the management framework for dredged sediment disposal for all projects
whose construction will commence on or after 1 January 2002. Based on their contaminant
levels, sediments are classified as Category L, M or H. Category L is for sediments whereby
all contaminants do not exceed the Lower Chemical Exceedence Level (LCEL). Category H is
to classify sediments where any one or more contaminant levels exceed the Upper Chemical
Exceedance Level (UCEL). If Category H sediments are also found to have contaminants
which exceed 10 times the LCEL, these sediments will need to undergo Tier III Biological
Screening. If the sediment passes the screening tests, the sediment may be disposed of at
the contaminated mud pits. If the sediment fails the screening tests, pre-treatment will be
required prior to marine disposal, or special arrangements will be required to ensure that there
is no (or negligible) loss of contaminants to the marine environment during disposal.
3.2 The pragmatic approach
The pragmatic approach, which essentially involves studying disposals on a case-by-case

basis, is used in a number of countries, including the United Kingdom and the United States.
This involves very detailed investigations and a complex decision-making procedure to dem-
709
onstrate the environmental acceptability of the proposals, most probably following the guide-
lines of the international conventions like the Oslo Convention and London Convention.
3.3 International regulatory framework

Currently, sea disposal is generally undertaken according to the Guidelines for disposal of
dredged materials, which was published by the London Convention in 1986. The convention
has also adopted a new method of assessment of the suitability of material for disposal,
namely the Waste Assessment Framework which for dredged materials, is now called the
Dredged Material Assessment Framework (DMAF). The DMAF covers under Annex 1 a list of
contaminants known to cause harm to aquatic organisms even in low concentrations while
Annex 2 covers a list of contaminants that should not be present in concentrations higher than
1,000 ppm (for lead the limit is 500 ppm). Under the London Convention, if any of the Annex 1
or 2 substances were found in significant concentrations, a special permit would be required
to dispose the dredged sediments. A determination of potential for undesirable effects, i.e.,
chronic, acute, or toxic to marine or human life, should also be made.
4.0 GEOTUBES AND GEOCONTAINERS
Geotextile containment systems include the conventional geobags, but also covers long sau-
sage-like geotubes and huge containment bags called geocontainers. Geobags are geotextile
bags typically filled with soil to be used as an expedient way of forming flood prevention
dykes, closing breached dykes or filling in scour holes. Geotubes and geocontainers are later
innovations that apply the same concept of soil containment with geotextile units but are less
labour intensive and more practical for larger scale works.
4.1 Geotubes
A geotube is a closed ended geotextile tube tailored with regular filling ports. Its circumfer-
ence and length may be tailored specific for each project and are limited by constraints of
installation practicalities and site conditions only. Typically, a geotube may have a circumfer-
ence ranging from 5 m to 10 m or more. Slurry is pumped into the geotube through one of the
filling ports (see Fig. 2). The hydraulic pressure of the pumped slurry will transport it along the
geotube. Water will then expel through the permeable geotextile and out of the other dormant
filling ports while solids will settle inside the geotube. This is continued until the desired
geotube geometry is achieved. The geotextile used for the making of geotube is typically a
high permeability and high tensile strength woven polypropylene geotextile (biaxially 80kN/m
to 200kN/m), although sometimes a woven polyester geotextile of similar properties is also
used.
710
Fig. 2. Filling of geotube (Pilarczyk, 2000).
Fig. 3. Schematic of split bottom barge and geocontainer installation.
4.2 Geocontainers
A geocontainer is essentially a very large pillow shaped bag. The geocontainer is designed to
contain material using a split bottom barge as filling form and dropped into water through the
gradual opening of the bottom gate of the barge (see Fig. 3). The geocontainer is tailored into
a shape that resembles an envelope that will be fitted into the hopper of the barge. The
geocontainer is then closed after filling with soil. Closure is usually done with seaming but
may also include the use of rope knots. The quantity of fill in a geocontainer is governed by the
711
size of the split bottom barge used and may be anywhere between 100 m3 to 1,000 m3 per
geocontainer.
5.0 CONTAINMENT AND DEWATERING
The recent development of containment and dewatering technology using geotubes and
geocontainers has widened the options for handling and disposal of contaminated dredged
sediments. Geotubes and geocontainers may be used to construct dyke to form confined
disposal facility and contained aquatic disposal. Contaminated dredged sediments that in the
past do not qualify for open water dumping is made feasible recently with the application of
geocontainers to confine the sediments during dumping. More recently, geotubes are used to
confine and dewater contaminated dredged sediments. The dewatering process is to reduce
the volume of material that should be transported to a secured landfill for eventual disposal.
Further economy is achieved when the dewatered sediments can be left within the geotube on
site, which is capped eventually. Fig. 4 shows the application of geotubes and geocontainers
related to disposal of contaminated dredged sediments.
Fig. 4. Geotubes and geocontainers for disposal of contaminated dredged sediments.
712
5.1 Geocontainer confined open water dumping
Losses arise from dilution and dispersion during unconfined open water dumping of dredged
sediments. These losses can be considerable, depending on the nature of the material, the
manner in which it is dredged and placed in the disposal area and on the hydrodynamic
regime at the site. Aside from the obvious impacts on the disposal site itself, unconfined open
water dumping may affect a very wide area around the site. This method becomes more
undesirable if the dredged sediments contain contaminants. Above a threshold, unconfined
open water dumping may not be permitted.
Geocontainer confined dumping of contaminated dredged sediments is a relatively new appli-

cation. This method is most suited when confined disposal in nearshore area or land disposal
is not attractive or viable. The use of geocontainer to confine dredged sediments prevents
losses through dilution and dispersion during free fall through the water column. In an uncon-
fined disposal, the disposed material may be subject to further losses through erosion and
dispersion if waves or currents exist. With a properly designed and executed geocontainer
drop, the contaminated sediments would remain confined after impact with the bottom, pre-
venting loss through erosion and dispersion (see Fig. 5). An example is the disposal of
dredged sediments contaminated with heavy metals, PCB, PAH, etc dredged from the Marina
Del Rey, California, United States. About 42,000 m3 of the contaminated maintenance dredged
material were placed in 42 geocontainers and were disposed into the Port of Los Angeles
Shallow Water Habitat Confined Aquatic Disposal.
Fig. 5. Unconfined and geocontainer confined disposal of contaminated dredged

sediments in open water disposal (Lawson, 2003).
713
5.2 Geocontainer for construction of contained aquatic disposal
A confined disposal facility (CAD) is an area for the disposal of dredged sediments, within
underwater dykes. This option is not practical in deep waters where construction of the under-
water dyke would be difficult. In shallow waters, wave and current action can lead to some
loss of materials. The underwater dykes may pose risks to passing ships and boats and in
some areas the use of underwater rock dykes are prohibited. The alternative of using sand
bunds carries two disadvantages. Firstly, sand bunds have to be built to gentler slopes of 1:10
resulting in greater uptake of area. Secondly, sand bunds are subject to erosion and run the
risk of being breached.
Underwater dykes constructed using geocontainers on the other hand do not pose the same
risks as underwater rock dykes to passing ships and boats. Compared with sand bunds,
geocontainer underwater dykes can be constructed to much steeper side slopes of about 1:3
and they are very formidable against breaching of dyke. One such project is the CAD con-
structed with geocontainers near Pulau Tekong to accommodate the dredged material from
the Southern Islands project in Singapore.
CADs are not suitable for the more contaminated dredged sediments because of environmen-
tal concerns with dispersion of contaminants during the open water dumping process.
5.3 Geotube for construction of confined disposal facility

A confined disposal facility (CDF) is an area for the disposal of dredged sediments, enclosed
by dykes that isolate the dredged sediments from adjacent waters during placement. Like
CAD, CDF is not practical in deep waters. However, this option is very attractive as it can be
constructed close-by to the area to be dredged. The containment dyke rises above water level
and therefore there is little or no dispersion of contaminated dredged sediments. The CDF
may be turned into offshore islands as wildlife habitats.
Geotubes are increasingly used as dykes for CDF because they are very economical com-
pared with conventional dykes. The contaminated dredged sediments may be used to fill the
geotubes. There is a long and growing list of successful projects where geotubes are used as
containment dykes for construction of CDF. An example is the creation of CDF on the San
Antonio River for the dredging of Port of Buenaventura, Columbia. Shamrock Island in Texas,
United States was a rapidly eroding island close to the point of vanishing completely. Geotubes
were used to create a CDF also served as a wetland habitat. The Battery Island project in
North Carolina, United States was a similar construction that was awarded the EPA Environ-
mental Merit Award for the beneficial uses of dredged material.
714
5.4 Geotube Dewatering Facility
Land disposal a common way of handling contaminated dredged sediments. They may
undergo a decontamination process for reuse or they may be placed in secured landfills.
Dewatering is a process whereby the moisture content of the dredged sediments is reduced
to lower the cost of transportation. Dewatering also reduce quantity and cost of treatment in
the decontamination process. Dewatering is also a requirement prior to landfilling to reduce
leachate production at the landfill site.
Several techniques are available. Recently, the development of the geotube dewatering tech-
nology has provided a new but effective and economical way to handle contaminated dredged
sediments. Dredged sediments are pumped into geotubes. Water is expelled out through the
permeable surface of the geotube while solids remain in. The contaminants largely remain
with the solids and the decanted water seeping out of the geotube is usually environmentally
safe without further treatment. When the dewatering process is completed, the solids may be
transported to a landfill but often will be buried in place and capped over.
Both organic and inorganic contaminants tend to adhere to fine grains in sediment. For dredged
sediments with a significant percentage of coarse material, the coarse material can be sepa-
rated out using hydro-cyclones to reduce the amount of solids requiring containment and
dewatering. Polymer flocculants may be injected into the stream entering the geotube to
decrease the time of dewatering and to improve the clarity of the effluent water. A treatability
study can be conducted to determine the type and dosage of polymer that result in the most
cost effective treatment regime. A manifold system is highly recommended to allow for the
filling of more than one geotube at a time and for the operation to continue without interruption.
The size and quantity of geotubes required can be determined from the amount of material
requiring containment and dewatering. Geotubes may be stacked up to four layers to reduce
the geotube layout footprint area. A lined dewatering basin is constructed to contain all the
geotubes and a catch basin that will collect the effluent water expelled from the geotubes.
Once tests have confirmed that the effluent water meets environmental standards, they can
be discharged or used beneficially. By placing a layer of drainage net between the liner and
the lowest geotube, dewatering time may also be reduced.
A good example of one such scheme is the remediation of Grubers Grove Bay located out-
side the Badger Army Ammunition Plant in Wisconsin, United States. A Geotube Dewatering
Facility was constructed within the premises to contain and dewater a total of 67,000 m3 of
sediments contaminated with mercury, copper, lead, and ammonia compounds, dredged from
the bay. The effluent water was deemed to meet safe drinking water standards and therefore
should be safe for irrigation use as well. Thus the collected effluent water was distributed
through a piping system to irrigate the agricultural fields and forested areas within.
715
6.0 DISCUSSIONS
Geotextiles have been used successfully as confining medium to contaminated dredged

sediments. Geotextile containments have also demonstrated effectiveness in dewatering
dredged contaminated sediments. Geotube Dewatering Facility has been shown to be the
most cost effective land disposal method for contaminated dredged sediments.
REFERENCES
Bray, R.N., Bates, A.D. & Land, J.M. (2001). Dredging: A Handbook for Engineers, Chapter 5, Disposal of dredged
material, Butterworth-Heinemann: Oxford, pp. 89-111.
Den Adel, H., Hendrikse, C.S.H. & Pilarczyk, K.W. (1996). Design and application of geotubes and geocontainers,
Proceedings First European Conference on Geosynthetics: Applications, Design and Construction, Maastricht,
Balkema: Rotterdam, pp. 925-931.
Fowler, J., Toups, D. & Gilbert, P. (1995). Geotextile contained contaminated dredged material, Marina Del Rey,
Los Angeles and Port of Oakland, California, Proceedings Fourteenth World Dredging Congress, Amsterdam,
pp. 57-70.
Herbich, J.B. (2000). Handbook of Coastal Engineering, Chapter 17, Removal of contaminated sediment by
dredging, McGraw-Hill: New York, pp. 17.1-17.120.
Herbich, J.B. (2000). Handbook of Dredging Engineering, Chapter 13, Environmental effects of dredging activi-
ties, McGraw-Hill: New York, pp. 13.1-13.45.
Lawson, C.R. (2003), Geotextile containment international perspectives, Proceedings 17th GRI Conference
on Hot Topics in Geosynthetics IV, Las Vegas, Geosynthetic Institute: Folsom, pp. 198-221.
Lehr, J., Hyman, M., Gass, T.E. & Seevers, W. (2002). Handbook of Complex Environmental Remediation Prob-
lems, Chapter 5, Hazardous contaminants in marine sediments, McGraw-Hill: New York, pp. 5.1-5.43.
Pilarczyk, K.W. (2000). Geosynthetics and Geosystems in Hydraulic and Coastal Engineering, Balkema: Rotterdam,
913 pgs.
Pilarczyk, K.W. & Zeidler, R.B. (1986). Offshore Breakwaters and Shore Evolution Control, Balkema: Rotterdam,
560 pgs.
Ross, D.A. (1995). Introduction to Oceanography, Harper Collins: New York, 496 pgs.
Wei, J., Chua, K.C., Ho, K.Q., Ho, W.H., Cheng, S.K., Seng, M.K., Yee, T.W & Cheah, R.S.C. (2001). The use of
geocontainers for the Southern Islands reclamation project, Proceedings International Conference on
Engineering for Ocean & Offshore Structures and Coastal Engineering Development, Singapore, pp. 146-
156.
Yee, T.W. (2002). Construction of underwater dykes using geotextile containment systems, Proceedings
Seventh International Conference on Geosynthetics, Nice, Balkema: Rotterdam, Vol. 3, pp. 1161-1164.
Yee, T.W. & Dutta, P. (2003). Geosystems for marine and hydraulic structures, Proceedings National Seminar
on Harbour Structures, Chennai, Allied Publishers: Chennai, pp. 249-258.
716
PREDICTION OF PILE SCOUR IN THE OCEAN USING ANN

Shailesh Namekar, A.R. Kambekar and M.C. Deo*
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400 076.
Abstract
The maximum depth of scour hole developed around a pile group in the ocean has been
obtained using the artificial neural network approach. It requires input of four dimensionless
groups of parameters, namely, Reynolds number, Keulegan-Carpenter number, Sediment num-
ber and Shields parameter. Multi-Layered Perceptron as well as Radial Basis Function
networks are considered. The testing results showed satisfactory performance of the devel-
oped network. The neural network approach yielded better results than the traditional statis-
tical regression method indicating its superiority over the latter. The traditional Multi-Layered
Perceptron produced more satisfactory results than the Radial Basis Function network.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Weak and unconsolidated soil conditions commonly encountered at the seabed necessitate
use of pile foundations for oceanic structures. The piles are normally located on eroding
bottoms and hence undergo scour endangering structural safety. Estimation of scour around
piles is thus an essential part of the design exercise. If two or more closely located piles have
their spacing smaller than about three times the individual diameters, the holes around all
piles merge (Herbich, 1991) forming a global scour. Investigation of scouring action on vertical
piles subjected to oscillatory waves is relatively recent. Experiments in labs attempt to relate
scour depth and its geometry to flow and sediment characteristics expressed in terms of
dimensionless parameters like wave steepness and relative water depth (Chow and Herbich,
1978), Reynolds number, Keulegan-Carpenter number, Shields parameter and sediment number
(Eadie and Herbich, 1986). Many studies in the past (e.g., Sumer and Fredrose, 1998) have
indicated that the scour process can be reasonably explained with the help of its correlation
with the single Keulegan-Carpenter number, KC, relating horizontal water particle excursion in
one wave cycle to the pile diameter and expressed as:
K C= 2 π a / D (1)
where a = wave amplitude and D = pile diameter. For a single pile exposed to regular waves
an empirical relationship between the maximum scour depth, S, and the KC number was
stated to be (Sumer et al., 2001):
S (2)
= 1.3[1 − e −0.06( KC −6) ]
D
*Corresponding author, email: mcdeo@civil.iitb.ac.in
The prototype-based studies of Bayram and Larsen (2000) considered scour measurements
around groups of piles supporting a pier off Japanese coast. The same forms database for the
current study as well. However, this work is based on a different tool of analysis, namely,
neural networks. This is because all past works have used some form of statistical regression
technique in order to analyze and synthesize the collected data. These are model-oriented
and hence rigid. They first assume some kind of fixed relationship between the input and the
output before data analysis. The neural networks on the other hand are data-oriented and
flexible and they come up with their own dependency structure in between the input and the
output. The objective was therefore to examine if more accurate estimation of scour in the field
is possible if neural networks are used. This study is a sequel to the one made earlier
(Kambekar, 2002), which was based on input variables of wave conditions only and hence
required generalization by incorporating sediment and pile input.
2.0 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NETWORKS
2.1 Training
Neural networks provide a random mapping in between input and output vectors by mimicking
the biological cognition process of our brain. A typical network would consist of three layers
of neurons, namely, input, hidden and output, with each neuron acting as an independent
computational element (Fig. 1). Neural networks derive their strengths from a model-free
processing of data and a high degree of freedom associated with their architecture. Details of
concepts involved in neural networks along with their applications in water resources can be
seen in The ASCE Task Committee (2000), Dawson and Wilby (2001) and Maier and Dandy
(2000). Before actual application the network has to be trained from examples. Training
comprises presentation of input and output pairs to the network and derivation of the values of
connection weights, bias or centers. The training may require many epochs (presentation of
complete data sets once to the network). Generally, the network is presented with the input
and output pairs till the training error between target and realized outputs reach the error goal.
In the present study the usual feed forward network was involved. Two different types of archi-
tectures were considered: Multi-Layered Perceptron (MLP) and Radial Basis Function (RBF).
MLPs are common and traditional while RBF networks are relatively recent and less used.
The latter could get over the problem of slow learning and local minima experienced some
times with the MLP trained using ordinary back-propagation algorithm.
A neural network basically consists of interconnected neurons. Referring to Fig. 1, each

neuron or node is an independent computational unit, which works as per the following equa-
tion,
718
Fig. 1. The neural network to predict scour depth.
y = f [( x1 w1 + x 2 w2 + x3 w3 + .....) + β ] (3)
where, y = output of the neuron; x1, x2, x3,..= input values;w1, w2, w3, .= connection weights;
β = bias value; and f = transfer function, typically sigmoidal function given by,
1 (4)
f [•] =
1 + e −[•]
The goal of any training algorithm is to minimize the global (mean sum squared) error E,
defined below
1
E=
2n
∑ (o n − t n ) 2 (5)
where, on and tn are network and target output respectively for any nth output node. The summa-
tion has to be carried out over all output nodes for every training pattern. A pair of input and
output values constitutes a training pattern.
The basic algorithm to train a MLP calculates the error E as per equation (5) and distributes
it backward from the output to the hidden and then to the input nodes. The Radial Basis
Function (RBF) is a supervised, feed-forward neural network with one hidden layer of artificial
neurons. The input to each neuron is treated as a measure of difference between the data and
a centre. The transfer function of a RBF neuron indicates the influence of data points at the
719
centre. Generally the RBF is Gaussian, involving centers, whose values can be chosen either
randomly from the training data or iteratively trained or derived using techniques like K-means,
Max-min algorithms, Kohonen self-organizing maps. The difference (Eucledian distance)
between input values and center values is non-linearly transformed and fed to the output layer
where they are linearly combined so as to produce the network output.
2.2 Input-Output
Prototype measurements of Bayram and Larsen (2000) are relatively exhaustive and pertain
to direct prototype observations in contrast to most of the reported studies pertaining to
laboratory experiments. They are therefore used for network training as well as testing. The
site where data were collected was a 200-m long research pier constructed at Ajigaura Beach
on the Pacific coast of Japan. This pier was supported by 9 groups of vertical piles, each
having 4 piles of 0.6 m diameter placed at 2.67m c/c. The pile groups were 30 m apart from
each other. Equilibrium scour hole dimensions around a particular pile group along with corre-
sponding environmental parameters were available through 56 weekly surveys done during the
period of August 1984 to September 1989. This pile group was located at the seaward end of
the pier, away from the action of breaking waves and where oscillatory waves prevailed. The
average sediment size was 0.2 mm. The group had a common scour hole of dimension S
(depth) as shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Scour hole dimensions.
The scour dimension depends upon a number of causative variables including wave height, H,
Wave period, T, water depth, d, pile diameter, D, specific gravity of the sediment, s, mean
diameter of the sediment, φ, and wave friction factor, f. From model similitude considerations
these variables are combined into different dimensionless groups. These groups are recog-
nized as Reynolds number, Re, Keulegan and Carpenter number, Kc, Shields parameter, q,
and, Sediment number, Ns. (Eadie and Herbich, 1986). The expressions for these numbers
are given below:
720
Re = Umax D / ν (6)
Kc = UmaxT / D (7)
θ = V2 / [(s -1) gφ] (8)
Ns = Umax / [(s-1) gφ ]1/2 (9)
where, Umax = maximum water particle velocity induced by the wave motion (determined by
say the linear wave theory), n = kinematic viscosity of the sea water, g= gravity, V = undis-
turbed bed shear velocity given by:
V = (0.5 f)1/2 Umax (10)
A network consisting of four input nodes of Re, Kc, q and Ns and one output node of normal-
ized scour depth, s/D, was therefore developed (Fig. 1). The number of hidden nodes gets
fixed as per the built in mechanism of the training scheme or following some trials.
As per the standard practice eighty percent of a total of such 58 measurements available
were randomly selected and used for training while remaining twenty percent not involved in
the training process were employed for testing of the networks. The development of networks
involved use of the neural network toolbox under MATLAB (Demuth et al., 1998).
2.3 Validation
Results of network testing are shown in Fig.3, which shows the scatter diagrams of the
observed versus predicted scour depths. Proximity of the predicted values with the exact fit
line may be noted. The same has been quantitatively verified by error measures (between the
computed and the predicted values) of the correlation coefficient, r, mean square error, MSE,
and mean average error (MAE) as shown in Table 1. It may be seen from the table that a fair
value of the high correlation coefficient (0.89) was achieved by the MLP network (Fig. 1)
trained using the LM algorithm. Corresponding MSE and MAE values were as low as 0.16
and 0.30, respectively. Use of the relatively recent and advanced network of RBF did not
seem to work as satisfactorily as the MLP in this application compared to some other areas
like the river rating curve (Sudheer and Jain, 2003). It remains to be seen if the relatively small
sample size involved in the present study could be one of the major reasons behind this
observation.
Regression based equations have been proposed by many investigators earlier. For the same
data set Bayram and Larson (2001) presented the equation of the type, considering that Kc
showed relatively better covariation with the scour depth:
S/D = 0.023 Kc (11)
721
5
Target S/D
3
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Ne tw ork De r ive d S/D
Fig. 3. Testing results to predict scour depth.
When this equation was validated with the help of testing patterns it showed poor prediction
capability in that the corresponding r value was only 0.68 and MAE was as high as 0.42.
Relating the Kc values with the scour depth, S/D, was also attempted on the basis of a
separate neural network with one input (Kc) and one output (S/D) node. However, this also
did not yield results comparable in accuracy with the network shown in Fig. 1. Attempts to
correlate S/D with Re, q, Ns and Kc individually were equally unsatisfactory indicating that a
combined network catering to all conditions together was more acceptable. A multiple regres-
sion model was fitted to the training set of data, which yielded the following equation:
S/D = a + b Re + cKc + d θ + e Ns (12)
where, a = 1.47, b = 0.01, c = 0.04, d = 3.78, e = -2.23. Validation of this equation with
respect to the testing patterns showed a lower value of the correlation coefficient of 0.76, and
higher values of the MSE and MAE of 0.31 and 0.43, respectively. This indicated that the
complexity of the neural network is necessary in such a study.
Table 1. Testing of the Network.
Training Correlation Coefficient Mean Square Error Mean Average Error
Algorithm (CC) (MSE) (MAE)
MLP 0.89 0.16 0.30
RBF 0.75 0.29 0.41
3.0 CONCLUSIONS
An artificial neural network to obtain the maximum depth of scour developed around a pile
group on the basis of dimensionless parameters of Reynolds number, Keulegan-Carpenter
722
number, Shields parameter and sediment number has been proposed in this work. Use of all
four parameters was found to be necessary than that of a single one like the Keulegan-
Carpenter number as done traditionally. Such a network was found to yield much better re-
sults than the traditional regression equations. Use of the conventional Multi-Layered Perceptron
yielded more satisfactory results than the advanced Radial Basis Function network.
REFERENCES
Bayram, A. and Larson, M. (2000), Analysis of scour around a group of vertical Piles in the field, ASCE
Journal of Waterways, Coastal and Ocean Engineering, 126(4), 215-220.
Chow, W.Y. and Herbich, J.B. (1978), Scour around a group of piles, Proceedings Offshore Technology
Conference.
Dawson, C.W. and Wilby, R.L. (2001), Hydrological modeling using artificial neural networks, Progress in
Physical Oceanography, 25, 1, 2001, 80-108.
Demuth, H., Beale, M., Hagen, M. (1998), Neural networks tool box, Users guide, The Mathworks Inc., Natick,
MA, USA.
Eadie, R.W. and Herbich, J.B. (1986), Scour about a single cylindrical pile due to combined random waves and
current, Proceedings, 20th International Coastal Engineering Conference, 1986, Taipei, Taiwan, 1858
1870.
Herbich, J.B. (1991), Scour around pipelines, piles and sea walls, Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineer-
ing, J. B. Herbich, Editor, Vol. 2, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston.
Kambekar, A.R., (2002), Estimation of pile scour using neural networks, Masters thesis, Department of Civil
Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, India.
Maier, H.R. and Dandy, G.C., (2000), Neural networks for the prediction and forecasting of hydrological
variables, Environmental Modeling and Software, 15(2000), 101-124.
Sudheer, K.P. and Jain, S.K. (2003), Radial Basis function neural network for modeling rating curves, Journal
of Hydrologic Engineering, Vol.8, No.3,pp161- 164.
Sumer, B.M. and Fredrose, J. (1991), Onset of scour below a pipeline exposed to waves, Proceedings of the
First International ISOPE Conference, Edinburgh, U.K., 290-295.
Sumer, B.M., Whitehouse, R.J.S. and Torum, A. (2001), Scour around coastal structures: a summary of recent
research, Coastal Engineering, Elsevier, 44(2001), 153-190.
The ASCE task committee on application of artificial neural networks in hydrology, (2000), Journal of
Hydrologic Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, 2000, 5(2), 115-136.
723
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF NATURAL FREQUENCIES OF

OFFSHORE STRUCTURE - AUTOMATED APPROACH
A. Vittal Hegde* and Satish Jadhav
Department of Applied Mechanics and Hydraulics, National Institute of Technology Karnataka.
Srinivasnagar 575025, Karnataka
Abstract
Fixed offshore structures are constructed in open ocean, where rough sea conditions often
exist. Dynamic behavior of ocean waves develop high dynamic forces in the structure, which
in turn result in resonant state, if the natural frequency of the structure is close to that of
frequency of loading. Hence, it is important to predict the natural frequencies of the structures
realistically. For such predictions, the complete structural system must be modeled accu-
rately, and reliable numerical procedure must be used. Here is an attempt made to compare
two methods which are frequently used. The study was carried out by developing software,
which computes the natural frequencies and modes of vibration of a fixed offshore structure
accurately.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The design of fixed offshore structures has in the past been largely based on static analysis of
the structure under a variety of deck and environmental loading. The cyclic wave loading were
applied quasi-statically, i.e., the wave force would be considered at which there is maximum
base shear or overturning moment (Cronin and Galgoul, 1981). This type of analysis was used
to design the structure to resist the extreme storm conditions.
These techniques were adequate since the natural frequency of vibration of the platforms were
well away than that of wave loading. However, as platforms are designed for deeper water and
greater deck loads, the natural periods are lengthening. Consequently, for the platforms with
fundamental periods > 2.5 seconds, an estimate of dynamic effect is necessary. A variety of
analysis methods have been developed to meet this need, ranging from the choice of simple
global magnification factor to the use of complex spectral analysis techniques, which treats
the sea state as random process quantifiable only in statistical terms.
The former method is simple to apply, but offers a poor model of the actual physical process.
The later method offers the theoretically most satisfying solution is as yet difficult to apply in
practice due to prohibitive computer costs and the lack of economical commercially available
computer packages. It is also important when choosing a technique to bear in mind the
quality of the environmental parameters and soil characteristic data.
* Corresponding author, email: avh@nitk.ac.in

As far as the complexity and the geometry of the offshore structures are concerned the
resulting components of the dynamic equation are large enough to setback the computation
time and cost for the use of digital computers. So present context handles the typical problem
of computation of frequencies and modes, which is a major concern with respect to accuracy
and efficiency for the dynamic analysis. The natural frequencies are a pre-requisite for deter-
ministic dynamic analysis of fixed jacket offshore structure which, can be carried out at a
reasonable cost by using the present software and will produce results which can be readily
integrated into existing design procedures. The present study deals with a comparison of two
methods. The software is developed for both the algorithm and results are compared.
2.0 ASSUMPTIONS AND METHODS
• Mass of the structural system is assumed to be lumped at the joints.

• Multi degrees of freedom are condensed to single translational degree of freedom
exists at each level.
• Structural system is assumed to be discrete.
• Horizontal members are assumed to be rigid.
• Structure is assumed as a two dimensional plane frame.
2.1 Governing dynamic equation of motion

Basic differential equation, which governs the motion of offshore structure of n levels as
follows:
.
[M]{Ü} + [C] { u } + [K] {U} = {F} (1)
[M] = Generalized mass matrix,

[K] = Generalized stiffness matrix,
{F} = Generalized load vector,
[C] = Damping matrix.
Over head dots of {U} represent the time derivatives of the displacement. The basic governing
equation can be written, with the help of damping assumption as,
.
M]{Ü}+2æ [M] { u } + [K] {U} = {F} (2)
where æis assumed to be proportionate of mass matrix.
To solve the set of governing differential equations represented by equation (2), we may use
modal analysis to obtain an associated set of uncoupled equations; each of which may be
solved separately and the results then may be combined to obtain the solution to the original
set of the equations.
725
The objective here is to calculate eigenvalues and eigenvectors for the undamped free vibra-
tions, further these natural frequencies and mode shapes can be used for the complete forced
vibration analysis of the structure by using mode superposition method (Huebner,Thornton
and Byrom,1995)
[M]{Ü} + [K] {U} = 0 (3)
- ù2 [ ]{ 0} + [ ] { 0} = 0 (4)
Equation (4) represents a set of n homogeneous algebraic equations which can be solved for
the eigenvalue and eigenvectors, which defines the natural vibration frequencies and mode
shapes.
The software named as Dynacs 1.0 is developed to handle above said problem by two meth-
ods. The flow chart (Fig. 2) shows the hierarchy of the operations of different modules. As the
algorithm is computerized easy comparison is possible. The software provides real opportu-
nity to try two methods for different configurations of the structure and easy interpretation of
the results. Hence, some sound conclusions are possible to draw.
2.2 Natural frequencies by power method using matrix deflation

The vibration frequencies and mode shapes are prerequisite for the modal analysis. Present
study deals with Power method using matrix deflation which is perhaps simplest of the
matrix iteration scheme, which computes eigenvalues and eigenvectors. The power method,
based on the expansion theorem, is that the solution of the eigenvalue problem consist of n
linearly independent eigenvectors {u}r (r = 1,2, n) of [D], where [D] is the dynamical matrix.
The expansion theorem implies further that eigenvectors span the n-dimensional vector space
{u}, where {u} represents a possible motion of the structure, hence, any such vector {u} can be
expressed as a linear combination of the eigenvectors {u} r, where {u} r satisfies the equations
[D] = {u}r = ër {u}r , (5)

ër = 1/ ùr2 r = 1,2,3 ,n (6)
Here matrix [D] can be regarded as representing a linear transformation that transforms any
eigenvector {u} r into itself, within the constant multiplier, ër = 1/ ùr2 r = 1, 2, 3 n. On the other
hand, if an arbitrary vector {v}1, other than eigenvector, is pre multiplied by [D], then the vector
will not be duplicate itself but will transformed into another vector {v}2 in the form,
{v}2 = c1 {u}1 + c2 {u}2 + cn {u}n = Σ cr {u}r (7)
726
Where cr constant to {v}1 in which the eigenvectors {u}r are multiplied by the constants cr , ër /
ë1 where constant multiplier ë1 in front of the series is immaterial and can be ignored because
the problem is homogeneous . But the eigenvalues ër such that ë1> ë2 > ën. Moreover, we have
to confine ourselves to the case in which all the eigenvalues are different. Because ër / ë1< 1
(2,3 ,n) and the ratio decrease with increasing r, the participation of higher nodes in{v}2 must
be regarded as an improved trial vector, thus procedure can be repeated with {v}2 as a new trial
vector. Hence iteration procedure will converge to the first eigenvalue and eigenvector. So in
general we can write,
{v}p = 1 / ë1[D] {v}p 1 (8)
ë1 = Σ cr { ër / ë1}p-1 {u}1 (9)
Here ë1 and {u}1 are the first eigenvalue and eigenvector associated with the dynamical
matrix [D], and {u}1 is normalized so as to satisfy {u}[M]{u}1 = 1 then the matrix,
[D]2 = [D] - ë1{u}1 {u}1T [M] (10)
where, [D]2 has the same eigen value as [D] except that ë1 is replaced by zero, post multiply-
ing the above equation by any arbitrary vector, so we can write,
Σcr[D]{u}r-ë1{u}1Σcr{u}1T[M]{u}r (11)
The iteration using any arbitrary trial vector in conjunction with matrix [D]2 iterates automati-
cally to the second eigenvalue and eigenvector. So the matrix [D]2 is called the deflated
matrix.
To obtain all eigenvalues and eigenvectors the procedure can be generalized as
[D]s = [D]s-1 -ë s-1 {u} s-1{u}sT[M] s = 2,3 n
2.3 The Jacobi method
One of the oldest and most general approaches for the solution of the classical eigenvalues
problem is the Jacobi method that was first presented in 1846. This is a simple iterative
algorithm in which the eigenvectors are calculated from the following series of matrix multipli-
cations;
V= T(0) ..T(1)...T(K)...T(N-1)...T(N)
The starting transformation matrix T(0) is set to a unit matrix. The iterative orthogonal transfor-
mation matrix T (k), with four nonzero terms in the i and j rows and columns, is of the following
727
orthogonal form:
Tii Tij
T (k) = (13)
Tji Tjj
The four nonzero terms are functions of an unknown rotation angle è and are defined by
Tii = Tjj = cosè and Tji = -Tij = sinè (14)
Therefore, T(k)T T(k) = I which is independent of the angle è. The typical iteration involves the
following matrix operation:
A(k) = T(k) T A(k-1) T(k) (15)
The angle is selected to force the terms i, j and j, i in the matrix A (k) to be zero. This is satisfied
if the angle is calculated from,
tan 2è = 2 Aij
(k −1) (16)
Aii
(k −1) − A (k −1)
jj
One notes that the subroutine for the solution of the symmetric eigenvalues problem by the
classical Jacobi method does not contain a division by any number. Also, it can be proved
that, after each iteration cycle, the absolute sum of the off-diagonal terms is always reduced.
Hence, the method will always converge and yield an accurate solution for positive, zero or
negative eigenvalues. The Jacobi algorithm can be directly applied to all off-diagonal terms, in
sequence, until all terms are reduced to a small number compared to the absolute value of all
terms in the matrix. However, the Dynacs 1.0 uses a threshold approach in which it skips the
relatively small off-diagonal terms and operates only on the large off-diagonal terms. Assum-
ing a modern (P2,1998) personal computer can perform over 6,000,000 operations a second,
it would require approximately one second of computer time to calculate the eigenvalues and
eigenvectors of a full 100 by 100 matrix (Claugh and Peinzen, 1975 ; Chopra, 2001).
3.0 CASE STUDIES
Case study 1 below has been taken from (Dawson, 1989).
728
Level 3 M3
M2
Level 2
M1
Level 1
Fig. 1. a) 2-D Plane truss model of offshore structure considered in case study I and II
b) Simplified model of offshore structure.
Fig. 1 depicts a structure with three levels. Considering only single degree of freedom at each
level, and applying the boundary conditions, the structural stiffness matrix [K] can be formu-
lated as given below. The matrix [M] is the mass matrix obtained by lumping the areas and
volumes of each member at the corresponding nodes (Bathe, 2001).
10 -10 2 3 0 0
[K] = 104 -10 20 -8 N/mm, [M] = 105 0 5 0 N
2 -8 6 0 0 6
Using [K] and [M] matrices, which are generated by the present software, the natural frequen-
cies of the structure corresponding to different modes of vibration are computed for both the
methods, i.e., Power method of matrix deflation and the Jacobi method of iteration (The re-
sults have been presented in Table 1) and compared with the actual frequencies obtained
manually using Characteristic polynomial method.
729
Table 1. Results for natural frequencies for case study I.
Power Method of Jacobi Iteration Characteristic Polynomial

Matrix Deflation Method Method
(w n )
Frequency Frequency
(w n ) (w n ) rad/sec
Lamda Lamda Lamda Frequency
(l n ) rad/sec. (l n ) rad/sec. (l n)
2.2658156 1.5052626 2.2658156 1. 526263 2.266900 1.5056259
14.800022 3.8470796 14.800022 3.8470796 14.806099 3.8478695
70.451433 8.3935352 66.338577 8.1404849 66.71454 8.167895
Case study 2 below has been taken from (Meirovitch, 1986).
The geometry of the structure is same as, shown in Fig.1. The stiffness properties and lumped
mass matrix is different as shown below. (The results have been presented in Table 2).
1 -1 2 1 0 0
[K] = 105 -1 2 -4 N/mm, [M] = 105 0 1 0 N
1 -2 5 0 0 2
Table 2. Results for natural frequencies for case study II.
Power Method of Jacobi Iteration Characteristic Polynomial

Matrix Deflation Method Method
(wn) (wn)
Frequency Frequency Lamda
(ln) (ln) (wn) rad/sec
Lamda Lamda Frequency
(ln) rad/sec rad/sec
7.18372 0.3731 7.18372 0.3731 7.18372 0.3731
0.57279 1.3213 0.57279 1.3213 0.57279 1.3213
0.20848 2.1901 0.22865 2.0912634 0.24477 2.021245
4.0 DISCUSSION
The algorithm of Power method by using matrix deflation has a major advantage that is error
proof (Meirovitch, 1986) in the sense that it eliminates the probable setback involved in com-
putation. It means that if an error occurs in one of the iteration steps, this only sets back the
730
iteration process but does not affect the final results. The error amount at the beginning of a
new iteration sequence depends on the new trial vector, which is likely to delay convergence
achieved regardless of how poor the first trial vector is. Clearly the iteration procedure is error
proof only if the [D] matrix is correct. The iteration leads the first mode with the only exception
being the case in which the trial vector coincides exactly with one of the higher order modes.
But it is worth noting that once this method is programmed for electronic computation as done
in present study then even the choice of the trial vector will not prevent convergence of the
results, because the round off tends to introduce a component of error which is however small.
This small component is sufficient to cause the iteration process to converge the solution.
It is observed that the Jacobi solution methods solve simultaneously for all eigenvalues and
corresponding eigenvectors. However, in offshore structural analysis we require in most cases
only some eigen pairs, and the use of a Jacobi solution procedure can be very inefficient, in
particular when the order of stiffness and mass matrices are large. In such cases much more
effective solution methods are available, which solve only for the specific eigenvalues and
eigenvectors that are actually required. However the generalized Jacobi solution method can
be used very effectively as part of those solution strategies. When the order of matrices [K]
and [M] is relatively small, the solution of the eigen problem is not very expensive, and Jacobi
iteration may also be attractive because of its simplicity and elegance of solution.
Two case studies have been exercised with the developed software Dynacs 1.0 and the re-
sults were compared. Automation of both the algorithms gives fair opportunity to try various
configurations of the structures very easily. The results of the case study I and II have been
presented in Table 1 and Table 2.
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
From study it is found that, both the methods show good agreement for the lower frequencies,
but show aberration with the higher, i.e., 2nd modal frequency. The power method of deflation
shows 3.1- 4.7 % higher values, when compared with Jacobi iterative method. Eventually, it
may be observed that, Jacobi iterative method shows good agreement when compared with
the exact solution given by characteristic polynomial method. However, higher frequencies are
not of major concern in dynamic analysis of offshore structure, but the magnitude of error
propagation is of importance, which may result in inaccuracy in the analysis.
The software Dynacs 1.0 is user friendly, accurate and validated by comparing results with the
manual calculation.
731
P REP ROCESSOR
SIMP LE MODAL FULL MODAL

ANALYSIS
ANALYSIS ANALYSIS
TYPE
GENERATION OF
STIFFNESS
DECK STIFFNESSAL MATRIX
MASS P ROP ERTIES
GENERATION OF
FREQUENCY AND
MASS MATRIX
MODE OF VIBRATION
PROCESSOR
[M]{Ü} + [K] {U} = 0
P OWER METHOD
JACOBI METHOD ANALYSIS 1 > 2 >… n
1 > 2 >… n 2
2 METHOD r r
r r
P OST P ROCESS
DESIRE FREQUENCIES AND
MODES
EXP ANSION OF GLOBLE STIFFNESS

MATRIX
END
Fig. 2. Flow chart of Dynacs 1.0.
6.0 SOFTWARE USAGE
The startup form is parent form, which holds the complete graphical user interface. The form
has main menu and submenu, where user can start with new project or exit.
Fig. 3. Startup form.
732
Analysis type option
Fig. 4 shows sub main form gives privilege to choose the analysis type, i.e., either simple
modal analysis or full modal analysis. Simple modal analysis handles relatively simple model,
which computes only lowest frequency, and which will assess general behavior of the struc-
ture.
Fig. 4. Sub main form.
Full modal analysis option can be chosen for complete modal analysis. Any one of the two
methods can be opted for computation of frequencies and modes. Number of modes to be
extracted have to be entered in the given text box. Click of Next button will open next form.
Preprocessor
Fig. 5 shows main input form, which takes the input for Node numbers, diameter of the
member, coordinates in Cartesian system. Generation of stiffness, mass matrices will be
done with the trigger of Next button. For the boundary conditions, the node numbers which
are at the sea bed have to be given. Raleigh damping in terms of the percentage of critical
damping can be entered in the given textbox
Fig. 5. Main input form.
733
Number of nodes and number of member have to be define in the given text boxes. Click of
Next button will open next form.
Output form
The output form displays the modes, frequencies and natural periods.
Fig. 6. Output form.
Input form for simple modal analysis
Fig. 7 shows input form for simple modal analysis. The form asks for mass of the deck,
diameter of chord, height of storey, number of stories, and youngs modulus.
Fig. 7. Simple modal analysis.
734
Output of simple modal analysis
Fig. 8 shows output form, which gives lowest natural frequency and associated natural period.
Fig. 8. Output of simple modal analysis.
The authors would like to express deep gratitude to the Director, NIT Karnataka for the con-
sent and encouragement given to us for the present study. We strongly acknowledge the
remarkable help from the teaching and non-teaching staff of the department of Applied Me-
chanics and Hydraulics.
REFERENCES
Bathe, K.J. (2001), Finite Element Procedure. Fifth edition, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J, U.S.A.
Chopra, A.K. (2001). Dynamics of Structure. Pearson Education (Singapore) Pte.Ltd, Indian Branch, 482, F.I.E,
Patparganj.
Claugh, R.W. and Peinzen, J. (1975), Dynamics of Structure. McGraw-Hill, New York, pp. 495-523.
Cronin, D.J. and Galgoul N.S. (1981), Dynamic Analysis of Deep Water Platforms Using An Enhanced Modal
Method. Brazil, Offshore Engineering, Rio De Janeiro, Volume 9.
Dawson, T. H. (1989), Offshore Structural Engineering. Prentice Hall, New Jersey. pp. 281-304.
Huebner, K.H., Thornton, E.A., Byrom, T.G., (1995), The finite element method for Engineers. John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., New York.
Meirovitch, L. (1986), Elements of Vibration Analysis. McGraw-Hill, International Edition, pp. 141-203.
735
APPLICATION OF ANN APPROACH FOR PREDICTION

OF TIDES
N. Vivekanandan
Dr. Mahalingam College of Engineering & Technology, Pollachi 642003
Abstract
Prediction of tides is a pre-requisite for planning and design of ports and harbours. Tidal level
prediction is usually done by harmonic analysis of observed data and finding the tidal constitu-
ents and it requires to be run for different seasons which are time consuming. In this context,
Artificial Neural Network approach is used as an alternative method for prediction of tides at
sub-ordinate stations. The paper presents the application of Back Propagation Network (BPN)
and Cascade Correlation Network (CCN) for prediction of tides at Okha and Navalakhi stations
of Gulf of Kutch. The paper presents that the results of predicted tides using BPN could be
beneficially encapsulated in CCN so as to save enormous efforts involved in CPU time as well
as long duration of boundary conditions at the reference stations to be prescribed. The
methodology adopted in training and testing the BPN, CCN and the results obtained on the
study are presented in this paper.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Prediction of tides is of considerable significance in planning and design of ports and harbours.
Prediction of tidal flow in deterministic modeling is based on continuity and momentum equa-
tions, solved through numerical methods such as finite difference, finite element and finite
volume. Kalman Filtering Method enables solving of shallow water equations that represent
tidal movements affected by complex meteorological factors and considered more suitable to
study tidal levels, rather than in predicting tide at a particular station. The tidal level prediction
is usually done by harmonic analysis of observed data and finding the tidal constituents. This
method is used for predicting tides at standard stations. For developing physical or math-
ematical model it is necessary to have simultaneous tidal data including data at standard as
well as sub-ordinate stations. The model is required to be run for different seasons. To collect
the data at all sub-ordinate stations is costly and time consuming. In this context, Artificial
Neural Network (ANN) approach is used as an alternative method for prediction of tides at sub-
ordinate stations.
ANN provides a non-deterministic mapping between given sets of input and output values.
This makes the method suitable for predicting tides at a subordinate station, based on obser-
vations at a nearby reference station, wherein complex estuarine hydrodynamics and irregular
meteorological factors make prediction process uncertain and unpredictable for deterministic
E-mail: anandaan@rediffmail.com
736
formulations. Factors such as built-in dynamism in network training, data error tolerance and
non-requirement of any exogenous input make the ANN approach attractive. The structure of
three-layered artificial neural network (Ip-Hq-Or) with an input layer I, a hidden layer H and an
output layer O with biases bi and Oi at hidden nodes and output nodes is shown in Fig. 1.
ANN does not require any exogenous input other than a set of input-output vectors for training
purpose. Although each network is usually based on different philosophy of training algorithm,
the neural network usually implies an ability to learn (Karayiannis and Venetsanopolous,
1993). The number of training algorithms like Back Propagation Network (BPN), Cascade
Correlation Network (CCN) and Conjugate Gradient Network (GCN) are commonly used for
prediction of tides at sub-ordinate stations. The objective in any training algorithm is to minimise
the mean square error (MSE) between the observed and predicted values. The accuracy
improves with MSE approaches to zero. By considering a network with three layers as shown
in Fig.1 at the completion of a pass through the entire data set, all the nodes change their
weights based on the accumulated derivates of errors with respect to each weights.
Tsai and Lee (1999) described that BPN model predicts the hourly tidal levels accurately over
a long duration using only a very short-term hourly tidal record as compared to CCN. They
have also argued that BPN model predicts the time series of tidal levels using a learning
process more efficiently other than any conventional harmonic analysis. Deo and Chaudhari
(1998) analysed that CCN could also be used as an alternative algorithm for tidal prediction at
a shorter interval. Even though different scientists have suggested different algorithms for tidal
prediction, BPN and CCN are used in this study.
2.0 STUDY AREA
In the present study, the Gulf of Kutch region (Fig. 2) is taken as reference for prediction of
tides at Okha and Navalakhi stations, based on the reference station at Mandvi and Okha
respectively using ANN based BPN and CCN approaches. Gulf of Kutch is a semi enclosed
water body, which is at the north-eastern arm of the Arabian Sea, reaching eastward for about
180 km, and width varying between approximately 20 km to 70 km. The 350 km long coast-
line of Kutch area has of late seen dramatic increase in petrochemical industries and ship
breaking operations. Increase in industrial activity in the region has led to fears of pollution,
and enhanced the need to understand the tidal regime better. Locations of these two tidal
gauging stations are also shown in Fig. 2. Tsai and Lee (1999) described that the main tidal
constituents at Okha are M2, S2, and N2 (semi diurnal tides) and K1, O1, and M4 (diurnal
constituent of tides). They have also indicated that the high water level at Okha goes up to 3.8
m as compared to low water level as 0.2 m. For Navalakhi, they have observed that the high
water level goes up to 7.5 m as compared to low water level as 0.5 m.
737
3.1 Back Propagation Network

BPN is described by Fahlman (1988) is used to predict tides one of the training algorithms of
ANN which will normally give the desired answers. Each layer consists of several neurons
and the layers are interconnected by sets of correlation weights. The neurons receive inputs
from the initial inputs or the inter-connections and produce outputs by transformation using an
adequate non-linear transformation function. A commonly used activation function is sigmoid
function which can be expressed by f(x) = [1+exp(-x)]-1 and it has the characteristic function
df/dx = fx/[1-f(x)].Fig. 3 gives the architecture of Back Propagation Network.
In BPN, the error at the output layer propagates backward to the input layer through the
hidden layer in the network to obtain the final desired outputs. The steepest descent method
is utilised to calculate the weight of the network and adjust the weight of inter-connection to
minimize the output error. In the steepest descent method, these weight changes move the
weights in the direction in which error declines most quickly.
W m = W m −1 + ∆W m (1)
where DWm is the change in weight W at end of iteration m and is calculated as:
m  ∂Ε 
∆W ∝ - ∑   (2)
m n =1 ∂Wm 
n
Also,
m  ∂Ε  m  ∂Ε  ∂Ο n  m  ∂Ο 
∑   = ∑    = ∑ δ n  n  (3)
n =1 ∂Wm  n =1 ∂Ο n  
n  ∂Wm n n =1  ∂Wm  n
where m is the total number of layers, E is the simulation output error and
= error signal. The simulation output error (E) is defined by,
1 m 2
Ε= ∑ (Ρn − Ο n ) where Pn is the observed value of the output neuron and On is the
2 n =1
predicted value for the output neuron. By supplying a constant of proportionality β * , the term
∆Wm is expressed as:
∆ W m = β * δ n Ο n −1 (4)
The constant β * is known as the learning rate. Steepest descent method was applied in the
738
present study for improving the convergence speed of back propagation can be given by virtual
momentum. If weights are changed after each process of iteration without considering the
changes in previous iterations, the network spends lot of time going backward and forward
between pair wise similar sets. This problem can be avoided by implementing the momentum
technique (a factor, denoted by α ). Another technique is adaptive learning. This method of
increasing the learning rate is much faster than that obtained through steepest descent ap-
proach, giving training time by an order of magnitude of changing the parameter β between
*
0 and 1.
2.2 Cascade Correlation Network

CCN algorithm is an efficient constructive training algorithm, developed by Fahlman and Lebiere
(1991). CCN basically eliminate the need for their user to guess in advance the networks
size, depth, and topology. A reasonably small network is built automatically. Because a
hidden unit features detector, once built, is never altered or cannibalised, the network can be
trained incrementally. CCN learns much faster than standard BPN. Moreover, CCN has some
of the advantageous over BPN, and it includes: a) CCN determines its own size depth and
network topology; b) CCN retains the structure it has built even if the training data set changes
and c) CCN requires no back propagation of error signals through the connections of the
network. Fig. 4 shows the architecture of Cascade Correlation Network. The steps involved in
CCN algorithm are explained in the following manner.
(i) Start with input and outputs units with connections between them.
(ii) Train the network (using quick prop algorithm) to minimise the error. When no further
improvement is seen in the level of error, evaluate the networks performance.
(iii) If the error is small enough, stop.
(iv) Otherwise add a new hidden unit to the network to reduce the residual error.
(v) Repeat steps (i) and (ii) until the error is negligible, or in acceptable range.
Fahlman and Lebiere (1991) also suggested that Quick Prop Algorithm (QPA) could be used
to overcome the step-size problem of BPN and the same was used in this study. It is a
second order method based on Newtons method, but in sprit it is more heuristic than formal.
The following assumptions are made in QPA: (i) The error vs. weight curve for each weight can
be approximated by a parabola whose arms open upward; and (ii) The change in the slope of
the error curve, as seen by each weight, is not affected by all the other weights that are
changing at the same time. The objective is to maximise the correlation (R) between a hidden
unit output and the residual output error in the network.
739
The equation for unit q performance is defined by R and is given by:
n  n p
( p
R = ∑ Abs ∑ oq − oq ek − ek)( ) (5)
k =1  p =1 
where, oq is an average of opq over p (all n training set pairs), epk is the output error at output
unit k for the pth pattern pair and ek is an average of epk over all n training patterns.
In order to maximise R, we have to compute (δR/δwq) and is defined by:
n  n p
( ’
) 
δR / δwq = ∑ Abs ∑ σ k ek − ek f p I p, q  (6)
k =1  p =1 
where, σk is the sign of the correlation between the input value and output, fp is the derivative for
pattern p of the units activation function with respect to the sum of its inputs, and Ip,q is the
input unit receives from unit q for pattern p. The CCN algorithm attempts to maximise the
measure in equation (5) by training the pool of input units. Each unit begins training with a
different set of initial weights. Maximisation of equation (6) precedes using gradient ascent to
adjust the weight of each hidden unit. The unit with the maximum correlation measure is then
added to the network and its weights are fixed. This process is called tenure. After tenure, a
unit becomes a permanent new feature detector in the net. We then retrain all the weights
going to the output units, including those from the new hidden unit. This process of adding a
new hidden and retraining the output layer is repeated until the error is negligible.
By following the procedures of BPN and CCN, as descried earlier, a computer program was
developed and used for prediction of tides at sub-ordinate station based on the reference
station. During June 1996, hourly data for 78 hrs were collected at Mandvi, Okha and Navalakhi
stations of Gulf of Kutch (IHB, 1992). These data are used to test the performance of the
proposed BPN and CCN prediction model. The training (25 hrs) and testing (25 hrs) is done
based on the record of hourly data record and the prediction is also carried out at hourly data
records. It is shown that all the predicted results of 28 hrs are in good agreement with the
observations. Initially, the neural network structure Ip-Hq-Or is used in the training and testing
process of tidal prediction wherein Ip-Hq-Or represents p-input neuron, q-hidden neurons and r-
output neuron. Uniform random numbers between 1 to 1 give initial values of the weights and
thresholds. After the learning process is completed from a training set, the final inter-connec-
tion weights and values of thresholds are kept in the predicting process.
740
4.1 Prediction of tides at Okha
A computer program was used to predict the hourly tidal levels at Okha station using the
hourly data record at Mandvi station. The factors such as learning rate ( β * = 0.1), momentum
factor ( α = 0.8) and number of training iterations (750) were used to determine the architec-
ture of the network in which hidden layer were optimized as 7. The study shows that optimised
BPN architecture (I -H -O ) consisting of one input layer with one input unit (observed tide at
1 7 1
Mandvi)), one hidden layer with seven hidden units and one output layer with one output unit,
found to be most suitable network and used for training. After training, the final network with
trained weights was used for prediction of hourly tides at Okha. The correlation coefficient
(CC) between observed and predicted tides at Okha was found to be 0.987 with MSE of 0.013.
The study also indicates that the results of the BPN gave the model efficiency (ME) in predict-
ing the tides as 97 percent.
By applying CCN, a 1-15-1 architectural was found to be most suitable architectural and used
for training. After training, the final network with trained weights was used for prediction of
tides at Okha. The results show that the results of the CCN gave the ME in predicting the
tides as 96 percent. The CC between observed and predicted tides at Okha was computed as
0.985 with MSE of 0.016. The observed tides at Okha for 78 hrs have been compared with the
predicted tides using BPN and CCN and are delineated in Fig. 5.
4.2 Prediction of tides at Navalakhi

For Navalakhi, an optimised neural network structure (I1-H4-O1) consisting one input layer with
one input unit (observed tide at Okha), one hidden layer with four hidden units and one output
layer with one output unit was used for minimising the global error between observed and
targeted outputs in training the network and used to predict the hourly tides by using the
observed tides at Navalakhi. The observed tides at Navalakhi for 78 hrs have been compared
with the predicted tides using BPN and are delineated in Fig. 6.
The results indicate that the BPN gave the ME in predicting the tides at Navalakhi as 97
percent. The CC between observed and predicted tides at Navalakhi using BPN was found to
be 0.985 with MSE of 0.063. The study also shows that a 1-12-1 of CCN architecture found to
be most suitable network and used for training. After training, the final network with trained
weights was used for prediction of tides at Navalakhi by using CCN approach and its ME was
found to be 91 percent. The CC between observed and predicted tides was computed as
0.987 with MSE of 0.013. The observed tides at Navalakhi for 78 hrs have also been compared
with the predicted tides using CCN and are delineated in Fig. 6.
From these results, it may be noted that the BPN model predicts the hourly tidal levels well
accurately over a long duration using only a very short term hourly tidal record. The study also
741
shows that even though the difference between the correlation coefficient between observed
and predicted tides at BPN and CCN for Okha and Navalakhi stations is in the order of 0.002
and 0.026 respectively, the results of predicted tides using BPN could be beneficially encap-
sulated in CCN so as to save enormous efforts involved in CPU time as well as long duration
of boundary conditions at the reference stations.
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
The paper shows that once the tides at Mandvi are prescribed by initial and boundary condi-
tions after solving the complete solution of equations, the tide prediction at Okha and Navalakhi
stations is technically feasible. However, after knowing the training and testing parameters of
tides at Mandvi and after training and testing of tidal curve at Okha, ANN based BPN and CCN
models are noted to predict well the tides at sub-ordinate stations. The paper shows that the
predicted tides using BPN could be beneficially encapsulated in CCN so as to save enormous
efforts involved in CPU time as well as long duration of boundary conditions at the reference
stations.
The author expresses his sincere thanks to Professor C. Ramaswamy, Secretary, Dr. MCET,
Pollachi for giving his kind consent to publish this paper. The authors also express their
sincere thanks to Mrs V.M. Bendre, Director, CWPRS, Pune, for providing the facilities to
carry out this study. Kind co-operation extended by Dr. L.K. Ghosh and Dr. N. Ghosh, Addi-
tional Directors and Shri. F.T. Mathew, Director, CWPRS are gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
Deo, M.C. and Chaudhari Girish, (1998), Tide Prediction Using Neural Networks, Journal of Computed Aided Civil
and Infrastructure Engineering, Vol. 13, pp 113-120.
Fahlman, S.E. and Lebiere, C, (1991), The Cascade Correlation Learning Architecture, School of Computer
Science, Cambridge Mellon University, Pittsburgh.
Fahlman, S.E., (1988), An Empirical Study of Learning Speed in Back Propagation Networks, School of Com-
puter Science, Cambridge Mellon University, Pittsburgh.
International Hydrographic Bureau (IHB, Monaco), (1992), Tidal Harmonic Constants, Special Publication No. 26,
pp. 25-30.
Karayiannis, M.B. and Venetsanopolous, A.M., (1993), Artificial Neural Networks: Learning Algorithms, Perfor-
mance Evaluation and Applications, Kluner Academic Publisher, Boston.
Tsai, C.P. and Lee,T.L., (1999), Back Propagation Neural Network in Tidal Level Forecasting, ASCE Journal of
Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Vol. 125(4), pp. 195-202.
742
bi Oi
Input Layer Hidden Layer Output Layer
Fig. 1. Structure of three-layered Artificial Neural Network (Ip-Hq-Or).
Fig. 2. Study area of Gulf of Kutch (Depth contours are shown in meter).
743
Fig. 3. Architecture of Back Propagation Network.
Fig. 4. Architecture of Cascade Correlation Network.
744
4
3
Tide (m)
Observed BPN CCN

0
72 80 88 96 104 112 120 128 136 144 152
Fig. 5. Observed and predicted tides using BPN and CCN approaches at Okha Station, Gulf of Kutch
Time (hrs)
6
Tide (m)
Observed BPN CCN

0
72 80 88 96 104 112 120 128 136 144 152
Fig. 6. Observed and predicted tides using BPN and CCN
Time (Hrs)approaches at Navalakhi Station, Gulf of Kutch.
745
RELATING DEEP WATER WAVES WITH COASTAL WAVES

USING ANN
Ruchi Kalra1, M. C. Deo1*, Raj Kumar2 and Vijay K. Agarwal2
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400076.
Oceanic Sciences Division, Meteorology and Oceanography Group, Space Applications Centre (ISRO),
2
Ahmedabad, 380 015
Abstract
A technique to obtain significant wave heights at coastal locations from their values sensed at
deeper locations with the help of a satellite is discussed in this paper. This technique is
based on the approach of neural networks. The applicability of the method was first checked
by a highly satisfactory mapping between deep-water buoy measurements and corresponding
shallow water buoy observations. The satellite data of significant wave height, average wave
period and the wind speed were then given as input in order to obtain significant wave heights
at a costal location along the west coast of India. This involved use of a common MLP
network trained using variants of back-propagation algorithms. Qualitative as well as quanti-
tative comparison of the network output with target observations showed usefulness of neural
networks in such an application. Unlike satellite observations collection of buoy data is costly
and hence it is generally resorted to fewer locations and for a smaller period of time. As shown
in this study the network can be trained with samples of buoy data and can be further used for
routine wave forecasting at coastal locations based on more permanent flow of satellite obser-
vations. The wave rider buoy can be discarded or redeployed elsewhere.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Satellites like TOPEX and SEASAT routinely collect considerable amount of data pertaining
to wave heights, wave periods and wind speeds. Corresponding observations normally pertain
to deeper locations in the ocean, typically 30 km away from the shoreline, owing to the typical
manner in which data are sensed and averaged. For operational planning of any coastal
activity, like navigational movements, values of wave heights and wind speeds at locations
much closer to coasts are needed. The deep-water waves undergo considerable changes in
their magnitudes because of shoaling, refraction, diffraction, etc. when they approach shal-
lower waters. Currently, the problem of obtaining waves at coastal locations is solved either by
adopting empirical methods, like drawing refraction diagrams and using simplified equations,
or by employing complex numerical schemes aimed at integrating shallow water equations.
Generally, these techniques are oriented towards harbor design and planning exercises rather
than forecasting waves on real time or short-term basis at specific stations as envisaged in
this study. A need therefore exists to explore new techniques to translate the deep-water
observations to shallow water regions.
*Corresponding author, e-mail: mcdeo@civil.iitb.ac.in
Transformation of waves into shallower depths is a highly non-linear and uncertain process
and hence this is done in the present work with the help of artificial neural networks (ANN).
ANN basically maps any input vector to the corresponding output vector without going into the
physical processes involved. This is achieved by following the process of cognition working in
human brains.
2.0 NETWORKS AND TRAINING
A neural network consists of interconnected nodes or neurons, each acting as an independent

computational element. Most common network for engineering application is Multi-Layered
Perceptron (MLP) shown in Fig. 1, which has the ability to approximate any continuous
function. Referring to Fig. 1, each neuron or node sums up a weighted input, adds a bias
term to it, passes on the result through a transfer function and produces the output.
Mathematically, the four-step procedure followed in obtaining the network output is as given
below:
1. Sum up weighted inputs, i.e.

NIN
Nod j = ∑ (Wij xi ) + β j (1)
i =1
where, Nodj = summation for the jth hidden node; NIN = total number of input nodes; Wij =
connection weight ith input and jth hidden node; xi = normalized input at the ith input node;
and βj = bias value at the jth hidden node.
2. Transform the weighted input :
[
Out j = 1 1 + e
− nod j
] (2)
where, Outj = output from the jth hidden node.
3. Sum up the hidden node outputs :

NHN
Nod k = ∑ (W
j =1
jk Out j ) + β k (3)
where, Nodk= summation for the kth output node; NHN = total number of hidden nodes; Wik
= connection weight between the jth hidden and kth output node; and qk = bias at the kth output
node.
4. Transform the weighted sum :
[
Out k = 1 / 1 + e
− nod j
] (4)
where, Outk = output at the kth output node. (Note: For the current study, k = 1).
747
Neural networks derive their strengths from a model-free processing of data and a high
degree of freedom associated with their architecture. Details of concepts involved in neural
networks along with their applications in water resources can be seen in The ASCE Task
Committee (2000), Dawson and Wilby (2001) and Maier and Dandy (2000).
Bias
Input
Input Output
Layer Layer
Hidden Layer
Fig. 1. A neural network.
Before actual application the network has to be trained from examples. Training comprises
presentation of input and output pairs to the network and derivation of the values of connection
weights, bias or centers. The training may require many epochs (presentation of complete
data sets once to the network). Generally, the network is presented with the input and an
output pair till the training error between target and realized outputs reaches the error goal. In
the present study the usual feed forward network of Multi-Layered Perceptron (MLP) type (Fig.
1) was involved. In order to make sure that adequate training is imparted five different varieties
of the MLP training schemes were employed. These were Resilient back-Propagation (RP),
Scaled Conjugate Gradient (SCG), Conjugate Gradient Powell-Beale (CGB), Broyden, Fletcher,
Goldfarb (BFG), and Levenberg-Marquardt (LM). The objective of any training scheme is to
minimize the difference or the error between the network-yielded and the target or actual
output. The rate of change of error with respect to the connection weights, i.e., the error
gradient is used as a path to do so. The RP algorithm is aimed at eliminating problems arising
out of smaller magnitudes of the error gradients. A general conjugate gradient scheme in-
volves performing a search along the conjugate or orthogonal direction in order to determine
the step size to minimize the performance function. There are different versions of such an
algorithm as per the technique of finding a new search direction like the SCG and CGB. The
BFG scheme is a variant of the Newtons method of iteration and involves updating the Hes-
sian matrix at each iteration. The need to compute such a matrix is eliminated in the LM
algorithm, which is designed to approach the second order training speeds. The details of
these algorithms can be found in Demuth et al. (1998).
748
3.0 THE DATA BASE
Data collected by the TOPEX satellite off the west coast of India along with the wave rider buoy
measurements at locations DS1, DS2, SW3 and SW4 (as shown in Fig. 2) were available for
a period of about 4 years during 1998 to 2001. From the satellite data base available daily
values of significant wave height, average wave period and wind speed were extracted at
selected locations around DS1 and DS2. Wave rider buoy data was 3-hourly from which daily
averages were made and used for this study.
4.0 BASE LINE STUDY
Although the main objective was to map the satellite data observed at deeper locations
to the coastal locations like SW3 and SW4, a proof-of-concept study was first made, which
consisted of mapping the buoy measurements between DS1 and SW3 as well as between
DS2 and SW4. This was found necessary because instrumental and in-situ observations of
buoys can be expected to be more accurate and reliable than satellite observations.
Fig. 2. The Site Map. (http://www.niot.res.in/ndbp/by-lo.html)
Networks consisting of three input nodes corresponding to daily values of significant wave
height, wave period and wind speed at deep-water locations and one output node belonging to
daily values of shallow water significant wave heights were developed in order to map buoy
measurements between locations DS1 and SW3 as well as between DS2 and SW4. The
training pairs consisting of recorded wave time histories were 596 and 275, respectively. The
developed networks were tested with independent testing pairs of sequential wave heights
numbering 149 and 90. The results are shown in Fig. 3, which shows an example of observed
749
significant wave heights at location SW4 vis-à-vis the same derived using the network from
the input location DS2. The comparison is shown in terms of a scatter diagram as well as a
time history plot. The underlying high values of the correlation coefficient (r) of 0.94 as well
as low values of the mean square error (MSE) of 0.06 and mean average error (MAE) of
0.20 indicate a highly satisfactory work done by the neural networks.
sig. wave ht (m)

network derived wave ht
4
3.5
3
2.5
(m)
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
observed wave ht (m)
network derived
4 observed
3.5
3
Sig. wave ht (m)
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1
6
11
16
21
26
31
36
41
46
51
56
61
66
71
76
81
86
Days
Fig. 3. Validation of network mapping between buoy measurements at DS2 and SW4.
(Training Algorithm: Levenberg-Marquardt (LM))
5.0 RELATING SATELLITE AND BUOY DATA
Having confirmed the network applicability of the neural networks on the basis of reliable
instrumental data as above, a network consisting of 3 input nodes corresponding to daily
values of the wave height, wave period and wind speed as sensed by the TOPEX satellite
around deep water location DS1 and 1 output node of the buoy-recorded wave height at the
coastal location SW3 was developed. Input of wind speed and wave period in addition to wave
height was found to be necessary for better generalization of the network. Help of the neural
network toolbox under MATLAB software was taken. The number of training pairs was 438.
The trained network when tested with 94 pairs of unseen inputs showed a satisfactory map-
750
ping between the deep water and the shallow water waves. This could be seen in Fig. 4
through the scatter diagram as well as a time history comparison. The associated correlation
coefficient was 0.83 while the mean square and the mean average errors were 0.13 and 0.29,
respectively indicating good performance, although expectedly lower than the buoy-to-buoy
mapping discussed earlier.
sig. wave ht(m)
network derived wave ht
3.5
3
2.5
2
(m)
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
observed wave ht (m)
3.5 network derived
Sig. Wave Height (m)
3 observed
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
13
19
25
31
37
43
49
55
61
67
73
79
85
91
1
7
Days
Fig. 4. Validation of network mapping betweenTOPEX satellite measurements and SW4
(Training Algorithm: Levenberg-Marquardt (LM)).
Table 1 shows the comparison between the five training algorithms adopted for the above
study. The values pertain to mapping of waves from deep-water locations around DS1 (15.236°
N, 69.371°E) to the coastal location SW3 (15.367°N, 73.751°E). It may be noted that while
most algorithms gave similar results in terms of the correlation coefficient, there was a consid-
erable difference in terms of computational efficiency. For example, LM took the least training
time (0.64 sec) and converged in just 31 iterations whereas SCG converged in 41 seconds
and 3109 iterations.
There is a scope to improve accuracy of the results achieved by considering a series of data
surrounding the deep-water locations as input and by adopting different network architectures
and algorithms, which is slated to be done in the next phase of the study.
751
Table 1. Comparison of different training schemes.
Training scheme Correlation Time to train (s) No. of epochs

Coefficient
LM 0.83 00.64 31
SCG 0.83 41.48 3109
RP 0.82 05.28 557
CGB 0.83 06.00 257
BFG 0.82 03.50 90
It may appear that the current study involved only a simple mapping of the input-output vectors
for which the complexity of the neural networks might not be required and hence the same
work could be as well carried out by the traditional statistical regression. In order to investi-
gate this aspect a multiple regression equation was developed using the training set of data
discussed in this section. It was as follows:
H = 0.39h + 0.02t + 0.04u + 0.04 (5)
where H is the significant wave height (m) at the coastal location SW3 and h, t, u correspond
to the significant wave height (m), wave period (sec) and wind speed (m/s) respectively at the
deep-water locations around DS1.
This regression when validated with respect to the testing pairs indicated error measures of
0.70 for the correlation coefficient and of 0.21 and 0.40 for the mean square and the mean
average errors indicating its relatively poor performance compared to the neural networks
which corresponded to r = 0.83, MSE = 0.13 and MAE = 0.29.
6.0 CONCLUSIONS
Neural networks provide a useful tool to project deep-water waves sensed by satel
• lites to desired coastal locations. They can be effectively employed to carry out
such a correlation on on-line mode.
Complexity of neural networks was found to be necessary vis-à-vis traditional and
• simpler statistical regression.
Although accuracy of the results did not change much across different learning
• schemes used, the computational efficiency involved varied widely over these
schemes.
Unlike the satellite observations, collection of buoy data is costly and hence it is
• generally resorted to fewer locations and for a smaller period of time. As shown in
this study the network can be trained with samples of buoy data and can be further
used for routine wave forecasting at coastal locations based on more permanent
flow of satellite observations. The wave rider buoys can be discarded or redeployed
elsewhere.
752
7.0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The study was funded under the MOG collaboration scheme of the Space Applications Cen-
tre, ISRO, Ahmedabad.
REFERENCES
Dawson, C.W. and Wilby R. L., 2001, Hydrological modeling using artificial neural networks, Progress in Physical
Oceanography, 25, 1, 80-108.
Demuth H., Beale M., Hagen M., 1998, Neural networks tool box, Users guide, The Mathworks Inc., Natick, MA,
USA. http://www.niot.res-in/ndbp/by-lo.htm
Maier H.R. and Dandy G.C., 2000, Neural networks for the prediction and forecasting of hydrological variables,
Environmental Modeling and Software, 15, 101-124.
The ASCE task committee on application of artificial neural networks in hydrology, 2000, Journal of Hydrologic
Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, 5(2), 115-136.
753
ON LINE TIDE PREDICTION USING ARTIFICIAL NEURAL

NETWORKS
A.M. Chitale1*, P. S. Pathak1, V.S. Limaye2 and S.N. Londhe2
1
Final year Students, Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune
Department of Civil Engineering, Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune
2
Abstract
The knowledge of tide prediction is very much essential in effective planning and implementa-
tion of projects related to coastal and harbor engineering problems. This paper presents an
Artificial Neural Network approach for on line forecasting of the tidal levels at Brandywine
station in Delaware City on East Coast of USA. Two separate models were developed, the
first one for determination of water levels at 6 minutes time interval and the other one for
prediction of high and low water levels. Three different algorithms namely, Conjugate Gradient
Fletcher Reeves update (CGF), Broydan-Fletcher-Goldfarb-Shanno algorithm (BFG) and
Levernberg-Marquardt (LM) algorithm were tried. The testing results were highly in agreement
with the observed data as indicated by scatter plots and accompanying high values of corre-
lation coefficients and two other error measures, namely, Coefficient of Efficiency (CE), Root
Mean Squared Error (RMSE).
1.0 INTRODUCTION
A regular rise and fall of water levels in the ocean is called as tide. The ocean tides are caused
by the gravitational attraction of the sun, moon acting on waters of revolving earth. Also the
centrifugal forces resulting from the mutual revolution of earth-moon-sun system gives rise to
tides. In recent years accurate prediction of tidal levels has become very important in view of
offshore constructions, disposal and movement of littoral drift, navigation etc. The earliest
recorded tidal predictions in Britain were done by John Wallingford, from Abbot of St. Albans
(AD 1213). He predicted the times of high water at London Bridge for the different phases of
the moon. Several British ports families had studied tidal records, and came up with their own
secret methods of tidal prediction, which allowed them to publish tide prediction tables. An
example of this is Liverpool, where Rev. Holden analyzed four years of tidal records from the
twenty years recorded by the harbour master, Mr. Hutchinson, and published his first set of
tables in 1770.
Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) made the first breakthrough in the analysis and prediction of
tides, with his discovery of gravity resulting in the equilibrium theory of tides. Bernoulli ex-
tended Newtons work so that it could be used with tidal observations to predict the tides. This
work allowed the time of high tide to be predicted in relation to the time of the lunar transit.
Laplace (1749-1827) derived the formulae for the tides on a rotating earth, though at the time
*Corresponding author, e-mail: chitaleashwini@rediffmail.com
he only had the tools to solve the equations for the earth totally covered with water. He also
split the tides up into the separate species of semi-diurnal, diurnal and longer periods, and laid
the foundations for the harmonic analysis of tides. Darwin (1892), proposed a classic theory of
equilibrium tide that describes the property of tidal-level variations for an open sea, but it gave
inaccurate results for a region with complicated bottom topography and in the nearshore area.
Doodson (1958) employed the method of least squares to ascertain the harmonic parameters
of the tidal constituents.
Since then the tide prediction is conventionally done by using harmonic analysis method
based on the periodicity of factors affecting tides. In this method known phase and amplitude
of each harmonic constituent is found out by analyzing the measured tide level data. Accu-
racy of the harmonic analysis method depends very much on number of parameters consid-
ered, and its accurate observation. Length of observational data also affects the accuracy.
When non-periodic meteorological and oceanographic effects such as wind effect and storm
surge are influential, the harmonic analysis technique becomes inapplicable. As a result the
accurate prediction of tidal level has remained a concern for marine engineers. This leaves a
scope for another method, which will provide an accurate solution with greater ease. The
relatively recent technique of Artificial Neural Network can be employed to map this highly
complex tidal phenomenon owing to its data driven approach, ease of handling and learning
capabilities.
In recent years artificial neural network has been successfully used for real time tide predic-
tion by Deo and Chaudhari (1998), Tsai and Lee (1999), Lee and Jeng (2002), Cox et al.
(2002), Lee (2004). The present work is a two-fold attempt for real time prediction of tidal levels
at Brandywine station in Delaware City on East Coast of USA. In the first work a neural
network model is developed for short-term tidal level prediction for every six minutes time
interval whereas the second work is directed towards predicting high and low water levels
using a long-term data. Three algorithms were used to train the networks and their results
were compared to identify the best algorithm.
Theoretical aspect of neural network can be seen in the books, such as Wasserman (1993)
and Bose Liang (1998).
2.0 STUDY AREA
The study area is Brandywine Shoal Light Station, near the Delaware City situated on the
East Coast of United States of America. The station is located on 38°59.2'N latitude and
75°6.8'W longitude. The data used in the present work was available on website www.noaa.com
3.0 TIDE FORECASTING USING A SHORT TERM TIDAL RECORD
Observed values of water levels at 6 minutes interval for two days in the month of September
755
for the year 2003 were available. The observed tidal levels had a mean range of 4.73 ft. while
the diurnal range of 5.36 ft. The total available data was divided into training and testing data
sets.
3.1 Neural network model

A three-layered feed forward neural network with error backpropagation was developed with
architecture of 4:10:1 for real time prediction of water levels using short-term data (LM algo-
rithm). The 4 neurons in the input layer pertained to four previous water levels (time steps) and
1 neuron in the output layer gives the water level at the next time steps. This was decided after
number of trials with various time steps. The number of neurons in the hidden layer was also
fixed using trial and error for all the three algorithms. The sigmoidal function was used be-
tween the input and hidden layer whereas linear function was used between the hidden and
output layer. Out of the total data 70% was used for training while the remaining was used for
testing.
3.2 Training and testing

Three different training algorithms namely, Conjugate Gradient Fletcher Reeves update (CGF),
Broydan-Fletcher-Goldfarb-Shanno algorithm (BFG) and Levernberg-Marquardt (LM) algorithm
were used to train the network. The simplest implementation of the backpropagation learning
includes updating the network weights and biases in the direction in which the performance
function decreases most rapidly the negative of the gradient. In conjugate gradient algo-
rithms a search is performed along conjugate directions to determine the step size, or the
length of each update, which will minimize the performance function along that line. The BFG
training method is based on the Newtons method, which is an alternative to conjugate gradi-
ent methods for fast optimization. Unlike Newtons method, the BFG algorithm updates an
approximate Hessian matrix at each iteration of the algorithm and therefore it is rightly called
a quasi-Newton method. The Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm uses a Jacobian matrix instead
of a Hessian matrix and achieves second-order-training speed. The details of these are pre-
sented in Demuth et al. (1998).
After an error goal of 0.0001 was achieved the weights and bias of the trained network were
retained for testing the network with unseen inputs. For testing, the output water level at time
t, after first prediction was used as input by replacing water level at time t-1. Thus the new
inputs were t-2, t-3, t-4, t to give the new output as t+1. Thus, after four cycles, the input for the
later models consisted of all the predicted values. Hence real time prediction of tides was
achieved. By this method a real time prediction for next as many as 564 minutes (94 time
steps) was achieved. All algorithms gave satisfactory results, however, results of LM algorithm
were the best as indicated by scatter plot and accompanying high value of correlation coeffi-
cient. Also, the error goal achieved by all the three algorithms is the same (0.001) indicating
756
the LM algorithm to be the most accurate. The results of all algorithms with their architecture,
epochs, error goal and correlation coefficient are presented in the Table 1. The predicted
values are in agreement with the observed values except at the crest. as shown in Fig.1. The
length of data as well as use of only water levels as inputs may be the sources of error.
However, in view of a natural phenomenon of tides, it can be stated the underlying phenom-
enon of rise and fall of water levels was clearly understood by the ANN model.
Table 1. Model performance (short-term model).
Algorithm Network Goal Epochs Correlation

Architecture Coefficient
CGF 4:5:1 0.0001 535 0.7352
BFG 4:5:1 0.0001 681 0.986
LM 4:10:1 0.0001 545 0.9976
Fig.1. Water levels plot (Algorithm: LM).
Though the network is trained and tested for a very short data of two days the same method
can be extended with long term data for an year or so as shown by Lee and Jeng (2002). It
may also be noted that the network was able to predict water levels for next as many as 94
time steps giving a warning at least 9 hrs. in advance while using just two-day data and the
predicted water level values for a time step was based on the value predicted for earlier time
step.
4.0 PREDICTION OF HIGH WATER AND LOW WATER LEVELS

The data available was of high and low water levels occurring roughly after a period of six hours
from the month of January to August for the year 2003. The available data was divided into
training and testing data sets.
4.1 Neural network model

A three layered feed forward neural network was developed with an architecture of 4:7:1 (LM
757
algorithm) wherein 4 input neurons pertained to water levels at four previous time steps and 1
output neuron pertained to water level at next time step. Sigmoidal and linear transfer func-
tions were used with mean squared error as the performance function.
4.2 Training and testing

The network was trained using the three algorithms as in the previous case and trained weights
and biases were used for testing. The data from January to May 2003 was used for training
whereas remaining three months data was used for testing. The testing was carried out ex-
actly in the similar manner as explained in previous section. It may be noted that the network
predicted high and low water levels for nearly next three months, i.e. about 351 time steps. All
algorithms gave satisfactory results with LM giving the best results, though correlation coeffi-
cient for CGF algorithm is more than that of LM (0.97>0.964). This is because the error goal
achieved by LM algorithm is much smaller than both CGF and BFG (0.008<0.01) indicating
more accurate training and testing. Table 2 shows results of all the three algorithms. Fig. 2
shows scatter plot of observed and predicted water levels. The high water and low water level
plots for testing depicts close agreement between observed and predicted values as shown in
Fig. 3. It may be noted that values upto 168 hours are plotted for the sake of clarity of the
figure.
Table 2. Model performance (HW/LW model).
Algorithm Network Goal Epochs Correlation

Architecture Coefficient
CGF 4:15:1 0.01 1193 0.97
BFG 4:7:1 0.01 1132 0.965
LM 4:7:1 0.008 78 0.964
Fig. 2. Scatter plot (Algorithm: LM).
758
Fig. 3. HW/LW levels (Algorithm: LM).
5.0 MODEL ASSESSMENT
The work discussed so far involved use of the performance function of mean square error to
achieve the error goal with correlation coefficient as an indication of the model performance
during testing. Although this is very common in assessing model effectiveness it does not
identify specific regions where the model is deficient. Other error measures were therefore
employed to study the model performance. These are Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) and
Coefficient of Efficiency (CE). Equations 1 and 2 below give the expressions of these mea-
sures:
n
∑ ( H i − Hˆ i ) 2
RMSE = i =1 (1)
n
∑i =1
n
(H i − ˆ )2
H i (2)
CE = 1 −
∑i =1(Hi − H ) 2
n
where, H = target water level, Ĥ = output water level, H = mean of the target water levels,
~
H = mean of output water levels and n = total no. of target and output pairs.
CE indicates prediction capabilities of values different from the mean and varies from -∞ to
+1. CE of 0.9 and above is very satisfactory and that of below 0.8 is unsatisfactory. RMSE is
determined by calculating the deviations of points from their true position, summing up the
759
measurements, and then taking the square root of the sum. The smaller the RMSE, the better
is the performance of the model. Table 3 shows the values of these error measures during
testing of the models using LM algorithm, which shows that the models predict the tidal levels
more or less accurately.
Table 3. Model assessment (LM Algorithm).
Model CE RMSE
I (6min) 0.95 0.83
II (6 hr) 0.86 0.95
6.0 CONCLUSIONS
The present work dealt with online tide prediction using Artificial Neural Network technique.
The data used for ANN models pertained to Brandywine (USA). Two models were developed
which predicted tidal levels for 564 minutes, 2106 hours (87.75 days). For the first, two-day
data was used for training while for the second model 5 months data was used for training. The
trained network when tested for unseen inputs gave satisfactory results as it can be seen from
the scatter plots and accompanying high values of correlation coefficient. The results of algo-
rithm LM were found to be the best amongst the three for both the models. This may be
because, the CGF algorithm is a first order optimization method and BFG algorithm uses an
approximate Hessian matrix though it is based on Newtons method. The LM algorithm on the
other hand uses a Jacobian matrix in a Newton like update making it very fast and accurate.
The accuracy of both models can also be verified by lower values of two other error measures.
Thus, it can be stated that network has clearly understood the underlying phenomena of the
tidal level variation. The idea of using water levels at previous time steps seems to be working
well. This seems to be logical in a sense that, change in water level for each time step is a
reflection of influence of many parameters responsible for this phenomenon of tidal level fluc-
tuation. Thus, it can be stated the technique of ANN can definitely be used as a supplemen-
tary tool if not an alternative for traditional tide prediction methods.
REFERENCES
Bose, N.K., Liang, P. (1998), Neural Network Fundamentals with Graphs, Algorithms and Applications, Tata
McGraw-Hill Publication.
Cox, D.T., Tissot, P., Michaud, P.(2002), Water level observations and short-term predictions including meteoro-
logical events for entrance of Galveston Bay, Texas, ASCE Journal of Waterways, Port, Coastal and
Ocean Engineering,Vol.128, No.1, Jan-Feb.pp. 21-29
Darwin, G.H. (1892), Reports of Committee for the Harmonic Analysis.
Doodson, A.T. (1958),The Harmonic Development of the Tide Generating Potential , London.
Demuth, H., Beale, M., Hagen, M., (1998), Neural Network Toolbox Users Guide, The Mathworks Inc., 1998
760
Deo, M.C., Chaudhari, G. (1998), Tide prediction using neural networks, ComputerAided Civil and Infrastructure
Engineering, Vo.13, pp. 113-120
Lee, T.L. Jeng, D.S., (2002), Application of artificial neural networks in tide forecasting, Ocean Engineering,
Vol.29, No.9, pp.1003-1022
Lee, T.L. (2004), Back propagation neural network for long-term tidal predictions, Journal of Ocean Engineer-
ing, Vol 31, pp. 225-238.
Tsai, Ching-Piao, Lee, Tsong-Lin.(1999), Back-propagation neural network in tidal-level forecasting, ASCE
Journal of Waterways, Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Vol. 125, No. 4, pp. 195-202.
Wasserman, P.D. (1993), Advanced methods in neural computing, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
761
NEURAL NETWORKS FOR ESTIMATION OF OCEAN WAVE

PARAMETERS
S. Mandal1*, Subba Rao2 and D.H.Raju2
1
Ocean Engineering Division, National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa-403 004
Dept of Applied Mechanics & Hydraulics, National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal,
2
P.O.Srinivasnagar-575025
Abstract
Ocean wave parameters play a significant role in the design of all coastal and offshore struc-
tures. In the present study, neural networks are used to estimate various ocean wave param-
eters from theoretical Pierson-Moskowitz spectra as well as measured ocean wave spectra
off Mormugao, west coast of India. The correlations of neural network and Scott spectra are
also compared. Once the network is trained, the ocean wave parameters can be estimated for
unknown measured spectra, whereas significant wave height and spectral peak period are
required to generate the Scott spectra. This study shows that the missing field wave data can
be generated using trained network.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Wave spectra that have been employed to describe ocean waves along Indian coast are
Pierson-Moskowitz (1964) and Scott (1965) spectra as reported by Dattatri et al., (1977), and
Narasimhan and Deo (1979). Ocean waves are mostly generated by winds. They are very
complex in nature and tend to change very much in rough weather. The studies of wave
parameters play a significant role in the design of all coastal and offshore structures. Despite
their obvious importance, the complex process active in their generation is only beginning to
be understood. Progress in understanding the phenomenon has been hindered due to lack of
wave data. Neural networks provide a good alternative to predict the behavior of ocean waves
in different weather conditions.
Neural networks have the ability to recognize the hidden pattern in the data and accordingly
estimated the values. Provision of model-free solutions, data error tolerance, built in dyna-
mism and lack of any exogenous input requirement makes the neural network attractive. A
neural network (NN) is an information processing system modeled on the structure of the
dynamic process. Its merit is the ability to deal with information whose interrelation is ambigu-
ous or whose functional relation is not clear. Deo and Naidu (1999), Prabaharan (2001) and
Makarynskyy (2004) have carried out some applications of the NNs for wave forecasting using
neural network.
This paper describes the NNs that are used to estimate ocean wave parameters from PM
*Corresponding author, e-mail : smandal@darya.nio.org
762
spectra as well as field data and also how the neural network is more effective than Scott
spectra, which is widely represented for Indian coastal condition (Dattatri et al., 1977; and
Narasimhan and Deo, 1979). Here the backpropagation neural network with Rprop updated
algorithms (Reidmiller and Braun, 1993) is used. The present study can generate missing
wave data. Suppose some wave data are missed for particular location at particular time
period, then ocean wave parameters or spectral energy can be generated using trained neural
network.
2.0 NEURAL NETWORK
One of most widely used types of network is the backpropagation neural network, which is the
extension of the feed-forward neural network. This type of network model is equivalent to a
multivariate multiple non-linear regressions model and is used in this study. It consists of a
layer of nodes that accept various inputs. These inputs, depending on the complexity of the
network architecture, are fed to further layers of nodes and ultimately to a layer of outputs,
which produce a response. The aim of the technique is to train the network such that the
response to a given set of inputs corresponds as closely as possible to a desired output.
Multi-layer feed-forward networks have the property that they can approximate to arbitrary
accuracy any continuous function, defined on a domain provided that the number of internal
hidden nodes is sufficient.
Mathematically, the feed-forward artificial neural network is expressed in the form
M
yk (x) = ∑ wkj *Tr (z) + bko (1)
j-1
D
z = ∑ wji*xi + bjo (2)
i-1
where x is considered to be the original parameter space of dimension D, wji and wkj are
weighting parameters, bjo and bko are bias parameters, M is the number of nodes in the hidden
layer and Tr (z) is the activation function. This activation function allows a non-linear conver-
sion of the summed inputs. It has the form of a hyperbolic tangent sigmoid function as
Tr (z) = 2/(1+e-2z) 1 (3)
here z corresponds to the summed weighted input from the input layer. This is a key element
of the model. The bias parameters for the hidden and output layers allow offsets to be intro-
duced. Using Rprop algorithm, the weights to both the hidden and output layers are adjusted
to minimize the error between the NNs simulated output and the actual output.
763
3.0 WAVE ANALYSIS
The wave parameters used in the present analysis are significant wave height (Hs), zero
crossing period (Tz), spectral peakedness parameter (Qp), spectral width parameter (Sp),
maximum spectral energy (Emax), and time period corresponding to maximum spectral en-
ergy (Tp).
3.1 Theoretical wave analysis

In order to establish the neural network between theoretical wave spectrum and ocean wave
parameters, a fully developed sea Pierson-Moskowitz spectrum (Pierson and Moskowitz,
1964) was used. The statistical parameters were evaluated using the spectral moments (Kumar
et al., 2003) as follows:
Significant wave height, Hs= 4 m0
Zero crossing wave period, Tz = (m0/m2)
Spectral width parameter, Sp = [1-(m22/(m0*m4)]
Peakedness parameter, Qp = (2/m02) Óf* S2 (f) df
where, mn= Ó fn*S(f)df and f the frequency from 0.01Hz to 0.6Hz with df=0.005Hz.
The wave period corresponding to maximum spectral energy (Tp) and maximum spectral
energy (Emax) is found from spectral energy values S(ù ). Using the above formulae spectral
data sets and corresponding wave parameters were obtained for wind velocities ranging from
5-25 m/s. Sixteen of those data sets were used for training and remaining five data sets were
used as test patterns. In first step using spectral energies six ocean wave parameters have
been obtained using the network 120-6-6 (Fig.1). The correlation coefficients (CC) for PM
wave parameters are very close to one for most of the cases as shown in Table 1. The
graphical representation is also shown in Figs.2 to 7. This shows that the neural network once
trained can estimate theoretical wave parameters more accurately.
Table 1. Correlation coefficients (CC) for PM wave parameters.
Wave parameters CC
Train Test
Significant wave height (Hs) 0.9999 0.9978
Zero crossing period (Tz) 0.9998 0.9985
Maximum spectral energy(Emax) 0.9999 0.9997
Wave period corres. to Emax(Tp) 0.9996 0.9981
Spectral peakedness (Qp) 0.9608 0.9204
Spectral width (Sp) 0.9987 0.9909
764
Fig. 1. NN structure (PM) N-120-6-6.
6.0 16.0
Train, CC=0.9999 Train, CC=0.9998
Test, CC=0.9978 Test, CC=0.9985
12.0
Actual Hs (m)
Actual Tz(s)
4.0
8.0
2.0
4.0
0.0 0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 0.0 4.0 8.0 12.0 16.0
Predicted Hs(m) Predicted Tz(s)
Fig. 2. Actual Hs v/s Predicted Hs (PM) . Fig. 3. Actual Tz v/s Predicted Tz (PM) .
50.0 20.0
Train, CC=0.9999 Train, CC=0.9998
40.0 Test, CC=0.9997 Test, CC=0.9981

Actual Emax(m2/Hz)
16.0
Actual Tp(s)
30.0 12.0
20.0 8.0
10.0 4.0
0.0 0.0
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 0.0 4.0 8.0 12.0 16.0 20.0
Predicted Emax(m2/Hz) Predicted Tp(s)
Fig. 4 . Actual Emax v/s Predicted Emax (PM). Fig. 5. Actual Tp v/s Predicted Tp (PM) .
2.5 1.0
Train, cc=0.9608 Train, cc=0.9987
2.0 Test,cc=0.9204 0.8 Test, cc=0.9909

Actual Qp
Actual Sp
1.5 0.6
1.0 0.4
0.5 0.2
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Predicted Qp Predicted Sp
Fig. 6. Actual Qp v/s Predicted Qp (PM) . Fig. 7. Actual Sp v/s Predicted Sp (PM) .
765
3.2 Field wave analysis
The wave data collected off Mormugao, west coast of India at a water depth of 23 m during July
1996 is used for the present study. Three hourly ocean wave spectral parameters over the
period are used for training the network.
From the measured spectral energy, six wave parameters i.e. Hs, Tz, Qp, Sp, Emax and Tp
are calculated. 72 data sets considered are divided into two parts, i.e., 60 data sets for
training the network and remaining 12 data sets for testing. In first step from spectral energy
the six-ocean wave parameters are calculated. The network structure 64-15-6 is trained and
tested (Fig. 8). The correlation coefficients are calculated as shown in Table 2. The high
correlation coefficients, 0.89 to 0.99 for training field data shows that the training has been
done correctly for all input patterns. The distribution of measured waves is not purely Gaussian,
but having multiple peaks with noise/spikes and because of this the correlation coefficient for
test data is between 0.86 to 0.95.
Fig. 8. ANN structure (Field data) N-64-15-6.
Table 2. Correlation Coefficients (CC) for wave parameters (field data)
Wave parameters CC
Train Test
Significant wave height (Hs) 0.9549 0.9495
Zero crossing period (Tz) 0.9662 0.9449
Maximum spectral energy (Emax) 0.9895 0.9874
Wave period corres. to Emax(Tp) 0.8904 0.8694
Spectral peakedness Qp) 0.9585 0.9008
Spectral width (Sp) 0.9137 0.8908
766
3.3 Comparison between Scott and NN spectrum
Scott spectrum (Scott, 1965) was recommended for the west coast of India by Dattatri et al.
(1977), Narasimhan and Deo (1979), Baba et al. (1989) and Kumar et al. (2003) by analyz-
ing the data collected off Mangalore, Mumbai High, Cochin and Karwar respectively. The
probable reason might be the fact the original validation of Scott spectrum was carried out
using considerable swell dominated data. Similar situation usually prevails at many sites
along the Indian coast. The Scott spectra were estimated for the same Mormugao wave data
and it was shown that average CCs of wave parameters are 0.8 (Kumar et al., 2003). The
measured, neural network and Scott spectra are shown in Fig.10. The CCs of NN6 (from 6
wave parameters to spectrum), NN4 (from 4 wave parameters to spectrum) and Scott spec-
tra (from Hs and Tp to spectrum) are comparable as shown in Table 3. However, the maxi-
mum energies are better estimated by neural network as compared to Scott. Once the
network is trained the ocean wave parameters can be estimated for unknown measured
spectra, whereas Hs and Tp are required to generate the Scott spectra and thereafter other
wave parameters can be estimated.
Table 3. CCs for NN and Scott Spectra.

Field wave data CC for NN6 CC for NN4 CC for Scott
G9607080351 0.9441 0.9541 0.9018
G9607080651 0.9515 0.9207 0.9680
G9607081019 0.9711 0.9206 0.9745
G9607081249 0.9410 0.9133 0.9204
G9607081548 0.9464 0.9604 0.9798
G9607081852 0.9367 0.9486 0.9711
G9607082151 0.9035 0.9513 0.8938
G9607090050 0.8503 0.8518 0.9095
G9607091849 0.9244 0.8477 0.9401
G9607092149 0.9577 0.9295 0.9516
G9607100052 0.9397 0.9231 0.9638
G9607100351 0.9769 0.9467 0.9536
4.0 5.0
Measured Measured
Spectra l Energ y(m 2/Hz )
Spectral Energy (m2/Hz)
NN6 NN6
4.0
3.0
Scott scott
3.0
2.0
2.0
1.0
1.0
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6
Frequency(Hz) Frequency(Hz)
Fig.10.1. Measured/NN6/Scott Spectra Fig.10.2. Measured/NN6/Scott Spectra

(G9607080351). (G9607081019).
767
6.0 6.0
Spectral Energy (m2/Hz) Measured Measured
S pectral E nergy (m2/Hz)

NN6 NN6
4.0 Scott 4.0 Scott
2.0 2.0
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
Fig.10.3. Measured/NN6/Scott Spectra Fig.10.4. Measured/NN6/Scott Spectra

(G9607092149) . (G9607100351).
4.0 CONCLUSIONS
Following conclusions are drawn based on the present investigation:
Since users mostly apply theoretical (PM) spectra in the absence of measured ocean waves,
here first the PM spectral data sets are generated and used for network training and testing.
Very high correlation coefficients for Hs, Tz, Emax and Tp in training and testing for PM
spectra owing to Gaussian distribution justify the use of neural networks.
The distribution of measured waves is not purely Gaussian, but having multiple peaks with
noise/spikes. Hence the CCs for train and test field wave data are relatively less as compared
to CCs for PM spectra.
The CCs of NN and Scott spectra are comparable, but the maximum energies are better
estimated by NN as compared to Scott.
This study shows that the ocean wave parameters can be directly obtained from the mea-
sured spectra using trained neural network.
This study shows that the missing field wave data can be generated using trained network.
REFERENCES
Baba, M. and Dattatri, J. 1989, Ocean wave spectra off Cochin, west coast of India, Indian Journal of Marine
Science, 18, 106-112.
768
Dattatri, J, Jothi Shankar, N. and Raman, H. 1977, Comparison of Scott spectra with ocean wave spectra. J. of
Waterways, Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering, ASCE, 103, 375-379.
Demuth, H. and Beale, M. 2000, Neural Network Toolbox for use with MATLAB, User guide, The Math Works Inc,
USA, (http://www.mathworks.com).
Deo, M.C. and Naidu, S.C., 1999, Real time wave forecasting using neural networks. Ocean Engineering, 26,191-
203
Kumar, V.S., Anand, N.M. and Mandal, S. 2003, Multipeakedness and groupiness of shallow water waves along
Indian coast, J. of Coastal Research, 19(4), pp. 1052-65
Makarynskyy, O. 2004, Improving wave predictions with artificial neural networks, Ocean Engineering, 31, 709-
724,
Narasimhan, S. and Deo, M.C. 1979, Spectral analysis of waves A study. Proc. civil engineering in the ocean IV
conf. (San Fransisco), Vol. II, 877-892.
Pierson, W.J. and Moskowitz, L. 1964, A proposed spectrum forms for fully developed wind sea based on the
similarity theory of S.A. Kitaigorodskii, J. of Geophysical Research, 69, 5181-90.
Prabaharan, N. 2001, Wave forecasting in near realtime using neural network, MTech(MS) thesis, Mangalore
University.
Reidmiller, M. and Braun, H. 1993, A Direct Adaptive Method for Faster Backpropagation Learning: The RPROP
Algorithm, (ICNN) San Francisco, pp. 586-591.
Scott, J.R. 1965, A sea spectrum for model test and long-term ship prediction. J. of Ship Research, 9, 145-152.
769
SUSPENDED SEDIMENT PROFILES DERIVED FROM

SPECTRAL ATTENUATION COEFFICIENTS
MEASUREMENTS USING NEURAL NETWORK METHOD
Geeta Varkey1, T. Suresh2*, S.G. Prabhu Matondkar2, Elgar Desa2 and S.S. Kamath1
1
National Institute of Technology, Surathkal, Karnataka
2
National Institute of Oceanography, DonaPaula, Goa-403 004
Abstract
Suspended sediment in water plays a major role in the operations of ports and harbor. Here we
report a model to be used with an optical instrument that is primarily used for the measure-
ments of inherent optical properties. The AC-9 (WetLabs, USA) is an instrument used for in-
situ measurements of the inherent optical properties of the water, absorption and beam at-
tenuation at different wavelengths. The aim is to establish a relationship between the mea-
sured profiles of optical properties and the measured total suspended matter values from
water samples obtained at discrete depths at the same location. An artificial neural network
(ANN) model has been used to derive suspended matter from the spectral values of beam
attenuation coefficients measured using the AC-9 instrument. The ANN model has been trained
using beam attenuation values obtained from the cruise in the Arabian Sea, SK-149 and the
net was tested using the data from the cruise SK-152. The feed forward multi-layer perceptron
neural network model was trained using the Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm and has provided
us with encouraging results, which are in very close agreements with the measured values.
This ANN model with eight input nodes, one hidden layer with five nodes and one output node
can now be used to obtain profiles of suspended matter with the measurements of the AC-9
instrument, which will provide variations of concentrations at very fine depth intervals.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Excessive sedimentation affects port and harbor operations. Dredging is carried out at ports
and harbours as high levels of sedimentation cause hindrance to the movement of ships into
and out of port, docking activities and other port operations, also for the design, planning and
operations of ports and harbours it is necessary to have a sound knowledge of the transport
and depositions of sediments of the region (Yin et al., 2000; Sanil et al., 2003). Therefore, the
knowledge of sediment levels and patterns can help in the planning of dredging activities, port
operations, analysis and modeling of ports and harbour (Holdaway et al.,1999; Claeys et al.,
2001).
Sediment loads can be obtained from direct measurements or through surrogate methods.
Direct methods use water samples obtained from the site to determine the concentrations of
sediment. These methods are found to be very laborious and slow and have the disadvantages
*Corresponding author, e-mail: suresh@darya.nio.org
770
of providing only the sediment loads at discrete depths where the sampling has been carried-
out. Surrogate methods use optical (optical backscatter, transmissometer, radiometer, fo-
cused beam reflectance, laser diffraction) acoustic (ADCP) and pressure (vibrating tube, dif-
ferential pressure, impact samplers) measuring devices that use properties, which are corre-
lated with different sediment characteristics (Wren, 2002). However, the realizations of these
surrogate methods require the support of empirical models or other modeling techniques.
Single wavelength transmissometer is often used for the study of suspended matter in the
water column, with simple empirical relationships to provide the concentrations of suspended
sediment (Bishop, 1986; Moody et al., 1987).
Artificial neural networks (ANN) are a generic technique for non-linear mapping and have been
widely used in applications related to environmental studies. ANNs have been used with great
success in handling pattern classification, pattern recognition, and data mapping problems
and modeling geo-physical transfer functions as they can approximate a wide range of non-
linear continuous functions. The ANN model consists of elementary units called neurons or
nodes. Each neuron implements a transfer function, which can be linear, non-linear or sig-
moid. The neurons or nodes are interconnected using connections, which are weighted. Learning
or training a neural net is carried out by setting or modifying the weights to produce a specified
output. Multi-layer perceptron (MLP) are a particular class of ANN in which the neurons are
arranged into layers and interconnections are provided between the layers. A typical MLP
layer consists of an input layer, one or more hidden layers and an output layer. The number of
input parameters determines the number of nodes in the input layer, while the number of
outputs required will determine the number of nodes in output layer. Hidden layers are needed
to permit the net to process data, which are not linearly separable. The training of MLP is
usually undertaken using back-propagation (BP) based learning algorithm. A number of BP-
based fast-learning algorithms like Quasi-Newton and the LevenbergMarquardt algorithms
exist (Haykin, 1994; Yegnanarayana, 1999).
This study attempts to explore the use of a neural network method for determining the con-
centrations of total suspended matter in the water column using in-situ measured spectral
beam attenuation coefficients with a profiling optical instrument.
A feed-forward MLP based ANN has been defined with eight neurons in the input layer to which
we input the spectral beam attenuation measurements for 412, 440, 488, 510, 532, 555, 650
and 676, a single hidden layer with five neurons or nodes and one node in the output layer
which provides as output the Total Suspended Matter (TSM) concentration.
2.0 METHODOLOGY
The light gets attenuated in water due to two processes, absorption (a) and scattering (b). The
sum of the two losses defines the beam attenuation coefficient (c).
771
c( λ ) = a( λ ) + b( λ ) (1)
The bean attenuation coefficient can be expanded as
c(λ ) = cw(λ ) + cp (λ ) + cdom (λ ) (2)
where w, p, dom refer to pure water, particulate matter and dissolved organic matter
respectively. The AC-9 instrument measures beam attenuation values consisting of the sum
of beam attenuation coefficient due to particulate matter and dissolved matter i.e.
c(λ ) − cw(λ ) . ( http://www.wetlabs.com)
2.1 Study site

We have used data collected from two cruises (SK-149, SK-152) carried out in the Arabian
Sea by the research vessel O.R.V. Sagar Kanya. The data from the cruises SK-149 and SK-
152 include both ocean and coastal waters ( Fig. 1).
24 24
Cruise SK-149 Cruise SK-152

(Training Set ) (Test Set )
20
20
Latitude ( N)
16
16
12
12
68 70 72 74 76
68 70 72 74 76
Longitude (E)
Longitude (E)
Fig. 1. Cruise tracks of SK-149 and SK-152 showing stations (filled circles and diamonds) where data was
collected for training and testing of ANN.
2.2 In-situ data processing

The spectral values of beam attenuation coefficients for the above-mentioned data were ob-
tained using the instrument, AC-9. The AC-9 instrument measures the inherent optical proper-
ties, absorption and beam attenuation coefficients at nine wavelengths. The total suspended
matter (TSM) values were determined by following the standard protocol of filtering water
samples obtained at discrete depths. The data for the following spectral wavelengths (412,
440, 488, 510, 532, 555, 650, 676) were considered in the study.
772
2.3 Training and test data sets
The data obtained from the cruise SK149 were initially pre-processed and filtered using
histogram, scattergram and empirical fit. The ANN was then trained using this data. The ANN
model was further evaluated using data obtained from the cruise SK-152. There were 274 data
vectors in the training set and 55 vectors in the test set.
2.4 Neural network
f(.)
f(.)
f(.)
f(.)
i input llayer hidden

hiddlayerl output layer
l
(8 nodes) (5 nodes (1 node)
Fig. 2. Neural network configuration used in this study.
Here we have used a 8-5-1 feed-forward MLP-based ANN (input layer consisting of eight
nodes; each of the nodes taking the input from the following spectral wavelengths (412, 440,
488, 510, 532, 555, 650, 676), single hidden layer with five nodes with logarithmic sigmoid
activation functions, the output layer containing a single node with linear activation function
generates the TSM profile. Various fast learning back-propagation algorithms were evaluated
and the Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm was found to provide the optimum results. MATLAB
6.1 (MathWorks, USA) software with its neural network toolbox was used for creating, train-
ing, validating and testing the neural network.
3.0 RESULTS
The data from cruise SK152 were tested on the neural net and the results were found to
match closely with the measured values. Fig. 2 compares TSM profile derived using ANN with
the beam attenuation coefficient at 650nm from AC-9 for Station 3. Fig. 3 maps measured
values of TSM onto the ANN generated TSM profile using the AC-9 wavelength readings as
input to the ANN. Fig. 4 plots the measured TSM values versus the ANN generated TSM
values for test data.
773
Fig. 2. Comparison of TSM profile (thick line) with beam attenuation c(650) (thin line )
for station 3 of cruise SK-152. (Position: 15.47°N, 70.434°E, depth: 3500 m)
Y = 0.99 * X - 0.0009
1.6
ANN Derived TSM (mg/l)
1.2
0.8
0.4
0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2
Measured TSM (mg/l)
Fig. 3. Comparison of the TSM derived from AC-9 Fig. 4. Comparison of measured TSM
data using ANN (thick line) and the measured values values with ANN derived TSM values
(black squares) for the cruise SK-152. for the test data taken from cruise SK-152.
The error estimates during the training of the data were 0.00015 (RMSE- root mean square
error) and 0.00027 (relative RMSE), while for the test data, the correlation between target and
ANN derived values for the test set is 0.991(Fig. 4).
774
4.0 DISCUSSION
Most methods that use transmissometer are generally based on single channel data at higher
wavelength (e.g. 650 nm) to obtain the TSM data. The single channel based computation may
suffer from single parameter dependency where the parameter or channel value being used
may not be sufficiently mapped to the actual sediment concentration value. In contrast, this
model uses data from eight different wavelengths (412-676) for learning. As the number of
parameters used in the mapping increases the complexity of the mapping increases, in such
cases it is found that empirical and semi-analytical methods which are generally single chan-
nel based may fall short in providing the complex mathematical modeling required for the
multi-parameter scenario. The ANN model uses data from multiple bands and it is presumed
that this would provide better results when compared to the single channel transmissometer.
The results are encouraging but require more in-situ observations, however further investiga-
tion is required to ascertain if this method will hold good for all cases by validating the tech-
nique using more cruise data. The ANN model developed has so far been only been tested in
the local water body, i.e., both the train and test data were for the Arabian Sea waters; it
needs to be however tested for more generalization. There is also a need for more training data
from further in-situ explorations so that it becomes more representative and its estimation
qualities can be improved. Derivation of the type of sedimentation, particle size etc. from this
model also requires to be further explored.
We wish to thank Director, National Institute of Oceanography, Goa for providing the opportu-
nity to complete the work, which is part of the project work of the course M.Tech being carried-
out at National Institute of Technology, Karnataka. Authors are indebted to the support and
encouragements received from the staff of Marine Instrumentation Division and other staff of
the institutes and colleagues. This work was undertaken under the project on Ocean Color,
IRS-P4 OCM applications sponsored by Space Applications Centre, Ahmedabad.
REFERENCES
Bishop J.K.B., (1986), The correction and suspended particulate matter calibration of Sea Tech transmissom-
eter data, Deep Sea Res., 33, 121-134.
Claeys S., Guido D., Lanckneus J., Trouw K., (2001), Mobile turbidity measurement as a tool for determining
future volumes of dredged material in access channels to estuarine ports, Terra et Aqua, 84, 8-15.
Haykin S., (1994), Neural Networks A Comprehensive Foundation, Macmillan.
Holdway G. P., Thorne P. D., Flatt D., Jones S. E., Prandle D., (1998), Comparison between ADCP and transmis-
someter measurements of suspended sediment concentration, Cont. Shelf Res., 19, 421-441.
MathWorks, USA, http://www.mathworks.com.
775
Moody J.A., Bradford B., Bothner M.H., (1987), Near-bottom suspended matter concentration on the Continental
Shelf during storms: estimates based on in-situ observations of light transmission and a particle size
dependant transmissometer calibration, Cont. Shelf Res., 7, 609-628.
Sanil Kumar V., Anand N.M., Chandramohan P., Naik G.N., (2003), Longshore sediment transport rate - mea-
surement and estimation, central west coast of India, Coastal Engineering, 48, 95-109.
WetLabs, USA, http://www.wetlabs.com.
Wren D.G., (2002), Surrogate techniques for suspended sediment measurement, Turbidity and other Surro-
gates Workshop, 30 April 2 May, Reno, NV.
Yegnanarayana B., (1999), Artificial Neural Networks, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi,.
Yin J., R.A. Falconer, Y. Chen, S.D. Probert, (2000), Water and sediment movements in harbours, Applied
Energy, 67, 341-352.
776
A SIMPLE LOW COST WAVE MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

G. Vijayakumar*, K. Pandurangan and D. Govindarajulu
Department of Civil Engineering, Pondicherry Engineering College, Pondicherry 605014
Abstract
Accurate measurement or prediction of wave climate data is required for Coastal Zone devel-
opment activities. This needs instrumentation at affordable costs. The objective of the study is
to develop an instrument that is inherently low cost, low power consumption, small and yet is
capable of excellent performance, both static and dynamic. The authors have developed a
physically small but highly accurate wave measuring instrument, which converts wave data
from the displacement frame into digital mode using a Rotary type potentiometer and ADC
unit. The embedded processor in the module performs the wave height computations. The unit
has both high initial accuracy and longterm stability. The wave characteristics obtained from
the developed instrument (Wave float gauge) compare very well with the result from the mea-
surement using pressure transducer. Rigorous long term testing of the stability of the instru-
ment has been checked for a period of two year.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the field of ocean engineering, the measurement techniques are more important and neces-
sary for acquisition, analysis and prediction of various data associated for coastal zone devel-
opment. Wave measurement can be made with different types of instruments kept either at
the sea surface or over or below it (Weigel, 1964). The type of instrument employed depends
very much upon the accuracy, repeatability, range and instrumentation needed. The environ-
mental conditions, to which the sensors are exposed are also critical in many cases. The
simplest method of wave height measurement used is a float or a displacer as the primary
element. The float is connected to a rotary type potentiometer for continuous indication and
recording. Even though highly accurate and dependable measurement systems are available
(Balkeema and Dam, 1967), still there is an acute need for the development of a simple low
cost measurement system, which can function under critical environmental conditions.
*Corresponding author, e-mail : vijay_keerthi@siffy.com

2.0 OUTLINE OF THE DEVELOPED SYSTEM
The schematic diagram of the developed system is shown in the Fig. 1
Displacement
float
Rotary type Potentiometer
Excitation power
supply
Signal Conditioner
Filter
Analog to digital
converter
Digital Signal
To computer data analysis
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the proposed system.
2.1 System configuration of the developed instrument

The measurement system comprises the following elements. Fig. 2 shows the arrangement
of the system installed in the field.
(a). Float and its accessories

The float gauge instrument is fixed to the jetty belt beam and the float is fixed at the end of a
boom, which is 3.6 m in length. This length is decided based on the requirement of pulling up
the boom and tying it to the beam member.
A low-tension wire is fixed to the boom and the distance is decided with respect to the site
condition. The purpose of selecting this distance is as follows.
(i) The maximum displacement made by the float has to be taken up by the displacement
778
frame without altering the setup.
(ii) The displacement wire should not touch the slab of the Jetty.
ADC Chord Connected to the

connector of the potentiometer
Rotary type
potentiometer
Pulley
Computer
Counter
Weight Pulley
ADC
Board
Low
Jetty tension
wire
Hinge
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of the system installed in the field.
(b). Transducer
It is an input device which when actuated by one form of energy, is capable of converting into
another form of energy, i.e. transducer converts the measurement (measuring quantity, prop-
erty or condition) into a usable electrical output. The displacement of the float is taken through
a low-tension wire to the displacement frame fitted with a rotary type potentiometer.
Specification of the transducer used in the setup
Resistance value : 20 K( ± 5%)

No. of turn : 10 turns (max)
Type : Linear ( ± 0.25 %)
(c). Signal conditioner or Signal processors

It converts the transducer output in to an electrical quantity suitable for control recording and
display.
(d). Analog to digital conversion

The output signals from the transducer are taken through an ADC chord of 16 bit capacity to
the ADC converter unit. With the advancement of computer technology, the analog signals are
invariably converted to a digital format through an analog digital converter (ADC board) linked
to a computer.
Once the signal is converted from analog to digital format, the information can be printed out
as a hard copy or stored in a floppy disc or any miscellaneous devices. Then the data is used
for further analysis to obtain the results in the form of charts.
779
(e). Electrical power supply
It provides the required excitation to the transducer and necessary electri-
cal power to the signal conditioners and display devices.
3.0 WORKING PRINCIPLE AND CALIBRATION
The float fitted to the float gauge instrument floats on the surface of the water and moves up
and down due to the progressive waves. When the wave displaces the float up and down, the
wire also moves since a counter weight is hanged at the end of the wire at the top of the frame.
In this frame, the wire is held with the counter weight with the help of two pulleys and a rotary
type potentiometer.
The analog signal (Voltage difference) created by the transducer (Rotary Type Potentiometer)
is converted to a Digital Signal by means of Analog Digital Converter. This digital signal is
recorded as data in the computer and then it is stored. A software programme is written in C
programming language to gather, process, and store the data. The special features of this
software are:
i) Automatically store the data with a file name, which includes date and time. Data
acquisition is taken for five times every day at an interval of three hours.
ii) The programme runs continuously for 20 minutes and stops automatically. The data
were collected five times a day (6 AM, 9 AM,12 AM ,3 PM & 6 PM) and 20 minutes for
each time.
iii) Shows error when any part of the instrumental setup is not working properly.
iv) Occupies a very little memory space for long run data storage.
3.1 Calibration of potentiometer transducer

Calibration is an essential part of instrumental measurement and control. It has to be per-
formed periodically to test the validity of performance of the device or the system and requires
the use of a standard for comparison of values.
In this instrument the calibration is done by means of voltage difference between the initial to
final turns of the potentiometer. These differences are noted, the length represented by this
voltage difference is calibrated to a suitable scale by means of interpolation technique. The
voltage difference between initial to final turn is 0 to 20 K. The length displaced for these turns
is 0 to 1280 mm.
Since the instrument is of linear type, for a voltage difference of 20 K the length displaced is
1280 mm. The maximum wave that the system can measure is 3.878 m, taking into account
the relation between the linear displacements on the inclined frame to the vertical displace-
ment of the float.
780
3.2 Computation of wave parameters
The regular wave parameter includes significant wave height, significant wave period and wave-
length. The estimation of these parameters from the observed data using the developed instru-
ment are detailed below:
3.2.1 Significant wave height

Wave records are taken from the wave float gauge. It consists of ordinates of the wave distri-
bution at a rate of two ordinates per second. This consists of only ordinates not the wave
amplitude. The peak point and lowest point to the still water level gives the amplitudes of the
wave. This should be calculated by means of mathematical module. The following steps are
involved for the calculation of significant wave height.
2400
· Take average of the total number of wave record. Σ Oj gives the still water
j=1 2400
level.here Oj is jth peak or lowest point reading.
· Subtracting every ordinate from the still water level gives the height of every ordinate.
· Identify the peak point (crest ) and lowest point (trough) using mathematical expression for
successive waves.
· The height between crest and trough is the height of successive waves.
· The wave heights are taken as data base in MATLAB format and the significant wave height
is calculated after demarking the MSL as above the ordinates are sorted from highest to a
lower value which are identified as crest/trough and the average of the highest of one third of
wave was computed .
3.2.2 Significant wave period

Wave period is the time taken to travel a distance of one wavelength by the wave. Significant
wave period is calculated by identifying the successive crests of wave.
3.2.3 Wave length

Wave length is estimated based on the significant wave period .
3.2.4 Raw data of 2 minutes wave recording using the Wave Float Gauge
The displacement readings as recorded are presented in Table.1 and Figs. 3a and 3b.
781
Table 1. Raw data for 2 minute wave recording.
S.No Data S.No Data S.No Data S.No Data S.No Data
1. 61.75445 40. 54.34258 79. 51.64164 118. 57.67164 157. 69.60602

2. 62.63383 41. 53.71446 80. 49.25477 119. 55.85008 158. 69.54321
3. 61.5032 42. 61.0007 81. 48.87789 120. 62.25695 159. 66.33977
4. 60.62383 43. 60.74945 82. 50.88789 121. 63.45039 160. 57.60883
5. 60.56102 44. 63.0107 83. 62.69664 122. 63.5132 161. 54.34258
6. 60.68664 45. 68.34976 84. 66.27696 123. 61.5032 162. 52.33258
7. 58.29977 46. 68.60101 85. 64.20414 124. 58.55101 163. 55.15914
8. 55.09633 47. 64.89508 86. 65.83727 125. 56.91789 164. 58.9907
9. 57.67164 48. 61.31477 87. 66.27696 126. 63.0107 165. 62.13133
10. 61.62883 49. 59.61883 88. 67.47039 127. 64.14133 166. 63.5132
11. 62.06852 50. 57.10633 89. 63.57602 128. 61.12633 167. 66.77945
12. 62.44539 51. 54.02852 90. 58.23695 129. 56.54102 168. 66.0257
13. 65.5232 52. 51.13914 91. 51.9557 130. 56.35258 169. 63.63883
14. 62.25695 53. 53.90289 92. 50.88789 131. 55.09633 170. 59.80727
15. 61.31477 54. 60.37258 93. 55.15914 132. 53.9657 171. 59.87008
16. 59.80727 55. 64.64383 94. 57.16914 133. 47.68445 172. 54.78227
17. 57.60883 56. 64.70664 95. 59.17914 134. 48.50102 173. 54.71945
18. 65.27195 57. 63.5132 96. 66.46539 135. 56.28976 174. 54.27977
19. 60.62383 58. 62.44539 97. 63.82727 136. 63.45039 175. 57.23195
20. 58.4882 59. 60.74945 98. 61.31477 137. 67.78445 176. 61.44039
21. 52.9607 60. 62.94789 99. 58.11133 138. 67.34477 177. 61.31477
22. 50.82508 61. 60.4982 100 61.88008 139. 67.34477 178. 64.76946
23. 55.09633 62. 60.62383 100. 62.88508 140. 67.5332 179. 63.5132
24. 56.60383 63. 58.17414 101. 63.0107 141. 66.0257 180. 59.61883
25. 58.86508 64. 58.9907 102. 62.44539 142. 65.02071 181. 55.91289
26. 61.37758 65. 52.08133 103. 57.73445 143. 59.17914 182. 57.04351
27. 61.69164 66. 49.82008 104. 55.59883 144. 59.61883 183. 58.86508
28. 58.92789 67. 55.91289 105. 56.60383 145. 56.41539 184. 57.10633
29. 59.30476 68. 55.72445 106. 56.60383 146. 56.4782 185. 57.10633
30. 64.58102 69. 61.25195 107. 56.10133 147. 57.73445 186. 59.87008
31. 65.20914 70. 62.13133 108. 58.11133 148. 58.42539 187. 59.87008
32. 62.31977 71. 65.33476 109. 59.74445 149. 56.41539 188. 58.23695
33. 58.73945 72. 60.56102 110. 57.86008 150. 53.84008 189. 58.36258
34. 62.69664 73. 58.80227 111. 57.73445 151. 50.76226 190. 57.9857
35. 63.95289 74. 64.64383 112. 58.17414 152. 50.51102 191. 52.08133
36. 64.0157 75. 67.15633 113. 59.11633 153. 55.03352 192. 51.57883
37. 62.38258 76. 67.09351 114. 61.75445 154. 58.9907 193. 52.89789
38. 58.61383 77. 62.25695 115. 61.06352 155. 59.80727 194. 56.9807
39. 54.34258 78. 61.44039 116. 59.4932 156. 62.19414 195. 63.0107
782
Displacement
80
60
40
20
0
0. 8 15 23 30 38 45. 53 60. 68 75. 83 90.
5 .5 .5 5 5 5 5
Time in seconds
Fig. 3a. Sample raw data recorded by the Wave Float Gauge for 2 minutes duration.
Displacement
80
60
40
20
0
0.5 64.5 129 193 257 321 385 449 513 577 641 705 769 833 897 961 1025 1089 1153
Time in seconds
Fig. 3b. Raw data recorded by the Wave Float Gauge for 20 minutes duration.
4.0 RESULTS
Comparison of wave heights measured by the developed instrument (Wave Float Gauge for
the month of September 2002) and that by the pressure transducer (Recorded by IIT Chennai
at the Pondicherry coast from 2nd to 18th for the month of September 2001) were made. Only
three data per day is presented (Table 2). Hence there is a variation with two different instru-
mentation systems. The wave heights measured by these instruments are also presented in
Fig. 4.
Significant wave height
0.80
0.60 Pressure
Transducer
0.40
wave float
0.20 gauge
0.00
2 5 8 10 13 16 18
days
Fig. 4. Comparison of wave heights in September 2002.
783
p
Table 2. Comparison
g
of wave heights.
Days Hs,Using Hs, Using Days Hs,Using Hs, Using
Wave Float Pressure Wave Float Pressure
Transducer Transducer
2 0.69 0.62 11 0.66 0.52
3 0.73 0.54 11 0.58 0.47
3 0.75 0.61 11 0.57 0.49
3 0.58 0.59 12 0.62 0.54
4 0.68 0.65 12 0.64 0.51
4 0.72 0.60 12 0.58 0.42
4 0.74 0.52 13 0.62 0.46
5 0.68 0.64 13 0.53 0.51
5 0.63 0.57 13 0.50 0.51
5 0.55 0.45 14 0.63 0.49
6 0.58 0.62 14 0.63 0.46
6 0.59 0.47 14 0.61 0.46
6 0.61 0.48 15 0.58 0.42
7 0.73 0.53 15 0.60 0.51
7 0.62 0.56 15 0.57 0.37
7 0.68 0.57 16 0.48 0.29
8 0.73 0.64 16 0.41 0.31
8 0.62 0.54 16 0.49 0.31
8 0.58 0.49 17 0.43 0.31
9 0.68 0.64 17 0.39 0.29
9 0.63 0.54 17 0.42 0.23
9 0.65 0.53 18 0.43 0.31
10 0.61 0.51 18 0.37 0.32
10 0.62 0.47 18 0.35 0.28
10 0.59 0.47 - - -
The Wave Float Gauge developed was found to be more reliable and easier to handle. The
maintenance cost is very much cheaper when tested for a period of two years. The measure-
ments from the Wave Float Gauge compare very well with that from pressure transducer.
Authors thank their colleagues for assistance during the field studies.
REFERENCES
Wiegel R.L. (1964), Oceanographical Engineering.
Balkeema A.A. & Rottor Dam (1967) , Measuring Techniques In Hydraulic Research, Delft Laboratory.
Report on Wave Measurement off Pondicherry for IIT Madras by Indomer Coastal Hydraulics (P) Ltd.
784
DESIGN OF A LOW FREQUENCY CLASS VII

FLEXTENSIONAL TRANSDUCER
K.P.B. Moosad*, Pushpa Abraham and R.M.R Vishnubhatla
Transducer Group, Naval Physical and Oceanographic Laboratory, Kochi 682 021.
Abstract
Design of a compact Class VII Flextensional Transducer, resonating at 2.5 kHz is described.
Modeling using the Finite Element Analysis (FEA) package ATILA is made use of as a design
tool, in order to optimize some of the parameters. Experimental results obtained using a
prototype fabricated in H30 aluminium alloy are also presented.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Flextensional Transducers (FTs) are a generic type of low frequency underwater electroa-
coustic transducers, which make use of the extensional modes of vibrations of a driver to
excite the flexural vibrations of a shell. Depending on the geometry of the shell chosen, FTs
are classified into different Classes. Class I to Class VII are known in literature, of which
Class IV is the best known. This consists of a shell in form of an elliptical cylinder, inside
which, the driver is fitted along the major axis. The driver is, in most cases, piezoelectric
ceramic stacks, or less commonly, magnetostrictive rods. Class IV Flextensional Transduc-
ers for underwater applications, manufactured by various companies, are readily available
in the market covering a range of frequencies from 300 Hz to 3000 Hz.
One of main disadvantages of the Class IV geometry is that the driver stacks are under very
large stresses while the device is in storage. Since the geometry allows a certain amount of
stress-release when submerged in deep waters, it becomes a necessity to overstress the
stack during assembly. This, in turn would affect the shelf-life of the transducers. Class VII
FTs had emerged as a solution to this problem, and make use of concave shells, known as
dogbone shells. Fig. 1(a) and (b) show the schematics of Class IV and Class VII shells. In
Class VII geometry, submergence to deep waters causes increase of stresses on the stack
and therefore, one need not overstress the stack during assembly. Not many Class VII FTs
are discussed in literature. Moffet et al., (1995) have reported studies on an Aluminium shell
Class VII FT, resonating at 930 Hz and driven magnetostrively. Butler and Lindberg (1997)
have reported realization of a Class VII Stainless Steel shell FT, resonating at 3 kHz, driven by
a piezoelectric ceramic stack. In the present work, it is attempted to design a low frequency
Class VII Aluminium Shell transducer with the help of the Finite Element Analysis (FEA)
package, ATILA. Details of the model are given in the next section, followed by the results of
an experimental prototype constructed.
*Corresponding author, e-mail: tsonpol@vsnl.com
Shell
(a) Driver stack (b)
Fig. 1. Schematic of Class IV FT (a) and Class VII FT (b).
2.0 MODEL DETAILS
Outer dimensions of the shell were tentatively chosen as the same as the one described in
the work of Butler and Lindberg (1997). Driver stack was chosen to be made of piezoelectric
ceramic slabs of dimensions 40 mm x 20 mm x 5 mm.
After allowing a 5 mm clearance between the shell and the stack, radius of the curved faces
was arrived at as 90.37 mm. Other dimensional details of the shell are given in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Dimensional details of the shell.
It is known that the frequency characteristics of a flextensional transducer are dominantly

determined by those of the shell and not by those of the driver stack (Oswin and Turner, 1984).
786
Therefore, in order to establish that the chosen shell has resonances at around 2.5 kHz, a
model of the shell was created and subjected to modal analysis. It was seen that the mode,
which gives large volume displacement symmetrically at both the broad faces is at 2719 Hz.
This is shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3.Vibration pattern of the shell at 2719 Hz, as generated by the FEA package ATILA. Broken lines
show the rest position and solid lines show the displaced position. Because of symmetry of the
structure, only 1/8th of the shell need to be modeled.
The chosen geometry of the shell can accommodate a stack of maximum of 14 piezoceramic
slabs of 5 mm thickness, when an assembly procedure is adopted without the use of a
wedge. With wedge assembly, a maximum of 12 slabs can be accommodated. Two-dimen-
sional models were run with various numbers of piezoceramic slabs in the stack, so as to
assess the respective changes in the response of the transducer. Results are plotted in Fig.
4. It is seen that there will be a constant difference of 6 dB in the response, when the number
of ceramics in the stack is 6 and 12. From going to 14 from 12, the change in response is
about one dB.
A three-dimensional model of the transducer was then made with 12 piezoelectric ceramic
slabs and a stainless steel wedge used for fixing the stack in the shell. 10 mm thick alu-
minium plates were used as top and bottom plates, which are fastened to the shell using
studs running through oblong holes in the shell. Rubber gaskets of 1 mm thickness are used
for water-proofing. The model was subjected to harmonic analysis and plots of conductance
vs. frequency and Transmitting Voltage Response (TVR) vs. frequency were generated. It was
seen that the transducer has resonance at 2775 Hz and a TVR of 132.6 dB ref 1 microPa/V at
1 m, can be obtained.
787
144
141
TVR dB ref 1 micro Pa/V at 1 m

138
135
6 slabs
132 12 slabs
14 slabs
129
126
123
120
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Frequency Hz
Fig. 4. TVR of Class VII FT for various numbers of slabs in the driver stack 2-d model.
It is also known that the seal between the vibrating shell and the top and bottom plates also
has a significant role in the performance of the flextensional transducer (Ash and Bromfield,
1988). Therefore, the model was run with three different grades of rubber, with their Youngs
modulus varying by orders of magnitude. It is seen that the properties of the sealant rubber
can have phenomenal effects on the performance of the FT, as seen in Fig. 5. Table 1 gives
the properties of the three grades of rubbers used for the models.
The height of the chosen shell was 64 mm, whereas the corresponding dimension of the driver
stack is 40 mm. This means that only 62.5% of the shell-height is being driven by the driver.
It is possible to bring down the shell height to 50 mm so that 80% of the shell height will be
driven by the stack. Another model was therefore run with a shell height of 50 mm, but it is
seen that this does not improve the performance. The resonance shifts to 3500 Hz and
response falls 140
by about 3 dB as seen in Fig. 6.
135
TVR - dB//1 microPa/V at 1m
130
125 Soft
Medium
120
Hard
115
110
105
100
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Frequency - Hz
Fig. 5. Change in response of the Class VII FT with change of rubber type used for the gasket. 3-d models.
788
Table 1. Properties of the rubber types used in the models.
Rubber type used Youngs Modulus - Poissons Density

MPa Ratio kg/cu.metre
Soft 1 0.49 1250
Medium 51 0.48 1500
Hard 593 0.49 1000
3.0 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
A shell was fabricated in H30 aluminium alloy as per the dimensional details shown in Fig. 2.
The resonance frequencies of the shell were checked using an impulse hammer and a FFT
analyzer. The frequency closest to the one predicted by the model was found to be 2430 Hz.
This is about 12% lower than the predicted value of 2719 Hz.
A stack of 12 piezoelectric ceramic slabs (PC8 of M/s. Morgan Matroc, U.K) was fitted in the
shell using a stainless steel wedge assembly positioned at one end of the stack. 10 mm
thick aluminium plates of the same dogbone shape were used to close transducer, by means
of studs passing through the two holes on the shell. One mm thick rubber gasket of medium
grade rubber was used as the sealant. Photograph of the assembled transducer (without the
end-plates) is shown in Fig. 7.
136
TVR dB ref 1 microPa/V at 1m
133
130
127
50 m m s he ll
124
64 m m s he ll
121
118
115
112
2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000
Fr e que ncy Hz
Fig. 6. Change in TVR of Class VII FT with change in shell height 3-d models.
Fig. 7. Photograph of the prototype transducer (without the end-plates).
789
In-air and in-water parameters of the transducer were measured. Table 2 shows a summary
of the measured parameters in comparison with the values predicted by the model.
Table 2. Summary of the results of the modeling vs experimentally obtained values.

Item Bare shell. Loaded Assembled Maximum value
resonance shell, in air. element, in of TVR
- Hz resonance - water, dB//1µPa/V at 1
Hz resonance - m
Hz
ATILA model 2719 4846 2775 132.6 @ 2775 Hz
Experimental 2430 4286 2525 122.1@ 2530 Hz
Difference: 11 % 12 % 9% 10.5 dB
model vs.
experimental
140
120
Conductance - microSiemens
100
80 ATILA
60 Experimental
40
20
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Frequency - Hz
Fig. 8. Predicted and measured conductance (in water) plots for Class VII FT.
Fig. 8 and 9 compare the predicted and experimental plots of conductance and TVR. The
differences in the predicted and measured values are because of the various losses in the
system, which are not included in the models. However, the predicted values are good enough
to initiate a design.
3.0 CONCLUSION
Design of a low frequency Class VII Flextensional transducer is described. Modeling using
the FEA package ATILA is made use of for optimizing three parameters viz., number of slabs
to be used in the driver stack, type of rubber to be used for the gasket, and height of the shell.
The predicted resonance frequencies matched within 10 15 % of the measured values in a
prototype, whereas the response of the prototype was 10 dB less than the predicted value.
However, the model has given useful inputs to initiate the design process, and reduce the
hardware iterations usually involved in the development of underwater electro-acoustic trans-
ducers.
790
135
130
dB ref 1 micro Pa/V at 1 m

125
120
115 ATILA
110 Experimental
105
100
95
90
500 1500 2500 3500 4500 5500
Frequency - Hz
Fig. 9. Predicted and measured TVR for Class VII FT.
4.0 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Authors thank their colleagues for the several useful discussions during the modeling and
prototype fabrication. Permission from Director, NPOL, for publishing this work is also ac-
knowledged gratefully.
REFERENCES
Ash, G.H and Bromfield, G, 1988, The 350 Hz ARE Flextensional Transducer, UDT Conf. Proceeding, 1988, pp.
109-114.
Butler, S.C and Lindberg, J.F, 1997, A 3 kHz Class VII Flextensional Transducer, presented in 133rd ASA meeting
at Penn State, June 1997.
Moffet, M.B, Porzio, R, and Bernier, G.L, 1995, High-Power Terfenol-D Flextensional Transducer, NUWC-NPL
Technical Document No.10,883.
Oswin, J.R and Turner, A, 1984, Design Limitations of Aluminium Shell Class IV Flextensional Transducers,
Proc. of the Inst. of Acoustics, Vol.6, Pt 3, 1984, pp 94101.
791
POTENTIAL OF DROWNED RIVER VALLEY ESTUARIES ON

INDIAN WEST COAST FOR DEVELOPMENT AND
HARNESSING
U.V. Purandare* and Prabhat Chandra
Central Water and Power Research Station, Khadakwasla, Pune - 411 024
Abstract
Many of the Drowned River Valley Type of Estuaries on the west coast of India are endowed
with large potential for development of ports, fisheries harbours etc. due to the natural protec-
tion, stable and deep natural depths thereby involving minimum expenditure on the capital
cost of breakwaters, dredging etc. Since these estuaries also receive large magnitudes of
fresh water discharges during monsoon season most of which get drained in the Arabian Sea
presently, suitable storages of fresh water may be created throughout the year within the tidal
reaches by constructing low crested gated weirs. The typical drowned river valley estuaries in
Maharashtra and Goa states on the west coast of India, i.e., Rajapuri estuary, Jaigad on the
Shastri estuary and Mandovi-Zuari estuarine system offer very good sites for such potential
developments.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The coastal regions which are endowed with potential for development of marine transport as
well for fishing activities, are very vital for economic growth of the country. Unlike major ports
which provide a number of maritime terminals at large capital cost, the development of inter-
mediate and minor ports and the fisheries harbours need to be done at very small capital and
sustenance cost. The factors like availability of natural depths, protection against waves,
absence of large siltation etc. are very important for such small projects and the Drowned
River Valley Type of Estuaries on west coast of India provide such sites. Other developments
of inland navigation and availability of adequate fresh water are also very vital for overall indus-
trial growth and for agricultural and domestic requirements as well. In this respect also, the
drowned river valley type of estuaries in the region have tremendous potential and with judi-
cious planning they can be very effectively harnessed instead of their getting drained in the
Arabian Sea.
The west coast in its major portion is marked by hilly ranges of western ghats in close
proximity which has resulted in many drowned river valley type of estuaries. The processes of
sediment transport in these estuaries are dependent not only on the tides and waves but also
on the river discharges and the associated salinity mixing patterns. The west coast region
receives fresh water discharges largely during southwest monsoon season (June to Septem-
ber) only and for overcoming the water shortages for domestic, industrial and agricultural
792
use in the pre-monsoon, the harnessing part fresh water flows passing through the estuaries
even within tidal reaches is also becoming more and more important. For the feasibility
studies for such projects all technical, social and environmental aspects are required to be
studied in detail. In the present paper, the potential and the characteristics of the typical
drowned river valley type of estuaries on the west coast of India have been discussed which
would also be useful for similar kind of estuaries in other countries, especially in the tropical
climate.
2.0 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DROWNED RIVER

VALLEY TYPE OF ESTUARIES
The drowned river valley type of estuaries on the west coast facing Arabian Sea, have peculiar
physical and morphological features like entrance widths of a few kilometres, existence of
headlands flanking estuary outfalls, existence of wide and stable embayments and absence
of bar seaward of the entrances. The length of these estuaries are less than 100 km originat-
ing from the western ghats with tidal effects extending in the major portions. The fresh water
discharges in these estuaries during the southwest monsoon season have considerable vari-
ability not only from month to month but also in peak flows as well. The spring tidal ranges in
these regions are generally between 2.0 m to 4.0 m. This region on the west coast of India is
subjected to incident waves from Arabian Sea from north to northwest directions during months
of January to April with significant waves height about 1 m to 2 m and during the southwest
monsoon, the waves are incident from the directions west to southwest with significant wave
heights ranging from 2 m to 4 m. These waves, while entering in the wide embayments of the
entrance of the estuaries undergo considerable transformations.
Many semi-protected and protected regions prevail along the banks of these estuaries and
developments in the southern regions of the bays are generally sought for to protect against
severe monsoon waves. These estuaries, by and large, are stable over the years and are in
dynamic equilibrium in spite of considerable sediment movements.
3.0 RAJAPURI ESTUARY
3.1 Physical and hydraulic features

The Rajapuri estuary, also known as Janjira creek, one such drowned river type of estuary, is
located on the Konkan coast in the Raigad district of Maharashtra state and is situated about
75 km south of Mumbai. This creek has width of about 3.6 km at the entrance and extends in
northwest-southwest directions flanked by small bays and mud flats and branches further
upstream into two creeks, the Mandad creek on the north and the Mhasla creek on the south
(Fig.1). The creek is naturally deep with depths of more than 5 m below chart datum, extend-
ing upto about 6.0 km at Agardanda on the north bank and Dighi on the south bank and
depths are stable over the last several years. The length of Rajapuri creek is about 12 km
793
from entrance upto the confluence, length of Mhasla creek is about 17 km and that of
Mandad creek is about 18 km. The Rajapuri creek is characterized by the absence of bar at
the entrance but in the upstream reaches, the bar exists at the confluence of Mandad and
Mhasla creeks. The catchment areas of Mandad and Mhasla creeks are respectively about
571 sq km and 115 sqkm and the peak fresh water flows as estimated by using Inglis formula,
are about 2900 cumecs and 1900 cumecs respectively. This estuary has semi protected
coastline, viz. almost complete protection against the severe monsoon waves from southwest
to west quadrant but exposed to pre-monsoon waves from north to northwest directions.
Tides in the Rajapuri creek are semidiurnal with pronounced diurnal inequality. The average
range of flood and ebb tides is 2.5 m and 2.0 m respectively. It is seen that the tidal range
goes on increasing from mouth of the creek into the upper reaches of the creek upto the
confluence of Mandad and Mhasla due to the short length of the creek. The maximum
velocities in the Rajapuri creek are of the order of 1.0m/s during the spring tides near the
Agardanda and Dighi and they increase to about 1.0 to 1.8m/s in Mandad and Mhasla
creeks. The tidal prism is about 150 million cum. As per the criterion of the Simmons ratio
(river runoff / tidal flow in one cycle) in the Rajapuri creek which is about 0.5, partially
stratified conditions are expected to occur. This estuary, though well mixed, during major part
of the year shows salinities similar to partly mixed estuaries with vertical salinity gradient upto
15 ppt for about 2-3 months during southwest monsoon. In the upstream reaches of Mandad
and Mhasla creeks, the salinities are less than 5 ppt during the monsoon period. The silt
charge values at Dighi during August are in the range between 0.013 and 1.71 ppt and the
salinity in the range 13 to 34 ppt. During the fair weather season, the silt charge and salinity
values are in the range of 0.018 to 0.33 ppt and 32.0 to 36.0 ppt respectively at Dighi.
Fig. 1. Index plan of rajapuri estuary.
794
3.2 Development and scope
This estuary provides sites on both the banks for intermediate port and fisheries harbour
development. This major portion of the creek is fully protected against the existence of severe
monsoon waves and wave tranquility of 0.3 m to 0.5 m is easily available and in addition, the
advantage may be taken of tides and vessels of more than 8 m draft can be operated. The
present port facilities include two small jetties on the north bank, one jetty at Murud, one jetty
at Rajapuri and two jetties at Dighi (solid and piled) along the south bank. The developments
for commercial ports and fisheries harbours can be done with limited lengths of breakwater for
which detailed physical and mathematical model studies enabled providing the required lay-
outs. For evolving the layout for Agardanda fishing harbour, extensive model studies including
physical tidal model (scales: 1/600 H, 1/100 V), physical wave model (scales: 1/180 H, 1/120
V) and 2-D mathematical wave model studies were carried out at CWPRS for optimizing the
requirement of lengths of breakwaters required and suitable alignment for the berths. The fresh
water flows are sufficient to replenish the storage capacity of Mandad and Mhasla creeks
which is about 50 M cum each below chart datum and low crested gated weirs with road links
over the barrages may be constructed across these creeks for harnessing water after detailed
studies of related technical and socio-economical aspects.
4.0 SHASTRI ESTUARY AT JAIGAD

The outfall of the Shastri estuary at Jaigad is one more drowned river valley type of estuary
having an entrance width of about 3.5 km and with prevalent water depths of almost 8 m at the
entrance as shown in Fig. 2. The total length of the Shastri estuary is about 64 km. The peak
fresh water flow for Shastri estuary is estimated as about 2850 cumecs. The depths in the
Shastri estuary along longitudinal direction vary from 8 m (near mouth) to about 4 m upstream
of the mouth where sand bar is situated as shown in Fig. 2. The depths on the sand bar vary
from 0 m to 2 m below chart datum. At the location of the old Jetty at Jaigad, the depths in the
river vary from 10m to 15m. In the Dhamankhol bay, situated at about 500 m southeast of the
entrance on the south bank, the natural depths of 6 m to 7 m exist and the area is partly
protected from the waves and can be considered potential location for port development. Tides
in the estuary are semi-diurnal with pronounced inequality in successive tidal cycles. The
mean spring tidal range is 2.0 m and mean neap tidal range is about 1.0 m. During nonmonsoon
season, the maximum velocities at the Jaigad port (old jetty) are 0.40 m/s and 0.32 m/s during
flood and ebb respectively and at the entrance, it is 0.40 m/s. During the southwest monsoon
season, the maximum velocities at the Jaigad port was observed to be about 0.80 m/s. The
average silt charge values are about 0.060 ppt at Jaigad and they are almost same both during
nonmonsoon and monsoon seasons. During the monsoon season, the salinities drop consid-
erably as low as 1-2 ppt and difference in the salinity values of more than 15 ppt prevails over
vertical at Jaigad and in the upstream region of Shastri estuary at Tavsal, the average salinity
795
values are about 2-3 ppt and no vertical gradient exists. This estuary is partly stratified in the
downstream reaches though almost fresh water conditions prevail in upstream reaches where
the harnessing of the water may be considered. The Simmons ratio in the Shastri estuary for
average discharge conditions is about 1.0 which indicates partially stratified conditions but
turbulence conditions also need to be taken into account for overall classification. The bed
material mostly consists of silty to fine sand.

The old jetty at Jaigad is fully protected from incident waves throughout the year. At the
upstream end of the bay, though deep pocket is available for harnessing full potential for port
development, dredging and maintenance of the bar would be essential. The area in Dhamankhol
bay on the south bank is suitable for port development with limited lengths of breakwater and
with suitable reclamation as per the requirement. The layouts of the port are required to be
evolved by using model studies for optimization of breakwater lengths, suitable alignment of
the berths, minimization of dredging requirement etc. Many potential sites exist for develop-
ment of fisheries even in upstream regions so also sites for shipyards and ship braking yards.
For disposal of effluents from the chemical factories, good sites are available in the open sea.
This estuary also has considerable fresh water discharges during monsoon season and har-
nessing could be done by providing gated weirs in the upstream reaches of the Shastri estu-
ary, say at Tavsal. The fresh water flows are in excess during the monsoon season. The
storage capacity of Shastri estuary upstream of Tavsal is about 80 Mcum below chart datum
and water harnessing may be done during non-monsoon by constructing low crested gated
weirs after detailed studies. At present, only about 11.4 M cum has been harnessed by
construction of dam in the very upstream reaches of the Shastri estuary.
Fig. 2. Bathymetry at the entrance of Jaigad Port.
796
5.0 MANDOVI / ZUARI / CUMBARJUA CANAL ESTUARINE SYSTEM

The estuaries of Mandovi and Zuari connected by the Cumbarjua canal in the Goa State on the
west coast of India as shown in Fig. 3, have provided excellent sites for not only major port
development at Mormugao but also provided many sites for fisheries harbour development and
shipyards so also for inland navigation for iron ore traffic. These estuaries though adjacent,
have considerable difference in respect of tidal currents and salinity mixing due to their physi-
cal features. The length of the Mandovi estuary is about 70 km. At the confluence of Mandovi
estuary with the Arabian Sea, an embayment of Aguada bay exists with a width of 3.2 km at
the entrance of the estuary and further upstream, a shallow sandy bar exists (Fig. 3) with bed
level of 2 m below chart datum. The width of the bay reduces to about 600 m near Tejo point
with depths of about 7 m to 8 m in the channel portion. Further upstream, the width of the
estuary is about 400 to 500 m and the depths are about 5 to 6 m. The estuary in the further
upstream reaches is braided and depths are about 3 to 4 m for a reach of about 50 km. The
tides in the estuary are semi-diurnal mixed tides with spring tidal range of about 2 to 2.5 m.
Due to short length of the estuary, the tides in most of its portions do not show much attenu-
ation.
Fig. 3. Bathymetry at Mandovi and Zuari estuaries.
The Zuari estuary meets the Arabian Sea with an embayment of Mormugao bay which has a
width of 5.5 km at the entrance with depths of about 8 to 9 m (Fig.3). Further upstream, the
Mormugao bay extends to a distance of about 13km upto Cortalim where the width is about
600 m and prevalent depths are 6 m to 7 m. A shallow bar with bed level of about 2 m exists
797
near Chicalim at about 6-7 km from the entrance. The length of the Zuari estuary is about 40
km and tides are almost same as in Mandovi. While wave action is limited within 3 km reach
in the Aguada bay, in Zuari estuary waves penetrate upto about 10 km from the entrance both
during monsoon and non-monsoon seasons which dissipate on the banks of the estuary. The
tidal currents at the entrance are weak, less than 0.2 m/s whereas in the shallow bar region,
they are about 0.70 m/s. In the lateral embayments on southern bank, the flow patterns are
more complicated with formation of eddies, slack flows etc., and the flow areas are confined
during flood and ebb tides unlike comparatively most inland conditions in the Mandovi estuary.
The peak river flows in Mandovi and Zuari estuaries are respectively about 4500 cum/s and
1000 cum/s. The Mandovi estuary, being narrow almost upto the outfall, has very strong
velocities of about 1.0 m/sec during non-monsoon which enhance to almost 1.5 to 2.0 m/sec
in the event of fresh water discharges. The salinity mixing behaviour in the Mandovi estuary is
mainly influenced by the action of tidal flow and fresh water discharges while the effect of
waves on the mixing processes is marginal. Studies carried out in the Mandovi estuary by
CWPRS and reported by Purandare (1988) were based on the detailed observations of salinity
profiles, velocities, temperatures etc. at three different locations. It was found that due to
smaller cross sectional area of the Mandovi estuary, there was increase in the net non tidal
components of the velocities with occurrence of fresh water discharges. As a result, vertical
stratifications did not occur despite very large fresh water discharges. It was observed that
during the neap tides throughout the tidal cycle, the flow was always directed towards down-
stream and the salinities were less than 5 ppt over almost entire depth. During the month of
September, the salinities though were having systematic variations with tides, the salinity
difference over the vertical of about 10 ppt was observed only during the neap tides. The
observed behaviour was examined by evaluating the estuarine Richardson Number (R) as
defined by Fisher et al. (1979). The value of R is well below 1 in Mandovi estuary during July
which indicates well mixed conditions whereas during September, it is 4 to 5 indicating par-
tially mixed conditions.
In the Zuari estuary, because of its large width and cross sections, there is no increase in
velocities or turbulence in the event of fresh water discharges and vertical gradients about 10-
12 ppt prevail unlike the Mandovi estuary which become almost fresh for entire cross section
during some period in the monsoon season. The value of R in the Zuari estuary is about 10 to
15, which indicates stratified conditions. There is considerable variation in sediment concen-
tration values spatially and seasonally in the Zuari estuary due to the difference in exposure to
wave conditions, flow conditions, bed material characteristics etc. at different locations. In the
Mormugao bay, the sediment concentration values mainly depend on the wave induced bed
shear stress and very minimal on the river discharges. During the non-monsoon period of eight
months (October to May), the average sediment concentration at the entrance is about 0.012
ppt whereas in the upstream at about 10 km near Chicalim, it is about 0.065 ppt and during
southwest monsoon season, the values are 0.040 ppt and 1.0 ppt respectively as observed
798
by Purandare and Prabhat Chandra (1995).

Despite the fresh water flows exceeding the tidal prism, stratification does not take place due
to the enhanced turbulence effects in the narrow cross sections of Mandovi estuary. In fact,
this peculiar behaviour can enable harnessing of the fresh water in the estuary by using gated
weirs. It is estimated that the fresh water flows during these four months of southwest mon-
soon would be 1540, 2286, 1100 and 660 million cum respectively. Considering the present
use of the passenger jetty at Panaji, the existing road bridge and the branching off the Mapuca
river, if a tidal barrier in the form of gated weir is constructed 2.5 km upstream of the road
bridges near Panaji as shown in Fig. 4, it is estimated that the storage volumes available
below the chart datum would be about 100 million cum (Purandare et al., 2001).
Fig. 4. Proposed location of Tidal barrier in Mandovi Estuary.
The major port of Mormugao already exists at the entrance of Zuari estuary on its south bank,
the advantages being of higher natural depths and natural protection from southwesterly waves
and availability of areas for future development. The layout of the Mormugao Port and for the
future developments have been evolved optimally by using the physical wave model (scale: 1/
100 G.S.) with Random wave generation facility and physical tidal model studies (scales: 1/
350H, 1/50V) at CWPRS, Pune. Many sites of fisheries harbours on the banks in the sub-
bays of Zuari estuary can be developed without any costly protective structures like breakwa-
ters and some reclamation schemes can also be developed for beneficial use. The Vasco bay
has provided very good protected areas for fisheries harbour and even for development of major
port. The sand bars in the upstream reaches are quite stable under natural conditions but in
799
the case they are dredged, the siltation rates would be much more than in the downstream
reaches.
1. For developments of ports and fisheries harbours, availability of natural stable depths
and protection against the waves are very vital and the drowned river valley type of
estuaries on west coast of India provide very good sites for such maritime develop
ments with minimal expenditure on breakwaters and for capital/maintenance dredging
as well.
2. Abundant fresh water flows are available in the west coast regions most of which though
presently get drained to sea, can be harnessed effectively by constructing gated weirs
within tidal reaches and storage of more than 100 Million cum can be done even at
individual selected sites to overcome the shortages of fresh water in the region.
3. Extensive studies of each site for various coastal and hydraulic parameters backed by
adequate hydraulic modelling would enable optimum development of ports, fisheries
harbours, inland navigation etc. so also for harnessing of the fresh water and for cre
ation of adequate land through reclamation without any adverse effects.
The authors are thankful to Mrs. V.M.Bendre, Director, and Dr. L.K.Ghosh, Additional Director,
CWPRS for their encouragement and guidance during preparation of the paper.
REFERENCES
Fisher H.B. et al., (1979), Mixing in Inland and Coastal Waters, Academic Press, Inc., New york.
Purandare, U.V., (1988), Mixing characteristics at the entrance to Mandovi estuary, Proceedings VI th Con-
gress of APD-IAHR, Kyoto, Japan.
Purandare, U.V. and Prabhat Chandra,(1995), Variability of suspended sediment concentration and their
implication in prediction of maintenance dredging requirements in drowned valley river estuaries, Proc.
Dredging Symposium 95 at Hyderabad, India.
Purandare, U.V., Kapileshwar, P.S., Prabhat Chandra, (2001),Modelling for blockage schemes in Mandovi-Zuari
estuary, International Conference in Ocean Engineering ( ICOE 2001) at Chennai, India.
800
THERMAL STUDIES & EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS

ON A 0.25 M2 SOLAR GEL POND
N. Sozhan, T.Kaliyappan, S. Rajagopan and E. Vijayakrishna Rapaka*
Mechanical Engineering Department, Pondicherry Engineering College, Pondicherry-605 014
Abstract
The Solar Gel Pond is an innovative concept, which overcomes many of the shortcomings of
the conventional salt gradient solar pond. The non-convective salt gradient layer is replaced by
a transparent polymer gel layer, which floats on a NaCl solution used in the storage zone. The
polymer gel (Carbowax) used was found to be insoluble in different concentrations of NaCl
solution, good transmissivity characteristics, low cost and was found to be stable.
An attempt has been made to analyze the performance of the solar gel pond of 0.25 m2 area
located at Pondicherry, India (Latitude 11.56 oN, Longitude 79.53 oE). Experimental investiga-
tion has been carried out during the months of April & May 2004. The maximum storage
temperature was found to be 60oC and temperature difference between the storage layer and
gel layer was found to be around 10o C. A theoretical study was carried out using Bansal and
Kaushik modified model for the Solar Gel Pond. The outcome of the theoretical study has
been validated using the experimental results.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The energy crisis is a man made myth. The world went into frenzy over the issue throughout
the seventies. Almost every country, India in particular, still believes that time is fast running
out, yet a thorough analysis makes it evident that enough resources exist, natural and man-
made, conventional and non-conventional, to fuel mans needs for centuries to come. The era
of cheap energy availability is however, over.
But it must be admitted that prior to 1973, energy expedients, as perhaps all primary products
without too many market intermediaries, were heavily under priced in relation to their utility.
The two oil crisis must be given the credit for highlighting the importance of the contribution of
energy to the sustenance and advancement of the modern world and while the seventies
witnessed a wild upswing of prices, as is perhaps natural the reaction of eighties experienced
the equal and opposite reaction to the runaway spurt. The gradual rise in prices from the
second half of the eighties onwards should be essentially considered as a quest for equilib-
rium as energy prices sought consonance with the prices of other inputs and products in every
economy. The maintenance of any degree of stability over a sustained period is not going to
be automatically or easily possible as was the case from the beginning of the oil era up to the
first oil crisis. Natural resources may be in short supply either locally or internationally and
*Corresponding author, e-mail: rapakaiitm@hotmail.com

either for geo-physical reasons or due to economic, political or sociological reasons. Man-
made resources, which are plentiful, have to be ready at hand to avoid the pressing of panic
buttons and the consequent crisis situation. An ingenious interplay of natural and man-made
resources is therefore required constantly in the future and for this prudent energy planning is
must. This in turn can be done with success only if the entire energy perspective is logically
assessed.
Solar energy, if appropriately harnessed, could provide an inexhaustible energy source that
could contribute directly to improving the quality of life on Earth. One of the inherent proper-
ties of solar energy is that it is a diffuse resource, and we therefore require a large area to
collect a substantial quantity of energy. Most solar techniques would therefore require a very
large investment of capital and material resources to realize world economy based on renew-
able energy. If the goal is to be approached, it appears necessary to deploy extremely low
cost solar-collectors, such as solar ponds, which combine low-cost collection with long-term
storage for a variety of low temperature thermal applications. The solar pond concept is cap-
turing the imagination of an increasing number of people after its successful exploitation in
Israel for power generation. There are not many large collection area devices less expensive
than pond containing water, and the possibility of large tracts of otherwise unused land gener-
ating substantial quantities of heat and electricity creates a powerful image. If the energy
collection by a solar pond can be maintained at a reasonably efficient level without too much
effort, then solar pond technology will be one of the mix of technologies that would help to lead
the Earths population to a future based on renewable energy.
Despite the fact that the solar radiation reaching the Earths surface is intermittent and largely
depends on atmospheric conditions, the solar ponds can match the loads even during a
lengthy spell of wet weather, without considerable drop in the operating temperature. A prop-
erly designed and carefully operated solar pond can collect and store heat during warm sea-
sons for winter use. In some parts of the world, solar ponds can be economically competitive
as a heat source for process heat, or space heating, and even for power production.
Salt gradient solar ponds can be economically attractive only on relatively large scales. The
edge heat losses significantly reduce the pond efficiency when the area of the pond is smaller
than a few hundred square meters and besides; operation expenses of solar ponds are far
from being proportional to the pond area.
The performance of the ground storage beneath a solar pond was investigated and also a
computer simulation for prediction of the performance was done by Akbarzadeh and Ahmadi
(1979). Hawlader and Brinkworth (1983) discussed on the thermal behaviour of the non-con-
vecting solar pond. The developed numerical solution for the dynamic equations, incorporat-
ing detailed representation of the losses from the surface and using the hourly meteorological
data for a site in Southern England. They showed that the pond temperatures are strongly
dependent on the effective extinction coefficient for solar radiation and the thermal losses from
802
the pond bottom. Wang and Akbarzadeh (1983) presented the optimum thickness of the
density gradient layer under various conditions and also discussed on the effect of ground
losses for wet soil where underground water level is high.
Akbarzadeh (1984) discussed the effect of sloping walls on the salt concentration profile in
solar ponds. He also obtained the general expression for salt concentration as a function of
depth and presented the results for different pond configurations and also for different top and
bottom salt concentration. Hillel et al. (1984) have applied a finite difference implicit model in
order to investigate the interaction among physical variables represented by various dimen-
sionless parameters by considering that the convection currents in the pond are inhibited by
salinity distribution. Hull et. al. (1980) modelled the ground heat losses for various perimeter
insulation strategies and several pond sizes. They concluded that the uninsulated sloping
sidewalls are slightly more effective than insulated vertical sidewalls, expect for very small
ponds. They also reported on the experimental results for ground heat loss and energy bal-
ance in the 400 m2 solar pond at the Ohio State University. Katti and Bansal (1984) investi-
gated the performance of 3-zone solar pond with a diffusely reflecting bottom under two modes
of heat extraction. They concluded that the efficiency of solar pond decreases with increasing
values of bottom reflectivity. Kishore and Joshi (1984) developed a steady state model taking
into account the heat losses from the surface and bottom of the pond. The efficiency equation
thus obtained is independent of the surface zone temperature and depends only on the geo-
climatic parameters.
Ebtism et al. (1987) discussed about the inherent problems encountered with the conven-
tional salt gradient pond leading to the concept of the Solar Gel Pond in which the salt
gradient is replaced by the transparent gel layer. They discussed about the relevant properties
of the gel. Mehta et al. (1988) analyzed the performance of a bittern-based solar pond of an
area of 1600 m2 located at Bhavnagar, India. The thermal efficiency of the pond was worked
out using correlations proposed by Kooi and Hull. Newell et al. (1990) reported on the con-
struction and operation activities at the University of Illinois salt gradient solar pond. Tabor
and Dorbon (1990) reported on the design, construction and operation experiences of a 5 MW
(e) solar pond power plant. Ebtism (1991) discussed the design, construction and operation of
trapezoidal 400 m2 and 5 m deep gel pond. The pond obtained maximum temperature of 60°C
with optimal gel thickness of 60 cm. Zangrando (1991) discussed on the hydrodynamics of
solar pond like mass and energy balance, formation, stability, maintenance of the gradient
layer, energy extraction from the bottom mixed layer, stability of stratified fluids to shearing
flows, interface dynamics, wall effects that affect the performance of the solar pond as an
energy collector and storage. Jaefarzadeh (2000) reported on the performance of a laboratory
scale salt gradient solar pond for different methods of saline injection to the bottom layer and
the corresponding temperature and concentration profiles as a function of depth has been
reviewed and compared with experimental results.
Hussain (2003) proposed two simple empirical formulations for estimating the radiation flux in
803
solar ponds. First formulation is developed by empirically extending the formulation of Bryant
and Colbeck so as to incorporate the effect of multiple reflection, which is originally expressed
for incoming radiation flux only. The other formulation is a fourth order polynomial function of x
/Lcos q, where q is the incidence angle of the formulation as compared with Hulls model. The
proposed formulations are found to provide simplicity in analytical calculations and saving in
computational time with a satisfactory accuracy. Hussain et al. (2003) analyzed the combined
effect of the bottoms reflectivity and water turbidity on the steady state efficiency of pond.
2.0 SOLAR GEL POND
The concept of Solar Gel Pond is based on the presence of a Non-Convective Zone(NCZ) to
trap the solar energy. In a salt gradient pond, the variation in density as a function of salinity
and temperature gives rise to this NCZ. By contrast, in the Solar Gel Pond the optical and
thermal insulating properties of polymer gels are utilized in forming the NCZ.
In a solar gel pond (Fig. 1), the gel floats on the storage zone, which acts as the NCZ. At
present, 3 to 8% of salt solution is used in the storage zone to keep the gel layer to float on the
top. Gel utilized comprises of 98% water and 2% of the appropriate polymer gel.
Fig.1. Schematic diagram of the Solar Gel Pond.
The dissolved air in the water increases the buoyancy resulting in the floatation of the gel
layer. The gel density is lowered due to the addition of dissolved air, which enables the gel to
float over 2% salt water, or even less.
Preliminary studies by Wilkins had indicated that there are certain polymer gels, which have
good optical and thermal properties and could possibly be used in a pond to replace the non-
convecting salt gradient zone. During the course of further development of the concept by
Wilkins it was decided to use gel as a non-convecting layer as well as a transmitter of solar
804
radiation and in addition as a thermal insulator, the gel should satisfy the following criteria:
1. Transparent to visible radiation with very little absorption in all ranges of the solar spectrum.
2. Soluble in cold water before polymerization but insoluble thereafter.
3. High viscosity.
4. Chemically and physical stable with respect to a hot saline solution upto 100°C or more.
5. Inexpensive
6. High specific heat and low coefficient of volumetric expansion over the operating tempera
ture range of the pond.
7. Inert and non-toxic.
8. Non-degradable over repeated freezing/melting cycles and by ultraviolet radiation. Apart
from that they should be mechanically strong and have stable gel structure.
2.1 Factors determining the gel lifetime

(a) Transmissivity
(b) Thermal degradation
(c) Swelling ratio
(d) Solubility of the gel
(e) Freezing and thawing
2.2 Solar radiation at different depths of the Gel Pond

• The gel pond has 3 zones which are as follows: UCZ, Gel Layer and LCZ
• Heat loss from the surface of the pond has been accounted.
• Edge effects due to the absorption of solar radiation as well as heating of sidewalls
are neglected.
• In this model, the ground heat loss has been considered negligible as assumed by
Kaushik and Bansal in their model.
• Attenuation of solar radiation through the depth of the pond has been calculated.
• Solar flux at the depth x meters is represented by
5
S (x ) = τS $ ∑ µ j e − njx
j =1
Where τ = Transmissivity or coefficient of transmission.

So = Solar radiation striking the surface of the solar ponds W/m2
x = Depth in meters
S (x) = Solar flux at depth (x) W/m2
µ, n are constant (ranges depending upon the wavelength.)
805
The solar flux at different depth of the Gel pond is shown in Fig.2. The depth ranges from 10
cm to 41cm. The annual average daily global radiation is assumed as 278.36 W/ m2
100
90
2
Solar Flux in W/m
80
70
60
50
40
30
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
De pth in me te r
Fig.2 Solar flux at different depths of gel pond.
3.0 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON A 0.25 M2 SOLAR GEL POND
In the present investigation, many natural and synthetic polymers were examined and the
following polymer gels: Polyvinyl alcohol and Carbowax were selected considering the proper-
ties like solubility, uniformity, transmissivity for sunlight, low cost, harmlessness, resistance
to corrosion and absence of bacterial culture. Outdoor experiments were also carried out for
various concentration levels of the polymer gel, and it was observed that the transmittance
decreased due to high scattering for higher levels of concentration.
3.1 Selection of polymer gel

The work done by Wilkins focussed mainly on developing an insoluble and stable polymer gel.
A literature survey of possible polymer materials was carried out and the similar procedure by
Wilkins et. al. was followed. More than 15 gel materials were identified based on a literature
survey and after thorough screening 8 polymer material were chosen for laboratory tests.
Further tests revealed that 5 out of 8 compounds were unsuitable due to the problem of
buoyancy and low transmissivity.
The polymers-Polyvinyl alcohol and Carbowax were identified as potentially useful and stud-
ies were carried out using these 2 polymers. The physical properties such as density, specific
gravity, viscosity, specific heat and the transmissivity to visible solar radiation for the above
polymer gels were measured.
The gel lifetime is an important factor for its commercial applicability and technoeconomic
feasibility. The following are the factors, which determine the gel lifetime.
806
a) Transmissivity
b) Thermal & UV degradation
c) Solubility of the gel
d) Freezing and thawing.
(a) Transmissivity
Transmissivity of the gel is most important property as far as energy collection is concerned.
It was measured with maximum possible accuracy in the laboratory. Laboratory measure-
ments were conducted using UV Double beam spectrophotometer (Model 2101 Systronics)
in the ultraviolet and visible 350800 nm range (Fig. 3)
Outdoor transmissivity measurements were carried out in a small beaker to find out the trans-
missivity as a function of gel thickness. The amount of insolation entering the gel is defined
as the difference between the total insolation and amount of insolation reflected from the gel
surface and was measured using EppleyPyranometer. It was observed that the gel transmis-
sivity is very close to the transmissivity of clear water.
0 .9 6
Transmission
0 .9 2 S a m p le 1
S a m p le 2
0 .8 8 S a m p le 3
S a m p le 4
0 .8 4
S a m p le 5
0 .8
0 .7 6
350 450 550 650 750
W a v e le n g h th in n m
Fig. 3. Transmissivity measurements for different gel samples.

(b) Thermal & UV degradation
It has been observed that the gel degrades above the temperature of 220 oC when it starts to
break down by evolving gases. Beyond 300 oC, a total break down of the gel occurs after which
it becomes totally black.
(c) Solubility of the gel
The solubility of the gel depends on the gelation time, which can be varied from 15 minutes to
several hours. The gel becomes totally insoluble once the gelation reaction has occurred.
(d) Freezing and thawing
The gel was subjected to repeated refrigeration (12 hours) and thawing (12 hours) cycles at
0oC and room temperature respectively. No detectible change was observed in the optical
807
transmission properties of the gel even after 2 weeks of continuous freezing and thawing of
the gels.
4.0 INSTRUMENTATION AND EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP OF THE

MODEL SOLAR GEL POND.
Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of the model solar gel pond.
Prototype model is square in shape of dimension 0.5 x 0.5 x 0.5 m. Its walls and base were
made up of transparent float glass of 6 mm thick pasted with silicon . Inner surface of the
glass plate were painted with matt black to increase the rate of solar radiation. The model was
insulated with sawdust of 10 cm, polystyrene foam of 5 cm thick to reduce the heat loss
through the walls. The top surface of the pond was covered with transparent glass plate of 2
mm plate of dimension 40 x 40 cm in order to reduce the wind effect on the stability of the
pond. 6 K type thermocouples made of Chromel alumel was used to measure the tempera-
tures (range - upto 1300 oC). Five thermocouples were fixed at 0, 25, 40, 40.5, 41 cm from the
bottom and one thermocouple was used to measure the ambient temperature. A 12-channel
temperature indicator (Microsensor) was used to measure the temperature of the thermo-
couples with an accuracy of ± 1oC. However, a thermometer was used to confirm the values
indicated by the digital thermometer.
Calculated amount of sodium chloride salt was placed on the base of the pond in order to
achieve 25% concentration and the storage zone consumed approximately 100 litres of salt
solution. Mixing was carried out in order to ensure that the salt has completely dissolved in
the water to obtain a homogeneous mixture.
808
Polymer gel was synthesized by dissolving Carbowax polymer with fresh water. Carbowax
was found to be suitable as it satisfied the requirement of the following properties like solubil-
ity, uniformity, specific gravity, transmissivity, cost, harmlessness, resistance to corrosion
and no bacterial culture.
The pond was filled at the top with polymer gel of thickness 1 cm and the above setup was
tested in open atmosphere for one week. In order to study the effect of climate and other
parameters on the performance of solar gel pond, experiments have been carried out during
the month of April and May 2004. The global solar radiation incident as a horizontal surface
was measured using Eppley-Pyranometer.
From the experimental investigations it is observed that the maximum storage temperature
measured approximately around 15.30 hours was found to increase from 47 to 60°C for the
period 13 to 24th May 2004 (Refer Fig. 5). An increase of 1°C per day was observed during 13th
to 15th May 2004; however, no appreciable change in temperature was observed from 16th to
18th May due to cloudy weather conditions. From 19th to 24th May an increase of 3°C per day
was observed.
From Fig. 6, it is observed that the pond shows an increase in its collection temperature and
it is also very clear that the pond is in transient condition. As the volume of the pond is less,
there is a substantial the night loss and the drop in temperature was found to be between 5 to
8°C. The temperature difference between the storage and gel temperature was around 10°C.
Performance of 0.25m 2 Solar Gel Pond

65
Max temp
60 60
Evening temp
C
5757
Morning temp 56
o
55
Temperature in
53
52
51
50 50
49 49
48 48
47
46
45
4444
42
41 41
40 40
38
35
8-May 13-May 18-May 23-May 28-May
Fig.5. Performance of 0.25 m2 solar gel pond.
809
P e r fo rm a n c e o f 0 . 2 5 m 2 S o l a r G e l P o n d
62
60
58 57 57
56
C
54 55 32
o
51
Temperature in
50 50 50
44 98 48 48 49
46 46
4 7
4444
42 42 41 41 41
40
38 38
34
30
8 -M a y 1 3 -M a y 1 8 -M a y 2 3 -M a y 2 8 -M a y
Fig. 6. Performance of 0.25m2 solar gel pond.
6.0 CONCLUSIONS
From the above experimental investigations, the following conclusions have been drawn :
1. The transmittance was found to be around 97.43 % for 1 cm gel thickness.

2. Carbowax polymer was found to be promising as it was found to be stable for longer
period without undergoing any reaction with NaCl salt solution. The maximum storage
temperature measured approximately around 14.30 hours was found to increase from
51 to 54 oC for 0.25m2 Solar Gel Pond during the period 21st to 26th March 2004.
3. The temperature difference between the storage zone and gel layer temperature was
around 10 oC. .
4. Experimental Collection efficiency and heat dissipation efficiency for 0.25m model with
2
maximum storage temperature was found to be around 15.80% and 5.27% respec
tively.
5. The concept of the Solar Gel Pond for heat collection and storage is technically fea
sible and its performance is comparable to the Salt Gradient Solar Pond.
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Akbarzadeh. A., Ahmadi.G., (1978) Underground thermal storage in the operation of solar ponds, presented at
the 7th International Conference, Solar Energy, .
Akbarzadeh. A, Ahmadi. G.,(1979) Computer simulation of the performance of a solar pond in the southern part
of Iran, Solar Energy, 25,22.
Akbarzadeh. A, (1984), Effect of sloping walls on salt concentration profile in a solar pond, Solar Energy,
33(2)137-141.
Bansal. P.K, Kaushik. N.D., (1981), Salt gradient stabilized solar pond collector Energy conversion &manage-
ment , 21,81.
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sion & management , 21,141.
810
Bradford S. Sherman and Jorb Imberger, (1991), Control of a solar pond, Solar Energy, 46(2),71-81
Ebtism S. Wilkins, Yang. E and Kim. C., (1981), The gel pond, Int, Solar energy, 3, 1726-1731.
Ebtism S. Wilkins and Tac K.Lee., (1987), Development of the gel pond technology, Solar energy, 39,(1)33-51.
Ebtism Wilkins, (1991), Operation of a commercial solar gel Pond, Solar energy, 46(6), 383-388 .
Hassab.M.A, Tag.I.A and Kamal.N.A, & AL-Noaimi.F.M,(1989), Problem encountered in operating salt gradient
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Hershel Weinberger, (1964), The physics of the Solar pond Solar Energy, 8, 45-56.
Hillel Rubin, and Barry A.Benedict and Stefan Bachu, (1984), Modeling the performance of a solar pond as a
source of thermal energy, Solar Energy, 32(6),771-78.
Hull.J.R ,(1980), Membrane stratified solar pond, Solar Energy, 25,317-325.
Husain M, PatilP.S, Patil S.R and Samdarshi S.K, (2003), Simple methods for estimation of radiation flux in Solar
ponds Energy conversion and management, 45, 303-314.
Husain M, PatilP.S, Patil S.R and Samdarshi S.K,(2003), Combined effect of bottom reflectivity and water turbidity
on a steady state thermal efficiency of salt gradient Solar pond Energy conversion and management, 45,
73-81.
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Jaefarzadeh. M.R.,(2000), On the performance of a salt gradient solar pond, Applied thermal engineering,
20,243-252.
John R.Hull, (1980), Computer simulation of solar pond thermal behavior, Solar Energy, 25,33-40.
Katti,Y. and Bansal.P.K.,(1984), Multiple reflection phenomenon in salt gradient solar pond, Solar Energy,
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Kishore.V.V.N and Veena Joshi,(1984), A practical collector efficiency equation for non-convective solar
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811
BOTTOM MOUNTED SEABED MOORING FRAME FOR

HIGH CURRENT FIELD
K. Ashok Kumar1*, P. Chandramohan2, P. S. Pednekar1, S. G. Diwan1
1
National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa
2
Indomer costal Hydraulics (P) Limited, Chennai
Abstract
Longterm current measurements for a period of 14 months were taken up by National Institute
of oceanography at high current regime in Gulf of Khambhat. The measurement was intended
at seabed for obtaining vector averaged current speed and direction on the sea surface and at
a fixed five layers. The company supplied frame was not suitable to use at the proposed
measurement location, owing to random oscillation in the seabed, strong currents and high
concentration of sediments in the water column. The authors have designed a special frame to
withstand for above problems and the measurements were carried out successfully for such
harsh environment, first time in India. The details of the design and the measurement tech-
niques are described in the paper.
1.0. INTRODUCTION
National Institute of Oceanography, Goa undertakes various data collection programme on

physical processes of the costal waters through different research and sponsored programmes
. Extensive data have been collected on waves, currents, tides and sediment transport along
the Indian coast. The long term data collections are often focused at open sea and river
mouths where the ocean currents exist less than 4 knots. First time, a programme was
initiated to take up longterm current measurement at Gulf of Khambhat, where the tidal varia-
tion reaches upto 8 m and the maximum current exceeds 7 knots. The bed morphology and
tidal bore posed challenge in devising a suitable mooring, safety over the extended period and
the data quality. A site specific mooring method was devised and most suitable instrument
was selected. The current measurement was successfully carried out at different layers for a
period of 14 months from October 2002 to November 2003.
2.0. MORPHOLOGY OF GULF OF KHAMBHAT
The Gulf of Khambhat forms on the northern part of the Arabian sea and it exhibits a second
largest Gulf system in India (Fig. 1). It has a width of 80 km at mouth and funnels down to 25
km over the longitudinal reach of 140 km. The entire banks surrounding the Gulf are bordered
with large tidal flats nested into numerous tidal creeks. The rivers viz., Ambika, Purna, Kim,
Tapti, Narmada, Mahe, Sabarmati and Dhadar together form a complex estuarine system in
*Corresponding author, e-mail: akumar@darya.nio.org
812
the Gulf. Mal Bank is a prominent sand shoal present at northern part of the Gulf. The middle
part of the Gulf is deeper with depth ranging upto 30 m. The seabed remains in quasi steady
state and it moves as sand bars with tides. The Bhavnagar port is located on the western part
of the Gulf. Many offshore oil, gas and chemical terminals have come between Hazira and
Dahej. On the otherhand, the tides in the Gulf remain the largest of the Indian coast. The
typical variation of the spring and neap tidal ranges remain around 9 m and 5 m respectively.
The sea remain very rough during monsoon with high waves (Hs>3 m) and strong wind (v>50
km/hr) from June to September. Due to strong flood and ebb tidal currents, the water remains
always turbid with huge bed and suspended sediment loads.
3.0. OPERATIONAL PROBLEMS IN GULF OF KHAMBHAT
while the measurement programme on current was conceived, the hindrances associated
with the Gulf environment were evaluated. The problems were concentrated on three major
factors, viz. strong currents, movable bed and turbid water. The reasons for failures during
earlier attempts by other organizations were reviewed. In all attempts, the instruments were
lost within 15 days due to the burial of bottom mounted instrument with mooring frame. In
case of deployment of vertical array, the instrument were dragged away with currents. Due to
large tilting of wire angle, the instrument recorded erroneous data. In some cases, the moor-
ing was disturbed by local boats fishing in this region. Large floating debris like plants and tree
branches, which often washed away by inland discharges entangled with instrument and
resulted in permanent loss. Sailing inside the Gulf and carrying out any mooring operation are
also much limited with available time of few hours during slack tide.
4.0. ENVIRONMENTAL DATA
The available information at NIO on the characteristics of the study region were collected. The
geophysical records on the seafloor available with NIO indicate a vertical change upto 2 to 3 m
over a lunar cycle. The deposition or scouring on the seafloor in one tidal cycle is estimated
around 0.15 to 0.30 m. The results of modeling study on tidal currents by NIO indicated
maximum current speed to reach 2.5 to 3.5 m/s. The seabed sediment at proposed measure-
ment location was collected and identified to consist as silty sand. The water samples were
collected and the suspended load were estimated as 100 mg/litre.
5.0 SELECTION OF INSTRUMENT
The current measurement was proposed at a water depth of 24m w.r.t. Chart datum, which will
have around 32m during the highest tide. Further the measurement was stipulated at different
layers across the vertical. Various instruments available for the current measurement were
reviewed and tested at site. The rotor current meters had the limitation of measuring the
maximum current upto 2 m/s. The electromagnetic current meters posed deflection of signals
813
due to heavy sediment load in the water column. Some of the ADCP current meters showed
erroneous result particularly at higher elevations due to turbid environment and large sediment
load. The problems were discussed with M/S Aanderaa Instruments, Norway and the combi-
nation of DCM12 current meter and RCM9 current meter were selected. The DCM12 has the
blank region for 2 m distance above the instrument, for which it was decided to keep one
RCM9 at bottom. The RCM9 was modified at factory to measure upto 5 m/s. The preliminary
data quality was checked by Aanderaa Instrument and suggestions were made to suitably
power the instrument and position at suitable height. Based on various trials, it was finally
decided to use one set of DCM12 and RCM9 for the measurements.
6.0. DESIGN OF MOORING FRAME
The main factors considered in the design of bottom mounted mooring frame were: i) vertically
stable from the action of current and wave forces, ii) optimum weight, i.e. heavy enough to offer
vertical stability and light enough to avoid sinking into the seabed, iii) offer resistance against
burial into the sea floor, iv) optimum height to keep the instrument above any fluctuation in
seafloor elevation and v) convenient to handle manually using small boats for frequent retriev-
als and redeployments. Accordingly different type of mooring frames were tested at site and
the performances were evaluated. On repeated trials, the configuration shown in Fig.2 was
found to be more optimum and suit the requirements. The frame fabricated in SS316L has
been selected for the marine environment to withstand from marine corrosion. The size have
been designed with a base width of 2 m X 2 m and a height of 2 m. The entire frame weighed
150kg in air and 130kg in water.
Frame design:
The frame size was selected after considering the strong currents, seabed sediment density,
and the sediment movement. Vertical rods were kept at 24 mm dia. and the horizontal sup-
ports were given with 12 mm dia. at 3 levels. Also a mesh of 20 cm apart was constructed with
rods of 12 mm dia. at the bottom. The mesh rods at the ends were bent at 450 which offered
resistance for burial. These arrangements helped to reduce sinking of the frame leading to the
burials beneath the seabed. At the top, a gimbal assembly supplied by the manufacturer was
used to mount DCM12 in order to align at vertical. Due to high currents, the instrument started
tilting more than permissible limit of 200. Then it was modified with a cylindrical casing made
of 3 mm SS sheet and fabricated around the instrument. Small holes were driven around the
cylinder to have a free water flow and to avoid sediment deposition. The mounting frame with
details are shown in plate 1.
Total weight:
Weight equation for a cylindrical rod = π x r2 x l x ñss
Where: p = 3.143 , r = radius , l = length and ñss = density
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Vertical rods = 8nos. x π x 0.0125 x 2.2 x 7850 = 68
Horizontal support rods = 12 nos. x π x 0.00625 x 8 x 7850 = 12
Bottom mesh rods = 20nos. x π x 0.00625 x 8 x 7850 = 38
Casing cylinder of 0.5 m h, 0.25 d, 0.03 m thickness = 12
Other attachments = 20
Total frame weight = 150kg
7.0. SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FRAME
The frame was having optimum weight to offer stability for the overturning moment to horizon-
tal forces caused by waves and currents. At the same time, the weight remained not excess
to avoid sinking into the sea floor. The horizontal meshes designed at the bottom caused soil
resistance against sinking and avoided burial into the seafloor. The inclination of the protruded
part of the meshes kept at 450 offers further resistance for overturning. The instrument mounted
2 m above the seafloor helped to avoid siltation on the current meter sensor. The hook arrange-
ment helped for easy handling during installation and retrieval.
8.0. TRIAL MOORING AND DATA QUALITY
The locally available boat of 15 m length with A- frame having a winch capacity of 2 ton with a
derrick boom was chosen for deployment and retrieval operations. Initially the frame along
with the instrument was transported on board. The DCM12 instrument was attached at gimbal
assembly of the frame. The frame was connected with 50 m long and 18 mm dia. polypropy-
lene rope. A surface marker float was attached at top for identification of the mooring line.
Another rope was attached as U mooring arrangement with 100 m spacing. Using the winch
and derrick boom, the frame along with the instrument was lowered and placed at bottom
where the water depth was 24 m w.r.t. CD. The trail deployment was done on 5.10.02. the
deployment is shown in plate 1. After 2 days, the retrieval was done using the same boat with
the help of winch and derrick boom. No problem was faced during retrieval and the instrument
was found without any damage. The data quality was found to be normal. Excessive deposi-
tion of sediment was found inside the cylinder housing the DCM12. Then additional holes were
drilled at the bottom of the cylinder for immediate flushing.
815
9.0. DATA PRESENTATION
Actual data collection was then commenced on 6.10.02. The retrieval was planned at every 7
days to avoid excessive burial. During the days of spring tidal days, when the currents are
strong, the frame was just lifted and lowered for every 3 days to avoid burial due to movement
of seafloor. The boat was tied with a moored buoy at 500 m away and 24 hours watch keeping
was arranged to avoid any vandalism by local boats. The data collection was continued till
November 2003. the sample data collected during 30.12.02 to 9.01.03 are shown in Fig.3.
During the period of measurement the current speed reached the maximum of 3.51 m on
18.2.03 largest tide of around 10.0 m was recorded during the measurement period.
10.0. PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED WITH MOORING AND DATA QUAL-

ITY
Mooring : Occasionally the mooring frame got embedded more in the seafloor and it had
become difficult to remove the frame. Additional winch was used to pull the frame out of the
floor. Hence the mooring line was changed to 20 mm dia. nylon rope to withstand for the
pulling stress. Often the mooring frame was entangled with wooden logs and got anchored to
the seafloor. Additional winch had become necessary to pull the frame out of the floor. Occa-
sionally the mooring frame was seen tilted and it was assumed due to uneven seafloor asso-
ciated with improper deployment.
Data Quality : The data at lower most level remained often disturbed particularly during the
maximum current phase over a tidal cycle. At times the data at surface level also got affected.
The higher concentration of sediment load was observed to be the main reason of this data
distortion.
11.0 CONCLUSIONS
1. The specially designed frame served well for the harsh environment of the Gulf of
Khambhat.
2. It was found safe to retrieve the current meter every week to avoid the burial of the
frame.
3. An optimum boat size of 2 ton winch capacity with A frame was found ideal for this type
of operation.
4. Since the operational window for deployment and retrieval was about half an hour, it had
become essential to plan the work and carryout operations
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12.0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the Director NIO, for his keen interest and encouragement. Authors
also thank Dr. Sanil Kumar and Mr. R. Gowthaman for their help. NIO contribution number:
3945.
REFERENCES
Operating manual- DCM12 Doppler Current Meter Model 12, July, 1995 - M/s Aanderaa Instruments, Norway.
Operating manual RCM9, Technical Description No. 195, January, 1999 M/s Aanderaa Instruments, Norway.
817
Fig. 2. Morring Frame
Fig. 3. Variation of Current during 30.12.02 to 9.01.03
818
Plate showing the Mooring Frame
819
SUBMERGENCE OF POOMPUHAR STUDY BASED ON

UNDERWATER EXPLORATIONS AND COASTAL
PROCESSES
Sundaresh1*, S. Jayakumar1, A.S. Gaur1,P. Chandramohan2 and B.K. Jena3
1
National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa.
Indomer Coastal Hydraulics, Rangamalika Apartments26, Kumarana colony main road, Vadapalani, Chennai.
2
3
NIOT, Pallikaranai, Velachery-Tambaram Main Road, Narayanpuram, Chennai
Abstract
Poompuhar, a flourishing port in the beginning of Christian era played a major role in maritime
activities and cultural expansion in the history of India. Sangam literature vividly describe
about its location, habitation and the town planning of Poompuhar. The marine archaeologi-
cal explorations around Poompuhar brought to light the remains of terracotta ring wells, brick
structures, storage jars in the inter tidal zone and brick structures, stone structures, pottery
from offshore explorations strongly supports thehabitation sites. There are several refer-
ences suggesting the shift of shoreline at Poompuhar, which may be one of the reasons of its
submergence. The studies on waves were conducted in the region for a period of one year to
understand the local phenomena responsible for the coastline changes. The paper deals with
the archaeological findings around Poompuhar and the impact coastal process in the shifting
of shoreline in the area, which was responsible for the submergence ancient port town and
other monuments in the region. The data collected during underwater investigations at
Poompuhar and the study of coastal processes are discussed to prove the causes of its
submergence.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The ancient ports of the east and west coast of India have played a dominant role in the
transoceanic trade and commerce with Arab countries, Africa, Rome and Southeast Asian
countries. The ports located on the Bay of Bengal, namely Tamralipti in West Bengal, Palur
in Orissa, Kalingapatnam in Andhra Pradesh and Kaveripattinam in Tamil Nadu are noted not
only for brisk maritime trade but also for the spread of Indian culture in foreign land from
beginning of the Christian era up to 11th century A.D. Many such port towns that existed on
the coastal region got vanished or submerged in the sea may be due to coastal erosion, sea
level changes, neotectonic activity etc. Many mythological literatures across the country
refer to submergence of prosperous cities. The traditions, like submergence of Golden City
Dwarka mentioned in Mahabharata, Sangam literature referring submergence of Poompuhar
and popular belief of submergence of Temples off Mahabalipuram, Kumari Kandam traditions
of Tamil Nnadu etc. are well known as they are passed on from father to son as a local
tradition. It may well be impossible to search their root or find proof as such of these beliefs.
*
Corresponding author: e-mail: sundares@darya.nio.org
820
Nevertheless, many archaeological explorations have been taken up. Though direct specific
traditions and mythology have not been found, the artefacts found due to such land excava-
tions in different parts of the country support the presence of habitation.
Poompuhar, also known as Kaveripattinam in Nagai Quaid-e-Milleth district of Tamil Nadu

state is situated (Lat. 110 08 33 N and Long. 79o 51 31 E) on the east cost of India (Figure 1).
Several texts of Sangam literature (3rd century B.C. to 3rd century AD) such as Cilappadikaram,
Pattinappalai and Manimekhalai mention about the important port towns of Tamil Nadu. Texts
such as Cilappatikaram, Pattinappalai and later ones including Manimekhalai, Ahananaru and
Purannaru vividly describe Poompuhar, the capital port city of the Early Cholas. Cilappadikaram
mentions that the city of Poompuhar was spread over an area of 4 Kavatham, approximate to
30 square miles (Damodaran, 1992). The boundaries of the city extended up to
Karuvendanathapuram and Kadarankandan on the west, Thirukadav[y]ur on the south, Kalikamur
on the north and the Bay of Bengal on the east. About 60,000 families said to have lived in 30
villages in the vicinity of Poompuhar. Cilappadikaram (Pillai: 1989) further mentions the east-
ern part of Poompuhar was known as Maruvurpakkam, the western part as Pattinapakkam
and the central part as Nalangadi.
The Manimekhalai mentions that the Chola king had lost his son and in his great grief he
forgot to celebrate the annual Indra festival (Nandakumar, 1989). This enraged the goddess
Manimekhalai who caused the city to be swallowed by the sea. Though the reference is only
to a supernatural incident, it may be taken as an echo of some actual sea erosion due to high
tidal wave/storm surge that engulfed/lashed the city.
The archaeological exploration at Kilaiyur, a part of Kaveripatinam, had yielded square copper
coins with the tiger emblem, which was the royal crest of the early Cholas (Soundararajan
1994). Other finds include beads of semi-precious stones and amphora pieces ( Rao 1965).
The most significant discovery was an I-shaped brick structure, exposed in the ancient chan-
nel of Kaveri at Kilaiyur, which is now completely silted up (IAR 1962-63; Rao, 1965; Raman,
1968). This brick structure with a drain for the flow of water and a platform supported by
wooden posts for handling cargo, served as a wharf built in the channel of the river Kaveri (IAR
1962-63 p-13) The Radio Carbon 14 date is 316±103 BC of the wharf. A semicircular brick
structure exposed in the excavation at Vanagiri, which served as reservoir IAR, 1963 pl.XIV).
Excavations at Sampapathi Amman temple revealed terracotta ringwells, which indicates that
ancient Poompuhar was extended till Puduppuram on the north and up to Tarangambadi /
Tranquebar (Wheeler 1976) on the south.
1.1 Geological Setting

The coastal regions of South Arcot, Tanjore and Ramanathapuram is a marine basin in which
the estuarine upper Gondawana beds are overlain, on the sea-ward side, by marine strata
extending from the Albian to the Recent. The strata attain a thickness of 2500 to 3000 m near
821
the coast and must be thicker offshore and in Palk bay (Krishnan, 1968). On the east coast of
India, patchy submerged shorelines were found between + 30 to +100 m depths, probably
formed during the Late Pleistocene Holocene transgression (Banerjee and Sengupta, 1992).
Sedimentation during the Tertiary period was marked by repeated transgressions and regres-
sions and the Quaternary sediments in the Basin consist of sandstones, pebbly sandstones
and clays (Sastry, et. al., 1977). Two rivers join the Bay of Bengal in this area namely Kaveri,
on the south of Poompuhar and Palayar on the north of Poompuhar. Apart from these rivers,
minor streams join Bay of Bengal in the north of Poompuhar.
The sediments in the near shore area are mostly comprised of a mixture of clay and sand up
to a water depth of 10m. Further seaward it changes to sandy. In addition to sands some
brickbats and stone blocks were found between 6 and 9 m water depth. The sea bed is
observed to have a gradual slope towards offshore. Beach rocks were observed at various
water depths between 8 and 15 m for a stretch of more than 20 km between Tranquebar on the
south and Kadaikkadu on the north.
2.0 METHODOLOGY
Initially preliminary onshore and initertidal zone explorations were carried out to collect the
information on coastal archaeology which provide clues for offshore explorations. The offshore
explorations involved both geophysical surveys and underwater diving. The geophysical sur-
veys were carried out with the help of side scan sonar, ecosounder, sub bottom profiler to
identify the structures in underwater and marked the area with the help of GPS followed by
diving. Airlifting operations have been carried out for underwater excavation to expose the
structures and to mark the stratigraphy of the site.
Sediment Transport: Shoreline dynamics are due to the underlying coastal processes in the
region. The main process directly responsible for shoreline changes being the sediment trans-
port (ST). Majority of the ST is due to wave activity in the nearshore region. The realistic
assessment of the sediment transport along the Poompuhar coastline is important since it
adjoins the sheltered region of Palk Bay. Any depletion of sediment supply to this region
would invariably affect the stability of the northern Tamil Nadu coastline. Directional wave
measurements were undertaken at 15 m water depth off Nagapattinam, 30 km south of
Poompuhar from March 1995 to February 1996 in order to evaluate the wave climate. The buoy
measures and transmits wave height, wave period, mean wave direction apart from other wave
parameters. Longshore sediment transport was estimated using the measured coastal pa-
rameters.
At Poompuhar a terracotta ring well was exposed about 300 north of Kannagi stature in the
intertidal zone at Poompuhar. It has exposed up to 65 cm in a trench measuring 2.5mX2.5m.
822
It has three courses of 25 cm high, with 4 cm thickness of rim and a diameter of 75 cm.
A brick structure of eleven courses having 1.2 m width, 1.2 m high and 4 m length was
exposed at about 200 m south of Kannagi statue at Poompuhar (Fig. 2). The sizes of the
bricks are 36x18x6 cm. Compact sticky clay was used as a binding material. This structure
is almost parallel to the coast.
Four brick structure were noticed about 60 m from the high water line at 1 m water depth
opposite to present Kaveri temple. These structures indicated that they were disturbed walls
having 25 m in length, 3.4 m width aligned in a line. The sizes of the bricks are 22x13x6 cm,
lime mortar served as binding material.
Three terracotta ring wells were exposed at Vanagiri about 300m south of Yelleyamman temple.
The ring well was exposed up to a depth of 65 cm and found to have three courses of 15 cm
height each and 6cm thickness at the rim. The diameter of the ring is 75 cm. All the three ring
wells are found to have same measurement. Two more ring wells were exposed on the
northern side of temple where many rings have washed away. A neatly paved floor of a insitu
brick structure probably floor of a house was exposed in a trench during the intertidal excava-
tion (Fig. 3) and a rectangular platform was also recorded on the northern side. The sizes of
the bricks are 35x20x5 cm.
The Yellamman temple of Vanagiri dated to approximately to 11 CAD constructed with bricks,
stone lintels and pillar, recently collapsed and submerged in the sea (Fig. 4). A terracotta ring
well associated megalithic black and red ware and other associated materials were exposed
in a trench at beach site near Chinnavanagiri about a km south of Vanagiri. The ring well was
surrounded by burnt bricks at 70 cm depth. The rings are 25 cm height with 5 cm rim and the
dia of ring is 115 cm (Fig. 5). These indicate retreating shoreline. The other important finds
from here are inscribed Brahmi Ma on a potsherd, an early Chola square coin (completely
eroded) and the later chola coins, beads of semiprecious stones such as agate, crystal
carnelian and varieties of glass and a terracotta beads.
Tranquebar is situated about 15 km south of Poompuhar has the habitation of late Chola
period to till day. A temple known as Masalamani of later chola period of 10 CAD is under
threat. The sea has almost destroyed more than 50% of the temple (Fig. 6) and is likely to
engulf the entire temple in near future. The remains of Dutch fort have been submerged in the
sea. The brick wells of Danish period were completely exposed in the inter-tidal zone (Fig. 7).
There are also evidences in Tranquebar about the destruction of modern houses due to the
encroachment of sea (Sundaresh et al 1997) the coins of Chola, Dutch, Danish period were
collected in the inter tidal zone of Tranquebar. The entire Tranquebar was well protected by a
fort wall including Masalamani temple and Danseberg museum with a sufficient distance from
the shore line as shown in the map prepared by the Danish rulers in mid 17th century (Fig. 8).
Under water explorations were conducted between Tranquebar and Nayakankuppam of a
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distance of about 25 km with a small grids at Tranquebar and Poompuhar. Several isolated
objects were recorded at a depth of 7-8 m and 11-13 opposite to Masalamani temple (Vora
1987, Rao 1992, Rao 1991) were confirmed by diving as rock boulders. Further south of
Tranquebar, sonograms and echograms recorded the extension of submerged river valleys of
Nandalar and Uppanar (Rao, 1991). Between Tranquebar and Poompuhar, in the same water
depth, several isolated objects were found and confirmed them as beach rocks. Off Poompuhar
between the water depths of 5.5 to 10.5m presence of three major sites of interest namely,
southern bank of river Cauvery, off Pudukuppam and off Nayakankuppam were observed.
A few dressed stone blocks measuring 90 X 40 X 15 cm, a semi circular stone with a L-
shape cut on its surface and many other irregular blocks of sandstone were noticed in 5 to
8 m water depth off Cauvery mouth (Figure 1). The area is covered with fine black sand. The
other findings during airlifting operations are brickbats and early historic pottery of Black and
Red ware, Red ware, Buff ware and Grey ware. The stratigraphy of this area is fine black
sand, sticky black clay, compact yellow clay and white coarse sand with stone blocks and
few potsherds (NIO Technical Report 1995).
The airlifting operations at north of Poompuhar revealed a few dressed stone blocks in three
general dimensions (30x20x5 cm, 65x40x10 cm and 60x35x10 cm) including the potsherds of
Grey ware, huge storage jars at 1m below the sea bed. The echograms of the Sub-bottom
profiler revealed a submerged paleochannel of river Kaveri on the north of Poompuhar at 10 to
15 m water depth, with a width of 300 m to 500 m buried in 20 m below the sea bottom. (Fig.
9)(NIO technical report 1997).
Three objects were identified by geophysical surveys at 22-24 m water depth off Poompuhar
(Vora 1987, Rao 1992, Rao 1991) were confirmed by diving. They are lying in north south
direction. The first structure was located at a water depth of 23 m about 5 km off shore. It is
oval in shape. The total periphery of the object is 140 m. North-south length of object is 40 m
and east-west length is 20 m. The object is hollow in the centre. The height of object on the
outer edge is 3 m while on the inner side maximum height is 1 m. The height of eastern arm
is greater than that of the western arm. The width of arm varies from 3 to 6 m. The centre of the
object is covered with sediments and rock patches. On the northern side of the object an
open space with rubble was found. Growth of thick marine organisms like oyster shells and
gorgonian were observed on the structureAbout 40 m. north of the above object, two smaller
objects of the same material were noticed. These two objects are lying in east-west direction
with a distance of 10 m. The circumference of each object is not more than 15 m and their
height is about 2 m. They have a maximum height in the centre and edges are sloping. There
are a number of wide cracks on the objects. A few blocks are 2 m in length 1.5 m in breadth
and 1 m in height. A few smaller blocks measure 100 X 60 X 20 cm (NIO Technical report
1995,1997.
During marine archaeological explorations, a large number of ringwells, brick structures, stor-
age jars and brick paved platforms were noticed in the intertidal zone and on the shore some
824
of them were also exposed. One ringwell was excavated near Chinnavanagiri where habitation
site is also preserved. The pottery from the site suggests that the ringwell can be dated to 2nd
century BC as one of the potsherds is inscribed in Brahmi Ma. The other ringwells found at
Vanagiri and Poompuhar are of the same period. Similar kind of ringwells found at Arikamedu
and Vasavasamudram belongs to 2nd Century BC to 3rd Century AD ( Rao, et al., 1995). The
brick structure exposed near Kannagi Statue can be dated to Sangam period. The size of the
bricks used are 36x18x6 cm are closely corresponds to the bricks used in Buddha Vihar at
Kaveripattinam.
Underwater exploration in shallow water revealed a few well-dressed stone blocks. One of
them is a semicircular in shape along with a number of eroded blocks. This evidence
suggests that stones were also used for construction of buildings, but whether they were used
for habitation or some other kind of building is still not confirmed. Sangam literature mentions
that buildings were constructed of bricks. Airlift operation suggests that habitation site was
buried at least 1 m under sediment. Above the habitation site a layer of compact and sticky
clay suggests that sedimentation process must have taken a long time. The explorations
also suggest that habitation extended north of the present Kaveri River. The ceramic evi-
dences suggest that the habitation belongs to the early Christian era. In the Bay of Bengal
the high-energy zone can be considered up to a depth of 8-9 m. As this area is much more
disturbed by high waves, currents and tides. It is very difficult to presume that some struc-
tures particularly of bricks that were mostly used in Sangam Period would have survived intact
in the high-energy zone. It is only the stone structures, which are likely to give a clue to
understand the plan.
The U-shaped structure at 23m water depths is a speculation. According to the views of SR
Rao, T.C.S. Rao and Tamil literature Scholars at Tamil University, Thanjavur (personal Com-
munications) it may be a man made and probably a Buddhist structure as referred in Sangam
literature suppose to be located at the mouth of river Cauvery. This view gets support from the
palaeochannel of the river Kaveri that is in the same direction, which can be connected to the
wharf found in Kilayur and the structure found at 23 m water depth. Remote sensing studies
also suggest that the palaeochannel of river Kaveri is to the north of present Poompuhar (NIO
Technical report, 1995).
Coastal processes:
The coastline between Nagapattinam and Poompuhar is almost straight with an inclination of
359° to north as per the published naval hydrographic charts. The coastline is low and the
beach material consists of sand sized particles. The sandy beach meets the sea without any
prominent rock outcrops or thick vegetation in the foreshore. The beach gradient is gentle to
moderate. The variation of monthly beach levels measured near Poompuhar museum indi-
cates that the lowest level occurs in December and the highest level occurs in April. During
the study period, the beach was subjected to seasonal changes with erosion during monsoon
825
and accretion during fair weather. The beach was stable without any significant loss of mate-
rial over the one-year cycle. It has to be stressed over here that no cyclone has occurred
during the period of one-year study. Since there were no cyclones during the measurement
period, the data collected provided normal estimates in the region by which the general pro-
cesses can be understood. From the beach profile studies, it is observed that the coastline of
Poompuhar was stable during the one-year study period. This in turn indicates that the sedi-
ment transport in the region is balanced. The erosion during the November to February is
compensated by the accretion during the rest of the period.
The studies on waves were conducted in the region for a period of one year to understand the
local phenomena responsible for the coastline changes. Based on the analysis of the wave
records, the significant wave heights persisted between 0.5 and 1 m during March to October,
and 1 to 2.1 m from November to February with the higher waves occurring during November.
The zero crossing wave period predominantly varied between 3 and 8 s in November and
December and between 3 and 5 s during the rest of the year. The wave direction (with respect
north) mostly prevailed between 60o - 120o during November to February, 90o - 120o during the
rest of the year. As the region is prone to cyclones, it can be inferred that due to high wave
activity during the cyclones, the beach sand either gets deposited offshore or transported
away from the vicinity of the region which can not be replenished after the seizure of the
cyclone, thereby causing erosion of the coastline.
The measured wave characteristics reduced to breaker zone were used to estimate the
longshore sediment transport. From the estimated transport rate, it is seen that the sediment
transport is relatively low along the Poompuhar coastline as compared to the rest of Tamilnadu
coastline, north of Pondicherry during the study period. The transport rate was large (0.1x106
m3/month) during November - December and low ( 0.03 X106 m3 /month) during March, April
and July. The monthly distribution of littoral transport rate indicates that the southwest mon-
soon waves have less significance effect compared to the northeast monsoon waves. The
predominant direction of transport is northerly from March to October and southerly from
November to February. Though the annual gross transport is found to be 0.6 x 106 m3/year, the
annual net transport is very low showing less than 0.006x106 m3/year (towards north), indicat-
ing the coastline is close to a nodal drift regime. This means that the sediment transport
during the non-monsoon period is almost equal to the sediment transport during the monsoon
period. The low net sediment transport substantiates the stability of the beach from the beach
profile studies.
Nageswararao and Sadakata (1993) have reported the existence of Cauvery river mouth in the
present offshore region based on the studies related to strandlines of the Cauvery coast.
Mohapatra and Hariprasad (2002) have inferred that the coastline south of Pondichery is
receding.
The explorations at Poompuhar and Tranquebar demonstrate that the sea has gradually en-
croached the land in greater extent since last 2000 years. It is worth mentioning here that
826
shifting of Kannagi statue about 150 m land ward from its original place after it destroyed by
the sea during 1994, was said to have been installed during 1973 about 200 m from the high
water line which is a clear indication of advancement of sea (Fig. 10). Similarly other monu-
ments also destroyed in the vicinity by the wave activity.
The erosion on sandy coastlines are due to less sediment supply from the rivers, especially
where dams have been built for reservoirs and also due to shifting of river mouths (Bird, 1984).
For instance several dams were constructed along the course of river Kaveri for irrigation and
hydroelectricity. Hence the influx of sediment to the sea by Kaveri has been reduced to
negligible amount resulting in a disturbed natural balance. Subsequently, the sea began to
erode the coastline, leading to submergence of several ancient coastal structures of the
Poompuhar (Sundaresh et al 1997). The responsible to a possible rise in sea level relative
to the land and the possibility of increased storminess in coastal waters, also a long duration
storms can erode the beach to a considerable destruction (Caldwell, 1966). The Bay of
Bengal is subjected to a large number of high intensity of cyclones compared to west coast of
India. Cyclones are short-lived phenomena, capable of causing immense amounts of destruc-
tion where they cross the sea and hit the coastline. The cyclones of the east coast are well
documented between 1891 1970, 42 major cyclones / depressions have been reported from
the area. Average bottom currents at 500m depth is around 0.25 m/s with direction parallel to
shore towards north. These factors vary in relative importance from sector to sector along
sand coastlines. Beach systems are thus dynamic interactions between shore process and
coastal sedimentation. (Bird 1985)
Permanent beach loses occur along shores due to an excess of littoral drift leaving a given
sector, material lost inland by the tidal actions of inlet and material pulled offshore in to deep
water by local storms. The continuing erosion of a beach narrows the beach to where it is
extremely vulnerable to severe erosion and wave topping during severe storms (Caldwell,
1966). The narrowness of the eastern continental shelf is also another responsible factor for
the coastal erosion. This shelf is less than 50 km wide. Wave propagation over a narrow shelf
results in low frictional loss of energy and thus expends much energy on the coastline, caus-
ing great coastal erosion. The removal of sand from the beaches results in destabilization and
destruction of coastal structures. In some cases the erosion has a local explanation due to
the reduction of sand supply from eroding cliffs. Beach systems are thus dynamic interac-
tions between shore process and coastal sedimentation (Bird and Schwartz1985).
The present inclination of coastline at Poompuhar (359° w.r.t north) is found to be sensitively
balanced since, any slight increase in approaching wave angles significantly increase the
volume and also may alter the direction of sediment transport in this region. The volume of
southerly drift during monsoon months, i.e. in November and December is large to nearly
balance the northerly-drift taking place in another 8 months, i.e. from March to October. It is
found that for the coastal orientation of 360o to north, i.e. 1o shift in the present orientation, the
annual net transport would be opposite, in the southerly direction. It is important to notice that
827
no cyclone had occurred during the study period, which otherwise is common during north-
east monsoon. Occurrence of such cyclones would considerably increase the volume of
sediment transport towards south within a short spell. It is noticed that for the occurrence of
every cyclone, there was a permanent loss of beach due to erosion. Comparison with the
Indian Naval hydrographic Charts (Nos. 3006 and 3007) surveyed during 1963 and 1993 indi-
cates that 150 - 200 m wide coastal belt has been eroded during the last 30 years and the
erosion is still active along the Nagapattinam - Poompuhar shoreline.
There are specific evidences to indicate that Poompuhar coastline has changed significantly
during last 300 years. A study near Tranquebar-Poompuhar indicates remains of a Dutch Fort
in Tranquebar now lying in 2-3 m water depth. Based on the original 250 years old map
Sundaresh, et. al. (1997) have inferred that shoreline has advanced by about 300 m during last
250 years which in turn, indicates a rapidly advancing shoreline at the rate of 1 m/year.
Similarly, the presence of ringwells in the inter-tidal zone confirms retreat of shoreline. The
hydrodynamic regime prevailing in the region may be the cause of this severe coastal erosion
(Chandramohan, et al, 1997). In view of above it can be said that shoreline has advanced
significantly in last 2000 years or so off Poompuhar
It is interesting to note here that a 12th century AD city known as Dunwick in Baltic Sea,
Europe, is lying between 5 -16 m water depths as a result of coastal erosion.
Besides these, the recent evidences from west coast of India (Nair et al 1997) and Florida
(Locker et al 1996), in the Atlantic indicate episodic and on rapid sea level rise and fall of the
sea level. The rates reported of 500 to 1000 years. These findings have now dispelled the
notion that sea level is a stable and unchanging datum. The inference drawn from the above
is that during a period of rising sea level the zone of erosion shifts landward and during a fall in
sea level the zone of erosion shifts seaward, resulting in seaward progradation of land. An
example of this is the location of ancient ports at Korkai and Algankulam in south Tamil Nadu
coast far inland but which were patently designed and located to be on the shoreline
From the above discussions, it can be attributed that coastal erosion followed by invasion of
sea has played a major role in submergence of these structures and sea level changes might
have played a contributory role.
4.0 CONCLUSIONS
The archaeological evidences in the intertidal zone and offshore are confirmed that they are
belong to Sangam period (3rd Century BC to 3rd Century AD) based on the antiquity. Evidences
in the inter-tidal zone, hydrographic charts, and the map of 17th Century at Tranquebar confirm
the shoreline advancement. This suggests that about 300m advancement of shoreline oc-
curred in last 300 years at an average rate of one meter per year. If the same rate was
continued for the last 2000 years then definitely ancient Poompuhar must have extended
828
much inside from the present coast. The relative sea level rise has undoubtedly been taking
place on coasts where the land margin is subsiding.
The study on waves and sediment movement shows that the Poompuhar coastline is sub-
jected to relatively low volume of transport and the annual net drift is negligibly small. It is seen
that the occurrence of prolonged high wave activity due to cyclone, during northeast monsoon
may tend to change the annual net transport towards south. Under such circumstances, the
large volume of southerly transport is likely to enter into the adjacent Palk Bay and partly
deposit as spits/shoals. Large accumulation of sand and emergence of such sand spits/
islands in Palk Bay have been widely reported. As the Palk Bay is well protected for southerly
waves, no mechanism is set to transport these deposited material towards north. This phe-
nomenon appears to be the primary reason for the timely depletion of sediment supply to the
littoral system and for the intermittent erosion along the Nagapattinam - Poompuhar coastal
segment. Such processes would have prevailed right from the historical period, accelerating
erosion in Poompuhar coast, which may continue till the coastline take the shape/orientation
to balance the littoral drift over an annual cycle. However, certain rate erosion bounds to prevail
due to the occurrence of cyclones in this region and the resultant loss of littoral sediments
into the Palk Bay.
The authors are thankful to the Director, National Institute of Oceanography, Goa for providing
the facilities to carryout explorations and to Director, of Archaeology, Government of Tamil
Nadu for financial support. The authors are thankful to Shri. KH Vora for suggestions and
guidance to prepare this manuscript. Thanks also due to the staff of marine archaeology
center and Dr. Mohan Rao and his colleagues at NIO-Regional Centre, Visakhapatnam, for
their help in geophysical survey and to the staff of Ocean Engineering Division, who helped
during the field measurements of waves and beach profiles.
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Bird, E. C. F 1985, Coastline changes, A global Review, A Wiley-Interscience Publication, Chichester, UK, 219
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Caldwell M Joseph, 1996, Coastal process and Beach erosion, Journal of the Society of Civil Engineers, 53,2
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829
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Indian National conference on Harbour and ocean engineering (Inchoe-97), Tiruvananthapuram, December
7-10 1997, 1127 1133.
Damodaran, K. 1992, Sites in and around Poompuhar. In Seminar on Marine Archaeology (ed.) Natana
Kashinathan, State Department of Archaeology, Madras, 71-74. Madras
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the last deglaciation in Geology, 24.9, 827-30.
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on the East Coast of India, Proceedings Volume of National Seminar: Four Decades of marine Geosciences
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Times evidence from Submerged wall of Vijaydurg Fort, First International Conference on Marine Archae-
ology of Indian Ocean Countries held at Chennai, 21-22 February, 1997.
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ography, Goa.
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Volume of Symposium on Deltas of the World held at New Orleans, Lousiana.
Nandakumar P., 1989, Manimekhalai, Tamil University, Thanjavur.
Pillai, R. S., 1989, Cilappatikaram, Tamil University, Thanjavur.150 pp
Raman, K. V. 1968. Excavations at Pumpuhar, A handbook of Second international Tamil Conference, Madras.
Rao, S. R., Rao, T. C. S., Gaur, A. S., Tripati S., Sundaresh and Gudigar, P. 1995-96, Underwater explorations
off Poompuhar Journal of Marine archaeology, NIO Goa, 5-6, 7-22.
Rao. S. R., 1965, Excavations at Kaveripattinam Transactions of the Archaeological Society of South India,
Madras.
Rao, S. R., 1991, Marine archaeological explorations of Tranquebar-Poompuhar region on Tamil Nadu coast,
Journal of marine archaeology, Goa, 2, 5-20.
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in marine archaeology, Goa, 60-64.
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of Marine Archaeology, 2, 21-31.
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on Marine Archaeology, ed. Natana Kashinathan, State Department of Archaeology, Madras, 17-22
Rao, T. C. S. and Mohan Rao, K. 1991, Geophysical and Magnetic survey for marine archaeological explorations
off Tranquebar, Tamil Nadu, Recent advances in marine archaeology, Goa, 127-129.
830
Sastry,V. V., Raju, A.T.R., Sinha, R. N., Venkatachal, B. S and Banarjee,R. K 1977, Biostratigraphy and evolution
of the Cauvery basin, Indian Journal of Geologial Society, India 18: 355-377.
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90, New Delhi.
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International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, London, 16(1).159-164.
Fig. 1. Location Map Fig.2. Figure showing the brick structure

exposed in the IZ near Kannagi statue at
Poompuhar
Fig. 3. Brick paved structure found in the IZ Fig. 4. Yelleyamman temple destroyed by the
at Vanagiri sea at Vanagiri
831
Fig. 5. Terracotta ringwell in the IZ at Fig. 6. Masalamani temple at Tranquebar
Chinnavanagiri.
Fig. 7. Exposed Brick well and Dansburg museum Fig. 8. A 17th Century. Map of Danish fort at
at Tranquebar Tranquebar
Fig. 9. Figure shows the palaeochannel of river Fig.10. Shifting of Kannagi statue due to coastal
Kaveri. (source NIO Technical report) erosion
832
SOME RECENT FIELD RADIOTRACING STUDIES ON

BEDLOAD TRANSPORT IN INDIAN COAST
Noble Jacob1, U. Saravana Kumar, U.P. Kulkarni, A.S. Pendharkar, G.N. Mendhekar and
S.V. Navada
Isotope Applications Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai
Abstract
This paper briefly describes some of the recent radiotracing studies carried out to understand
the bedload transport characteristics under different hydrodynamic and hydro-meteorological
conditions near inshore channel in Kandla port, New Kandla and near Sagar Island in the Hugli
estuary, Kolkata, India. In all the studies, radioactive 46Sc glass powder was injected on the
seabed and subsequent movement was monitored using g scintillation detectors. Radiotracer
study at Kandla port indicates that the tidal asymmetry, with dominating flood tides, along
with the coastal geometry of the area is responsible for the bedload transport towards the
landward side. The radiotracer studies conducted in Hugli estuary in a fair weather season,
southwest monsoon and summer season reveal that the river discharges play a dominant role
in the sediment transport dynamics of the estuary. Also, storm induced turbulence is respon-
sible for the sediment transport during monsoon season. Thus, the studies portrait the appro-
priateness and usefulness of radiotracing techniques in understanding the various mecha-
nisms responsible for sediment transport in coastal environments.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Knowledge of bedload transport processes and pathways in coastal zones is critical in under-
standing the response of coastal geomorphology to natural events and evaluating the suitabil-
ity of sites for coastal engineering projects such as the construction of breakwaters, jetties,
groins etc. and impact of dredging activities for the development and maintenance of ports and
harbours. Conceptual understanding of sediment dynamics and estimation of transport rates
in coastal environments under various hydrodynamic conditions are some of the challenges
currently faced by coastal engineers and oceanographers. The net coastal circulation and the
associated sediment transport mechanisms are highly complex and are generally controlled
by the relative magnitudes of tidal currents, turbulence induced by winds and associated
waves, freshwater discharges, coastal geometry and other hydro-meteorological conditions.
Hence, there is no straightforward approach to study the sediment transport processes. Physi-
cally based transport equations are widely used to estimate sediment transport fluxes (some
recent examples: Bayram et. al., 2001; Camenen et. al., 2003 etc.). These equations pa-
rameterize natural sediment transport phenomena in terms of empirically derived constants.
However, these constants are generally site specific and the predictive capabilities of the
models are severely impeded by the lack of accurate field data. The sediment transport char-
Corresponding author: e-mail: noblej@magnum.barc.ernet.in
1
833
acteristics can also be inferred from field studies such as bathymetric surveys (Martin et. al.,
1995), dredged volumes from channels (Galvin, 1982; van Rijn, 1986) and sediment accumu-
lation traps (Sanil Kumar et. al., 2003), which are not accurate in various spatial and temporal
scales. Alternatively, radiotracer technology offers a viable approach in identifying the sedi-
ment transport pathways and estimating velocity and rate of transport, besides providing real
time data for the determination of field specific parameters used in models.
This paper briefly reviews some of the recent field radiotracing studies carried out to under-
stand the bedload transport characteristics near the inshore channel in Kandla port, New
Kandla and near Sagar Island in the Hugli estuary, Kolkata, India.
2.0 FIELD RADIOTRACER EXPERIMENTS AND MONITORING
In order to understand the bedload transport pathways and estimate velocity, thickness and
rate of transport, a series of radiotracer experiments were conducted recently in Kandla port,
New Kandla and near Sagar Island in the Hugli estuary, Kolkata (Fig. 1). In Kandla port,
radiotracer injection was carried out near the inshore channel during a high water slack period,
whereas, three injections were made in the sea face near Sagar dumping ground in the Hugli
estuary under various hydro-meteorological conditions. In the Hugli estuary, the first experi-
ment was conducted in a fair weather season, second, during southwest monsoon and third
during summer season, when the river discharge is low. These studies were conducted in
collaboration with the respective port authorities to ascertain the feasibility of dumping sites
for the safe disposal of dredged spoil from the navigational channels.
Fig. 1. Location Map of the Study Area
834
2.1 Radiotracer Preparation
Since the physico-chemical properties and hydrodynamic behaviour of glass powder is similar
to that of sediments, radioactive 46Sc (half life: 84 days) in the form of scandium glass powder
was used as the tracer in all the studies. For the preparation of the radiotracer material, 1%
scandium is added to the glass while melting, which is milled to the same particle size
distribution as that of the native sediment and then activated in the nuclear reactor.
2.2 Tracer Injection and Monitoring

Prior to the radiotracer injection at the sites, background surveys were extensively carried out
for natural background radiation in the possible area of sediment movement. 50 gm of the
radiotracer is then mixed with ~5 kg of native sediment and injected on the sea bed using a
specifically designed injection apparatus.
Post injection surveys were conducted in various spatial and temporal scales for monitoring
the movement of labeled sediment. In these surveys, the scintillation detector mounted on a
sledge was towed behind the survey launch over the seafloor. The detection unit consists of a
highly sensitive waterproof probe with a gamma scintillation counter. The probe is a NaI (Tl)
crystal coupled with photomultiplier tube. The track of the survey launch was fixed by Differen-
tial Global Positioning system (DGPS) logged to a PC available onboard.
3.0 ANALYSIS OF RADIOTRACER DATA
The obtained radiotracer concentrations were corrected for natural background radiation and
radioactive decay and isocount contour maps were prepared.
3.1 Transport Velocity

The cumulative of counts multiplied by the lateral distance of spread (Scpm x m), at regular
interval perpendicular to the general axis of transport is plotted for each tracking. These dia-
grams are called transport diagrams and each is characterized by its center of gravity (c.g.).
Center of gravity is determined by the following formula.
X=
∫ Cxdx (1)
∫ Cdx
3.2 Transport Thickness

The determination of transport thickness is based on the count rate balance. The area under
each transport diagram (cpm x m2) gives an estimate of activity accounted for each tracking.
As bed-load moves, the tracer gets mixed within the thickness of the moving bed. This depth
835
of tracer burial is called transport-thickness and is the mean distance between the surface of
the bed and the most deeply buried radioactive particles. The total integrated count rate N
(cpm x m2) observed during the tracking is related to the transport thickness by the following
relation:
βKA(1 − e −αE ) (2)
N=
αE
where :
N=
∫∫ n. ds the count rate integrated over the whole surface area of tracer patch,
K= Calibration factor of the detector used (4260 cpm/µCi/m2),
A= Total activity injected (Ci),
α= Attenuation coefficient characteristic of the isotope, bed material and geometry of

detector (0.15/cm for Scandium-46),
E= Transport thickness (cm),

β= Function of transport thickness and the shape of distribution of tracer concentration
with depth. (The value of β is taken as unity, assuming that the distribution of tracer
within the moving bed is uniform).
3.3 Transport Rate

The bed load transport rate Q ( tonnes / day) can be expressed as :
Q= ρ . l. V . E (3)
m
where :
ρ= Sediment bulk density (1.5 tonnes / m3)
l= Width of transport (m)
V Mean velocity of transport (m/d)

m=
E= Transport thickness (m)
4.1 Radiotracer Experiment at Kandla Port

In Kandla port, the radiotracer injection was carried out on 24th November 2001. About 4.95 Ci
of radioactive 46Sc glass powder with a particle size distribution of 60-100 µm was injected
near the inshore channel, about 1.3 km north of Sogal shipping channel, during a high water
836
slack (Fig. 1). This spoil dumping site was selected because of the available depth close to
the shipping channel and to prevent further development of the inshore channel, which other-
wise would have severe environmental and economical consequences to the port. Three post
injection surveys were conducted for monitoring the movement of labeled sediment (i.e., after
2 hours, 10 days and 26 days after the injection). During the first tracking, it was noticed that
the finer particles followed the tidal currents and moved almost 2 km towards the (southwest)
sea whereas the coarser sediments more or less remained near the injection point (Fig. 2a).
The observed spread towards (northeast) inland side may be because of underwater currents
that probably would not have reversed. In the second and third trackings, the predominant
direction of transport was towards the inland side along the inshore channel. It shows that the
net tidal circulation with dominating flood tides is responsible for the movement of sediment
towards the inland side. The slope of the seabed and the available depth in the inshore chan-
nel may be favouring the bedload transport. Two separate radiotracer patch was observed
during third tracking (Fig. 2b). This indicate that even though most of the labeled sediment
moved and deposited in the inshore channel, there is slight tendency for the sediments to
move further ahead towards the northeast direction. The transport diagram is shown in figure
3. In this tracking, about 2% of total activity was recovered from the Sogal shipping channel.
The estimated average transport velocity and rate of sediment transport being 115 m/day and
6.9 t/day/m width of the plume, respectively. The other sediment transport characteristics are
given in Table2.
Fig. 2. Isocount Contour Maps Showing the Spread of Labeled Sediment (a) After 2 hrs (first tracking) and
(b) After 26 Days of Injection (third tracking).
Table 1. Estimated sediment transport characteristics in Kandla Port
#
Tracking Days after Location of Vm E Q % of activity
No. injection c.g. (m) (m/d) (cm) (t/day/m) Recovered
1 1 -280 95
2 10 +1300 160 3.5 8.4 74
3 26 +3140 70 5.1 5.4 62
#
positive means towards northeast direction
837
70000
Σ (counts x width of the plume) (cpm km)

60000
first tracking
second tracking
50000 third tracking
40000
30000 injection point
20000
10000
1.3 km 3.1 km
0.28 km
0
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
southwest northeast
longitudinal distance along the axis of the plum e (km )
Fig. 3. Transport Diagram for the Kandla Experiment.
4.2 Radiotracer Experiments near the Sagar Dumping Buoy in the Hugli
Estuary
Over a span of five years, three radioactive tracer experiments were carried out at the sea
face, near the Sagar dumping buoy in the Hugli estuary, Kolkata under various hydro-meteo-
rological conditions. Here, the particle size of bed sediments varies from 45 to 150 mm. The
first experiment was conducted in a fair weather season, second, during southwest monsoon
and third during summer season, when the river discharge is low. For the first experiment,
about 10 Ci of 46Sc was injected on 17th Nov. 1998 during the onset of neap ebb tide (Pendharkar
et al, 2000). Three monitoring surveys were carried out (i.e., after a tidal cycle, 13 days and 34
days after the injection of the tracer). It is seen that the predominant direction of bedload
movement was towards south (seawards). But the centre of gravity of the labeled sediment
had shifted slightly towards the northern side of the injection point during the third tracking.
The second experiment was conducted from June to September 2000 during the monsoon
period. About 2.7 Ci of 46Sc was injected on 2nd of June, 2000 during a spring low water slack
period (Noble Jacob et al., 2001). From the first (after a tidal cycle) to third (37 days after
injection) trackings, the sediment movement was towards the sea. In the fourth tracking (70
days after injection), the direction of transport had reversed towards north (landwards) and
~12% of activity was recovered from the navigational channel. The activity noticed in the
channel had further moved towards north along the channel during the fifth tracking (99 days
after injection). It is observed that the bed load transport during the experimental period was
not predominantly uni-directional and the monsoon storm has effect on the movement of bed
sediment.
The third experiment was conducted during summer season (March to May 2003). About 7 Ci
of 46Sc was injected on 19th March, 2003 during a low water slack period. Three trackings were
838
carried out: after a day, 23 days and 62 days of injection. During this experiment, bed load
movement was uni-directional and towards north (landwards) unlike the previous two experi-
ments. During the second tracking, about 11% of total activity was found in the navigational
channel, whereas during the third tracking it had increased to 69%. Also, the centre of gravity
of the sediment plume had moved to about 4.2 km north of injection point. The sediment
transport characteristics estimated from the three experiments are given in Table 2.
From the three radiotracer experiments conducted in the Hugli estuary, it is seen that the river
discharges play a dominant role in the sediment transport processes. During non-summer
months, when the river discharges are high, the flood tidal currents are resisted by river flows
and the bed sediments are transported towards the sea. Whereas during summer season,
because of reduced flow in the river, flood tides are dominating and transport sediments to-
wards the landward side. Storm induced turbulence may be responsible for the sediment
movement towards the channel during monsoon season. Changing bathymetry of the dump-
ing ground due to long-term continuous dumping activities may also be responsible for the
sediment movement towards the navigational channel.
Table 2. Estimated sediment transport characteristics in Hugli estuary.
#
Tracking Days after Location of Vm (m/d) E Q % of activity
No. injection c.g. (m) (cm) (t/d/m) recovered
First experiment (fair weather season)
1 1 -435 433 2.6 16.7 80
2 13 -770 27 10.8 4.4 19
3 34 +825 74. 11.4 12.7 14
Second experiment (monsoon season)
1 1 -200 203 5.7 17.4 *57
3 37 -720 14 >90
4 70 +1310 59 - >90
Third experiment (summer season)
1 1 +15 15 *65
2 23 +910 41 96
3 62 +4230 53 4.1 3.3 69
#
positive means towards northeast direction
*lower recovery is because of logistical problems in the field
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
From the radiotracer study carried out at Kandla port, it can be concluded that that the tidal
asymmetry with dominating flood tides along with the coastal geometry of the area is respon-
sible for the bedload transport towards the landward side. Whereas, the radiotracer studies
conducted in Hugli estuary in a fair weather season, southwest monsoon and summer season
reveal that the river discharges play a dominant role in the sediment transport dynamics of the
estuary. Also, storm induced turbulence is responsible for the sediment transport in Hugli
estuary during monsoon season.
839
Thus the above case studies vividly describe the appropriateness and usefulness of radiotracing
techniques in understanding the various mechanisms responsible for sediment transport in
coastal environments.
The authors thank Kolkata & Kandla port authorities and scientists of Central Water & Power
Research Station (CWPRS) for their help during the field studies.
REFERENCES
Bayram A., Larson M., Miller H.C., Kraus N.C., 2001, Cross-shore distribution of longshore sediment transport:
comparision between predictive formulas and field measurements, Coastal Engineering, 44, 79-99.
Camenen B., Larroude P., 2003, Comparision of sediment transport formulae for the coastal environment, Coastal
Engineering, 48, 111-132.
Galvin C., 1982, Shoaling with bypassing for channels at tidal inlets, Proceedings of 18th Coastal Engineering
Conference, ASCE.
Martin Y., Church M., 1995, Bed material transport estimated from channel surveys: Vedder River, British
Columbia, Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 20, 336-347.
Noble Jacob, Kulkarni U.P., Mendhekar G.N., Navada S.V., 2001, Radiotracer investigation on bed load movement
near Sagar dumping buoy in the Hoogly estuary, Calcutta, Proceedings of a Conference on Dredging
Challenges of the Millennium, Eastern Dredging Association (India), Pune, 22-23.
Pendharkar, A.S. Noble Jacob, Agashe S.M., Yelgaonkar V.N., Navada S.V., 2000, Radiotracer experiment near
Sagar dumping buoy in the Hoogly estuary, Proceedings of NARRI annual conference on plans and strate-
gies for applications of radioisotopes and radiation technology in the new millennium, Mumbai, 266-269.
Sanil Kumar V., Anand N.M., Chandramohan P., Naik G.N., 2003, Longshore sediment transport rate-measure-
ment and estimation, central west coast of India, Coastal Engineering, 48 95-109.
van Rijn L.C., 1986, Sedimentation of dredged channels by current and waves, Journal of Waterway, Port,
Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Vol 112(5) 318-340.
840
COMPLEXITIES OF DREDGING AT KANDLA PORT TRUST
G. S. Rao
Kandla Port Trust, New Kandla, Gujarat
Abstract
The port of Kandla is located on the west bank of Kandla Creek at the eastern end of Gulf of
Kutch along the west coast of India. From the pilot station of Kandla Port, the total length of
Navigational Channel is about 27.7 km. Out of the above channel, a critical reach of only about
2.3 km. is having very less depths. The present Approach channel called the Sogal Channel
(in which the critical reach exists) is dredged through out the year. A minimum navigable depth
of about 6.0 m below C.D. was achieved in stages by Oct.2004 from that of 3.7 m available in
1984 when the Sogal channel was commissioned for navigation of ships. By carrying out the
required maintenance as well as capital dredging from the year 2000 onwards, Kandla port
has already achieved a draft of 11.5 m.by 31/10/2004 and the port has planned to increase the
present draft from 11.5 m. to 13.5 m. in phases by 2006-07.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Kandla one among 12 major ports in India, is located on the west bank of Kandla creek at the
Eastern end of Gulf of Kutch along the West coast of India. The location of the Kandla port
is shown in Fig. 1. The port of Kandla is an all-weather natural port and caters to the needs of
the Northwestern and Northern regions of India. It currently ranks 2nd among Indian ports in
terms of cargo handling .The port has an advantage of locating its port facilities (ie. cargo
berths, oil jetties, maintenance jetty, dry dock, mooring areas, safe anchorage points, berthing
jetty etc.) in the deep tranquil waters of Kandla creek having natural depths of about 10 to
12m. below Chart Datum (CD) The absence of any shallow area in the 13km. long Kandla
Creek up to the outfall in the gulf is of an additional advantage. The deep waters from the Gulf
of Kutch and the deep waters of the Kandla creek (Rao and Mitra, 1990) are, however, sepa-
rated by a natural formation of a shallow area called bar. It can be seen from the Figs.2 and
3 that, out of the total length of navigational channel of 27.7km from outer Tuna pilot station,
only a critical reach (an unstable bar) of about 2.3km is having very less depths.
It is, therefore, a difficult task for Kandla Port Trust (KPT) to provide a viable, and stable
approach channel for safe navigation of the ships/tankers to port of Kandla across the bar area
(Rao, 1997b). This area in the approaches to Kandla Port is a bottleneck which controls the
permissible draft for ships /tankers that can enter or leave the port of Kandla and the optimally
loaded ships/tankers can only ply by taking advantage of the rise of the tide.
Corresponding author: e-mail: hekpt2000@yahoo.com

1
841
In this paper, complexities of dredging in the Navigational Channel leading to Kandla Port are
discussed & how the port is coping up with the same are detailed. By surmounting the
problems, Kandla Port has been marching ahead in increase of shipping draft for handling of
bigger vessels carrying larger parcel size.
2.0 APPROACH CHANNEL AND SILTATION PROBLEMS
The Kandla Port is located at 120km from the head of Gulf of Kutch on the west bank of
Kandla Creek (Fig. 3) The creek is aligned along the geographical NorthSouth direction
where as Gulf of Kutch is mainly East- West oriented which bends over the Kandla Creek
under an angle of nearly 900. The approaches to Kandla creek are very shallow due to the
presence of moving shoals. Since Kandla is a tidal port, it is required that shipping move-
ments as well as dredging operations are to be carried out simultaneously around high tide
stages twice everyday. Therefore it is essential to have proper coordination so that shipping
movements and dredging operations can be carried out at the same time in the critical section
of the channel during the tidal window. The tides at Kandla are semi diurnal and the observed
values of tide at Kandla with reference to local CD show that the tidal range varies up to a
maximum of 7.2m. during normal spring tides.The approach Channel between buoy Nos. 8 to
12(Fig.4) is known as Sogal Channel having a length of about 4.1km. Due to an abrupt change
in the orientation between Kandla Creek and approach area to Kandla Creek (where the Sogal
Channel is located), the flow has a marked turn while entering and passing out of the creek.
This results in the convergence and divergence of the flow in the approach area during the
Flood and Ebb stages of tides respectively. Therefore the strong flow passing out of the
Kandla Creek spreads laterally and after negotiating the bend a component of it moves along
the Sogal Channel (Rao, 2004b). This causes spatial variations in the velocities. The velocities
of 2.2 m/s. & 1.7 m/s prevail in Kandla creek & Sogal channel respectively. It has been
observed that Ebb velocities are stronger than Flood velocities in both the Sogal Channel and
Kandla Creek. Due to the insignificant wave action at Kandla, the main mechanism causing
morphological changes in the approach area is strong tidal currents with their transportation
of the material as bed load transport and suspended sediment transport. The water at Kandla
area is very turbid having high sediment concentration of 2 to 3 parts per thousand, which
mainly consist of silt and fine sand. As per the float track observations conducted by KPT, it
is seen that flood flow crosses obliquely from Southeasterly direction the Sogal Channel,
which causes siltation. However Ebb flow is along the Sogal Channel and there is no oblique
flow through the Easterly and Northeasterly direction. The Sogal Channel has two distinct
regions, with the regard to the flow conditions i.e. the down stream and up stream of Channel
with reference to buoy No. 9A (Fig. 4) and accordingly these regions prone to different siltation
rates. High siltation rate is noticed between buoy No.10 to 12 compared to the remaining part
of the Sogal Channel. It is observed from regular surveys conducted by KPT that the north-
western edge of the Sogal Channel has a tendency to encroach in to the shipping channel
where as the East edge remains quite stable. Thus concentrated dredging activity has to
carried out along Western portion of the Sogal Channel to contain encroachment of the shal
842
low Western edge in to the shipping channel so as to maintain required depth for the safe
navigation of the ships.
3.0 DREDGING DETAILS
The encroachment of the Western edge of Sogal Channel towards the navigational track as
mentioned earlier causes considerable siltation (Rao,1997a) and results in adverse effect on
the stability of the Channel from navigational and dredging considerations leading to serious
problems for the port operations. Therefore dredging has been carried out through out the year
to contain the encroachment. The dredging records are maintained on a daily basis, for moni-
toring of dredging work being carried by KPT. Usually DCI dredgers IX /XI of 4500cu.m hopper
size are deployed for dredging operations in the Sogal Channel. As per the daily dredging
reports submitted by DCI dredge IX / XI deployed at Kandla port for dredging in its Sogal
channel during the year 2003-04, a time period of about two hours is taken for each dredging
cycle and accordingly dredger can take about 12 loads per day. Average quantity (Hoppered)
per load is approximately 1370 cu.m. The D-50 particle size of the dredged solids is approxi-
mately 0.08 mm and the material is predominantly fine sand mixed with silt. As per the
calculations carried out, it is seen that average concentration of the solid material in the
hopper is about 30.4% and a maximum concentration of 33.3% could be obtained. The quan-
tum of dredging carried out in the Sogal Channel for last 10 years by KPT is show in the Table
1.
Table 1.Quantity of dredging (Hoppered) in the approach channel to Kandla Port during last ten years
Sr.No. Year Quantity dredged (in Lakh cu..m.) Maintenance /Capital Dredging
01 1994-95 32.87 Maintenance
02 1995-96 32.50 ..do
03 1996-97 34.93 ..do
04 1997-98 36.70 ..do
05 1998-99 26.12 ..do
06 1999-2000 40.49 ..do
07 2000-01 35.55 Capital and Maintenance
08 2001-02 34.30 ..do
09 2002-03 40.94 ..do
10 2003-04 41.76 ..do
From the dredged quantities, it can seen that on an annual average, a quantity of about 3.55
million cu.m was dredged during last 10 years in the Sogal Channel and maintenance as well
as capital dredging have been carried out since 2000.
843
Pertaining to the dredging work, following problems were encountered by KPT:
(a)The seabed material in the approach area to Kandla Creek (where the Sogal Channel is
located) consists of silty fine sand, which gets very easily disturbed and displaced due to
prevailing strong tidal currents.
(b) Due to unscheduled /sudden withdrawal of the dredger from the Sogal Channel for repairs
/dry-docking, the depths get adversely affected due to non-availability of dredger.
(c) Kandla Port was affected by the natural calamities like Cyclone that occurred on 9th June-
1998, a devastating earthquake that hit on 26th Jan-2001 etc. Due to the above cyclone, all the
navigational channel marking buoys were drifted from the dredging area and DGPS (position
fixing system) became non-functional. Therefore no dredging work could be carried out for a
considerable period. Further, since survey launch of the port got wrecked, hydrographic survey
could not be conducted. Hence, in the aftermath of above cyclone, no latest hydrographic
chart was available for a considerable period for navigation of ships as well as dredging pur-
pose. Due to the occurrence of the earthquake on 26th Jan-2001, the survey work could not be
conducted due to urgent need of staff for salvaging /restoration works. Further whenever KPT
gets cyclone warnings from India Meteorological Department, as a precautionary measure,
the survey and the dredging works have been suspended on several occasions.
(d) During the Southwest monsoon period, since survey launch cannot go to the Sogal Chan-
nel area due to the strong winds and considerable swells, surveys are not carried out. There-
fore, no survey charts are available during the major portion of the monsoon period every year.
(e)As per the analysis carried out, The maximum concentration of the solid material in the
4500 cu.m hopper of the DCI dredge IX/XI is 33.3% only. Therefore, output of the dredger is
less compared to it in other major ports.
(f) The critical area between buoy Nos. 10 to 12 i.e. X3 of Sogal Channel shown in Fig- 4
requires concentrated (about 75% of total dredging efforts) to maintain the adequate depth.
Due to the movement of the ships in the same area of the Channel, during day & night time the
dredger has not be able to carry out the dredging works in a planned manner and the officers
manning the dredger should be experienced.
(g) Sogal Channel requires continuous dredging. Due to wear and tear, no single dredger can
work through out the year effectively and same requires replacement. Since KPT is at the
Northern end of the west coast of India, it takes considerable time for the replacement dredger
to reach Kandla.
844
(h) Despite of continuous huge dredging efforts, the encroachment of western edge of Sogal
Channel in to the navigational track could not be arrested. As the result of which, KPT has to
shift the navigational track on several occasions whenever it became necessary. From the
Fig. 5, it can be been seen that in comparison to position location of the navigable track in the
year 1986, same was required to be shifted about 175m.towards the Northeasterly direction
by 1998.
The Sogal Channel, which was commissioned for navigation of the ships on 29/02/1984 with
a minimum navigable depth of 3.7 m. Below C.D. It can been seen from the Table 2 that
Navigable depth was increased in stages (except during the period 1995-1996 during which
the Navigable depth was required to be reduced although a quantity of 32.5 Lakh cu.m. was
dredged). The analysis has shown that non-availability of the dredger and consequently in
adequate dredging has affected the depth in the Sogal Channel during 1995-96 .
Table 2. Navigable depth (minimum) in the Approach Channel (i.e. Sogal Channel) of KPT
Sr.No. Period Minimum Navigable depth in m.

1 29/02/1984-30/04/1984 3.7
2 01/05/1984-25/10/1984 4.0
3 26/05/1984-30/09/1995 4.3
4 01/10/1995-31/12/1995 3.7
5 01/01/1996-30/06/1996 4.0
6 01/07/1996-31/10/1996 4.3
7 01/11/1996-31/12/2000 4.6
8 01/01/2001-30/09/2001 4.8
9 01/10/2001-31/03/2002 5.2
10 01/04/2002-31/03/2003 5.5
11 01/01/2004-31-10-2004 5.7
12 01/11/2004-Cont. 6.0
It is found that increase in the minimum navigable depth during 2001-2004 as per the Table 2
is higher in comparison with that of previous period i.e. 1984-2000 due to the following rea-
sons:
845
(a) The deployment of a higher capacity dredger of 4500 cu.m. hopper capacity i.e. DCI
dredge IX/XI built in 1984/1986 respectively in comparison with that of DCI dredge VI built in
the year1974 (of hopper capacity 3700 cu.m), & Kutch Vallabh built in 1975 (of hopper
capacity 2500 cu.m).
(b) Acquisition of a sophisticated, state of the art survey vessel NIRISHAK, other Survey and
data processing equipment, (i.e. DGPS, PDS 1000 software etc.) in the year 1999 facilitated
KPT to have reliable and accurate hydrographic survey charts. It enabled KPT better planning
of its dredging work and improved production by effective utilization of the hired dredger.
(c) Till 1998-99, KPT was paying on chartered rates (ie. daily higher charges) for the dredgers
carrying out dredging work in the Sogal Channel, Subsequently since 01/04/1999, KPT imple-
mented the method of payment on production oriented basis (ie. quantity measured in hopper
of the dredger) .
(d) A devastating Cyclone hit Kandla region on 9th June 1998. The water level at Kandla was
more than 9 m compared to highest high water of 7.5 m under normal conditions. The above
occurrence due to the passage of cyclone eye over Kandla region was coupled with high
spring tide prevailing on the above day. As per the technical report of 2003 submitted by
CWPRS, Pune, improvement in the depth in the Channel was clearly evident and same was
more than 1 m. and this can be mainly attributed to the cyclone. In their report, it is further
mentioned that the Channel continued to improve its depth & the deep patches developed
after the cyclone had influenced the flow conditions in the approach channel of KPT.
(e) On 26/01/2001, a catastrophic earthquake shocked Kutch region (in which Kandla port is
located). By analyzing the survey data CWPRS, Pune have mentioned in their above report
that the channel has gained deeper depth of more than 7 m in certain sections.
As per Mathai, et al, (2003), the deepening of the outer navigational channel of KPT conse-
quent to the earthquake is confirmed by the presence of 9 m isobaths within the Channel
compared to previous maximum Channel depth of 8 m.
4.0. FUTURE DREDGING PLANS of KPT
As shown in Table 2 KPT has already achieved a minimum navigable depth of 6 m below CD
in stages by October 2004 from that of 3.7 m when the Channel was opened for navigation in
1984. Accordingly, Kandla Port has a draft of 11.5 m at present with maximum length overall
of ships of 240 m for ships. The Port has planned to increase the present draft from 11.5 m to
13.5 m in the Sogal Channel in phases by carrying out required capital dredging. The port has
entered the panamax era when it constructed and started operating its 11th cargo berth from
December 2003 and it is poised for post panamax vessels. KPT is committed towards
846
improvement of the infrastructure by developing four more cargo berths in line with its newly
constructed 11th cargo berth at kandla. All these cargo berths would have a draft of 13.5 m to
facilitate handling of Panamax size vessels. Kandla Port has also a plan to develop a con-
tainer terminal at cargo berth No. 11 and the proposed cargo berth No.12 for which an assured
minimum draft of 12.5 m has been committed. Therefore a minimum depth of 8.3 m below CD
in the entire Sogal Channel is targeted by 2006-07 from the present level of 6 m. below CD
(Rao, 2004a). The increase in the draft will place Kandla Port on par with other major ports
where post panamax vessels are handled. Another aspect is that from next year onwards,
Kandla Port is going to have dredging based on guarantied depth with progressive improve-
ment instead of hopper volume based payment being carried out currently.
5.0 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am grateful to KPT for giving me permission to prepare and send this paper for the confer-
ence. The hydrographic surveys and the data processing for plotting of figures carried out by
our Survey Section/Cartographic Section are duly acknowledged by me. I am thankful to Shri
U.V.Purendare,Joint Director & Shri T.Nagendra,Chief Reserch Officer,CWPRS, Pune for
their valuable suggestions. I am also thankful to Shri Ramesh Sorthiya , Scientific Assistant
and Shri Kishor Chawda, Jr.Scientific Assistant of our Division for providing the Meteorological
data.
REFERENCES
CWPRS, Pune, 2003 Technical report No.3963 on behavior of Sogal Channel at Kandla Port during 1995 to 2002
submitted to Kandla Port.
Rao.G.S. and Mitra A.K. 1990, A numerical model for the simulation of tidal flow in the Gulf of Kachchh, Technical
report of I.I.T. New Delhi.
Rao. G. S. 1997a The siltation and dredging problems in the approach channel to Kandla Port, Proceedings of
dredging symposium held at Chennai, by Eastern Dredging Association (EADA), India.
Rao. G. S. 1997b, The approach Channel to the Port of Kandla, Proceedings of 2nd Indian National conference on
Harbour and Ocean Engineering held at Tiruvananthapuram. pp 867-872.
Rao. G. S. 2004 (a). Bars no more bar to Kandla traffic, Coastal Gujarat, Journal on Shipping and Ports, 18-20.
RAO G.S. (b) Complex Hydraulics in the Navigational Channel to the port of Kandla accepted for presentation
in 4th International symposium on Environmental Hydraulics (ISEH) and14th congress of asia & pacific
division of the inter-national association of hydraulics engineering and research (IAHR-APD) To be held in
Hong Kong during 15-18 December, 2004.
Thomas Mathai,Satish Kumar,S.B.Nair,M.R.Asokakumar,P.J.Ittykunju and S.V.Hegde, 2003. Post-disaster mor-

phometric and structural changes in the Kandla Port as recorded from the resurvey of the area, News letter
of Marine wing Geological Survey of India , Cochin, pp 8-11.
847
Fig. 1. Location Map of Kandla Port
Fig. 2. Depths along the Navigation Channel of Kandla Port
Fig. 3. Approach Channel to Kandla Port
848
Fig. 4. Three zones of Sogal channel, KPT
Fig. 5. Shifting of Sogal channel of KPT since 1985
849
A NEW LOOK AT REMOVING MUD FROM MARINAS

AND PORTS
Terry Healy
Coastal Marine Group, University of Waikato, New Zealand
Abstract
Dredging of mud from ports and harbours has often been a difficult exercise. In this paper a
concept of utilizing the natural tidal flows is explored for the situation of removing non-contami-
nated mud from a marina using the technology of mud re-suspension and re-injection into the
ebb tidal flows generated by a relatively large tidal range. For this case study, the sediments
deposited in the marina from natural tidal inflows comprise medium silts; they originate in the
adjacent shallow marine environment. The deposited silts are demonstrated to be chemically
non-contaminated for heavy metals. Theoretical transport distances are calculated for the
various size components of the silt. The concept was tested using hydraulic pumps for re-
agitation and re-suspension of the deposited silts, and visual evidence of the viability of the
concept is shown. Future research needs to be focused on numerical simulation of the flow of
the re-suspended silt plume out of the marina into the adjacent embayment, and on an opera-
tional model that determines the optimum time of the tidal cycle for the deposited muds for
any given part of the marina to be re-agitated and re-suspended.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Dredging mud has always posed a difficult problem. In earlier decades mud was often difficult
to physically remove, especially if it became agitated, disaggregated or fluidised, so the
dredge might often be collecting more ambient water than solid material. This was especially
the case for the old style poorly maneuverable bucket dredges. Muddy sediment re-agitated
and re-suspended could flow from the immediate area of dredging and re-deposit on adjacent
beaches, revetments, wharf piles or pier steps, in layers sufficient to smother the benthic
ecology (Cole et al., 1997; 2000; 2001) or foul adjacent sandy beaches. Then often the muds
from within the confines of an enclosed harbour were contaminated by drainage from local
industries or urban areas. Thus the action of dredging would release the contaminants often
heavy metals or organo-pesticides back into the water column, where they could further
disperse in the adjacent marine environment impacting on the benthic ecology, and perhaps
enter the food chain (Tian, et al., 1995; Healy, et al., 1997). In recent years, as environmental
controls have tightened and public expectations of a clean environment raised, the muddy
water itself has been regarded as a contaminant by the public, even though the mud might be
chemically uncontaminated (Ryan and Healy, 1991; Healy et al., 1989; 2002). Many of the
public choose not to recognize that many harbours are naturally sedimentologically muddy
rather than sandy (Healy, 2002).
Corresponding author, e-mail: t.healy@waikto.ac.nz
850
Over the past few decades, dredging, both maintenance and capital, and dredge spoil dis-
posal (Michels and Healy, 1999) has suffered public condemnation that on occasions may be
unjustified, especially for capital dredging of natural sediments (Healy, 1994). But more prob-
lems are associated with those ports where a sheltered enclosed harbour acts as a sediment
trap for fine suspended materials, which deposit and accumulates (Healy et al., 2002). Such
entrapment of mud and silt in artificially deepened harbours, marinas, and navigation channels
is a problem common to many marinas and ports (e.g. Healy et al., 1989; Lomb and Healy
2000).
This paper argues a case for removal of such recently deposited muds, assuming they are
essentially chemically uncontaminated, utilising the same process by which they arrived, viz.
by re-agitation and re-suspension of the muds to facilitate their transport away on the ebb tidal
currents. The example used is Pine Harbour Marina, which is located in a shallow marine
embayment to the east of Auckland, New Zealand.
2.0 BACKGROUND
Pine Harbour Marina (Figure 1) was constructed in 1986-87 from excavation of Miocene flysch
sediments comprising a shore platform, and recent alluvial deposits in a stream bed, to a
design depth of 2.4 m Chart Datum in the sheltered Howick-Beachlands embayment. The 800
m wide intertidal flats necessitated cutting a navigation approach channel through the tidal
flats to link the marina to the broad shallow embayment. Because this channel transects an
active littoral sediment transport zone, it acts as a trap for the sediments carried by the littoral
sediment transport processes. The resulting sediment deposition (predominantly fine sandy
mud) causes shoaling of the approach channel, affects vessel navigation to the marina, and
therefore requires maintenance dredging (Healy et al., 2002). However, not only does the
navigation channel act as a sediment trap, but the enclosed marina basin itself also suffers
long term siltation due to silt laden waters being transported into it on the flood tidal currents.
Fig 1. Location of Pine Harbour Marina in the Shallow Howick-Beachlands embayment.
851
3.0 THE SEDIMENTATION PROCESS
Research and observation of the sedimentary processes leading to deposition of material

within the approach channel (Hull 1996; Healy, Hull and Hume 2001) and within the marina
itself, identify that:
The siltation in the channel and marina results from natural sheltered shallow harbour and
estuarine sedimentation depositional processes - and occurs as a natural component of the
sedimentary regime in the Waitemata Harbour of Auckland.
The material deposited comprises primarily naturally occurring silt and clay particles trans-
ported within the littoral system of the Howick-Beachlands embayment. Predominantly the
mud particles are texturally well sorted medium silts.
The two major processes driving the sedimentation within the marina are identified as:
(a) Deposition arising from transportation into the channel and marina of silts suspended by
wind wave-generated agitation of the adjacent inter-tidal muddy sediments, which are taken
into fluid suspension with concentrations of order 200-300 mg/L. This process causes turbid
discoloration known as the estuarine turbid fringe and is well illustrated in Figure 2. When
such highly turbid waters are swept by the wind-forced wave and tidal currents into quieter
less turbulent waters of the marina, or settle below wave agitation levels in the navigation
approach channel, the suspended mud particles become deposited.
(b) Exacerbating this basic sedimentation process is the effect of eroded natural silt and clay
carried by fresh water flood discharges from the surrounding catchment. Following intense
rainfall events considerable discharge of clay and silt-rich catchment water - reaching sus-
pended sediment concentrations of 300-500 mg/L occurs (Figure 3). These catchment-
derived muddy fresh waters are less dense, and so float on the surface of the saline tidal
waters. When the fresh clay-rich waters mix with the saline tidal waters in a sheltered low-
turbulence environment, such as within the marina basin, both particle settling and floccula-
tion processes occur, enhancing the deposition of the fine silts and clays. Such processes
occur naturally throughout the shallow embayment (~ 3 m depth Chart Datum), and SCUBA
observations report that the resulting bottom sediments are typically fluffy and contain fluid
mud. Research and monitoring (Healy, 1997; Healy and Tian, 1998;) show that the sub-tidal
sea floor sediments immediately offshore from Pine Harbour marina likewise consist of fluffy
mud, i.e. silt and clay rich, with fluffy texture and are non-compacted, as illustrated, for
example, in the sediment textural data from Hull (1996). Moreover the NZ Hyrodgraphic Chart
5324 indicates that from the centre of the embayment and out to the Tamaki Strait the sea
floor sediments are composed of mud. More recent sediment sampling and observations
(1997-98) undertaken by SCUBA diver during dredging disposal monitoring confirms that the
sub-tidal sediments in the embayment are indeed very silty, with a fluffy consistency, and
evidently contain fluid mud (Healy, 1997; Healy, et al., 2002).
852
Fig. 2. The approach channel cut through the broad intertidal flats during an eb tide and showing turbid water
draining off the flats alongside the channel, and the estuarine turbid fringe.
Fig. 3. Muddy water outpouring from the stream adjacent to the marina.
4.0 THE NEED TO REMOVE SEDIMENTS DEPOSITED WITHIN THE

MARINA
The marina basin itself has consistently been infilling with muddy siltation since it was exca-
vated in 1988. A survey of the thickness of mud accumulation was undertaken in May 1998
using a SCUBA diver probing the silt thickness. Worst affected areas, where siltation reached
1.6 m in thickness, are immediately inside the marina entrance. Here the silt-laden currents
on the incoming tide are jetted through the entrance before diverging and decelerating, and the
suspended particles, finding themselves in quiet waters, settle out, forming a delta type de-
posit. Other small patches of thicker mud deposition occur close to the locations of some
storm-water discharge points into the marina, again attesting to the importance of the floccu-
lation process.
Worst affected in terms of the marina operations are the berths along the westernmost pier (H
pier). Here some of the largest vessels sit in a cradle of mud during low tides. This is because
853
a large eddy tends to form in the lee of the outer breakwater when a stiff westerly wind is
superimposed upon an incoming tidal current. Silt laden waters from the wave agitated turbid
fringe, or sometimes originating from the adjacent stream on the south side of the marina (Fig.
3), are transported into the marina behind the breakwater, and silts become deposited prefer-
entially in the lee near H pier. The resulting silt deposits have lead to considerable annoyance
of vessel owners, and friction between the marina operators and some of the affected berth
holders.
The environmental regulator, the Auckland Regional Council, recognised the necessity to
undertake maintenance dredging from time to time, and in 1999 granted a consent for conven-
tional dredging of the marina basin for up to 10,000 m3 per year. And at the same time the
marina commenced research on potential ways to remove the mud, which lead to the present
research ideas.
5.0 THE SELF-DRAINING PRINCIPLE - ESSENCE OF THE MUD RE-

MOVAL CONCEPT
An essential principle for removal of recently deposited mud, is to emulate nature and remove
it by utilizing the carrying capacity of natural tidal flows. Although the concept has been
practised in some countries for some centuries, this application may require development and
testing of technology appropriate to local scales and conditions.
As described above, for the case of Pine Harbour, the silt enters the marina because it is
debauched into the Howick-Beachlands embayment as muddy water from the surrounding
catchment following intense rainfall events, and/or agitated or stirred up by the wave action
within the embayment, especially in the estuarine turbid fringe on a day-to-day basis, but
over the entire estuarine embayment during a storm (Healy et al., 1999). Figure 4 illustrates
how turbid, high suspended load water from the adjacent stream to the south and under west-
southwest windy conditions, skirts around the marina outer perimeter and flows to the marina
entrance; on the flood tide the sediment-laden waters flow into the marina. However, as illus-
trated in Figure 5, the non-turbid ebb tidal currents flowing out of the marina entrain the
estuarine turbid fringe waters draining off the intertidal flats in eddies as the currents flow out
of the marina and down the navigation channel to discharge into the wider embayment.
Of note in Figure 6 is the dredge operation inducing a grey-blue-black turbid plume, which
likewise flows on down the navigation channel to the wider embayment, even though the tidal
waters still cover the adjacent inter-tidal flats, illustrating the role of the channel acting as the
primary conduit during the ebb tide.
854
Fig. 4. Muddy high suspended load water flowing around and into the marina on the flooding tide.
Fig. 5. Muddy water from the adjacent tidal flats being entrained and taken downstream in the marina channel
on the ebbing tide.
Fig. 6. Dark blue-grey turbid plumes from the dredge mainly floe down the channel on the ebbing tide.
The essence of this proposal is to emulate nature by re-agitating the silt in the marina (and the
navigation channel) at a time when the outgoing tidal currents will carry much of the sus-
855
pended silt and clay out of the marina, down the navigation channel, and back into the estuary
from whence it originated.
This is not a new concept, but had not been previously applied in New Zealand. According to
Ham Dredging (1997):
In the 17th century there was a type of sailing vessel in the Netherlands that pulled a huge
rake over the river bottom at low tide. It loosened material on the bottom and this was then
carried out to sea on the ebb tide.
There are several types of modern equivalent:
WID (Water Injection Dredging) is the high-tech version of this principle. It involves pumping
water at low pressure into the sediments through holes in a horizontal pipe located close to
the bottom. This puts the silt into suspension, and the plume of silt-laden water moves in a
direction that can be controlled. Because Water Injection Dredging moves the silt through the
action of gravity it is particularly energy-efficient, and consequently a clean and cost-effective
dredging method.
Mechanical agitation of the silt with a horizontal worm wheel, auger, or rotating brushes
(similar to a road gravel sweeper). The principle involved is the same, namely to mechanically
agitate the silt into suspension, and to allow the silt plume to move from the uplifted area
under the action of tidal currents.
Hydraulic suction of the sediments is another idea, with the sediments being passed through
a large churning pump to disaggregate them, such as illustrated in Figure 7.
Applying these, or similar technologies, to the recently deposited silts within a marina such
as Pine Harbour, at the appropriate time during the ebb tide, would result in a plume of silt
laden waters exiting the marina and travelling down the navigation channel as illustrated in
Figures 5 and 6. Clearly the amount of silt exiting the marina on any one ebbing tide would
depend on the amount and location of bottom material re-agitated, the tidal currents both
within and outside of the marina, the fall velocity of the silt particles, and the degree of mud
disaggregation possible to achieve during the re-agitation process. Clearly if the mud is not
fully disaggregated the large particles will sink with greater fall velocity, and therefore not travel
as far in the ebbing tidal currents.
6.0 SILTATION VOLUMES REQUIRING REMOVAL WITHIN PINE

HARBOUR MARINA
At Pine Harbour Marina a siltation thickness survey of May 1998, carried out by SCUBA diver
using a rod probe, showed that the average muddy deposition thickness measured was ~0.7
- 0.8 m, realising a total deposited volume within the marina of order ~ 50,000 - 60,000 m3.
This had accumulated since the marina opened in 1988, suggesting average annual deposi-
856
tion rates of 5000 - 6000 m3 per year. However, not all of that deposited sediment was required
to be removed for the marina to return to normal operation. Rather, an ongoing house-keeping
program of regular silt re-suspension at the various berths and fairways within the marina is
envisaged.
Previous work (Healy 1997) had demonstrated that the budget of muddy sediment input from
the catchments draining into the Howick-Beachlands embayment was of order 15,500 - 26,000
m3 per year, and that the total mud re-suspended by the several storm wave events expected
each year, and then re-deposited in the embayment, is of order 200,000 m3 per year. Thus the
volumes envisaged to be re-agitated (or dredged) and flushed from the marina by natural tidal
processes on an ongoing basis, are not a large proportion of the average total annual silt
deposited or re-deposited annually in the wider embayment. In explication: assuming the re-
agitation method were to be implemented within the marina, the volumes of bottom sediment
expected to be re-agitated are between 5,000 10,000 m3 per year for the first few years. This
represents about 2.5 5% of the annual muddy deposition within the Howick Beachlands
embayment.per year (Healy 1997). Once the worst affected areas of mud deposition within
the marina have been removed, i.e. from the analogous flood tidal delta zone of deposition
just inside the marina entrance, the annual amount expected to be re-agitated and flow out of
the marina would reduce to the average input volumes of 5000-6000 m3 per year, or about 2-3
% of the annual sediments deposited and re-deposited in the embayment each year.
Fig. 7. The hydraulic pump used to suck mud from the marina floor and eject it at the water surface.
857
Fig. 9. Looking Southwest: After a rain episode and a stiff SW wind the turbid plume at low tide originating
from the Waikopua Stream is moved along the eastern side of the bay, past the island and around to disperse
in Tamaki Strait.
The silt re-agitation operation envisaged is analogous to continuous house-cleaning. It is not

envisaged that the entire marina or port would suddenly be emptied of the mud deposits into
the wider environment, although as demonstrated above, for the case of Pine Harbour, relative
to the mud sediment budget of the entire embayment, that would hardly be a catastrophic
event. The up to 10,000 m3 per year of silt disturbance in the marina represents only a small
proportion of the total annual muddy sediment deposited in the Howick-Beachlands embayment.
Rather, for a marina or small port one could expect to devise a system that would be capable
of moving of order 5,000 -15, 000 m3 of deposited mud annually, mainly over the winter months
when vessel movements are least.If conventional dredging were adopted at Pine Harbour, then
up to 10,000 m3 per year would initially be removed and disposed of by the thin layer dispersal
over the existing disposal sites in the middle of the embayment (Healy and Tian, 1999).
However, as the annual rate of accumulation within the marina is about 5000 m3 per year, then
after removal of troublesome accumulation close to the entrance, subsequent dredging vol-
umes from the marina would be reduced to the long term housekeeping rates of accumula-
tion of ~5000 m3 per year.
In addition to re-agitation of the marina sediments, the re-agitation technology should also be
applied to the navigation channel because, depending upon the particle fall velocity, some
particles will need to be uplifted a number of times to reach the sub-tidal muddy silt zone of
the embayment. However although the channel sediments are largely mud, they also contain
significant sand and shelly gravel swept off the adjacent intertidal flats. We know that an
additional ~2,500 m3 of material, predominantly silty, becomes trapped in the navigation ap-
proach channel, which is currently dredged and disposed of by thin layer dispersal (Healy and
Tian 1999).
858
7.0 TEXTURE, FALL VELOCITY AND TRAVEL DISTANCE OF RE-SUS-
PENDED MARINA SILT
Mud deposited within the marina basin, which originates from the natural catchment erosion
and littoral turbid fringe, were investigated from 6 short cores collected within the marina by
SCUBA diver. Textural analysis using the standard pipette method was undertaken from the
top and bottom. The textural analyses revealed grain sizes of predominantly silt-sized par-
ticles. On average about 25% is classified as very coarse silt, about 67% as coarse silt or
coarser; about 75% as medium silt or coarser, and the remaining 25% falls within the fine to
very fine silt category, with minor amounts of clay sizes. The mean grain size using the
Malvern Analyzer was medium silt. This material by itself is a major natural component of the
marine environment, as shown in the sedimentary textural pattern of the embayment (Hull
1996).
For the concept of mud removal utilizing the natural tidal flows we clearly require knowledge of
the fall velocity of the uplifted particles through the water column, as well as knowledge of the
currents in the marina. Accordingly we obtained the distribution of particle settling or fall
velocities based on the grain size distribution curves and applying the Gibbs equation. As-
suming that average marina medium silts were agitated to the surface, were completely dis-
aggregated, and assuming a water depth of 3 m and a non-turbulent (quiescient) water col-
umn, then 25% of the material would take <50 minutes; 50% <100 minutes and 75% < 500
minutes (~ 8 hours) to settle through the 3 m of water column.
In addition we undertook a laboratory experiment on the settling of particles from the top and
bottom of the 6 cores collected and the results are summarised in Table 1.
Tidal current data collected by Hull (1996) adjacent to the 1300 m way-point channel markers
in the sub-tidal sector of the bay, gave mean speeds of 0.10-0.20 m/s, with stronger speeds
on the ebb tide. However, more recently (1999) 3 Aanderaa continuous recording current
meters were deployed within and near the marina entrance, and recorded significant times at
which currents near the entrance were of 10 cm/s, with peak speeds of 16 cm/s. Current
speeds in the inner marina were 4-6 cm/s. Subsequently deployment of FSI recording current
meters obtained values of up to 28 cm/s near the entrance, with mean maximum values of
about 16 cm/s.
Assuming still water conditions in the navigation approach channel - which is unrealistic as
there will likely be additional turbulence from waves or vessel wakes - the coarse silts falling
through the water column subjected to ebb tidal current speeds of 10 cm/s would travel ~300
m during the time it takes them to settle through 3 m of water column, while the medium silts
would be able to travel considerably further, ~ 600 m. The fine silts, assuming that they were
subjected to say 2 hours of ebbing tide, would be able to travel about 800 m, and exit the
859
length of the navigation approach channel during the last 2 hours of ebbing tide. If the water
column was subject to fluid turbulence (as generated from wind and wave action or current
flows, or vessel movements and propeller wash) then some of the silt particles would become
re-suspended and take longer to fall through the water column, and consequently travel greater
distances.
The implication is that the coarser silts will need to be re-agitated more than once to com-
pletely exit the marina and the navigation channel. Thus after initial re- agitation coarse silts
deposited near the marina entrance might be expected toexit the marina and become depos-
ited in the channel. Upon another re-agitation on the ebbing tide they would be expected to
reach the outer section of the channel, and ultimately they would reach sub-tidal areas,
thereby joining the natural muddy littoral drift system. Of course if they were re-suspended on
the incoming tide, for example by vessel propeller wash, they would travel back toward the
marina entrance.
Table 1: Indicative settling velocities obtained from observations of core samples.

From Top From Bottom Fall Velocity 3m Vertical Settling
(cm) (cm) (m/s) Time (hrs)
PH1 Top 35 5 0.000583 1.43
PH1 Bottom 25 15 0.000417 2.00
PH2 Top 32 8 0.000533 1.56
PH2 Bottom 12 28 0.000200 4.17
PH3 Top 28 12 0.000467 1.79
PH3 Bottom 15 25 0.000250 3.33
PH4 Top 30 10 0.000500 1.67
PH4 Bottom 10 30 0.000167 5.00
PH5 Top 22 18 0.000367 2.27
PH5 Bottom 15 25 0.000250 3.33
PH6 Top 28 12 0.000467 1.79
PH6 Bottom 24 16 0.000400 2.08
Average 23 17 0.000383 2.17
8.0 POLLUTANT ASSESSMENT OF THE SEDIMENT IN THE PINE

HARBOUR MARINA BASIN
An integral premise of the concept of mud removal according to this concept is that the
sediments being returned to the marine environment should not be chemically contaminated.
Clark (1996) in his book Marine Pollution quotes GESAMP [Joint Group of Experts on the
Scientific Aspect of Marine Pollution] (1993) as defining pollution as the introduction by
man, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy into the marine environment resulting in
such deleterious effects as harm to living resources, hazards to human health, hindrance to
marine activities including fishing, impairment of the quality for use of seawater and reduction
in amenities
860
Williamson and Wilcock (1994) produced recommendations for environmental monitoring based
upon values for biological Effects Range Low (ER-L), and Apparent Effects Threshold (AET) as
well as Screening Levels used as guidelines to monitor the quality of dredge spoil. Notably
Williamson and Wilcock (1994) conclude that the criteria do not consider differences in
sediment texture or sediment chemistry so they may be overly-protective in some sediments,
for example muds, as are found in Pine Harbour Marina.
Table 2. Sediment
( quality
) criteria: ER-L, ER-M and overall AET from Williamson and Wilcock (1994)
As Cd Cr Cu Hg Ni Pb Zn
Effects Range - Low 33 5 80 70 0.15 30 35 120
Effects Range – Medium 85 9 145 390 1.3 50 110 270
Apparent AET 50 5 - 300 1 - 300 260
Screening Levels 70 0.96 - 81 0.21 140 66 160
WDOE Standards 57 5.1 260 530 2.1 >140 450 410
- Data not available
Table 3. Heavy metal concentrations of sediment samples taken from sampling site M8 within the central
marina (BioResearches 1997).
Replicate Cd Cr Cu Pb Hg Ni Sn Zn TPH
No.
1 <0.2 40.0 44.0 17.0 0.140 9.7 15 100.0 15
2 <0.2 34.0 45.0 18.0 0.079 8.7 15 99.0 15
3 <0.2 43.0 46.0 19.0 0.081 11.0 15 103.0 15
4 <0.2 41.0 44.0 17.0 0.093 9.6 15 98.0 15
5 <0.2 42.0 46.0 18.0 0.078 10.0 15 103.0 15
6 <0.2 33.0 43.0 18.0 0.120 8.1 15 96.0 15
N 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
Mean <0.2 38.8 44.7 17.8 0.099 9.5 15 99.8 15
Std Dev 0.0 4.3 1.2 0.8 0.026 1.0 0 2.8 0
95% CI 0.0 4.5 1.3 0.8 0.027 1.1 0 2.9 0
Note that none of the recorded heavy metal concentrations in Pine Harbour Marina sediments
exceed any of the criteria listed in Table 2, and checking back historically they never have.
Table 3 presents data from sampling site M8 within the central marina basin detailing the
heavy metal concentrations of the sediments.
Regular testing for chemical contamination since 1989 on samples both outside and within
the marina has shown that the sediments are non-polluted in relation to heavy metals,
chemicals and organic matter based upon the criteria in Table 2. Moreover in relation to the
definition of marine pollution by GESAMP it is clear that none of the deleterious effects iden-
tified would arise from the state of Pine Harbour Marina sediments. Indeed the mud is itself the
biggest pollutant, because it can be considered to cause deleterious effects and impinge on
amenity value.
861
Since the report commissioned by the environmental managers, the Auckland Regional Coun-
cil on the recommendations for environmental monitoring and assessment by Williamson and
Wilcock (1994), a more recent paper by Long et al. (1995) gained wide international accep-
tance. These more recent biological effects guidelines (in mg/kg) are as follows:
CONTAMINANT ER-L ER-M

As 8.2 70
Cd 1.2 9.6
Cr 81 370
Cu 34 270
Hg 0.15 0.71
Ni 20.9 51.6
Pb 46.7 218
Zn 150 410
Note that ER-L represents the threshold below which adverse effects are rarely expected to
occur; ER-M (effects range median) represents the concentration above which adverse effects
would probably occur.
In the marina the measured Cu concentrations are slightly higher than the more recently
defined ER-L value, and the concentrations of other metals are all below the ER-L values.
These values are derived in North America, and ER-L defines concentrations below which
biological effects are expected rarely to occur. In the situation at Pine Harbour, Cu and Zn
concentrations would be expected to slowly build up because of release from boats. The other
metals are not expected to be released from boats or other marina structures or operations.
Indeed the average value for Cu in North Island harbour sediments reported by Stoffers, et al.
(1983) was 21 mg/kg with a standard deviation of 31! Clearly some of their estuarine sediment
samples showed Cu values as high as 50 significantly higher than the Pine Harbour marina
basin sediments. Smith and Williamson (1986) state It is important to note here that appar-
ently high levels may be found in a particular area and they may well be completely natural.
Considerable caution must therefore be exercised in assigning a man-made pollution cause
to such apparently high levels found.
It is therefore reasonable to conclude that, in general, the bulk of marina silts should be
considered as non-polluted, as defined by GESAMP, and are suitable for re-agitation and
removal by sediment plume on ebb tidal flows, or by dredging and thin layer dispersal, to the
wider Howick-Beachlands embayment and Tamaki Strait.
862
9.0 ASSESSMENT OF ADDITIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
FROM RELEASE OF RE-AGITATED SILT PLUMES FROM THE MARINA
The concept of marina cleansing of non-compacted mud deposits envisages silty plumes will
flow out of the marina on the ebbing tides and into the wider embayment. This already hap-
pens by natural processes as evidenced in Figures 2, 5, and 6. Additional environmental
effects of this process are:
sedimentation effect on the wider embayment
effects on adjacent tidal flats
Because the Howick-Beachlands embayment, in common with other estuaries around the
Waitemata Harbour (e.g. Lucus Creek, Henderson Creek) is naturally a very silty estuarine
system with regular muddy water and silt input from the surrounding catchment streams and
rivers, and regular re-agitation of the silts during storm wave events, the re-admission of the
silt from Pine Harbour Marina into the muddy littoral system will have few, if any, additional
adverse effects in essence the system is already adjusted to continuously high, and epi-
sodically extreme levels of turbid waters and silt (Healy, et al., 1999), and this results in very
muddy sub-tidal sediments as recorded by Hull (1996) and marked on the Hydrographic Chart
5324. Indeed, if the navigation channel and the marina were not there, all of the muddy
sediments now trapped would otherwise be part of the natural muddy littoral system.
Theoretically the optimum time for re-agitation of muds within the marina would be on the
lower phase of the ebbing tide, after the inter-tidal flats are exposed; this is when the current
flows out of the marina and down the channel are maximized. Thus most of the muddy plume
will remain in, and be discharged out of, the navigation channel, as air photos show is happen-
ing at present (Figure 6). The suspended silt material from the channel will discharge predomi-
nantly over and adjacent to the existing thin layer dredged material disposal ground utilised
for the 1997 and 1998 navigation channel maintenance dredging programmes (Healy, et al.,
2002). At low tides under the influence of predominant westerly winds the silt plumes move
alongshore and discharge into the Tamaki Strait.
As noted above, some of the coarser silt will likely become re-deposited within the marina and
likewise within the navigation approach channel. It is expected that some material may need
to be re-agitated repeatedly before it exits the marina and navigation approach channel.
The question arises: where might the re-agitated mud plume might ultimately end up? This is
a major part of the monitoring and research envisaged, but evidence from air photos and
general sedimentation theory allows initial sensible deductions:
. Figure 2 shows that the natural muddy plume discharging from the channel at the late ebb
phase of the tide discharges over the muddy centre of the embayment.
863
. Figure 8 shows evidence of tremendously high suspended sediment concentration (esti-
mated at ~ 300-400 mg/L) catchment discharges into the Howick-Beachlands embayment.
Under the influence of the south-westerly wind the mud plumes move along the eastern shore-
line, and then eastwards along the Tamaki Straight. Physically, about 1-3% of the wind speed
is transferred to the water body, which moves in the same direction as the wind (Komar 1998).
. Plumes released from the marina under conditions of northerly winds would become trans-
ported to the south. There is already strong evidence (Healy and Tian, 1998) that the subtidal
sediments within the area monitored over the maintenance dredging thin layer disposal ground
and adjacent, are scoured by up to 20 cm under the influence of strong northerly winds. This
is the direction of greatest fetch and therefore the largest waves. Such sediment scoured from
the bottom, and with any marina plume, would likely be transported to the bay head and
become deposited, probably as part of the estuarine circulation and deposition process (Nichols
and Biggs, 1985). Again, for such a process, the effect from the marina plume discharge
would be very minor compared to the naturally occurring sediment deposition.
The above observations are consistent with the published numerical model of tidal flows in the
Hauraki Gulf (Proctor and Grieg 1989), who illustrate surface and bottom water velocity vec-
tors are closely dependant upon the wind direction. Figure 8 demonstrates that turbidity
plumes exiting the embayment and subjected to westerly winds will be transported to the
southeast and eventually enter the Firth of Thames. Under easterly winds, the turbidity plumes
will be transported up the Waitemata Harbour or north around Rangitoto Island, becoming
dispersed in the wider Hauraki Gulf.
10.0 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The re-agitation process in a marina such as at Pine Harbour should take place on the lower
part of the ebb tide, because measurements show this is when the highest ebb current speeds
occur. Presently research is being undertaken to model the optimum time to undertake the re-
agitation for any particular berth in the marina. Should the plume become released earlier on
the ebb tide, when the intertidal flat is still covered by tidal waters then some of the finer
suspended very fine silt particles could potentially migrate across the flats, but the visual
evidence from Figure 6 suggests most of the plume will still flow down the navigation channel,
which acts as a conduit to drain both the marina basin and the adjacent tidal flats. OBS
recordings (not reported on here) suggest that the plume seems to act as a turbidity current.
Such plumes however clearly occur in nature, as illustrated in Figures 2, 5, and 6, and the
intertidal ecology is therefore adjusted to episodic events such as this (Cole, et al., 2000;
2001)
In conclusion, the re-agitation and re-suspension concept and investigations reported here,
illustrate that the re-agitated mud plumes can flow out of the marina down the navigation
channel, and into the adjacent embayment. Thus the principle of using natural tidal flows to
864
remove re-suspended silt loads has been demonstrated. Under conditions of stiff offshore
winds, the mud plumes would be expected to flow out of the embayment and become dis-
persed in the Tamaki Strait, as does the natural catchment plumes of high suspended sedi-
ment load. However, a certain proportion of the coarser silts are likely to deposit at the mouth
of the navigation channel in the centre of the bay at the low tide. The data from Hull (1996)
show that the sub-tidal sediments here are naturally predominantly medium silt. The effects of
mud plumes released from the marina would be much less than the mud plumes illustrated as
occurring in nature, and be of similar order effect as for the present dredging and thin layer
disposal operation (Healy, et al., 2002). However, there is still much unknown about the pre-
cise behaviour of mud (Wang, et al., 2002).
Unfortunately funding for this research and development of the technology was discontinued,
but future additional measurement verification of the mud plume exiting the marina and wider
dispersion from the navigation channel from 2 and 3 dimensional modelling (Black, et al.,
1997) is required and planned.
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Zealand. Coastal Sediments 99, American Society of Civil Engineers, pp. 2457 2470.
Healy, T., Hull, J., and Hume, T., 2001.Dispersal of muddy dredged material on broad inter-tidal flats in a fetch-
limited environment, Shore and Beach, 69, 15-22.
Hull, J., 1996 Wave induced sediment transport on intertidal flats in a fetch limited environment, Pine Harbour
marina, Auckland. MSc Thesis, University of Waikato, 192p.
Lomb, C.A.M., and Healy, T., 2001. Muddy sedimentation in a sheltered estuarine marina, Auckland, New Zealand.
Journal of Coastal Research Special Issue 34, 357 369.
Long, E.R., MacDonald, D.D., Smith, S.L. and Calder, F.D., 1995. Incidence of adverse biological effects within
ranges of chemical concentrations in marine and estuarine sediments. Environmental Management, 19: 81-
97.
Michels, K., and Healy, T., 1999. Evaluation of an inner shelf site off Tauranga Harbour New Zealand, for disposal
of muddy-sandy dredged sediments. Journal of Coastal Research 15(3), 830-838.
Nichols, M.M., and Biggs, R.B., 1985. Estuaries. In Davis, R.A. (ed.) Coastal Sedimentary Environments, Springer
Verlag, New York, pp. 77 186.
Proctor, R. and Greig, M.J.N., 1989. A numerical model investigation of the residual circulation in Hauraki Gulf,
New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 23: 421-442.
Ryan, S., and Healy, T., 1991: Investigation of the sedimentological impact of dredged material, Purakau Channel,
Manukau Harbour, New Zealand. Coastal Engineering - Climate for Change, Proceedings of the 10th
Australasian Conference on Coastal and Ocean Engineering, pp 41 - 46.
Smith, D.G. and Williamson, R.B., 1986. Heavy metals in the New Zealand aquatic environment: a review. Water
& Soil Miscellaneous Publication No. 100, Wellington, 108 p.
Stoffers, P., Glasby, G.P., Pluger, W.L., and Walter, P., 1983. Reconnaissance survey of the mineralogy and
geochemistry of some New Zealand lakes and nearshore sediments. New Zealand Journal of Marine and
Freshwater Research, 17, 461-480.
Wang, Y., Healy, T., and SCOR Working Group 106, 2002. Research issues of muddy coasts, in Healy, T., Wang,
Y., and Healy J-A., (eds) Muddy Coasts of the World: Processes, Deposits and Function, Elsevier
Science, Amsterdam, pp. 1-8.
Williamson, R.B. and Wilcock, R.J., 1994. The distribution and fate of contaminants in estuarine sediments. A
report prepared for Auckland Regional Council, NIWA, 67 p.
866
COASTAL PROTECTION MEASURES BETWEEN CHENNAI

AND ENNORE PORTS
V. Sundar
Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai.
Abstract
The stretch of the coast to be covered in this paper is an area of active development. The main
problem of continuous coastal erosion on the north of Chennai due to the interception of the
net northerly littoral drift by the Chennai harbour breakwaters is a primary concern for few
decades. In order to combat further erosion, the Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian
Institute of Technology Madras has taken up a detailed study of this area and suggested
suitable coastal protection measures. The proposed coastal protection scheme consists of
shore-connected groins, in combination with strengthening or rehabilitation of the existing
seawall. The details of the design of groin field are discussed in this paper. The paper also
presents the salient results on the shoreline evolution due to the proposed construction of
groins. The construction of groin field has commenced in May04 and the shoreline advance-
ment on the south of the executed groin has proved to yield fruitful results.
1.0 THE BACKGROUND
The length of the coastline of Tamilnadu is about 950km with a number of inlets connected to
the Bay of Bengal. The perennial problems along the coast have been the closure of river
mouths, shallowing of approach channels of the major ports at Chennai, Visakhapatnam and
Paradeep and erosion of the significant portion of the land mass. Ever since the construction
of the breakwaters for the formation of harbour of Chennai port, the north Chennai coast is
being subjected to erosion due to the predominant northerly drift of net annual sediment
transport. A part of existing National Highways and residential area nearer to this coastline
was already sacrificed to the sea. The Government of Tamilnadu, India has proposed and
executed a coastal defense in terms of providing seawall along the EnnoreManali express
highway along the coast north of Chennai port. In spite of the provision of seawall, the erosion
continued along few pockets along the coast and the severely affected zones (stretches I and
II) are shown in Fig. 1. As per the field observations of I.H.H poondi (2002), based on the
continuous measurements of the crest of berm along the coast of Tamilnadu for the period
1978-88, the rate of erosion or accretion are projected in Table.1, it is observed that the
maximum rate of erosion is about 6.6m per year off Royapuram, in between Chennai and
Ennore ports. Of the several options for the coastal protection, the reasons for adopting groin
fields for the stretches I and II have been elaborated by the author in the report of I.H.H poondi
(2002).
Corresponding author, email: vsundar@iitm.ac.in

867
2.0 THE SOLUTION
2.1 General
The solution for the coastal erosion problem is divided into two categories, a temporary strength-
ening of the existing seawall and a permanent remedial measure by providing suitable groins.
2.2 Remedial Measures

In the first phase, DOE carried out a detailed bathymetry survey for the measurement of
existing cross section of seawall and its status in order to assess its adequacy for the design
wave climate. The wave characteristics were then arrived from the wave atlas of Indian coasts
and for an immediate remedial measure, the seawall cross sections were strengthened with
suitable armour units. A detailed cost estimation was also carried out. The wave data have
also been analyzed to obtain the average wave height, wave period and wave direction, from
which the average breaking wave characteristics were derived. The monthly sediment trans-
port has been estimated based on Energy Flux method (CERC, 1984), the method of Komar
(1969) and by integrating the distribution of sediments within the surf zone as suggested by
Komar (1969). The net sediment drift along the Chennai coast is observed to be about one
million cubic meters towards the North.
In the second phase, as a permanent solution for the coastal erosion problem, DOE proposed
ten numbers of shore-connected straight rubble mound groins in the two severely affected
stretches as shown in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3. The length and the spacing between groins were
designed based on the recommendations of Shore Protection Manual (SPM, Vol. I,1984).
2.3 Numerical Modeling for Shoreline Evolution

DOE has carried out a mathematical modeling to evaluate the shoreline changes due to the
proposed groin field. The mathematical modeling of shoreline evolution essentially relates the
change in the beach volume to the rate of material transported from the beach. The methodol-
ogy for the present numerical model is based on the numerical scheme proposed by Janardanan
and Sundar (1994) and the one line model solved by using Crank Nicholson implicit finite
difference method. The seabed bathymetry of the proposed location, length of the groins,
height of the berm, grain size of the sediments which is required for the calculation of active
depth of the sediment transport and water depth at the tip of the structure are used as input for
the model. The model predicted a significant advancement of beach over a period of 15 years.
Figure 4 presents the shoreline progress over the years.
2.4 Design of Groin Sections

Based on the provided bathymetry (in 1999), the cross sections of the groins were designed
based on the Hudson formula. In addition, DOE also recommended the core layer materials,
868
crest width, thickness of layers, crest elevation and structure slope etc., for the proposed
groin field. In addition, it was also suggested to carryout a detailed bathymetry survey for the
final design of the groin cross sections.
3.0 THE REVIEW
3.1 General
The primary objective of the present study is to perform the review of the design of the groins
for the sea protection works of Ennore-Manali Road Improvement Project based on the actual
bathymetry at the exact locations of groins. In addition, it is also aimed to obtain the optimum
dimensions of the groin cross sections that includes slope on both of its sides, its crest
elevation, the size of the stones to be adopted for the different layers, the thickness of the
various layers (comprising of armour, under layer, core, filter and the toe) and the width of the
crest.
3.2 Bathymetry Survey

As per its own recommendations, DOE has carried out the bathymetry survey during the
month of February 2004 to assess the cumulative effect of southwest and northeast mon-
soons. The changes in the seabed profile revealed severe erosion near the study area, based
on which the final design was evolved. The survey has been carried out along the corridor of
the ten proposed groins up to a distance of about 400m into the sea and 80m parallel to the
longitudinal axis of each groin. The bathymetric chart was prepared with respect to the chart
datum (CD= 0.0) after tidal elevation corrections. The chart was presented in a scale of 1:1000.
The water depths are marked on the chart at 5.0m interval. The bathymetry survey was con-
ducted by using echo-sounding measurements, GPS systems, computer controlled data
acquisitions and hydrographic software.
3.3 Revised Design

Based on the present bottom contours, maximum high water spring (MHWS), storm surge
and wave set up, a design water level of about +2.1m was considered for the groin design. As
per Goda (1985), the design wave height was arrived, using which the necessary weight of
armour units were estimated by using Hudson formula. The design details of the trunk section
are given in Table 2.
The groin head sections were also designed to locate in a water depth of 5.5m. Typical trunk
and head sections of the groin are shown in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6, respectively.
869
4.0 THE IMPLEMENTATION
The implementation of the proposed groin field has been initiated recently. Immediate shore-
line advancement on the south of the executed groin has been substantiating the most favor-
able choice and design of the suggested remedial measure. A view of the groin construction
and the resulting shoreline advancement can be seen from Photos 1 and 2.
5.0 FINAL RECOMMENDATIONS
A meeting was held in PWD, Chennai-9, on 19.11.2002 mainly to discuss the feasibility of
artificially nourish the stretch of beach. During this meeting the authorities of Ennore port Pvt.
Ltd informed that an extent of about 35 million m3 of dredged material would be made available
once the deepening of the entrance channel of Ennore port commences and that this material
is suitable for nourishing the coast in between north of fishing harbor at Royapuram and the
Ennore creek mouth. If this sand is pumped, the stretch between the south of Ennore creek
and Ernavoor bridge is likely to get deposited and the Ennore creek mouth would get closed.
In fact, it is at present closed during most of the year. In order to take care of this problem, a
long groin of 500m (approximately twice the surf width at a distance of about 200m south of
Ennore creek mouth. These dimensions are only tentative and should be arrived from actual
measurements.). In fact such a groin was envisaged in the original proposal of development of
Ennore satellite port, which was never constructed. This long groin will avoid the closing of
river mouth over a period of time beyond which there is a possibility for the sediments to by
pass the groin and enter the Ennore creek mouth. A sand trap may be provided on the south
of this groin, which may be dredged periodically and utilized for nourishing the beach on the
north of Ennore satellite port. The next problem is to avoid the closing of Ennore creek mouth
due to the southward drift during the northeast monsoon, which will last for three months, that
is, October to December. The northern breakwater of Ennore satellite port being much longer
compared to the southern breakwater, quite contrary to all the three major ports of Chennai,
Visakhapatnam and Paradip(the southern breakwater is longer in order to take care of the nett
drift to the order of 1.0 million m3 per annum towards the north) is expected to trap most of the
sediments. However, as a precautionary measure a small groin of one surf width of about
250m is suggested on the north of Ennore creek mouth and south of the southern breakwater
of Ennore satellite port.
REFERENCES
CERC (1984), Shore Protection Manual, (SPM), U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Vol. 1 & 2, Vicksberg, 1984.
Goda, Y., (1985), Random seas and design of maritime structures, Tokyo Press.
IHH Poondi (2002), History of Tamilnadu Coastline, I.H.H. report No. 20.
Janardanan, K., Sundar, V., (1994), Development and application of a Numerical Model for Shoreline Simulation,
HYDRO-PORT 94,Yokosuka, Japan, pp.1141 1156.
870
Komar, P D., (1976), Longshore currents and sand transport on ocean engineering III, ASCE , pp. 333-354.
Table. 1 Rates of Erosion and accretion along the Tamilnadu coast ( IHH(2002).
Length Accretion/ Rate in Length Accretion/ Rate in
Sl.No. Location Sl.No. Location
in m Erosion m/year in m Erosion m/year
1 Pulicate 0.71 3.20 15 Point Calimere 0.966 3.40
3.6
2 Ennore 3.27 16 Ammapattinam 0.72
1.30
3 Royapuram 5.38 6.60 17 Keelakarai 2.9 0.29
4 Marina 2.97 1.70 18 Mandapam 2.19 0.25
5 Foreshore 2.3 1.09 19 Rameswaram 3.3 0.06

Elliot/Astalakshmi
6 2.08 1.28 20 Tiruchendur 1.53 0.33
temple site
7 Kanathur 0.24 1.4 21 Manappadu 1.6 1.10
8 3.15 0.81 22 Uvari 2.6 0.86

Kovalam
9 Mahabalipuram
5.45 .25 23 Kanyakumari 0.7 1.74
10 Piondicherry 1.19 0.15 24 Manakkudi 0.57

3.65
11 Cuddalore(North) 1.538 8.00 25 Pallam 2.6 0.93
11a Cuddalore (south) 0.483 2.98 26 Muttom 0.17

3.0
12 Poombuhar 1.905 0.65 27 Manavalakurichi3.5 0.60
1.80 28 1.75 1.20

13 Tranquebar .76 Colachel
14 Nagapattinam 4.27 0.11 29 Midalam 2.5 0.84
Erosion Accretion
Table 2. DEsign details for trunk section
Trunk section 0m to 1m water depth 1m to 3m water depth 3m to 5.5m water depth

Wave Height Up to 1.1m Up to 2.0 m Up to 3.0 m
Crest elevation + 4.2m
Crest width (m) 4.0m
Armour layer 500–1000 kg rough quarry 1000–2000 Kg Rough 1000-3000 Kg Rough
stones in 2 layers of quarry stones in 2 layers quarry stones in 2 layers
thickness 1.30m of thickness 1.40 m of thickness 1.50m
Slope 1:1.5
Secondary layer 50–100 kg Quarry stones 100–300 kg Quarry stones 100–300 kg Quarry stones
of thickness 0.6m of thickness 0.7m of thickness 0.7m
Core layer 1 to 60 kg Quarry stones
Filter layer 10mm - 50 kg Quarry stones of thickness 0.30 m
Toe 50 –100 kg Quarry stones 100–300 kg Quarry stones 100-300 kg Quarry stones
Toe width (m) 3.0
Toe height (m) 1.0
871
Fig. 1. Layout of Chennai coast
Fig. 2. Layout of groin field in Stretch - I
872
Fig. 3. Layout of groin field in Stretch - II
Fig. 4. Typical shoreline evolution predicted for groin field in Stretch - I
873
Fig. 5 Cross section of trunk portion between water depths 3 to 5m
Fig. 6. Cross section of head portion in water depth of 5.5 m
874
Photo. 1. View of groin construction
Photo. 2. View of beach advancement on the southern side of a groin
875
STRATIFICATION IN NATURAL WATER BODIES - SOME

IMPLICATIONS FOR HARBOUR AND OCEAN
ENGINEERING
Jacob Steen Møller
Head of Civil Engineering Department, Technical University of DenmarK, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
Abstract
Density stratification of natural water bodies plays an important role for a number of civil
engineering problems. The origin of stratification in natural water is discussed and the Black
Sea, the Gulf of Katchch, and Maarmorilik Fiord in Greenland are described and used as
examples. Stratification has a number of civil engineering implications. The lock exchange
problem is used as a canonical example, and implications for water exchange and sedimen-
tation is discussed by means of examples: Sedimentation in locks and estuaries, salt trans-
port into fresh water reservoirs, water exchange of negative estuaries, immersing of tunnel
elements, and others. The paper describes the methods available when the civil engineer
encounters a stratification related problem: Field experimentation and monitoring, analytical
methods, physical and numerical modelling. Finally the paper advocates that integrated field
investigation and 3D numerical modelling is state of art for civil engineering studies affected by
stratified flows.
1.0 CAUSES OF STRATIFICATION
Stratification of coastal and ocean water bodies is caused by density variation. The density of
sea water is determined by the content of salt (salinity), temperature and in some instances
also by content of diluted matter or suspended material. Pressure influence on density is only
important at several hundreds of meters water depth. In most cases however salinity and
temperature are dominant. The density function UNESCO (1981) is depicted in Fig.1. Within
some temperature variation the density is mainly determined by the salinity.
Typical causes of stratification are fresh water runoff, surface heating/cooling, evaporation,
and ice growth.
Surface water run off (e.g. in an estuary) decreases the surface density. Surface heating and
cooling will affect the temperature and hence the density. Increasing surface temperature
stabilises the water column, while decreasing surface water temperature destabilises the
water column via convection.
Evaporation causes surface water to become more saline, which in turn results in a destabilising
free convection of surface water from the surface. The salinity of melted sea ice is 2-5 psu,
Corresponding author, email: jsm@byg.dtu.dk

876
whereas the salinity of sea water is around 35 psu. Therefore sea ice growth is associated
with rejection of very saline surface water (brine), again establishing a destabilising free con-
vection from the surface.
When it is considered that all these mechanisms act together with mechanical mixing pro-
cesses due to wind, tides and other currents, then it is understood that a multitude of different
stratification regimes exist in natural water bodies.
Figure 1: Density r (kg/m3) of Sea Water as function of temperature and salinity.
1.1 Examples
The Black Sea is a prime example of a positive estuary, see Figure 2. A positive estuary is an
estuary where stratification is maintained because of runoff of fresh water. In the black Sea
salinity stratification is responsible for natural oxygen depletion of the strata below the halo-
cline. A strong two layer flow is formed in the Bosporus Strait due to the outflow of brackish
water from the Black Sea and an inflow of saline water from the Mediterranean Sea via the
Marmara Sea.
Figure 2: The Black Sea and sketch of the water exchange of the Black Sea. Data elaborated from Ünlüata
(1990).
877
During winter the Maarmorilik Fiord in Greenland illustrates the case of a negative estuary see
Figure. 3. In a negative estuary the density inside the estuary is above the density outside the
estuary. During sea ice growth the brine formation described above generates buoyancy driven
circulation.
The Gulf of Katchch, India, is another example of a negative estuary. The evaporation in
Katchch is so high that the salinity and hence the density is maintained higher inside the Gulf
than outside and a negative circulation must form, however the tidal range is so high that the
estuarine circulation is obscured.
Figure 3: During early winter a negative estuarine circulation (buoyancy driven circulation) is formed due to
brine rejection from the growing sea ice, Møller (1984).
2.0 IMPLICATIONS FOR ENGINEERING PROBLEMS
Density stratification plays an important role for a number of engineering problems. This is
because stratification strongly influences the turbulence structure of the water column: When
the water is stratified the turbulence is dampened due to the work required to counteract the
buoyancy forces that come into play when the stratification is distorted by the turbulent
motions. This reduces the transfer of momentum between the layers of the water, which in
turn results is a reduction in the effective bottom friction, and a distortion of the well known log-
profile of frictionally dominated flow (Figure 4).
878
Figure 4: Current profile influenced by stratification. Example of stratification and current profile in the
Great Belt, Denmark. Figure from Møller (1996).
Another important effect of stratification is a reduction in mixing between layers. The mixing in
coastal waters is dominated by turbulent motion. The energy provided for turbulent mixing is
delivered from the overall flow, e.g. via bottom friction, wind generated flow or through free
convection. As it is described above stable stratification reduces the mixing. This balance
between stabilising forces and destabilising forces therefore is governing the transport of
matter in stably stratified water. In the case of a strongly stratified estuary the simplest de-
scription of mixing is two way entrainment.. In this case mixing can be considered a two way
entrainment process, and the entrainment velocity, Ve, determined from the bulk properties of
the flow, see Figure 5.
Figure 5: Mixing between two layers. The evaluation of the entrainment velocity is based on Bo Pedersen
(1980).Ve is entainment velocity, r is density of water, V is average velocity in bulk flow, W is vind speed, h
is depth of layer.
879
Density differences in it self can generate currents. A simple example is the lock exchange
flow: When a sea lock separates a volume of saline water from a volume of less saline of water
and the lock gate is opened then a strong internal exchange flow is generated when the saline
water flows beneath the fresher water.
Figure 6: MIKE3 Lock Exchange Flow Simulation. Upper pane is initial situation, mid pane shows the fully
developed flow, and lower pane shows the end situation when the flow has come to a stop. Courtesy of DHI
Water & Environment.
The speed, V, of the lock exchange when the flow is fully developed is determined by the
densimetric Froude number Fr∆2. Using symbols from Figure 5 we get:
Inserting values corresponding to a lock gate separating fresh water from sea water and a
water depth of 10m one obtains a frontal speed of V = 0.75m/s. Thus it seen that the density
driven currents may obtain considerable velocities.
The density increase inside a negative estuary drives a quasi-stationary lock exchange flow in
and out of the mouth the estuary which acts in combination with e.g. tidal currents. Similarly
the water exchange of a harbour basin is influenced by external salinity variations: When the
salinity outside the harbour increases (e.g. due to tidal generated flow or decreased fresh
water runoff) then a lock exchange flow is formed which modifies the depth averaged current
profile and hence the transport of dissolved matter and fine sediments.
It is customary to divide such combined flows into a barotropic and a baroclinic component.
The barotropic component is driven by the surface pressure gradient and the baroclinic com-
ponent is driven by the internal pressure gradient established via density differences. It is seen
that the lock exchange is a baroclinic phenomena whereas the depth averaged tidal flow in
and out of a harbour is barotropic. When dealing with analysis of transport processes and
retention timescales the effect of stratification and buoyancy driven flows are often assumed
negligible compared to the tide or other barotropc flows. In many cases this is wrong. The
follow examples show why.
880
2.1 Immersed tunnels
An example of a situation where density stratification plays an important role in engineering is
placement of immersed tunnels. When such elements are towed into position they are ballasted
with internal water tanks to flow with very little excess buoyancy, see Figure 7.
Figure 7. Towing a tunnel element to the Øresund Link, Denmark-Sweden. The element size (L, W, H) is
(175.5m, 38.7m, 8.6m).
An immersed tunnel is being planned across the Bosporus Strait. From figure 2 is seen that
the element must be lowered into position across a very strong salinity gradient. Assuming
the same size of elements as in Øresund (actually the elements in Bosporus will be shorter)
the shift in buoyancy (delta-B) across the interface can be calculated using values from Figure
1 and 2:
When it is considered that these 800 tons must be provided during placement across a
current shear of up to 2 m/s between the two layers, the engineering implications become
clear.
2.2 Sedimentation
Stratification, or rather salinity, is important for sediment transport in estuaries. This is due
both to the current and turbulence modification associated with stratification and the fact that
salinity influences flocculation pattern of fine clay sediments. When the fine clay particles flow
from fresh conditions into brackish water flocculation is triggered, this establishes the well
known turbidity maximum in many estuaries. These mechanisms play an important role when
the engineer wishes to analyse sedimentation in navigation channels and possible technical
remediation measures to reduce sedimentation. The complex interaction between sedimenta-
tion properties and 3D hydrodynamics can now be investigated in numerical models.
881
Figure 8 shows an illustration of calculated sedimentation in a lock near Antwerp Harbour,
Belgium. The objective was to calculate the exchange of fine-grained sediments through the
locks Berendrecht and Zandvliet. These locks form one of the entrances from the Scheldt
River to the Docks of the Right River Bank. The MIKE3 was applied in a vertical segment to
simulate the lock exchange flow, which drives the sediment transport.
Figure 8: MIKE3 Suspended Particulate Matter (mass concentration) in a lock immediately before closure
of the gate. Courtesy of DHI-Water & Environment.
2.3 Navigable fresh water reservoirs with sea locks

In many cases weirs and bunds are constructed in estuaries in order to separate the saline
and fresh regimes. Such barriers also hamper ship traffic, and sluices must be constructed.
When a ship enters the lock from the sea side a lock exchange flow is generated. When
subsequently the ships leaves the lock upstream, then some of the saline water may pen-
etrate the upstream water basin, and pollute the fresh water. This salinisation process can be
avoided by flushing the lock with fresh water before opening the upstream gate. However in
water scarce situations this is a waste of water, and ways are sought to prevent the upstream
salt transport.
A prominent example of this problem is present in the Panama Canal, Figure 9. The Panama
Canal locks are operated with fresh water from Gatun Lake, an artificial fresh water lake.
Because of increased traffic new and larger locks are being planned. Fresh water supply is
limiting the maximum number of lock passages. Thus investigations are made into recircula-
tion of lock water. This will increase the upstream transport of salt and eventually pollute the
Gatun Lake. Both numerical and physical models of the stratified flow in the locks are needed
to analyse possible technical solutions to this problem.
882
Figure 9: Inauguration of the Panama Canal, 1914.
2.4 Environmental hydraulics

In order to illustrate the importance of baroclinic flows when considering transport of matter
e.g. pollutants we consider the retention time, T, of a negative estuary with negligible barotropic
flow. T is related to the active volume of the estuary and the exchange flow at the mouth of the
estuary. The exchange flow, Q, in and out of a negative estuary and the density difference, (ρ0-
ρ1), at the mouth is determined by the buoyancy flux, B, through the surface. B can be
evaluated from the evaporation rate or the ice growth whatever applicable:
where β is the equivalent for salt of the thermal expansion coefficient (β = 0.00075/psu, appr.),
[Su] is the flux of salt at the surface, Vs is evaporation rate or ice growth respectively, and Ss
is salinity of surface water, and Sice is salinity of ice (Sice = 0 when evaporation is considered).
Møller (1984) evaluated the exchange flow, Q, and the density difference, (ρ0-ρ1), at the mouth
as:
Where As is the surface area, At is the cross section area and Dt the average depth at the at
the mouth of the gulf or fiord. The retention time, T, for the active surface layer may then be
evaluated as: T = ½AsDt/Q
In Table 1 numbers for various fiords and gulfs are evaluated. It is seen that the baroclinic
current is considerable. The retention time associated with this current is small and thus
baroclinic currents play a major role when e.g. the fate of pollutants spread into the estuaries
are considered.
883
Table 1: The buoyancy driven circulation calculated for three negative estuaries. The numerical values for
estuary data are estimated and should be considered illustrations only.
3.0 METHODS FOR ANALYSING ENGINEERING PROBLEMS
3.1 Field experiments and observations

The most important tool for the engineer is field experimentation and monitoring. No civil
engineering project should be undertaken without a site visit and proper data collection. A wide
range of methods are available. Basic data such as salinity, temperature, current and water
level are standard data. The problems of today is not to collect data, rather to plan the experi-
ment in cost efficient and effective way.
When field experiments are planned proper care should be made to establish coherent data
sets, capturing the natural variability of the system (tidal cycle, annual cycle or other as
locally appropriate) and preferably to establish synoptic data sets.
All too often field data for engineering purposes are collected in the tradition of oceanographic
investigations rather than after a plan adapted to the engineering problem at hand. Any field
experiment should be planned carefully in the light of the engineering problem at hand, and no
data should be collected before a plan has been made that describes the use of each data
set, and its analysis and applicability in an analytical or numerical model context.
3.2 Analytical Methods

Many problems can be analysed using text book analysis similar to the analysis presented
above. Such methods are very useful in the initial phase of an investigation where field data
collection has to be planned.
3.3 Physical Experiments
Traditionally physical hydraulic experiments have been made with non-stratified fluids. How-
ever a number of examples exist where physical models have generated important insight into
civil engineering problems:
884
The Great Belt Bridge is located in strongly stratified water, see Figure 4. When the bridge
was planned concern was raised if the bridge would influence the mixing processes in the belt
and hence impact the marine ecology. To investigate this Møller et al. (1997) investigated
mixing caused by bridge piers by use of a physical two layer hydraulic model.
The Salhus bridge, Figure 10, across a strongly stratified fiord in Norway is the worlds largest
floating bridge. Physical experiments were carried out at DHI Water & Environment. The
objective was to document the effect of the bridge on the fresh water overflow upstream of the
Bridge. The hypothesis was that the bridge would influence the depth of the brackish surface
layer upstream of the bridge, thus influencing the living conditions for salmon farming. Norway
is the world largest salmon producer.
Figure 10: Salhus Bridge (Norway) across a strongly stratified fiord.
3.4 Numerical Models

Numerical 3D models have now reached a stage where a vast range of engineering problems
can be modelled directly. In many instances numerical models are the only means to capture
the complexity of a natural system. This is especially true for estuarine system analysis of
water quality and sedimentation where the 3D structure of hydrodynamics and physio-biologi-
cal processes must be treated in the same modelling framework.
885
Figure 11. Lake Maracaibo Numerical model of stratified hydrodynamic and bio-geo-chemical processes.
By courtesy of DHI-Water & Environment.
In the 1950-ties a navigation channel was cut from the sea into Lake Maracaibo. The purpose
was to allow tankers to collect oil from the rich oil fields in the lake. The navigation channel
allowed saline water to penetrate into the lake, thus changing the ecology of the system. In
2000 DHI Water and Environment established a MIKE3 ecological model in order to analyse
alternative remediation measures. The complex interaction between stratification and ecologi-
cal processes in the lake could only be analysed be means of integrated 3D modelling.
4.0 DISCUSSION AND TRENDS
The examples above demonstrate that stratified flow constitutes an important phenomenon
also in harbour and ocean engineering. The current scientific and technological trend in analy-
sis of stratified flow is an ever increasing use of 3D numerical modelling. Most professional
models at the market offer efficient and effective numerical algorithms and user interfaces. It is
however important to note that also numerical models rely on the modeller when it comes to
quality. The apparent ease of use may lure the unskilled user into improper use of the model.
It is always advisable to check model set up and results against a systems analysis based on
data collection and analytical methods.
In order to arrive at cost effective studies it is advised to integrate field experiment and model-
ling. The field experiments should be arranged so that they support the modelling. This is
achieved when the field experiments generate synoptic boundary data and internal date for
validation of the model. An example of an integrated model-field data collection system is
shown in Figure 11.
886
Figure 11: Integrated modelling and monitoring system for the Øresund Link. Denmark-Sweden. See e.g.
Møller et al. (1994).
REFERENCES
Møller, J.S. (1984): Hydrodynamics of an Arctic Fjord. Series Paper 34, 197pp, Institute of Hydrodynamics and
Hydraulic Engineering, Technical University of Denmark. Lyngby.
Møller, J.S. (1996): Water Masses, Stratification and Circulation. In Eutrophication in Coastal Marine Ecosystems,
Jørgensen and Richardson (eds.). American Geophysical Union: Coastal and Estuarine Studies pp. 51-66.
Washington, USA. ISBN 0-87590-266-9.
Møller, J.S., N.-E. Ottesen Hansen, and Jakobsen, F. (1997): Mixing in Stratified Flow Caused by Obstacles. J.
Marine Env. Engg., Vol 4, pp 97-111. OPA, Amsterdam.
Møller, J.S., E.B. Rasmussen and A.C. Ellegaard: Observations and Modelling of Stratified flow in the Sound
between Denmark and Sweden. Proc. Fourth International Symposium on Stratified Flows. Grenoble 29
June - 2 July, 1994.
UNESCO (1981): Technical papers in marine science 38. Background papers and supporting data on the
International Equation of State of Sea Water. 1980.
Sehested Hansen, I., J.S. Møller, and A.N. Findikakis: 3 dimensional hydrodynamic modeling of the Maracaibo
system, Venezuela. Proc. XXIX IAHR Congress, Theme B, Env. Hydr. And Eco-Hydr., Beijing, Sept. 16-21
Sept. 2001, pp. 641-649
O.T. Ünlüata, M.A. Latif, and E. Özsoy (1990): On the Physical Oceanography of the Turkish Straits, in The
Physical Oceanography of Sea Staits, L. Pratt (Ed.) pp. 25-60. Kluwer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
887
SAND BUDGETING AND COASTAL MANAGEMENT
M.Baba* and N.P.Kurian
Centre for Earth Science Studies, Thiruvavnanthapuram 695031
Abstract
Budgeting of sediment resources taking into account the sources and sinks is desirable for
any coastal engineering project or beach/inshore sand mining programme. As an example a
beach sand budgeting study carried out for the Chavara coast of south west coast of India is
presented in this paper. The study showed a balanced sedimentary system, driven by multiple
processes, which together produce a dynamic sedimentary equilibrium on a regional scale.
Dynamic sediment equilibrium is maintained by an annual net northerly littoral transport of
approximately 100,000-200,000 m3/yr which is balanced by a net southerly flux on the inner
shelf, calculated to be 178,000 m3/yr, which is within the range of the calculated littoral drift.
The onshore and offshore fluxes are more or less balanced. The study amply demonstrates
the utility of the sediment budgeting in sustainable management of sand resources and shore-
line management. It is recommended that any shoreline management or beach sand/mineral
mining project shall be taken up only based on a sand budgeting study at site before com-
mencement of the project.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
For efficient management of the coast, a proper understanding of the coast is essential.
Though the coasts are comprised of different sediments, most of the beaches are character-
ized by sandy sediments. A sandy beach being the best protector of the coast, sand budget-
ing plays an important role, particularly in shoreline management and exploitation of the sand
resources.
The conservation of beach sand or successful manipulation of the sand flux needs a clear
understanding of the inputs and outputs (Table1). The stabilization, erosion or accretion of the
beach depends on the balance between the inputs and outputs. Though all the parameters
mentioned in the Table1 may not be operational at a given beach, many of them contribute at
varying degrees. Hence a well planned monitoring regime should precede any successful
shoreline management planning process.
Though, this is the method followed in several parts of the world, in India the coastal/harbour
engineering projects still do not make full use of it, resulting in frequent failures, particularly in
the case of coastal engineering. Hence the need of the hour is capacity building in this area in
view of the large investments instruments being made in this sector. An attempt made in this
*Corresponding author, e-mail: mbaba@eth.net
888
direction is demonstrated in this paper.
Table1. The ledger of sediment budgets (adapted from Hume et al., 1999).
Profit Loss
· Longshore transport into the area · Longshore transport out of the area
· Onshore transport · Offshore transport
· River/estuary input · Estuary infilling
· Wind transport onto the beach · Wind transport away from the beach
· Beach nourishment · Sand extraction
· Sea cliff erosion · Deposition in Canyons
· In-situ shell production · Solution and abrasion
· Dune/ridge erosion · Dune/ridge formation
2.0 THE CHAVARA EXPERIMENT
Sand budgeting carried out by CESS for the Chavara Coast (Fig.1) during 1999-2001 was in
this direction. The Chavara coast is well known for the placer deposit, which is being mined by
the Indian Rare Earths Ltd., for extraction of heavy minerals. In all coastal systems world-
wide, the inputs/outputs to a beach are mainly from three components: (i) the sand moving up/
down the coast in the longshore direction; (ii) sand moving across the continental shelf and
into the beaches and (iii) contribution from inland sources or removal by extraction. The main
goal of any study of sand budgeting is to quantify these inputs and outputs and determine the
adverse effects, if any, of sand extraction or depletion. The approach in the Chavara experi-
ment (Kurian et al., 2002) involved systematic field measurements for collection of hydrody-
namic and sedimentological data and numerical modelling of the coastal systems to under-
stand the system and compute the sediment fluxes.
2.1 Model Set-up

Neareshore systems are sufficiently complex requiring sophisticated numerical models to
systematically and simultaneously treat the multiplicity of .processes that ultimately lead to
sediment fluxes. Four computer models viz. WBEND, GENIUS, 3DD and POL 3DD were
adapted from the 3DD suite of numerical process models (© KP Black). The field measure-
889
ments were used to establish, calibrate and verify numerical model simulations of the site and
the models were then used to compute wave, current and sediment patterns and magnitudes.
The wave model WBEND was adapted to simulate the nearshore wave climate, the main
process responsible for suspending sand that is carried by the currents. Model GENIUS was
used with the wave conditions predicted by WBEND as input to calculate the longshore
transport rates. The 3DD circulation model examined the net currents under wind and waves
while the POL 3 DD sediment transport model drew together the physical inputs to predict
sediment fluxes. The detailed modelling used inputs across a broad range of wave heights,
wave periods, tide levels and wind conditions.
Fig.1. Chavara coast.
2.2 Field Set-up

For collection of hydrodynamic data, stations were set up in the innershelf and nearshore
where wave gauges, current meters, automatic water samplers and sediment traps were
890
deployed. Beach profiling and littoral environmental data collection through an automatic
video camera installed in the beach were also carried out concurrently. Beach profile mea-
surements were carried out at close grid transects in the mining area and coarse grid transects
in the rest of the coast. Beach and innershelf sediment samples were collected and analysed
for their grain size, fall velocities and mineralogy. Using sediment trap data bed reference
concentration and mixing length were computed.
3.1 Hydrodynamic processes

Extensive wave data collected during the study show that the May-August period is the rough-
est period recording the maximum significant wave height of 3.8m in May 1999. The wave
intensity off the coast was typical of a moderate wave energy regime as seen for some
locations of the south west coast of India (Baba and Kurian, 1988; Kurian, 1987, 1989).
Measurements of currents at the offshore and inshore sites showed the predominance of
offshore southerly flows (Fig.2). Progressive vector plots of currents and wind in the vicinity
indicate a high correlation. The tendency for predominant offshore flows is presumably asso-
ciated with the predominant winds that are directed cross-onshore from the north-west. This
wind pattern is expected to lead to downwelling at the coast and offshore-directed bottom
flows. However, there are periods when the currents are directed onshore. The offshore flow
would be expected to induce an offshore sediment flux, although other processes such as
wave asymmetry, intra-wave suspension phase lags (Black and Vincent, 2001) or wave-cur-
rent interaction may partly counter-balance this effect. The onshore flows would be expected
to lead to beach accretion. The timing of these onshore currents coincides with periods of
beach accretion.
3.2 Beach processes and volume changes

Beach profiles and beach volume changes show a seasonal cycle in the erosion / accretion
pattern with erosion during the pre-monsoon and early monsoon period and accretion during
the post-monsoon and fair weather period (Fig.3). However on a year-to-year basis the net
change is more or less neutral. Cumulative volume changes for the mining sites derived from
beach profile data show that the maximum volume change during the first year is 60m3/m of
beach while in the second year the volume change is 70m3/m, indicating a more or less
steady condition on an annual basis.
3.3 Sediment characteristics and dynamics

Sedimentological studies have demonstrated that sediment is regularly mobile on the beach
and in the inner shelf. The capacity of waves and currents to move sand across and along the
shelf has been clearly demonstrated. In addition, the results show that the heavy and light
891
sand move differently, such that the light mineral is winnowed out of the beach sediments
during periods of erosion, and arrives first during the early stages of an accretion event. This is
confirmed with our video observations and the estimation of heavy sands in the beach sedi-
ments.
Fig. 2. Progressive vector plot of burst mean S4 current meter data from the inshore site.
3.4 Circulation modelling

Three simulations using Model 3DD were undertaken for wind directions of west, north-west
and north, all having a wind speed of 10 m/s so that the relative adjustments could be com-
pared between the cases. A baroclinic 3-dimensional model was developed with 21 vertical
layers of 0.5m thickness. The model shows, in accordance with measurements, southward
longshore currents. The cross-shore dynamics are critically balanced. The current changes
from onshore to offshore when the wind rotates by less than 45o between north-west and
north, i.e. from cross-offshore to cross-onshore winds. Thus, because the north-west wind is
dominant in this region, a slight rotation of the wind will critically lead to either net erosion or
892
net accretion along the inner shelf.
To confirm that this model actually simulates the processes at the site, the progressive ero-
sion/accretion patterns at the shoreline are presented with the progressive cross-shore
wind vector in Fig.3 . The cross-shore winds are transformed about the north-west/south-east
orientation, in accordance with the model finding that this is the orientation when the bottom
current changes from onshore to offshore. The erosion/accretion patterns and the cross-shore
winds are clearly correlated.
15 00
10 00
Integrated cross-shore speed * dt (KM)
5 00
- 5 00
- 10 00
- 15 00
80
70
60
50
Cumulative volume (m /m)
3
40
30
20
10
0
30-May-99
29-Jun-99
29-Jul-99
28-Aug-99
27-Sep-99
27-Oct-99
26-Nov-99
26-Dec-99
25-Jan-00
24-Feb-00
25-Mar-00
24-Apr-00
24-May-00
23-Jun-00
23-Jul-00
22-Aug-00
21-Sep-00
21-Oct-00
20-Nov-00
20-Dec-00
-10
-20
Days
Fig.3 (a) Progressive vector plot of cross-shore wind (km) and (b) cumulative beach volume change (m3/m).
3.5 Sediment budget computations

The littoral transport rate calculated with the numerical models was found to be 125,000 and
209,000 m3.yr-1 to the north and south of Chavara respectively. The difference arises numeri-
cally because of the higher breakpoint angles to the south, as the southern coast is rotated
seaward at the southern end by the entrance to Ashtamudi Estuary and the nearby Thangaserri
headland.
By applying Model SFLUX using all the concomitant measurements made over the 3-year
study period of waves and currents on the inner shelf, the average longshore and cross-shore
893
fluxes of sediment were determined to be:
Onshore flux- 53 m3/m/year
Offshore flux- 44 m3/m/year
Longshore flux- 86 m3/m/year to the south
In the longshore direction, when summed across the 2000 m wide study transect (stretching
cross-shore), the longshore flux scales to 172,000 m3/year to the south.
4.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
It is recommended that any shoreline management or beach sand/mineral mining programme

shall be based on a beach sand budgeting study. The sand budgeting study carried out for
Chavara coast amply demonstrates the utility of the sediment budgeting in shoreline manage-
ment. Site specific coastal monitoring has to be conducted at site before commencement of
the project. It is also advisable to establish coastal monitoring programmes on continuing
base at selected coasts of the country. Necessary infrastructure has to be created and ca-
pacity building taken up in the country towards this.
REFERENCES
Baba, M. and Kurian, N.P., 1988. Ocean waves and beach processes of south west coast of India and their
prediction, Centre for Earth Science Studies, Trivandrum, December 1988, 249p.
Black, K.P. and Vincent, C.E., 2001. High-resolution field measurements and numerical modelling of intra-wave
sediment suspension on plane beds under shoaling waves, Coastal Engineering, 42, 173-197.
Hume, T.M., Bell, R.G., Black, K.P., Healy, T.R. and Nichol, S.L., 1999. Mangawhai-Pakiri Sand Study, Module 6:
Final Report, Sand Movement and Storage and Nearshore Sand Extraction in the Mangawhai-Pakiri
Embayment, NIWA Client Report ARC 60201/10 prepared for The Working Party, Mangawhai-Pakiri Sand
Study, ARC Environment, Auckland Regional Council, New Zealand, 43pp plus figures.
Kurian, N.P., 1987. Wave height and spectral transformation in the shallow waters of Kerala coast and their
prediction. Ph. D. Thesis, Cochin University of Science & Technology, Cochin.
Kurian, N.P., 1989. Shallow water wave transformation, In: M. Baba and T.S. Shahul Hameed (Eds.), Ocean
Wave Studies and Applications, Centre for Earth Science Studies, pp 15-32.
Kurian, N.P., Prakash, T.N., Thomas, K.V., Hameed, T.S. S., Chattopadhyay, S., Baba, M., Black, K.P., Mathew, J.,
Rajith, K., Arun Kumar, K.S., Bindu Mol, A.M., Vinod, M.V., Vijayakumaran Nair, A., Ajith Kumar, M., Mohanan,
S. and Raju, D, 2002. Heavy Mineral Budgeting and Management at Chavara, Final Project Report submitted
to IREL, Centre for Earth Science Studies, 513pp.
894
ON THE PREDICTABILITY OF THE OCEANS

ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
Ir. G.K.F.M. van Banning*
Alkyon Hydraulic Consultancy & Research, The Netherlands
Abstract
Environmental conditions describe the physical status of the Ocean. A significant amount of
parameters is in use to describe these conditions. Commonly used parameters are water
levels, currents, wave heights, temperature and salinity. The understanding of the processes,
which determine the values of each of these parameters in space and time, has increased
significantly over the last centuries. The processes were described in equations. In the last
decades, the equations were translated into numerical approximations. To predict the behaviour
we simulate the processes in computers.
Nowadays with the increasing capacity of computing power, we are capable of predicting the
values of these parameters more accurately. Such simulations are only valuable for predic-
tions, once we prove that they are correct. This process of validation is only possible if accu-
rate measurements are available. This paper describes the steps needed for an accurate
prediction of these environmental conditions.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The circulation in oceans is mainly determined by the interaction between the earth and its
atmosphere. The earth, its motion and its interactions in our solar system, cause the winds,
the interactive forces that generate the tide and the heat that warms up our globe.
The attraction forces between the earth, the sun and the moon, determine the tidal force that
is of major importance in the shallow areas at the boundaries of the oceans. The motion of our
earth around the sun is responsible for the seasons as well as for changes in the tide and the
atmosphere.
The winds cause the waves to grow and to propagate over the oceans surface. At the same
time, the wind causes large-scale circulation patterns.
In this paper we do not want to go in detail in the equations and the behaviour, it is rather
meant to give an overall picture of the way predictions can be made of the oceans behaviour.
These predictions are becoming increasingly important for all kind of actions related to the
sea.
*Corresponding author: E-mail: Banning@alkyon.nl

Examples are: Shipping, sailing and mooring, early warning systems for tropical revolving
storms, operations at sea (offshore) and in ports and harbours, fishing and recreation, but also
calamities and pollutions.
2.0 MODELLING APPROACH
For the modelling of the ocean environment, many numerical model systems have been devel-
oped. In general, the models describe two different types of phenomena. The first type consid-
ers the long free surface waves; the second type the short free surface waves.
The long waves are characterised by wavelengths, which are more than 20 times the water
depths. Their characteristic period is in the order of hours or days. They obey the rules of the
shallow water equations, in two or in three dimensions. The shallow water equations are
simplifications of the more general Navier Stokes equations, which describe the motion of a
viscous flow. The simplifications made, are the hydrostatic pressure assumption and the
assumed incompressibility of the fluid. Vertical accelerations are neglected. Examples of long
waves are tidal waves, tsunamis, bores and flood waves. Large-scale ocean circulations are
also examples of long waves. The flow is mainly driven by water level differences or by density
differences.
The short waves are characterised by wavelengths, which are much smaller than 20 times the
water depth. Their characteristic period is in the order of seconds to minutes. The fluid pres-
sure in vertical direction is non-hydrostatic. Wave height, wave direction and wave period
describe their behaviour. In equations, they are described in approximations of the wave po-
tential. The short waves are mainly driven by wind. They propagate over the ocean and trans-
form into swell, when the wind as driving force is absent.
Due to the character of the driving force of the long wave (except for tsunamis or bores), the
behaviour is more or less deterministic. This is especially true for the tidal wave, which is
driven by the motion of the earth and its interaction with sun and moon. The tide can be
predicted accurately for almost any area in the world for the coming centuries. Large-scale
ocean currents are partly predictable as they are driven by large-scale wind phenomena e.g.
the circulations in the Bay of Bengal during both monsoon seasons. The same is valid for
large-scale density driven circulation as the Florida current.
The short waves however follow an always-changing pattern, which is related to the statistics
of the local and sometimes far away wind patterns. The local wave conditions are therefore
mostly described in wave statistics. They give e.g. the frequency of occurrence of waves in
various height and direction classes. The short waves do not influence the behaviour of the
long waves on large scales. They however do in shallow water.
896
3.0 SCHEMATISATIONS
For the numerical simulation of the real world with respect to long and short waves,
schematisations have to be made. The real world is schematised in a structured amount of
data. These data should within the limits of the required accuracy, schematise the unlimited
amount of data from the real world in the model.
The simulation model is based on an enormous amount of schematisations of virtually all
parts of the system.
These schematisations concern the bathymetry, the boundary conditions, the representation
of the equations in space and time, the representation of the driving forces, etceteras. The
attention that each of the different schematisations receives should keep balance with its
importance. Giving one item of the schematisation too much attention reduces the capabili-
ties for proper representation of the other parameters.
The accuracy and validity of the final result in combination with the yet limited computational
power should be the goal.
Of course, this is a difficult issue. In modelling oceans and large seas, the schematisation of
reality is often limited by the availability of accurate information.
Satellite information has increased the reliability of observations significantly. Despite that
information, items like the bathymetry of a sea or ocean is at its best only a shadow of reality.
Therefore, attention should be given to the required accuracy for each area to be modelled.
E.g. the deep sea and ocean conditions are important for offshore operations and for deep-sea
shipping. However the conditions in deep water are mostly less critical as they are in the
nearshore area, where velocities tend to be higher and the operations are more critical.
Solutions for these schematisation problems have been found in the past in many ways. The
finite difference method for solving equations has been adjusted to allow for curvilinear grid
schematisation, or rectilinear with varying grid cells. Domain decomposition in horizontal en
vertical direction has allowed for more accurate representations in areas of interest. Running
more computers parallel, allowed for more computer power. Finite element methods were
improved for running with unstructured grids. We are now at the stage where we should prove
that our models are correct, before running into the predictive mode. The increased reliability
and accuracy of the meteorological models also cause this increase in capabilities. These
models, which deliver an essential input for modelling the oceans environmental conditions,
have improved drastically in the last years.
In addition, the insight in the importance of certain phenomena has evolved. For large scale
tidal models for instance it is not sufficient to drive the model with just boundary conditions, as
with large water masses, the forces of the Moon and the Sun act as well on the water mass
inside the model. Therefore modelling accuracy increases with internal driving of the tidal
897
forces on the water masses inside the model.
A similar effect has been evolved for the salinity and temperature effects. The heat fluxes over
the water surface between atmosphere and water, has a major effect for the large-scale ocean
circulations. The combination of sun light, relative humidity, cloud coverage, wind speed,
angle of latitude and moment of the day, determine the influx of heat through the water surface.
The combination of temperature and salinity of the water determine the density and the den-
sity is together with the wind systems a major driving force for large-scale ocean circulations
like the Florida current.
The mass balance should at the same time be maintained. Evaporation and precipitation may
seriously influence the behaviour in shelf seas. For instance, the Red Sea evaporates so
much water that the northern part of the Red Sea becomes extremely salt and hot. Water
supply from its southern end is required to fill up the shortage of water during summer espe-
cially. This supplement of ocean water causes a net northward flow in the southern part.
Therefore space and time varying fields with sufficient resolution in time and space should be
used for all these meteorological parameters to approach the physical reality. Let us consider
the modelling of the northern part of the Indian Ocean, an area around the Indian continent. Let
us assume to have these fields with a resolution of 1 hour in time and 1/4th of a degree in both
directions. Let us further assume that we want to simulate one month and that we need
approximately 10 parameters. This alone means already for the area North of the equator an
amount of more 100 million numbers, just for boundary conditions. In general the required
accuracy for simulating the circulations should preferably be in the order of 3 minutes longi-
tude by 3 minutes latitude, resulting in a grid of approximately half a million points. Even then,
we just only have depth averaged flow simulations. Hence, it is not so difficult to understand
that computer power is yet an important limiting factor.
Choices have to be made on the importance of the various processes involved for the sea to be
modelled. E.g. for shelf seas and shallow areas, the tide becomes dominant, for very shallow
estuaries, it becomes important to include storm surge and drying an flooding of shallow
areas. When large rivers flow into the sea, density differences originating from the discharge of
low saline and high temperature river water may cause three-dimensional effects. These ef-
fects let the water with the lower density flow over the surface, which automatically causes the
attraction of a bottom current towards the coast. In this way, silt and nutrients are often kept
very near to the shore.
For waves, a choice has to be made on the resolution of the large-scale model. Of course, it
is necessary to include wave boundary conditions from global models if swell has to be taken
into account as well. Main input data are the wind and pressure fields and for shallower areas,
the water level and the flow data. For a proper simulation of the wave propagation, the wave
898
growth, the dissipation, the shoaling and the refraction, a spectral third generation wave model
should be used. Examples are the WAM model, the Wavewatch model and the Swan model.
It is an art to use these models in the correct way.
4.0 VALIDATION
Before getting into the actual comparison of models and measurements, we should define
some key terms describing the validation.
Validation - Validation is the act of testing the applied model(s) for compliance with measure-
ments or standards. It proofs the validity. A proper validation can be split up in two parts,
namely the calibration and the verification.
Calibration Calibration is the adjustment, by comparison with measurements or standards,

of the control parameters and the boundary conditions of the model. The calibration of a depth
averaged tidal model with a number of water level and velocity data, for instance, involves
tuning the bottom roughness, the depths, the amplitudes and phases of the tidal constituents
at the boundaries and many more parameters.
Verification Verification is the part of the validation that checks the correctness of the model,
without further tuning or adjustment. This is done by comparison of the model result with a
reference standard or measured data that not have been used in the calibration phase. A
common method for tidal models is to calibrate large scale models with measured water level
data (mostly in the form of constituents) and to validate detailed models nested in the overall
model by comparison of simulated and measured velocity for the date time location that the
measurements were taken.
Nowadays models have been integrated into compound modelling systems, which also solve
the complex interactions between different phenomena like, for instance, waves and flow or
waves and water levels in shallow waters.
The validations of these compound model systems require that each of the processes is
validated separately. This validation concerns first the equations and whether they describe
the correct phenomena. Then the code and the numerical evaluation of the equations to be
solved. At the end, it concerns the application and the comparison with measurements.
The level of detail or the importance of the phenomena determines the steps that should be
taken first.
It cannot be repeated enough, that without measurements no model or application can be

validated. Measurements and especially those measurements, which are repeated consis-
tently for many years, are the basis for all ocean modelling. Models are just tools, for the
multiplication of a limited amount of measurements to an almost unlimited amount of mea-
899
surements under different circumstances and on different time and length scales.
In large-scale systems, it may be the ocean circulation which is dominant e.g. the Caribbean
sea and the Gulf of Mexico, or it may be the tide, which is dominant. An example of the latter
is the Bay of Bengal or the North West Europe Continental Shelf.
5.0 COMPARISONS OF SIMULATIONS AND OBSERVATIONS
Comparison of simulations and observations is not as easy as it seems. For a correct simu-
lation of just the tide, it is important to calibrate on basis of constituents rather than on basis
of individual water level observations. Meteorological effects frequently influence individual
water level observations. The tidal analysis tool has the advantage of ruling out the short water
level fluctuations, caused by these meteorological effects. Despite that, more steady meteo-
rological effects may influence even the tidal analysis. Example given a yearly averaged domi-
nant landward wind condition will influence a tidal station situated on an open coast only with
respect to the mean reference level. However, in an estuary, different wind conditions may
have different multiplication effects for different constituents, which means that the wind influ-
ence may affect certain constituents.
A correct representation of the most important constituents guarantees the reproduction of

any tidal water level, for the past, for the present and for the future (in between the years 1950
and 2050). The difficulty is that for a proper comparison of constituents, long-term measure-
ments are required e.g. 35 days for approximately 26 constituents and a whole year for
approximately 90 constituents. Even then, local shallow water effects (not represented in a
coarse large-scale model) may disturb the measurements of the water levels. That is the
reason why stations for comparison of constituents, should be selected carefully. Thanks to
the observations available from satellites nowadays, the major constituents are also available
for deeper water. However, the derived constituents are unreliable for shallow water. Besides,
they do not measure only the ocean tide but also the earth tide, which is the same as a
measuring device does.
Comparison of water levels or constituents is one step, comparison of velocities is much more
difficult. A velocity measurement gives just a time series at one height in the water column
(with an ADCP it may well be a profile of velocities). Despite that, the measuring of velocities
gives (again especially if they are maintained for 30 35 days) an ideal opportunity to verify a
model in much more detail. It is for example common use nowadays to calibrate a large-scale
tidal model by comparison of tidal constituents, where the verification is made for a high-
resolution nested model. Simply simulating the day the measurements were taken and com-
pare the measured and the simulated velocity in the same point does this.
Even now, we are just only at the beginning of comparison. Comparing under meteorological
900
conditions needs much more effort. Mostly these influences can only be modelled correctly in
a three dimensional approach. For the comparison with measurements now no longer just
water levels or velocities are sufficient. A consistent set of simultaneous measured data is
needed. Wind and pressure varying in time and space, water levels, velocities (preferably
profiles) are a minimum. For simulations of hurricanes and density driven currents even more
data is needed.
For comparison of temperature and salinity, an even more complicated approach is needed.
These parameters are weakly dynamic and vary on a longer time scale. They do not only need
accurate information of meteorological models, they require also input from daily river dis-
charges of fresh water, including temperature. These parameters require three-dimensional
modelling as well, to include the effects of density driven currents.
For comparison of waves, wave height, wave direction and wave period. One measuring device
is insufficient. For statistical evaluation of wave data, at least a number of years of data from
e.g. a wave rider is needed. For the calibration and validation of a wave propagation model,
multiple data is needed from various sources. Again, the wind and especially the history of the
wind and the local effects of land boundaries are becoming important.
Finally for comparing wave driven currents in a near shore littoral drift, not only the wave and
the flow models should be validated first, also the interaction between wave and flow models
becomes important.
The overall problem of the predictability of the oceans environmental conditions is in these
days more a problem of a shortage of simultaneous measurements than of modelling capabili-
ties. The modeller, who wants to prove the correctness of his models, needs measurements
to confirm his predictions. The only way to determine the accuracy of his predictions is to
show his predictions of yesterday for the day of tomorrow against the measurements of tomor-
row. Modellers should prepare themselves for day-to-day predictions. Measuring companies
should verify the correctness of these predictions.
6.0 CONCLUSIONS
The prediction of the oceans environmental conditions requires a careful selection of models,
selected on the specific requirements that are important for the region to be modelled. Even
then, the art is the validation of the models against measurements. It is easy to produce
results of simulations, it is much more difficult to show that the model is correct in its repro-
duction of reality. The criteria to judge the model results are now developed. It is time to
develop objective standards for the evaluation of the predictive capability of models. For such
an evaluation, measurements are needed as much as possible. For an open comparison,
these measurements should be made available via public internet-sites.
901
REFERENCES
Van Rijn, Leo C., 1990, Prinicples of fluid flow and surface waves in rivers, estuaries, seas and oceans,
Oldemarkt: Aqua Publications, ISBN 90-800356-1-0
Van Banning, Gijs K.F.M., De Vriend H.J., Boer, S., 1987, Schematisation and validation of 2DH mathematical
models in coastal morphology, conference on Coastal Sediments 1987, New Orleans, USA.
Neumann, G., 1968, Ocean Currents, Elsevier Publishing Company, New York, USA.
Stewart, Robert H., 2003,Introduction To Physical Oceanography, Texas University, 2003.
902

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Third Indian National Conference on

HARBOUR AND OCEAN ENGINEERING

VOLUME ONE VOLUME TWO

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF OCEANOGRAPHY Disclaimer

Editors Dr. S. Mandal, Scientist, NIO, Goa

Editorial Assistance Mr. S.P. Sharma, Mr. Arun Y Mahale

Third Indian National Conference on

HARBOUR AND OCEAN ENGINEERING

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF OCEANOGRAPHY

Elcome Surveys, Mumbai

Gujarat Adani Port Ltd., Ahmedabad

Indomer Coastal Hydraulics (P) Ltd., Chennai

Mormugao Port Trust, Goa

National Institute of Ocean Technology, Chennai

R.K. Katadi Marine Operators & Engineering, Kakinada

Alkyon Hydraulic Consultancy & Research, The Netherlands

Andaman Laskhadweep Harbour Works, Port Blair

Centre for Earth Science Studies, Thiruvananthapuram

Chennai Port Trust, Chennai

DHI (India) Water & Environment Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi

Dredging Corporation of India, Visakhapatnam

Garware-Wall Ropes Limited, Pune

Gujarat Heavy Chemicals Ltd., Gujarat

Kandla Port Trust, New Kandla

Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai

Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai

Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited, New Delhi

PPN Power Generating Company Ltd., Chennai

Tuticorin Port Trust, Tuticorin

TECHNICAL REVIEW COMMITTEE

Prof. Datta T.K., Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi.

Temporal variation of upwelling during pre-monsoon off east coast of India

Beach dynamics of an open coast on the west coast of India

Beach profile studies along the south west coast of India

Design wave prediction along the coast of India

Simulation of warm water dispersion in coastal environment

Prediction of extreme wind speed for Kuwait

Influence of crest width on hydraulic performance of submerged reef

Study of littoral transport along Dakshina Kannada coast, Karnataka

Modelling wave surge interactions

Deltaic shoreline evolution

Morphodynamic state of Mudga beach, west coast of India

Monitoring of a lagoon system in Kuwait

Shoreline oscillations caused by Port - Methods of assessment and evaluation

A model for shoreline management

Reliability of stiffened cylindrical shells

Performance of floating wave energy device with varying tidal conditions

Experimental p-y curves for caissons in marine clay

Influence of bulbous bow on the resistance characteristics of a catamaran

Slamming forces on an open sea mooring dolphin with battered piles

Computation of wave loads on floating structures

Sea-keeping characteristics during initial design

Reliability assessment of TLP tethers under impulsive loading

Experimental investigation on the takeoff performance of a WIG craft

RBSO of stiffened cylindrical shell with ring buckling mode of failure

Reliability of offshore jacket for different bracing configurations

Dynamic behaviour of coupled OTEC platform-cold water pipe system

Ternary blend concrete for marine structures

Strength characteristics of low calcium flyash concrete exposed to marine environment

Veerayya, M. & Varadachari, V. V. R, (1975), Depositional environments of coastal sediments of Calangute,