General Chemistry

Seminar 11
Sheet of „Seminar 7 – Calculation problems”
2. How much 0.200 mol/dm3 NaOH solution reacts exactly with 66.00 cm3 0.134 mol/dm3 HCl
solution?

nHCl = cHCl x VHCl VHCl = 66.00 cm3 = 0.06600 dm3

nHCl = 0.134 [mol/dm3] x 0.06600 [dm3]

nHCl = 0.008844 mol = 8.844 x 10-3 mol

NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O

1 mol 1 mol
nNaOH = nHCl

VNaOH = nNaOH/cNaOH = 8.844 x 10-3 [mol] / 0.200 [mol/dm3]

VNaOH = 0.04422 dm3 = 44.22 cm3

3. 50.00 cm3 of an unknown HNO3 solution reacts exactly with 19.85 cm3 0.100 mol/dm3 KOH
solution. What is the molarity of the HNO3 solution?

nKOH = cKOH x VKOH

nKOH = 0.100 [mol/dm3] x 0.01985 [dm3]

nKOH = 0.001985 mol = 1.985 x 10-3 mol

KOH + HNO3 KNO3 + H2O

1 mol 1 mol
nKOH = nHNO3

cHNO3 = nHNO3/ VHNO3 = 1.985 x 10-3 [mol] / 0.0500 [dm3]

cHNO3 = 0.0397 mol/dm3

4. a) How much 90.0 m/m% 1.82 g/cm3 sulphuric acid solution is needed for preparing 250 cm3
2.00 mol/dm3 sulphuric acid solution?
b) How much 5.00 m/m% 1.055 g/cm3 sodium hydroxide solution is needed to neutralize the
sulphuric acid solution?
nsolute = cdil x Vdil = 2.00 [mol/dm3] x 0.250 [dm3] = 0.500 mol
The molar amount of the solute does not change during dilution.

msolute = nsolute x Msolute = 0.500 [mol] x 98.1 [g/mol] = 49.05 g

(m/m) %cc = [mass of the solute / mass of the concentrated solution ] x 100
90.0 % = [49.05 / mcc solution ] x 100
mcc solution = 49.05 x 100 / 90.0 = 54.5 g Vcc solution = mcc / ρcc = 54.5 [g] / 1.82 [g/cm3] = 29.95 cm3

H2SO4 + 2 NaOH Na2SO4 + 2 H2O

1 mol 2 mol
nNaOH = nH2SO4 x 2 = 0.500 x 2 = 1.00 mol mNaOH = n x M = 1.00 [mol] x 40.0 [g/mol] = 40.0 g

5.00 % = [40.0 / mNaOH solution ] x 100

mNaOH solution = 40.0 x 100 / 5.0 = 800 g

VNaOH solution = m / ρ = 800 [g] / 1.055 [g/cm3] = 758.3 cm3

5. Will the solution be basic or acidic when 200 g of a 10.0 m/m% sulphuric acid solution and 150
g of 16.0 m/m% sodium hydroxide solution are mixed?

(m/m) % = [mass of the solute / mass of the solution ] x 100

10.0 % = [mH2SO4 / 200] x 100 16.0 % = [mNaOH / 150] x 100

mH2SO4 = 200 x 10 / 100 = 20.0 g mNaOH = 150 x 16 / 100 = 24.0 g

nH2SO4 = mH2SO4 / MH2SO4 = 20.0 [g] / 98.1 [g/mol] nNaOH = mNaOH / MNaOH = 24.0 [g] / 40.0 [g/mol]
nH2SO4 = 0.204 mol nNaOH = 0.600 mol

H2SO4 + 2 NaOH Na2SO4 + 2 H2O

1 mol 2 mol
0.204 mol 0.408 mol

nNaOH excess = 0.600 – 0.408 = 0.192 mol The NaOH is in excess, so the solution will be basic.
6. 10.00 cm3 0.173 mol/dm3 HCl solution is exactly neutralized by 7.85 cm3 unknown NaOH
solution. What is the concentration of the NaOH solution? Give the result to a reasonable precision.

nHCl = cHCl x VHCl

nHCl = 0.173 [mol/dm3] x 0.010 [dm3]

nHCl = 0.00173 mol = 1.73 x 10-3 mol

NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O

1 mol 1 mol
nNaOH = nHCl

cNaOH = nNaOH/ VNaOH = 1.73 x 10-3 [mol] / 0.00785 [dm3]

cNaOH = 0.220 mol/dm3

Titration is a common laboratory method of quantitative chemical analysis to determine the
concentration of an identified analyte (a substance to be analyzed).

A reagent, termed the titrant, is prepared as a standard solution of known concentration and volume.
The titrant reacts with a solution of analyte to determine the analyte's concentration.

Types of titration: acid-base, redox, complexometric etc.

Acid-base titrations depend on a reaction between an

acid and a base in solution.

Equivalence point is the theoretical completion of the

reaction.

Setting up and Performing a Titration:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sFpFCPTDv2w
7. We titrate a sample of HClO4 with NaOH solution. The sample contains 10.00 cm3 0.205 mol/dm3 HClO4.
Three titrations were performed and the volume of the NaOH that was consumed was measured. The following
results were received: 8.57 cm3; 8.46 cm3 and 8.44 cm3. Calculate the concentration of the NaOH solution!

nHClO4 = cHClO4 x VHClO4

nHClO4 = 0.205 [mol/dm3] x 0.010 [dm3]

nHClO4 = 0.00205 mol = 2.05 x 10-3 mol

NaOH + HClO4 NaClO4 + H2O

1 mol 1 mol
nNaOH = nHClO4

VNaOH average = (8.46 + 8.44) / 2 = 8.45 cm3 Take the average of only those volumes that are
close to each other. (Deviation smaller than 1%)
cNaOH = nNaOH/ VNaOH = 2.05 x 10-3 [mol] / 0.00845 [dm3]

cNaOH = 0.243 mol/dm3

8. Lactic acid (2-hydroxy propanoic acid) is a simple monobasic weak acid. Its molar weight is determined in an
experiment through acid-base titration. 0.1025 g lactic acid is weighed into a titration flask and dissolved
completely in 20-25 cm3 of distilled water. This sample is titrated with 0.0980 mol/dm3 NaOH solution. The
equivalent volume is 11.65 cm3. Determine the molar weight of lactic acid based on the titration result. What is
the difference between the experimentally determined and actual molar weight?

nNaOH = cNaOH x VNaOH

nNaOH = 0.0980 [mol/dm3] x 0.01165 [dm3]

nNaOH = 0.001142 mol = 1.142 x 10-3 mol

CH3CH(OH)COOH + NaOH CH3CH(OH)COONa + H2O

nlactic acid = nNaOH

Mexp lactic acid = m / n = 0.1025 [g] / 1.142 x 10-3 mol = 89.75 g/mol

Mactual lactic acid = 12.01 x 3 + 1.01 x 6 + 16.0 x 3 = 90.09 g/mol

D = Mexp lactic acid - Mactual lactic acid = 89.75 - 90.09 = -0.34 g/mol
General Chemistry

Seminar 16
pH is a scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution.
At 25 °C, solutions with a pH of 7 are neutral (e.g. pure water). At this temperature, solutions
with a pH less than 7 are acidic, and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic (alkaline). The
pH scale is logarithmic and inversely indicates the concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution.

https://www.vecteezy.com/vector-art/293102-the-science-ph-scale
 Calculation of pH
pH is the negative of the base 10 logarithm of the molar concentration (more precisely
activity) of hydronium ions (or hydrogen ions) in solution.

pH = - log10 [H3O+] = - lg [H3O+] = - lg [H+]

[ ] indicates the equilibrium concentration in mol/dm3

Water can undergo autoionization to form H3O+/H+ and OH- :

H2O + H2O H3O+ + OH-
H 2O H+ + OH-

We can write an equilibrium expression for the autoionization of water:

Kw = [H3O+] x [OH-]
Kw = 10-7 x 10-7 (for pure water at 25 °C)
Kw = 10-14 (at 25 °C)
 Kw = 10-14 = [H3O+] x [OH-]
In a neutral solution: [H3O+] = [OH-]
In an acidic solution: [H3O+] > [OH-]
In a basic solution: [OH-] > [H3O+]

We can also define pOH as the negative of the base 10 logarithm of the molar
concentration of hydroxide ions in solution.

pOH = - log10 [OH-] = - lg [OH-]

10-14 = [H3O+] x [OH-]

- lg 10-14 = - lg ([H3O+] x [OH-])
- lg 10-14 = - lg [H3O+] - lg [OH-]

14 = pH + pOH
Sheet of „Seminar 11 – Calculation problems”
1. Calculate the pH of the solutions:
a, [H3O+] = 0.0100 mol/dm3 b, [H3O+] = 5.00×10–9 mol/dm3
c, [H3O+] = 4.10×10–3 mol/dm3 d, [H3O+] = 2.65×10–5 mol/dm3

pH = - lg [H3O+]

a, pH = - lg [H3O+] = - lg (0.0100) = 2.00 b, pH = - lg [H3O+] = - lg (5.00×10–9) = 8.30

c, pH = - lg [H3O+] = - lg (4.10×10–3) = 2.39 d, pH = - lg [H3O+] = - lg (2.65×10–5) = 4.58

2. Calculate the [H3O+] and the [OH–] concentrations in the following solutions:
a, pH = 3.25 b, pH = 6.83 c, pH = 11.72

pH = - lg [H3O+]
[H3O+] = 10-pH

a, [H3O+] = 10-pH = 10-3.25 = 0.000562 mol/dm3 = 5.62 x 10-4 mol/dm3

Kw = 10-14 = [H3O+] x [OH-]
[OH-] = 10-14 / [H3O+] = 10-14 / (5.62 x 10-4) = 1.78 x 10-11 mol/dm3

b, [H3O+] = 10-pH = 10-6.83 = 1.48 x 10-7 mol/dm3

[OH-] = Kw / [H3O+] = 10-14 / (1.48 x 10-7) = 6.76 x 10-8 mol/dm3

c, [H3O+] = 10-pH = 10-11.72 = 1.905 x 10-12 mol/dm3

[OH-] = Kw / [H3O+] = 10-14 / (1.905 x 10-12) = 5.25 x 10-3 mol/dm3
Strong acids (e.g. HCl, HNO3, H2SO4, HClO4) and strong bases (e.g. NaOH, KOH)

HA + H2O H 3 O+ + A - B + H2 O BH+ + OH-

The dissociation of strong acids in diluted
aqueous solution is practically complete.
So, the chemical equilibrium above entirely
shifts into the direction of the right side.
Thus, the initial concentration of a strong
acid (cHA) will be equal to the equilibrium
concentration of hydronium ions ([H3O+]) in
solution:
cHA = [H3O+] for strong acids
The dissociation of strong bases in diluted
aqueous solution is practically complete.
So, the chemical equilibrium above entirely
shifts into the direction of the right side.
Thus, the initial concentration of a strong
base (cB) will be equal to the equilibrium
concentration of hydroxide ions ([OH-]) in
solution:
cB = [OH-] for strong bases

For example: For example:

HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl- NaOH Na+ + OH-

HCl is a strong acid, so cHCl = [H3O+] NaOH is a strong base, so cNaOH = [OH-]
after: pH = - lg [H3O+] after: pOH = - lg [OH-] and pH = 14 - pOH
 3. Calculate the pH of the following solutions!
a, 250 cm3 of a 0.0100 M HCl solution
b, 2.00 dm3 of a 0.250 M HNO3 solution
c, 0.720 g NaOH is dissolved and 500 cm3 of solution is prepared
d, 2.00 cm3 of a 50.0 m/m% NaOH solution (ρ= 1.53 g/cm3) is diluted to 2.00 dm3.

a, cHCl = 0.0100 M = [H3O+] b, cHNO3 = 0.250 M = [H3O+]

pH = - lg [H3O+] = - lg (0.0100) = 2.00 pH = - lg [H3O+] = - lg (0.250) = 0.602

c, nNaOH = mNaOH / MNaOH = 0.720 g / 40.0 g/mol = 0.018 mol

cNaOH = nNaOH / VNaOH = 0.018 mol / 0.500 dm3 = 0.036 mol/dm3 cNaOH = 0.036 mol/dm3 = [OH-]

pOH = - lg [OH-] = - lg (0.036) = 1.44 pH = 14 - pOH = 14 - 1.44 = 12.56

d, mcc solution = V x ρ = 2.00 cm3 x 1.53 g/cm3 = 3.06 g mNaOH = mcc solution x (m/m%cc /100) = 1.53 g
nNaOH = mNaOH / MNaOH = 1.53 g / 40.0 g/mol = 0.03825 mol

cNaOH = nNaOH / VNaOH = 0.03825 mol / 2.00 dm3 = 0.01913 mol/dm3 cNaOH = 0.01913 mol/dm3 = [OH-]

pOH = - lg [OH-] = - lg (0.01913) = 1.72 pH = 14 - pOH = 14 - 1.72 = 12.28

4. How much HCl solution (pH = 2.17) is neutralized by 25.00 cm3 of NaOH solution (pH = 10.95)?

NaOH solution:
pH = - lg [H3O+] Kw = [H3O+] x [OH-]
10.95 = - lg [H3O+] 10-14 = 1.12 x 10-11 x [OH-]
[H3O+] = 10-10.95 mol/dm3 = 1.12 x 10-11 mol/dm3 [OH-] = 8.91 x 10-4 mol/dm3

[OH-] = cNaOH , because NaOH is a strong base

nNaOH = cNaOH x VNaOH = 8.91 x 10-4 [mol/dm3] x 0.0250 [dm3] = 2.23 x 10-5 mol

NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O

HCl solution: nHCl = nNaOH = 2.23 x 10-5 mol

pH = - lg [H3O+]
2.17 = - lg [H3O+]
[H3O+] = 10-2.17 mol/dm3 = 6.76 x 10-3 mol/dm3 [H3O+] = cHCl , because HCl is a strong acid

VHCl = nHCl / cHCl = (2.23 x 10-5) / (6.76 x 10-3) = 0.00330 dm3 = 3.30 cm3
 5. What is the pH of the solution that was prepared by mixing 1.00 dm3 of a 5.00 m/m% NaOH solution
(ρ = 1.054 g/cm3) and 1.00 dm3 of 4.00 m/m% HCl solution (ρ = 1.020 g/cm3) and diluted to 5.00 dm3?
NaOH solution:
mNaOH solution = V x ρ = 1000 cm3 x 1.054 g/cm3 = 1054 g
mNaOH = mNaOH solution x (m/m%cc /100) = 1054 x (5/100) = 52.7 g
nNaOH = mNaOH / MNaOH = 52.7 g / 40.0 g/mol = 1.32 mol

HCl solution:
mHCl solution = V x ρ = 1000 cm3 x 1.020 g/cm3 = 1020 g
mHCl = mHCl solution x (m/m%cc /100) = 1020 x (4/100) = 40.8 g
nHCl = mHCl / MHCl = 40.8 g / 36.5 g/mol = 1.12 mol

NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O

The reaction stoichiometry is 1:1, so NaOH will be in excess after mixing, and it will determine the pH of the mixture.
nNaOH excess = nNaOH - nHCl = 1.32 – 1.12 = 0.20 mol
cNaOH after reaction = nNaOH excess / Vmixture = 0.20 mol / 5.00 dm3 = 0.0400 mol/ dm3 = [OH-]

pOH = - lg [OH-] = - lg (0.0400) = 1.40 pH = 14 - pOH = 14 - 1.40 = 12.6

 6. 0.300 g of Al(OH)3 is dissolved in 30.00 cm3 of 1.000 mol/dm3 HCl-solution and then the
solution is completed to 100.00 cm3. What will be the pH of the solution?

Al(OH)3:
nAl(OH)3 = mAl(OH)3 / MAl(OH)3 = 0.300 g / 78.0 g/mol = 0.00385 mol

HCl solution:
nHCl = cHCl x VHCl = 1.000 [mol/dm3] x 0.03000 [dm3] = 0.0300 mol

Al(OH)3 + 3 HCl AlCl3 + 3 H2O

1 mol 3 mol
0.00385 mol 3 x 0.00385 mol = 0.01155 mol

The reaction stoichiometry is 1:3, but HCl will still be in excess after the reaction, so it will determine
the pH of the mixture.

nHCl excess = nHCl – 3 x nAl(OH)3 = 0.03000 – 3 x 0.00385 = 0.01845 mol

cHCl after reaction = nHCl excess / Vmixture = 0.01845 mol / 0.100 dm3 = 0.1845 mol/ dm3 = [H3O+]

pH = - lg [H3O+] = - lg (0.1845) = 0.734

7. How many cm3 of 0.100 mol/dm3 NaOH-solution should be added to prepare a 50.0 cm3
solution the pH of which will be 12.40?

8. How much 0.0457 mol/dm3 sodium hydroxide solution is needed to neutralize 15.36 cm3
0.0356 mol/dm3 HCl solution?

9. How much 1.469 mol/dm3 nitric acid solution is needed to neutralize 10.00 cm3 2.16 mol/dm3
NaOH solution?

Try to solve these problems on your own at home!

General Chemistry

Seminar 17
 Review - Calculation of pH
pH is the negative of the base 10 logarithm of the molar concentration (more precisely
activity) of hydronium ions (or hydrogen ions) in solution.

pH = - log10 [H3O+] = - lg [H3O+] = - lg [H+]

[ ] indicates the equilibrium concentration in mol/dm3

We can also define pOH as the negative of the base 10 logarithm of the molar
concentration of hydroxide ions in solution.

pOH = - log10 [OH-] = - lg [OH-]

We can write an equilibrium expression for the autoionization of water:

Kw = 10-14 = [H3O+] x [OH-]

14 = pH + pOH
 Weak acids (e.g. HNO2, HCOOH, CH3COOH, CH2ClCOOH)

HA + H2O H 3 O+ + A - The dissociation of weak acids in diluted

aqueous solution is not complete.
Initially cHA
Thus, the initial concentration of a weak acid
Change -x +x +x
(cHA) will not be equal to the equilibrium
Equilibrium cHA - x x x
concentration of hydronium ions ([H3O+]) in
𝐾𝑎 − 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 dissociation constant; x = [H3O+] solution:
[H3O+][A−] [H3O+][H3O+] [H3O+]𝟐 cHA ≠ [H3O+] for weak acids
𝐊𝐚 = = =
[HA] 𝐜(𝐇𝐀)−[H3O+] 𝐜(𝐇𝐀)−[H3O+]
For example:
[H3O+]𝟐
𝐊𝐚 = HNO2 + H2O H3O+ + NO2-
𝐜(𝐇𝐀) − [H3O+]

𝐊𝐚𝐜 𝐇𝐀 − 𝐊𝐚[H3O+] = [H3O+]𝟐

𝟎 = [H3O+]𝟐 + 𝐊𝐚[H3O+] − 𝐊𝐚𝐜 𝐇𝐀 𝟎 = ax𝟐 + bx + 𝒄

+
−𝐊𝐚 ± 𝐊𝐚𝟐 − 𝟒𝐱𝟏𝐱(−𝐊𝐚𝐜 𝐇𝐀 ) −𝒃 ± 𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄 where x = [H3O+]
[H3O ] = 𝒙=
𝟐𝐱𝟏 𝟐𝒂 a = 1; b = 𝐊𝐚; c = −𝐊𝐚𝐜(𝐇𝐀)
for monoprotic weak acids
 Weak acids II.

HA + H2O H 3 O+ + A -

[H3O+]𝟐
𝐊𝐚 =
𝐜(𝐇𝐀) − [H3O+]

If cHA at least 3 orders of magnitude bigger than 𝐊𝐚 ((cHA / Ka) ≥ 1000),

𝐜(𝐇𝐀) − [H3O+] ≈ 𝐜 𝐇𝐀 because the degree of dissociation will be small.
In this case:

[H3O+]𝟐
𝐊𝐚 =
𝐜(𝐇𝐀)

𝐊𝐚 𝐱 𝐜 𝐇𝐀 = [H3O+]𝟐

[H3O+] = 𝐊𝐚 𝐱 𝐜 𝐇𝐀

for monoprotic weak acids if cHA at least 3 orders of magnitude bigger than 𝐊𝐚 ((cHA / Ka) ≥ 1000)
Sheet of „Seminar 12 – Calculation problems”
1. Calculate the pH of a 0.100 mol/dm3 acetic acid solution! (Ka = 1.86 × 10–5)

CH3COOH + H2O H3O+ + CH3COO-

cCH3COOH = 0.100 M = = 1.00 x 10–1 M cCH3COOH 1.00 x 10–1

= = 𝟓𝟑𝟕𝟔 > 1000
Ka = 1.86 × 10–5 𝐊𝐚 1.86 × 10–5

cHA more than 3 orders of magnitude bigger than Ka , in other words (cCH3COOH / Ka) > 1000

In this case:

[H3O+] = 𝐊𝐚𝐜 𝐇𝐀

[H3O+] = 1.86 × 10–5 x 10–1 = 1.86 x 10–6

[H3O+] = 1.36 x 10–3 M

pH = - lg [H3O+] = - lg (1.36 x 10–3) = 2.87

2. Calculate the pH of a 0.00100 mol/dm3 acetic acid solution! (Ka = 1.86 × 10–5)

CH3COOH + H2O H3O+ + CH3COO-

cCH3COOH = 0.00100 M = = 1.00 x 10–3 M cCH3COOH 1.00 x 10–3

= = 𝟓𝟑. 𝟕𝟔 < 1000
Ka = 1.86 × 10–5 𝐊𝐚 1.86 × 10–5

We do not have the 3 orders of magnitude difference between the cHA and the Ka ((cHA / Ka) < 1000).

So, we must use the original, quadratic equation:

[H3O+]𝟐
𝐊𝐚 =
𝐜(𝐇𝐀) − [H3O+]

𝟎 = [H3O+]𝟐 + 𝐊𝐚[H3O+] − 𝐊𝐚𝐜 𝐇𝐀

−𝐊𝐚 ± 𝐊𝐚
𝟐 − 𝟒𝐱𝟏𝐱(−𝐊 𝐜 𝐇𝐀 )
𝐚 −1.86 × 10 –5 ± (1.86 × 10–5)𝟐 −𝟒𝐱(−1.86 × 10–5 × 10–3)
[H3O+] = =
𝟐𝐱𝟏 𝟐
[H3O+]1 = 1.27 x 10–4 M [H3O+]2 = -1.46 x 10–4

pH = - lg [H3O+] = - lg (1.27 x 10–4) = 3.90

 Weak bases (e.g. NH3, CH3NH2)

B + H 2O HB+ + OH- The dissociation of weak bases in diluted

aqueous solution is not complete.
Initially cB
Thus, the initial concentration of a weak base
Change -x +x +x
(cB) will not be equal to the equilibrium
Equilibrium cB - x x x
concentration of hydroxide ions ([OH-]) in
𝐾𝑏 − 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎ssociation constant ; x = [OH-] solution:
[OH−][HB+] [OH−][OH−] [OH−]𝟐 cB ≠ [OH-] for weak bases
𝐊𝐛 = = =
[B] 𝐜(𝐁)−[OH−] 𝐜(𝐁)−[OH−]
For example:
[OH−]𝟐
𝐊𝐛 = NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH-
𝐜(𝐁) − [OH−]

𝐊𝐛𝐜 𝐁 − 𝐊𝐛[OH−] = [OH−]𝟐

𝟎 = [OH−]𝟐 + 𝐊b[OH−] − 𝐊𝐛𝐜 𝐁 𝟎 = ax𝟐 + bx + 𝒄

−𝐊𝐛 ± 𝐊𝐛 𝟐 − 𝟒𝐱𝟏𝐱(−𝐊𝐛𝐜 𝐁 ) −𝒃 ± 𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄 where x = [OH−]

−
[OH ] = 𝒙=
𝟐𝐱𝟏 𝟐𝒂 a = 1; b = 𝐊𝐛; c = −𝐊𝐛𝐜(𝐁)
for monoprotic weak bases
 Weak bases II.

B + H2 O HB+ + OH-

[OH−]𝟐
𝐊𝐛 =
𝐜(𝐁) − [OH−]

If cB at least 3 orders of magnitude bigger than 𝐊𝐛 ((cB / Kb) ≥ 1000),

𝐜(𝐁) − [OH−] ≈ 𝐜 𝐁 , because the degree of dissociation will be small.
In this case:

[OH−]𝟐
𝐊𝐛 =
𝐜(𝐁)

𝐊𝐛 𝐱 𝐜 𝐁 = [OH−]𝟐

[OH−] = 𝐊𝐛 𝐱 𝐜 𝐁

for monoprotic weak bases if cB at least 3 orders of magnitude bigger than 𝐊𝐛 ((cB / Kb) ≥ 1000)
5. Calculate the pH of a 0.800 mol/dm3 ammonia solution! (Kb = 1.75 × 10–5)

NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH-

cNH3 = 0.800 M = = 8.00 x 10–1 M cNH3 8.00 x 10–1

= = 𝟒𝟓𝟕𝟏𝟒 > 1000
Kb = 1.75 × 10–5 𝐊𝒃 1.75 × 10–5

cB at least 3 orders of magnitude bigger than Kb , in other words (cNH3 / Kb) > 1000

In this case:

[OH−] = 𝐊𝐛𝐜 𝐁
[OH−] = 1.75 × 10–5 x 8.00 x 10–1 = 1.40 x 10–5
[OH-] = 3.74 x 10–3 M

pOH = - lg [OH-] = - lg (3.74 x 10–3) = 2.43

pH = 14 - pOH = 14 - 2.43 = 11.57
 Calculate the pH of a 0.00800 mol/dm3 ammonia solution! (Kb = 1.75 × 10–5)

NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH-

cNH3 = 0.00800 M = = 8.00 x 10–3 M cNH3 8.00 x 10–3

= = 𝟒𝟓𝟕 < 1000
Kb = 1.75 × 10–5 𝐊𝒃 1.75 × 10–5

We do not have the 3 orders of magnitude difference between the cNH3 and the Kb (cNH3 / Kb) < 1000.

So, we must use the original, quadratic equation:

[OH−]𝟐
𝐊𝐛 =
𝐜(𝐁) − [OH−]

𝟎 = [OH−]𝟐 + 𝐊b[OH−] − 𝐊𝐛𝐜 𝐁

−𝐊𝐛 ± 𝐊𝐛
𝟐 − 𝟒𝐱𝟏𝐱(−𝐊 𝐜 𝐁 )
𝐛 −1.75 × 10–5 ± (1.75 × 10–5)𝟐 −𝟒𝐱𝟏𝐱(−1.75×10–5 x 8.00x10–3)
[OH−] = =
𝟐𝐱𝟏 𝟐𝐱𝟏
[OH-]1 = 3.66 x 10–4 M [OH-]2 = -3.83 x 10–4

pOH = - lg [OH-] = - lg (3.66 x 10–4) = 3.44 pH = 14 - pOH = 14 - 3.44 = 10.56

4. Calculate the acid ionization constant for monochloro acetic acid in a 0.0200 mol/dm3
solution at pH = 2.34!

CH2ClCOOH + H2O H3O+ + CH2ClCOO-

cCH2ClCOOH = 0.0200 M = = 2.00 x 10–2 M
pH = 2.34

[H3O+] = 10-pH = 10-2.34 = 4.57 x 10–3 M

[H3O+]𝟐 (4.57 x 10–3)𝟐

𝐊𝐚(CH2ClCOOH) = = = 1.35 x 10–3
+
𝐜(𝐇𝐀)−[H3O ] 2.00 x 10 − 4.57 x 10
–2 –3
3. Calculate the pH of a 0.100 mol/dm3 HNO2 acid solution! (Ka = 4.94 × 10–4)

HNO2 + H2O H3O+ + NO2-

cHNO2 = 0.100 M = = 1.00 x 10–1 M cHNO2 1.00 x 10–1

= = 𝟐𝟎𝟐 < 1000
Ka = 4.94 × 10–4 𝐊𝐚 4.94 × 10–4

We do not have the 3 orders of magnitude difference between the cHNO2 and the Ka ((cHNO2 / Ka) < 1000).

So, we must use the original, quadratic equation:

[H3O+]𝟐
𝐊𝐚 =
𝐜(𝐇𝐀) − [H3O+]

𝟎 = [H3O+]𝟐 + 𝐊𝐚[H3O+] − 𝐊𝐚𝐜 𝐇𝐀

−𝐊𝐚 ± 𝐊𝐚
𝟐 − 𝟒𝐱𝟏𝐱(−𝐊 𝐜 𝐇𝐀 )
𝐚 −4.94 × 10 –4 ± (4.94 × 10–4)𝟐 −𝟒𝐱(−4.94 × 10–4× 10–𝟏)
[H3O+] = =
𝟐𝐱𝟏 𝟐
[H3O+]1 = 6.79 x 10–3 M [H3O+]2 = -7.28 x 10–3

pH = - lg [H3O+] = - lg (6.79 x 10–3) = 2.17

Practice exercises:
11. Calculate the pH for the following acid solutions!
a, 0.0100 mol/dm3 HCl b, 0.530 mol/dm3 HNO3
c, 0.450 mol/dm3 HCl d, 0.150 mol/dm3 acetic acid (Ka = 1.86 × 10–5)
e, 0.260 mol/dm3 formic acid (Ka = 1.77 × 10–4)

12. Calculate the pH for the following base solutions!

a, 0.0100 mol/dm3 NaOH b, 0.340 mol/dm3 KOH
c, 0.00500 mol/dm3 NaOH d, 0.150 mol/dm3 ammonia (Kb = 1.75 × 10–5)
e, 0.250 mol/dm3 methylamine (Kb = 4.28 × 10–4)
Seminar 14
 Chemical equations

does show - identity of reactants and products

- stoichiometry (quantitative relationship between reacting or
produced substances e.g. mass, amount of substance)
- direction of spontaneous reaction
2H2 + O2  2H2O or 2H2 + O2 = 2H2O
may show - phase of reactants and products
HCl (g)  in gas phase CH4O (l)  in liquid phase
SiO2 (s)  in solid phase
NaCl (aq)  in aqueous phase = dissolved in water
CaCO3 (s) + 2CH3COOH (l)  Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
- energy change of the reaction
2H2 (g) + O2 (g)  2H2O (g) DE = 484 kJ/mol
does not usually show
- time needed for completion
- conditions (e.g. temperature)
molecular equation:
AgNO3 + NaCl  AgCl + NaNO3

ionic equation: electrolytes are written as dissociated ions

Ag+ + NO3  + Na+ + Cl  AgCl + Na+ + NO3

net ionic equation:

Ag+ + Cl  AgCl

spectator ions: Na+, NO3–

 Balancing chemical equations
conservation of mass and conservation of charge

3CaCl2 + 2Na3PO4  Ca3(PO4)2 + 6NaCl

Ca: 3 =3
Cl: 3×2 = 6 = 6
Na: 2×3 = 6 = 6
P: 2 = 2
O: 2×4 = 8 = 2×4 = 8
charge: 0 = 0
 Balancing chemical equations

2S2O32 + I2  S4O62 + 2I

S: 2×2 = 4 = 4
O: 2×3 = 6 = 6
I: 2 = 2×1 = 2

charge: 2×-2 = -4 = -2+2×-1 = -4

 Balancing chemical equations
Step 1: Write reactants and products
C3H8 + O2  CO2 + H2O

Step 2: Find one atom that occurs only in one

substance on both sides
C3H8 + O2  CO2 + H2O

Step 3: Find coefficients to balance this atom

1C3H8 + O2  3CO2 + H2O

Step 4: Find another unbalanced atom which

occurs in only one substance
1C3H8 + O2  3CO2 + H2O
Step 5: Find coefficient to balance this atom
1C3H8 + O2  3CO2 + 4H2O
Step 6: Repeat steps 4-5 until you have
balanced all atoms
1C3H8 + O2  3CO2 + 4H2O
1C3H8 + 5O2  3CO2 + 4H2O
Step 7: Make sure the coefficients are reduced
to the smallest whole number values
1C3H8 + 5O2  3CO2 + 4H2O

Step 8: Check the balanced equation

1C3H8 + 5O2  3CO2 + 4H2O
3C, 8H, 10O 3C, 10O, 8H
Oxidation number:
the total number of electrons that an atom either gains or loses in order
to form a chemical bond with another atom.

The oxidation number of a free element is always 0.

The oxidation number of a monatomic ion equals the charge of the ion.
The algebraic sum of the oxidation numbers of elements in a
compound is zero.
The algebraic sum of the oxidation states in an ion is equal to the
charge on the ion.
 alkali metals : +1
 alkaline earth metals: +2
 fluorine: 1
 aluminium: +3
 hydrogen: +1, except: hydrides(NaH, CaH2): 1
 oxygen: 2, except: peroxides (H2O2, Na2O2): 1
Chlorine: -1 except: compounds with O or F

In compounds
2 KMnO4 + 5 NaNO2 + 3H2SO4 = K2SO4 + 2 MnSO4 +5 NaNO3 + 3H2O

2 FeCl3 + SnCl2 = 2 FeCl2 + SnCl4

3P + 5HNO3 + 2H2O = 3H3PO4 + 5NO

Cr2O3 + 3KNO3 + 4 KOH = 2 K2CrO4 + 3KNO2 + 2 H2O

2 Fe + 6HNO3 = Fe2O3 + 6NO2 + 3H2O

S + 6 HNO3 = H2SO4 + 6 NO2 +2 H2O

C + 2KNO3 = 2KNO2 + CO2

3KOCl = KClO3 + 2KCl

4KClO3 = KCl + 3KClO4

Cl2 + 2 NaOH = NaOCl + NaCl + H2O

3HNO2 = HNO3 + 2NO + H2O

4 KOH + 6NO = 4 KNO2 + N2 +2 H2O

2FeCl3 + 2KI = I2 + 2FeCl2 + 2KCl

2P + 5H2SO4 = 2H3PO4 + 5SO2 + 2 H2O

2KMnO4 + 10 FeSO4 + 8H2SO4 = K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 5 Fe2(SO4)3 +8 H2O

6FeSO4 + 2HNO3 + 3H2SO4 = 3Fe2(SO4)3 + 2NO + 4 H2O

2KMnO4 + 6HI = 2 KOH + 2MnO2 + 2H2O + 3I2

3Cu + 8 HNO3 = 3Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO + 4 H2O

3 Cr2O72- + 18S2- + 42 H+ = 2Cr3 + 18S + 21 H2O

2H2S + SO2 = 3S + 2 H2O

TiCl4 + 4NaH = Ti + 4NaCl + 2H2

IO3- + 3H2S = I- + 3S + 3H2O

KClO3 + 3Zn + 6NaOH + 3H2O = KCl + 3Na2/Zn(OH)4/

4NaIO3 + 10NaHSO3 + 3Na2CO3 = 2I2 + 10Na2SO4 + 5 H2O + 3CO2

2KMnO4 + 10HI + 3H2SO4 = K2SO4 + 8H2O + 5I2 + 2MnSO4

Cr2O3 + 2Na2CO3 + 3NaNO3 = 2Na2CrO4 +3 NaNO2 +2 CO2

MnSO4 + 4NaOH + 2KNO3 = Na2MnO4 + Na2SO4 +2 KNO2 + 2H2O

5 NaNO2 (aq) + 2 KMnO4 (aq) + 3 H2SO4 (aq) → 5 NaNO3 (aq) + 2 MnSO4 (aq) + K2SO4 (aq) + 3 H2O (l)
This is an oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction:
2 MnVII + 10 e- → 2 MnII (reduction)
5 NIII - 10 e- → 5 NV (oxidation)
KMnO4 is an oxidizing agent, NaNO2 is a reducing agent.

K+1Mn+7O4-2 + Na+N+3O2-2 + H2+1S+6O4-2 = K2+S+6O4-2 + Mn+2S+6O4-2 +Na+N+5O3-2 + H2+O-2

b) Írjuk fel az oxidációs szám változásokat!

Mn+7 + 5e- → Mn+2 oxidizing agent

N+3 - 2e- → N+5 reducing agent

 Fe+3Cl3-1 + Sn+2Cl2-1 = Fe+2Cl2-1 + Sn+4Cl4-1

Fe+3 + e- → Fe+2 oxidizing agent

Sn+2 - 2e- → Sn+4 reducing agent

2FeCl3 + SnCl2 = 2FeCl2 + SnCl4

 P0 + H+1N+5O3-2 + H+12O-2 = H3+1P+5O4-2 + N+2O-2

P0 - 5e- → P+5 reducing agent

N+5 + 3e- → N+2 oxidizing agent

3P + 5HNO3 + 2H2O = 3H3PO4 + 5NO

 Cr2+3O3-2 + K+1N+5O3-2 + K+1O-2H+1 = K2+1Cr+6O4-2 + K+1N+3O2-2 + H2+1O-2

Cr+3 - 3e- → Cr+6 reducing agent

N+5 + 2e- → N+3 oxidizing agent

Cr2O3 + 3KNO3 + 4KOH = 2K2CrO4 + 3KNO2 + 2H2O

 Fe0 + H+1N+5O3-2 = Fe2+3O3-2 + N+4O2-2 + H2+1O-2

Fe0 - 3e- → Fe+3 reducing agent

N+5 + 1e- → N+4 oxidizng agent

2Fe + 6HNO3 = Fe2O3 + 6NO2 + 3H2O

 S + HNO3 = H2SO4 + NO

S (s) + 6 HNO3 (aq) → H2SO4 (aq) + 6 NO2 (l) + 2 H2O (l)

S0 - 6 e- → SVI (oxidation)
NV + e- → NIV (reduction)

C (s) + 2 KNO3 (aq) → 2 KNO2 (aq) + CO2 (g)

C0 - 4 e- → CIV (oxidation)
NV + 2 e- → NIII (reduction)

3 KOCl → KClO3 + 2 KCl

ClI + 2 e- → Cl-I (reduction)

ClI - 4 e- → ClV (oxidation)
KOCl is both an oxidizing and a reducing agent (disproportionation (dismutation)).
 4 KClO3 (aq) → KCl (aq) + 3 KClO4 (s)

ClV + 6 e- → Cl-I (reduction)

ClV - 2 e- → ClVII (oxidation)
KClO3 is both an oxidizing and a reducing agent (disproportionation (dismutation)).

Cl2 (g) + 2 NaOH (aq) → NaOCl (l) + NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
This is an oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction:
Cl0 - 1 e- → ClI (oxidation)
Cl0 + e- → Cl-I (reduction)
Cl2 is both an oxidizing and a reducing agent (disproportionation (dismutation)).

3 HNO2 → HNO3 + 2 NO + H2O

This is an oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction:
NIII + e- → NII (reduction)
NIII - 2 e- → NV (oxidation)
HNO2 is both an oxidizing and a reducing agent (disproportionation (dismutation)).
 4 KOH (aq) + 6 NO (g) → 4 KNO2 (aq) + N2 (g) + 2 H2O (l)
This is an oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction:
NII + 2 e- → N0 (reduction)
NII - e- → NIII (oxidation)
NO is both an oxidizing and a reducing agent (disproportionation (dismutation)).

5 KNO2 (aq) + 2 KMnO4 (aq) + 3 H2SO4 (aq) → 2 MnSO4 (aq) + 5 KNO3 (aq) + K2SO4 (aq) + 3 H2O (l)
This is an oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction:
MnVII + 5 e- → MnII (reduction)
NIII - 2 e- → NV (oxidation)
KMnO4 is an oxidizing agent, KNO2 is a reducing agent.
 2 FeCl3 + 2 KI → I2 + 2 FeCl2 + 2 KCl
This is an oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction:
I-I - e- → I0 (oxidation)
FeIII + e- → FeII (reduction)
KI is a reducing agent, FeCl3 is an oxidizing agent.

2 P (s) + 5 H2SO4 (aq) → 2 H3PO4 (aq) + 5 SO2 (aq) + 2 H2O (l)

This is an oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction:
P0 - 5 e- → PV (oxidation)
SVI + 2 e- → SIV (reduction)
P is a reducing agent, H2SO4 is an oxidizing agent.

2 KMnO4 (aq) + 10 FeSO4 (aq) + 8 H2SO4 (aq) → K2SO4 (aq) + 2 MnSO4 (aq) + 5 Fe2(SO4)3 (s) + 8 H2O (l)
This is an oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction:
MnVII + 5 e- → MnII (reduction)
FeII - e- → FeIII (oxidation)
KMnO4 is an oxidizing agent, FeSO4 is a reducing agent.
 6 FeSO4 (aq) + 2 HNO3 (aq) + 3 H2SO4 (aq) → 3 Fe2(SO4)3 (s) + 2 NO (g) + 4 H2O (l)
This is an oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction:
NV + 3 e- → NII (reduction)
FeII - e- → FeIII (oxidation)
HNO3 is an oxidizing agent, FeSO4 is a reducing agent.

2 KMnO4 + 6 HI → 2 KOH + 2 MnO2 + 2 H2O + 3 I2

This is an oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction:
MnVII + 3 e- → MnIV (reduction)
I-I - e- → I0 (oxidation)
KMnO4 is an oxidizing agent, HI is a reducing agent.

3 Cu (s) + 8 HNO3 (aq) → 3 Cu(NO3)2 (aq) + 2 NO (g) + 4 H2O (l)

This is an oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction:
3 Cu0 - 6 e- → 3 CuII (oxidation)
2 NV + 6 e- → 2 NII (reduction)
Cu is a reducing agent, HNO3 is an oxidizing agent.
 3 Cr2O72- + 18 (S)2- + 42 H+ → 2 Cr3 + 18 S + 21 H2O
This is an oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction:
S-II - 2 e- → S0 (oxidation)
CrVI + 6 e- → Cr0 (reduction)
S2- is a reducing agent, Cr2O72- is an oxidizing agent.

2 H2S (g) + SO2 (g) → 3 S (s) + 2 H2O (l)

This is an oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction:
S-II - 2 e- → S0 (oxidation)
SIV + 4 e- → S0 (reduction)
H2S is a reducing agent, SO2 is an oxidizing agent (synproportionation (comproportionation)).

TiCl4 + 4 NaH → Ti + 4 NaCl + 2 H2

This is an oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction:
TiIV + 4 e- → Ti0 (reduction)
H-I - e- → H0 (oxidation)
TiCl4 is an oxidizing agent, NaH is a reducing agent.
 IO3- + 3 H2S → (I)- + 3 S + 3 H2O
This is an oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction:
S-II - 2e- → S0 (oxidation)
IV + 6 e- → I-I (reduction)
H2S is a reducing agent, IO3- is an oxidizing agent.

KClO3 + 3 Zn + 6 NaOH + 3 H2O → KCl + 3 Na2Zn(OH)4

This is an oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction:
Zn0 - 2 e- → ZnII (oxidation)
ClV + 6 e- → Cl-I (reduction)
Zn is a reducing agent, KClO3 is an oxidizing agent.

4 NaIO3 (aq) + 10 NaHSO3 (aq) + 3 Na2CO3 (aq) → 2 I2 (s) + 10 Na2SO4 (aq) + 5 H2O (l) + 3 CO2 (g)
This is an oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction:
SIV - 2 e- → SVI (oxidation)
IV + 5 e- → I0 (reduction)
NaHSO3 is a reducing agent, NaIO3 is an oxidizing agent.
 2 KMnO4 + 10 HI + 3 H2SO4 → K2SO4 + 8 H2O + 5 I2 + 2 MnSO4
This is an oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction:
MnVII + 5 e- → MnII (reduction)
I-I - e- → I0 (oxidation)
KMnO4 is an oxidizing agent, HI is a reducing agent.

Cr2O3 (s) + 2 Na2CO3 (aq) + 3 NaNO3 (aq) → 2 Na2CrO4 (aq) + 3 NaNO2 (aq) + 2 CO2 (g)
This is an oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction:
NV + 2 e- → NIII (reduction)
CrIII - 3 e- → CrVI (oxidation)
NaNO3 is an oxidizing agent, Cr2O3 is a reducing agent.

MnSO4 + 4 NaOH + 2 KNO3 → Na2MnO4 + Na2SO4 + 2 KNO2 + 2 H2O

This is an oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction:
MnII - 4 e- → MnVI (oxidation)
NV + 2 e- → NIII (reduction)
MnSO4 is a reducing agent, KNO3 is an oxidizing agent.
Seminar 15
1. Balance the following reactions:
a) Ag + HNO3 = AgNO3 + NO + H2O
a) SnCl2 + KBrO3 + HCl = SnCl4 + KBr + H2O
b) H+ + SO32- + MnO4- = SO42- + Mn2+ + H2O
c) Fe2+ + Cr2O72- + H+ = Fe3+ + Cr3+ + H2O

a) 3Ag + 4HNO3 = 3AgNO3 + NO + 2H2O

0 +5 +1 +2

b) 3 SnCl2 + KBrO3 + 6 HCl = 3SnCl4 + KBr + 3H2O

+2 +5 +4 -1

c) 6H+ + 5SO32- + 2MnO4- = 5SO42- + 2Mn2+ + 3H2O

+4 +7 +6 +2

d) 6 Fe2+ + Cr2O72- + 14 H+ = 6 Fe3+ + 2Cr3+ + 7 H2O

+2 +6 +3 +3
2. Calculate the mol/dm3 concentration of the NaNO2 solution 15.0 cm3 of which reacts with 37.5 cm3 of a 0.020 mol/dm3
KMnO4 solution under acidic conditions!
The unbalanced chemical equation: MnO4- + NO2- + H+ = Mn2+ + NO3- + H2O

2MnO4 - + 5NO2 - + 6H+ = 2Mn2+ + 5NO3 - + 3 H2O Mn: VIII + 6 e- → MnII

N: III - 2 e- → NV

nKMnO4: 0.020 * 37.5/1000 = 7.5*e-4 mol 2:5 ratio= 1.875*e-3 mol of NaNO2

cNaNO2= 1.875*e-3 mol /0.015 dm3 c=0.125 mol/dm3

3. How many grams of copper can be dissolved in 500 g of sulphuric acid (m/m% = 98.0)? What is the volume of SO2 that is
generated in the reaction under standard conditions? The unbalanced chemical equation:
Cu + H2SO4 = CuSO4 + SO2 + H2O
Cu + 2H2SO4 = CuSO4 + SO2 + 2H2O
500 g H2SO4 98 m/m% mass of pure sulfuric acid 500 x 0.98 = 490 g 500 x 98 / 100 = 490 g
490 g sulfuric acid is x mol = 490 g / 98 g/mol = 5 mol ratio is 2:1 2.5 mol SO2
1 mol SO2 gas = 24.5 [dm3] gas standard condition
2.5 mol x 24.5 dm3 = 61.25 dm3
Calculate the volume of chlorine gas that is generated under standard conditions from 7.90 g of
KMnO4 if the loss is 15%!
The unbalanced chemical equation: KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + Cl2 + H2O

2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 5Cl2 + 8H2O

nKMnO4 7.90 g / 158.03 g/mol= 0.0499 mol ratio 2:5 0.12475 mol Cl2 gas x 0.85 (15 % percent loss) 0.1060 mol

1 mol 24.5 dm3

0.1060 mol x 24.5 dm3= 2.598 dm3

Number of moles lead chloride: 10.0 g* 0.65 / 278.1 g/mol 0.02337 mol

Mass of NaCl : 0.02337 *2 = 0.04675 mol * 58.5 g/mol = 2.735 g

Mass of metallic lead =0.02337 mol * 207.2 g/mol = 4.842 g

Volume of nitric acid =0.02337 x8/3= 0.06232 mol* 63 g/mol = 3.926 g *100/20 = 19.63 g 20m/m% / 1.115 g/cm3 =17.606 cm3

Excess: 1.15 x 17.606 = 20.247 cm3

6.50 g zinc = 6.50 g / 65.38 g/mol = 0.0994 mol 1:1 ratio

287.55 g/mol * 0.0994 mol = 28.588 g

 2 MnO4- + SO32- + 2 OH- → 2 MnO42- + SO42- + H2O

n KMnO4 = 250/1000 x 0.12 = 0.03 mol 2:1 ratio = 0.015 mol / 0.1 mol/dm3 = 0.15 dm3 = 150 cm3
 2Al + 2NaOH + 6H2O = 2Na[Al(OH)4] + 3H2

12 g of Al = 12g / 27 g/mol = 0.444 mol 2:3 ratio = 0.666 mol Hydrogen

pV =nRT 95000 x X = 0.666 x 8.314 x 296.15 x= 0.0173 m3

 2Al + 6HCl = 2AlCl3 +3 H2

Number of moles Al 3.4 g / 27 g/mol = 0.1259 mol

Number of moles HCl 200/1000 x 2 = 0.4 mol

HCl is in excess 0.1259 mol Al 0.3777 mol HCl is neccesary

Number of moles Hydrogen 0.1259 x 3/2 = 0.18885 mol

pV = nRT 102000 x V = 0.18885 X 8.314 X 291.15 = 0.004482 m3 =4.482 dm3

 FeS + 2HCl = H2S + FeCl2

pV=nRT 1.218x105 x 3/1000 = n x 8.314 x 293.15 n= 0.1499 mol 1:1 ratio

0.1499 mol x 87.91 g/mol = 13.179 g x 100 /80 = 16.475 g
General Chemistry I.
Question 9.
The molar weight of benzoic acid is determined in an experiment through acid-base
titration. 0.0503 g benzoic acid is weighed into a titration flask and dissolved completely in
30 cm3 of acetonewater mixture. This sample is titrated with 0.05305 mol/dm3 NaOH
solution. The equivalent volume is 8.51 cm3. Determine the molar weight of benzoic acid
based on the titration result. What is the difference between the experimentally
determined and actual molar weight?
The molar weight of benzoic acid is determined in an experiment through acid-base
titration. 0.0503 g benzoic acid is weighed into a titration flask and dissolved completely in
30 cm3 of acetonewater mixture. This sample is titrated with 0.05305 mol/dm3 NaOH
solution. The equivalent volume is 8.51 cm3. Determine the molar weight of benzoic acid
based on the titration result. What is the difference between the experimentally
determined and actual molar weight?

C6H5-COOH + NaOH → C 6H5-COO-Na+ + H2O

c NaOH = 0.05305 [mol/dm3]

V NaOH = 8.51 [cm3] = 0.00851 [dm3]
The molar weight of benzoic acid is determined in an experiment through acid-base
titration. 0.0503 g benzoic acid is weighed into a titration flask and dissolved completely in
30 cm3 of acetonewater mixture. This sample is titrated with 0.05305 mol/dm3 NaOH
solution. The equivalent volume is 8.51 cm3. Determine the molar weight of benzoic acid
based on the titration result. What is the difference between the experimentally
determined and actual molar weight?

C6H5-COOH + NaOH → C 6H5-COO-Na+ + H2O

c NaOH = 0.05305 [mol/dm3]

V NaOH = 8.51 [cm3] = 0.00851 [dm3]

n NaOH = c X V = 0.00045145 [mol]

Ratio: 1 mol C6H5-COOH → 1 mol NaOH

n C6H5-COOH = 0.00045145 [mol]

m = 0.0503 [g]

M (calculated) C6H5-COOH = m / n = 111.41 [g/mol]

M (theoritically) C6H5-COOH = 122 [g/mol]
Question 10.
We titrate a sample of HCl with NaOH solution. The sample contains 10.00 cm3 0.215
mol/dm3 HCl. Three titrations were performed and the volume of the NaOH that was
consumed was measured. The following results were received: 9.15 cm3 ; 9.20 cm3 and 9.38
cm3 . Calculate the concentration of the NaOH solution!
We titrate a sample of HCl with NaOH solution. The sample contains 10.00 cm3 0.215
mol/dm3 HCl. Three titrations were performed and the volume of the NaOH that was
consumed was measured. The following results were received: 9.15 cm3 ; 9.20 cm3 and 9.38
cm3 . Calculate the concentration of the NaOH solution!

HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O

c HCl = 0. 215 (mol/dm3)

V HCl = 10.00 (cm3) = 0.01 (dm3)

n HCl = 0.00215 (mol)
Ratio: 1 mol HCl react with 1 mol NaOH

n NaOH = 0.00215 (mol)

V NaOH = [9.15 (cm3) + 9.20 (cm3) + 9.38 (cm3)]/3 = 0.009243 (dm3)

c NaOH = n / V = 0.2326 (mol/dm3)

Question 11.
The molar weight of benzoic acid is determined in an experiment through acid-base titration.
0.0515 g benzoic acid is weighed into a titration flask and dissolved completely in 30 cm3 of
acetonewater mixture. This sample is titrated with 0.05279 mol/dm3 NaOH solution. The
equivalent volume is 8.75 cm3 . Determine the molar weight of benzoic acid based on the
titration result. What is the difference between the experimentally determined and actual
molar weight?
The molar weight of benzoic acid is determined in an experiment through acid-base titration.
0.0515 g benzoic acid is weighed into a titration flask and dissolved completely in 30 cm3 of
acetonewater mixture. This sample is titrated with 0.05279 mol/dm3 NaOH solution. The
equivalent volume is 8.75 cm3 . Determine the molar weight of benzoic acid based on the
titration result. What is the difference between the experimentally determined and actual
molar weight?

C6H5-COOH + NaOH → C 6H5-COO-Na+ + H2O

c NaOH = 0.05279 [mol/dm3]

V NaOH = 8.75 [cm3] = 0.00875 [dm3]

n NaOH = c X V = 0.00046191 [mol]

Ratio: 1 mol C6H5-COOH → 1 mol NaOH

n C6H5-COOH = 0.00046191 [mol]

m = 0.0515 [g]

M (calculated) C6H5-COOH = m / n = 111.49 [g/mol]

M (theoritically) C6H5-COOH = 122 [g/mol]

Practice 1.
We titrate a sample of HCl with NaOH solution. The sample contains 10.00 cm3 0.0512
mol/dm3 HCl. Three titrations were performed and the volume of the NaOH that was
consumed was measured. The following results were received: 9.15 cm3 ; 9.20 cm3 and
11.80 cm3 . Calculate the concentration of the NaOH solution!

HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O

c HCl = 0.0512 (mol/dm3)

V HCl = 10.00 (cm3) = 0.01 (dm3)

n HCl = 0.000512 (mol)
Ratio: 1 mol HCl react with 1 mol NaOH

n NaOH = 0.000512 (mol)

V NaOH = [9.15 (cm3) + 9.20 (cm3) + 11.80 (cm3)]/3 = 0.01005 (dm3)

V NaOH = [9.15 (cm3) + 9.20 (cm3)]/2 = 0.009175 (dm3)

c NaOH = n / V = 0.05580 (mol/dm3)

Practice 2.
We titrate a sample of H2SO4 with NaOH solution. The sample contains 10.00 cm3 0.1865
mol/dm3 H2SO4. Three titrations were performed and the volume of the NaOH that was
consumed was measured. The following results were received: 9.25 cm3 ; 9.20 cm3 and 9.25
cm3 . Calculate the concentration of the NaOH solution!

H2SO4 + 2 NaOH → Na2SO4 + 2 H2O

c H2SO4 = 0.1865 (mol/dm3)

V H2SO4 = 10.00 (cm3) = 0.01 (dm3)

n H2SO4 = 0.001865 (mol)
Ratio: 1 mol H2SO4 react with 2 mol NaOH

n NaOH = 0.00373 (mol)

V NaOH = [9.25 (cm3)+ 9.20 (cm3) + 9.25 (cm3)]/3 = 0.009233 (dm3)

c NaOH = n / V = 0.4039 (mol/dm3)

Practice 3.
We titrate a sample of H2SO4 with NaOH solution. The sample contains 10.00 cm3 0.2153
mol/dm3 NaOH. Three titrations were performed and the volume of the H2SO4 that was
consumed was measured. The following results were received: 5.15 cm3 ; 5.10 cm3 and 8.95
cm3 . Calculate the concentration of the H2SO4 solution!

H2SO4 + 2 NaOH → Na2SO4 + 2 H2O

c NaOH = 0.2153 [mol/dm3]

V NaOH 10 [cm3] = 0.01 [dm3]

n NaOH = 0.002153 (mol)

Ratio: 2 mol NaOH react with 1 mol H2SO4

n H2SO4 = 0.0010765 (mol)

V H2SO4 = [5.15 (cm3) + 5.10 (cm3) + 8.95 (cm3)]/3 = 0.0064 (dm3)

V H2SO4 = [5.15 (cm3) + 5.10 (cm3)]/2 = 0.005125 (dm3)

c H2SO4 = 0.2100 (mol/dm3)

General Chemistry I.
Question I.
How many molecules are there in 20.0 cm3 of a gas at -10 oC and
1.333 × 104 Pa?
How many molecules are there in 20.0 cm3 of a gas at -10 oC and
1.333 × 104 Pa?
pxV=nxRxT
pressure x Volume = molar amount x gas constant x Temperature

[Pa] x [m3] = [mol] x [[J]/([mol] x [K])] x [K]

P = 13330.0 [Pa]
V = 20.0 [cm3] = 0.020 [dm3] = 0.000020 [m3]
R = 8.314 [J]/([mol] x [K]) (always)
T = -10.0 [oC] = 273.15 + (-10) = 263.15 [K]

13330.0 x 0.00002 = n x 8.314 x 263.15

n = 0.00012185 [mol]
How many molecules are there in 20.0 cm3 of a gas at -10 oC and
1.333 × 104 Pa?
n = 0.00012185 [mol]

1 [mol] → 6 x 1023 [piece] molecules

0.00012185 [mol] → X [piece] molecules

X = 0.00012185 x 6 x 1023 [piece]

X = 7.311 x 1019 [piece]

Question II.
0.210 g of the vapor of an unknown volatile liquid takes up a volume of 0.8
dm3 at 18 oC and 99991 Pa. What is the molar mass of this substance?

pxV=nxRxT
P = 99991 [Pa]
V = 0.80 [dm3] = 0.00080 [m3]
R = 8.314 [J]/([mol] x [K]) (always)
T = 18.0 [oC] = 273.15 + (18.0) = 291.15 [K]

99991 x 0.0008 = n x 8.314 x 291.15

n = 0.0330463 [mol]

m = 0.210 [g]

m/M=n → M=m/n M = 0.21 / 0.0330463

M = 6.3547 [g/mol]
Question III.
0.777 g of the vapor of an unknown volatile liquid takes up a volume of
314 cm3 at 98.7 oC and 98660 Pa. What is the molar weight of this
substance?
pxV=nxRxT
P = 98660 [Pa]
V = 314 [cm3] = 0.314 [dm3] = 0.000314 [m3]
R = 8.314 [J]/([mol] x [K]) (always)
T = 98.7 [oC] = 273.15 + (98.7) = 371.85 [K]

98660 x 0.000314 = n x 8.314 x 371.85

n = 0.010020 [mol]

m = 0.777 [g]

m/M=n → M=m/n M = 0.777 / 0.010020

M = 77.54 [g/mol]
Question IV.
 How many grams of zinc are needed for generating 0.625 dm3 of hydrogen
gas under standard conditions?

Zn + 2 HCl = ZnCl2 + H2
m = ? [g] V = 0.625 [dm3]
Because of the standard condition
1 mol H2 gas = 24.5 [dm3] gas We have 0.625 [dm3]

1 [mol] → 24.5 [dm3] gas

X [mol] → 0.625 [dm3] gas
X = (0.625 x 1) / 24.5
X = 0.02551 [mol] H2 gas
The ratio is 1 : 1 ( in case of the Zn and the H2)

n=0.02551 [mol] Zn M=65.38 [g/mol] Zn m=Mxn = 1.66 [g] Zn

Question V.
How many grams of calcium carbonate are needed for generating 0.325 dm 3
of carbon dioxide gas under normal conditions?
CaCO3 + 2 HCl = CaCl2 + H 2O + CO2
m = ? [g] V = 0.325 [dm3]
Because of the normal condition
1 mol CO2 gas = 22.45 [dm3] gas

1 [mol] → 22.45 [dm3] gas

X [mol] → 0.325 [dm3] gas
X = (0.325 x 1) / 22.45
X = 0.01447 [mol] CO2 gas
The ratio is 1 : 1 ( in case of the CaCO3 and the CO2)

n=0.01447 [mol] CaCO3 M=100.09 [g/mol] CaCO3

m = M x n = 1.44 [g] CaCO3

Question VI.
10.00 dm3 of chlorine gas should be generated at 22 oC and at 98659 Pa. How
many grams of KMnO4 are needed for this reaction? The equation for the
chemical reaction is the following:
2 KMnO4 + 16 HCl = 2 KCl + 2 MnCl2 + 5 Cl2 + 8 H2O

P = 98659 [Pa]
pxV=nxRxT
V = 10.0 [dm3] = 0.010 [m3]
R = 8.314 [J]/([mol] x [K]) (always)
T = 22.0 [oC] = 273.15 + (22.0) = 295.15 [K]

98659 x 0.010 = n x 8.314 x 295.15

Ratio (/5 and x2)
n = 0.40205 [mol] Cl2 n = 0.16082 [mol] KMnO4

M = 158.034 [g/mol] KMnO4

m = M x n = 158.034 x 0.16082 = 25.4 [g] KMnO4

Question VII.
We add 10.0 cm3 of 30.0 m/m% H2O2 (d = 1.15 g/cm3 ) to 2.00 g K2Cr2O7. How
many dm3 of oxygen gas is generated at 22 oC and at 95000 Pa? The equation
for the chemical reaction is the following:
Cr2O7 2– + 8 H+ + 3 H2O2 = 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O + 3 O2
100 [g] of the solution → (m/m) % = 30.0 % → 30 g solute (H2O2)

↓ M (H2O2) = 34 [g/mol]
density of the solution = 1.15 [g/cm3]
n (H2O2) = mass / molecular weight
volume of the solution = m / ρ
n (H2O2) = 30 / 34 mol
V = 100 / 1.15
n (H2O2) = 0.8823 mol
V = 86.95 [cm3] = 0.08695 [dm3]

Molarity = number of the mol of the solute / volume of the solution

c=n/V
c = 0.8823 / 0.08695 = 10.14 [mol/dm3]

V = 10.0 [cm3]= 0.010 [dm3]

n = c x V = 0.1014 [mol] H2O2
We add 10.0 cm3 of 30.0 m/m% H2O2 (d = 1.15 g/cm3 ) to 2.00 g K2Cr2O7. How
many dm3 of oxygen gas is generated at 22 oC and at 95000 Pa? The equation
for the chemical reaction is the following:
Cr2O7 2– + 8 H+ + 3 H2O2 = 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O + 3 O2

M (K2Cr2O7) = 294.185 [g/mol] n = c x V = 0.1014 [mol] H2O2

m (K2Cr2O7) = 2.00 [g]
n (K2Cr2O7) = m / M = 0.006798 [mol]

1 mol Cr2O7 2– will react with 3 mol H2O2

n (K2Cr2O7) = m / M = 0.006798 [mol] n = 0.020394 [mol] H2O2

After the reaction there is no dichromate but we still have some H 2O2
n (K2Cr2O7) = m / M = 0.00 [mol] n = 0.1014 – 0.020394 = 0.081006 [mol] H2O2

From the ratio

n (K2Cr2O7) = 0.006798 [mol] n (O2) = 0.020394 [mol]

We add 10.0 cm3 of 30.0 m/m% H2O2 (d = 1.15 g/cm3 ) to 2.00 g K2Cr2O7. How
many dm3 of oxygen gas is generated at 22 oC and at 95000 Pa? The equation
for the chemical reaction is the following:
Cr2O7 2– + 8 H+ + 3 H2O2 = 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O + 3 O2
P = 98659 [Pa]
n (O2) = 0.020394 [mol]
n = 0.020394 [mol]

R = 8.314 [J]/([mol] x [K]) (always)

pxV=nxRxT
T = 22.0 [oC] = 273.15 + (22.0) = 295.15 [K]

98659 x V = 0.020394 x 8.314 x 295.15

V = 0.000507245 [m3] = 0.507245 [dm3]

Question VIII.
0.630 g of the vapor of an unknown volatile liquid takes up a volume of 0.5
dm3 at 20 oC and 99999 Pa. What is the molar mass of this substance?

P = 99999 [Pa]
pxV=nxRxT
V = 0.5 [dm3] = 0.0005 [m3]
R = 8.314 [J]/([mol] x [K]) (always)
T = 20.0 [oC] = 273.15 + (20.0) = 293.15 [K]

99999 x 0.0005 = n x 8.314 x 293.15

n = 0.02051 [mol]
m = 0.630 [g]
M = 0.630 [g] / 0.02051 [mol] = 30.7167 [g/mol]
General Chemistry I.
 Background for buffers:
A buffer solution is an aqueous solution consisting of a mixture of a weak acid and its
conjugate base, or vice versa.

For example: acetic acid and soduim acetate

Its pH changes very little when a small amount of strong acid or base is added to it!!!

Equilibrium Citric acid

Polyprotic acids are acids that can H3A ⇌ H2A− + H+ pKa1 = 3.13
lose more than one proton.
H2A− ⇌ HA2− + H+ pKa2 = 4.76

HA2− ⇌ A3− + H+ pKa3 = 6.40

 Background for buffers:

[H3O+] = Ka * [A-]/[HA] / -lg

pH = -lg [H+]

pKa = -lg [Ka]

pH = pKa + lg ([A-]/[HA])

Directly we can calculate the pH

Question 6.
What is the pH of the buffer solution in which the concentration of acetic
acid is 0.200 M and that of sodium acetate is 0.100 M? (Ka = 1.86 × 10–5)

pH = pKa + lg ([A-]/[HA])

pH = (-lg 1.86 × 10–5 ) + lg (0.1/0.2)

pH = 4.73 + (-0.3)

pH = 4.42
Question 7.
Calculate the pH of the buffer solution that contains 0.500 mol/dm3 ammonia and 0.400
mol/dm3 ammonium chloride! (Kb = 1.75 × 10–5)

pOH = pKb + lg ([A-]/[HA])

pOH = (-lg 1.75 × 10–5 ) + lg (0.5/0.4)

pOH = 4.75 + 0.096

pOH = 4.84

pH = 14- 4.84 = 9.15

Question 8.
We mix 10.0 cm3 of a 0.5 mol/dm3 acetic acid solution and 8 cm3 of 0.400 mol/dm3 sodium
acetate solution. What will be the pH of the mixture? (Ka = 1.86 × 10–5)

pH = pKa + lg ([A-]/[HA])

pH = (-lg 1.86 × 10–5 ) + lg (0.4/0.5)

pH = 4.73 + (-0.0969)

pH = 4.63
Practice 9.
Calculate the pH of the acetic acid / sodium acetate buffer in which cCH3COOH =
cCH3COONa = 1.0 mol/dm3. Ka(acetic acid) = 1.86×10-5 M?

pH = pKa + lg ([A-]/[HA])

lg (X/X) = 0
pH = (-lg 1.86 × 10–5 ) + lg (1/1)
Always!

pH = 4.73 + 0

pH = 4.73

Just the pKa determine the pH if the concentrations are the same!
Practice 10.
Calculate the pH of the buffer solution that contains 0.200 mol/dm3 ammonia and 0.200
mol/dm3 ammonium chloride! (Kb = 1.75 × 10–5)

pOH = pKb + lg ([A-]/[HA])

lg (X/X) = 0
pOH = (-lg 1.75 × 10–5 ) + lg (0.2/0.2)
Always!

pOH = 4.75 + 0

pOH = 4.75

pH = 14- 4.75 = 9.25

Just the pKb determine the pOH if the concentrations are the same!
Practice.
 Calculate the pH for the following acid solutions!

Strong acid
0.01 mol/dm3 HCl -lg (0.01) = pH = 2.00

0.53 mol/dm3 HNO3 -lg (0.53) = pH = 0.276

0.45 mol/dm3 HCl -lg (0.45) = pH = 0.346

Weak acid

0.15 mol/dm3 weak acid (Ka = 1.5 × 10–5)

[H3O+] = 𝐾𝑎 𝑥 𝑐 [ c >>> Ka ]

[H3O+] = 1.5 x 10-3 mol/dm3

pH = -lg [H3O+] = 2.8

General Chemistry I.
 Electrochemistry:
Electrochemistry is a kind of chemistry that studies chemical reactions that use or make
electricity. Reactions like this happen at electrodes which are made from something that
conducts electricity, and put in an electrolyte. An electrolyte is a solution that has ions in it.

When a chemical reaction is caused by an externally supplied current, as in electrolysis, or if an

electric current is produced by a spontaneous chemical reaction as in a battery, it is called an
electrochemical reaction. Chemical reactions where electrons are transferred directly between
molecules and/or atoms are called oxidation-reduction or redox reactions. In general,
electrochemistry describes the overall reactions when individual redox reactions are separate
but connected by an external electric circuit and an intervening electrolyte.

A galvanic cell or voltaic cell, is an electrochemical cell that derives electrical

energy from spontaneous redox reactions taking place within the cell.

German scientist Walther Nernst portrait in the 1910s.

 The Daniell cell is a type of electrochemical cell, and consists of a copper pot filled with a
copper (II) sulfate solution, in which is immersed an unglazed earthenware container filled
with zinc sulphate and a zinc electrode.

At the anode (negative electrode), zinc is

oxidized per the following half reaction:
Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e− . . (Standard electrode reduction
potential −0.7618 V )

At the cathode (positive electrode), copper is

reduced per the following reaction:

Cu2+(aq) + 2e− → Cu(s) . . (Standard electrode

reduction potential +0.340 V )
electromotive force in the International System of Units
Electromotive force (emf in volts) is the electrical action produced by a non-electrical source.
Emf = Eo (cathode) – Eo (anode)

The total reaction is:

Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s) . . (Open-circuit voltage 1.1018 V )

Question 1.
Calculate the electromotive force (EMF) of the Daniell cell when the Cu plate is immersed into
a 1.00 mol/dm3 CuSO4-solution and the Zn plate is immersed into a 1.00 mol/dm3 ZnSO4-
solution!

- Zn(s)|Zn2+(aq)||Cu2+(aq)|Cu(s) +

Anode: oxidation Cathode: reduction

But how can we decide, which one is the anode or cathode?

Always the Eo, what is lower, that will be the Anode, always!

Eo (Cu2+/Cu) = + 0.337 V
Eo (Zn2+/Zn) = - 0.760 V

Emf = ??

Emf = cathode - anode

Emf = 0.337 – (-0.760) = 1.097 V

Question 2.
Decide if a spontaneous chemical reaction is expected in the following two
experiments.
- a copper plate is immersed into a solution of lead(II) nitrate
- a lead plate is immersed into a solution of copper(II) nitrate

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + Cu(s)||CuSO4(aq) + Pb(s)

Eo (Cu2+/Cu) = + 0.337 V
Eo (Pb2+/Pb) = - 0.130 V

Oxidation → At the anode → It must be the lower potential

b) Is the correct
a lead plate is immersed into a solution of copper(II) nitrate
Question 3.
Decide if a spontaneous chemical reaction is expected in the following two experiments.
- a zinc plate is immersed into a solution of lead(II) nitrate
- a lead plate is immersed into a solution of zinc(II) nitrate.

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + Zn(s)||Zn(NO3)2 (aq) + Pb(s)

Eo (Zn2+/Zn) = - 0.760 V
Eo (Pb2+/Pb) = - 0.130 V

Oxidation → At the anode → It must be the lower potential

a) Is the correct
a zinc plate is immersed into a solution of lead(II) nitrate
Practice 4.
Which of these metals dissolve in dilute (0.2 mol/dm3 ) hydrochloric acid based on the
standard electrode potentials? Write the chemical equations of the processes.

Metals whith negative standard electrode potential can react with HCl.

Zn + 2H+ = Zn2+ + H2

Cu + H+ = no reaction
Practice 5.
a) Decide if a spontaneous chemical reaction is expected in the following two
experiments:
- a copper plate is immersed into a solution of silver(I) nitrate
- a silver plate is immersed into a solution of copper(II) nitrate
AgNO3(aq) + Cu(s)||Cu(NO3)2(aq) + Ag(s)
Eo (Cu2+/Cu) = + 0.337 V
Eo (Ag+/Ag) = + 0.7996 V
Oxidation → At the anode → It must be the lower potential

a) Is the correct
a copper plate is immersed into a solution of silver(I) nitrate

b) In one of the experiments, the mass of the metal plate used is changed by 3.05 g. Decide
if this was a decrease or increase. Determine the number of moles reacted by this time.

m = 3.05 [g]
n = m / M = 0.048 [mol]
M = 63.5 [g/mol] From Zn → Zn2+
decreasing
Question 6.
a) Decide if a spontaneous chemical reaction is expected in the following two
experiments.
- copper plate is immersed into a solution of iron(II) nitrate
- an iron plate is immersed into a solution of copper(II) nitrate
Fe(NO3)2(aq) + Cu(s)||Cu(NO3)2(aq) + Fe(s)
Eo (Cu2+/Cu) = + 0.337 V
Eo (Fe2+/Fe) = - 0,447 V
Oxidation → At the anode → It must be the lower potential

b) Is the correct
an iron plate is immersed into a solution of copper(II) nitrate

b) In one of the experiments, the mass of the metal plate used is changed by 770 mg. Decide
if this was a decrease or increase. Determine the number of moles reacted by this time.

m = 0.77 [g]
n = m / M = 0.01375 [mol]
M = 56.0 [g/mol] From Fe → Fe2+
decreasing