Module 1

Pharmaceutical Botany

Botany  Offspring with features that are well-

adapted to the environment reproduce
● The scientific study of plants; more.
○ also called plant biology
● At first, interest in plants was practical. Origin of Plants
○ centered around the production
of food, fibers, fuel and medicine ● Life on Earth began about 3.5 billion years
● Eventually, an intellectual interest arose. ago with prokaryotes (bacteria and
○ led to plant study becoming a archaeans)
science.
■ Science involves the ● Photosynthesis arose 2.8 billion years ago
observation, recording, in a cyanobacterium
organization, and
classification of Diversity of Plant
information.
Over 297,000 plant species exist today; wide diversity
Scientific Method
of adaptation is important. For any aspect of the
 Describes the procedures of developing environment, many types of adaptation are possible.
and testing hypotheses.
 Hypothesis – tentative, unproven − There is no single, perfect adaptation.
explanation of an observation. − There are alternative adaptations.
 Experiment – test to determine if a − There are ways of coping with different
hypothesis is correct. environments and the multitude of factors
 Must be repeatable within them.
 Variables - Aspects of the experiment that
can be changed or held constant
 Good experiments consist of two
parts:
 Variable changed
 Variable held constant = Control

 Data – results from the experiment

 Principle – useful generalization derived
from experimental data
 Theory – grouping of related principles

Steps in doing SCIENTIFIC METHOD

1. Recognize a problem – or an unanswered

question
2. Develop a hypothesis – to explain the
problem
3. Design and perform an experiment – to test
the hypothesis
4. Analyse and interpret the data – to reach a
conclusion
5. Share new knowledge – with the scientific
community

Origin and Evolution

 Organisms were originally simple and

increased in complexity through evolution
by natural selection.

Natural Selection

 Organism reproduce and have non-identical

offspring whose features pass to more
offspring.
 Module 2
Fields of Botany
Plant Anatomy
● Plant anatomy, which is concerned chiefly
with the internal structure of plants, was
established through the efforts of several
scientific pioneers.
● Early plant anatomists of note included
Marcello Malpighi (1628–1694) of Italy, who
discovered various tissues in stems and
roots,
● and Nehemiah Grew (1628–1711) of
England, who described the structure of
wood more precisely than any of his
predecessors
● Today, a knowledge of plant anatomy is
used to help us find clues to the past, as
well as for many practical purposes.
● For example, the related discipline of
dendrochronology deals with determining
past climates by examining the width and
other features of tree rings.
Plant Physiology
 Plant physiology, which is concerned with
plant function, was established by J. B. van
Helmont (1577–1644), a Flemish physician
and chemist, who was the first to
demonstrate that plants do not have the
same nutritional needs as animals.
Plant Taxonomy
 Plant taxonomy involves describing,
naming, and classifying organisms
 It is the science of developing methods for
grouping organisms.
 Plant taxonomy is the oldest branch of plant
study, begun in antiquity,
 but Linnaeus did more for the field than any
other person in history.
 Thousands of plant names in use today are
those originally recorded in Linnaeus’s book
Species Plantarum, published in 1753.
Plant Ecology
● The allied field of plant ecology, which is
the study of the interaction of plants with
one another and with their environment
Plant Morphology
● The study of the form and structure of
plants was developed during the 19th
century, and during the 20th century, much
of our basic knowledge about the form and
life cycles of plants was incorporated into
the plant sciences as we know them today
Genetics
● the science of heredity, was founded by the
Austrian monk Gregor Mendel (1822–
1884), who performed classic experiments
with pea plants.
● Today, various branches of genetics
include plant breeding, which has greatly
improved yields and quality of crop plants,
and genetic engineering.
● Genetic engineering includes the transfer of
genes from one organism to another and
has already improved the pest, frost, and
disease resistance, of some crop plants.
● Although some aspects of genetic
engineering are controversial, it holds
potential for continued development of
better agricultural, medicinal, and other
useful plants. Future control of human,
animal, and plant diseases is also
anticipated
Plant Cell Biology
● (previously called cytology), the science of
cell structure and function, received a boost
from the discovery of how cells multiply and
how their various components perform and
integrate a variety of functions, including
that of sexual reproduction.
● The mid-20th-century development of
electron microscopes further spurred cell
research and led to vast new insights into
cells and new forms of cell research that
continues to the present
Economic botany and ethnobotany
 focus on practical uses of plants and plant
products, had their origin in antiquity as
humans discovered, used, and eventually
cultivated plants for food, fiber, medicines,
and other purposes
 Module 3
Cell Discovery

Cell Discovery

● Discovery of cells is tightly connected with

the development of microscopy. In 1665,
Robert Hooke looked at cork under a
microscope and saw multiple chambers
which he called “cells”.

● In 1838, Schleidern and Schwann stated

that all plants and animals are composed of
cells and that cell is the most basic unit of
life.

● In 1858, Virchow stated that all cells arise

by reproduction from previous cells. These
three statements became the base of the
cell theory. Without the contribution of these
mentioned above, we would never have
studied cells and its significance to our daily
life

Cell Structure Transport of material

● All organisms are composed of cells. ● Vesicles—membrane “bubbles” that can

● Plant cells consist of a box-like cell wall
surrounding a mass of protoplasm.
● The protoplasm contains organelles, such
as
− Nuclei
− Mitochondria
● Cells are the physical framework within
which a plant’s metabolism occurs.
● Water and salts are absorbed from soil by
root cells. They are transported throughout
the plant by cells of the vascular tissues.
● The energy of sunlight is used in leaf cells
to convert carbon dioxide and water to
carbohydrates.
● Plant reproduction is also based on cells
and cell biology.
Membranes
● Membranes perform many important tasks
in cell metabolism.
carry materials with the cytoplasm
● Exocytosis and endocytosis
Permeability
● all biological membranes are selectively
permeable.
● Allows for compartmentalization
○ Dynamic—constantly changing in
response to age and environment
Membrane Permeability
● Membranes are more permeable to
hydrophobic substances than anything
carrying an electric charge. •
● Movement of charged substances is
assisted by large intrinsic proteins that span
the membrane.
○ Facilitated diffusion

− They regulate the passage of molecules into and
out of cells and organelles.
− They divide the cell into numerous compartments,
each with its own specialized function.
● • Molecular pumps bind to a molecule on
one side of the membrane, change shape,
and release the molecule on the other side
○ requires energy.

− They act as surfaces that hold enzymes. ■ Active transport

● Biological membranes are composed of

proteins and a phospholipid bilayer.
− Intrinsic proteins are at least partially
immersed in the lipid bilayer.
− Extrinsic proteins are located outside the
membrane.
 ● The concentration of solute in the solution
can be equal to the concentration of solute
in cells. In this situation, the cell is in
an isotonic solution (iso = equal or the
same as normal). The amount of water
entering the cell is the same as the amount
leaving the cell.

Osmosis

● Osmosis is a specific type of diffusion

● it is the passage of water from a region of

● The concentration of solute in the solution
high water concentration through a semi-
can be less than the concentration of
permeable membrane to a region of low
solute in the cells. This cell is in
water concentration. Water moves in or out
a hypotonic solution (hypo = less than
of a cell until its concentration is the same
normal). The net flow of water will be into
on both sides of the plasma membrane
the cell.
● Semi-permeable membranes are very thin ●
layers of material that allow some things to
pass through them but prevent other things
from passing through.

● Cell membranes are an example of semi-

permeable membranes. Cell membranes
allow small molecules such as oxygen,
water carbon dioxide, and oxygen to pass
through but do not allow larger molecules
like glucose, sucrose, proteins, and starch
to enter the cell directly.

● The concentration of solute in the solution

can be greater than the concentration of
solute in the cells. This cells described as
being in a hypertonic solution (hyper =
greater than normal). The net flow or water
will be out of the cell.

● Water and many other substances cannot

simply diffuse across a membrane.
Hydrophilic molecules, charged ions, and
relatively large molecules such
as glucose all need help with diffusion.

● The help comes from special proteins in the

membrane known as transport proteins.
● Diffusion with the help of transport proteins
is called facilitated diffusion. There are
several types of transport proteins,
including channel proteins and carrier
proteins

● Channel proteins form pores, or tiny holes,

in the membrane. This allows water
molecules and small ions to pass through
the membrane without coming into contact
with the hydrophobic tails of the lipid
molecules in the interior of the membrane.

● Carrier proteins bind with specific ions or

molecules, and in doing so, they change
shape. As carrier proteins change shape,
they carry the ions or molecules across the
membrane.
 ● bacteria, archaea, and cyanobacteria (blue-
green algae)

Module 4
Cell Types
Basic Cell Types
Eukaryote
● All cells are either prokaryotic or eukaryotic.
● Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus enclosed
● Prokaryotic cells are structurally more within the nuclear membrane and form
simple than eukaryotic cells. large and complex organisms. Protozoa,
fungi, plants, and animals all have
○ They are found in domains
eukaryotic cells. They are classified under
Bacteria and Archaea.
the kingdom Eukaryota.
● Eukaryotic cells contain a membrane-
● They can maintain different environments in
bound nucleus and organelles.
a single cell that allows them to carry out
○ They are found in plants, various metabolic reactions. This helps
animals, fungi, and protists. them grow many times larger than the
prokaryotic cells.

Characteristics of Eukaryotes

1. Eukaryotic cells have the nucleus enclosed

within the nuclear membrane.

2. The cell has mitochondria.

3. Flagella and cilia are the locomotory organs

in a eukaryotic cell.

4. A cell wall is the outermost layer of the

eukaryotic cells.

5. The cells divide by a process called mitosis.

6. The eukaryotic cells contain a cytoskeletal

structure.

7. The nucleus contains a single, linear DNA,

which carries all the genetic information.

Organelles

● An organelle is a subcellular structure that

has one or more specific jobs to perform in
the cell
Prokaryotes
Organelles without membrane
● Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms
● The Cell wall, Ribosomes, and
belonging to the domains Bacteria and
Cytoskeleton are non-membrane-bound cell
Archaea.
organelles. They are present both in the
● Prokaryotic cells are much smaller than prokaryotic cell and the eukaryotic cell.
eukaryotic cells, have no nucleus, and lack
Single membrane-bound organelles
organelles.
● Vacuole, Lysosome, Golgi Apparatus,
● All prokaryotic cells are encased by a cell
Endoplasmic Reticulum are single
wall. Many also have a capsule or slime
membrane-bound organelles present only
layer made of polysaccharide.
in a eukaryotic cell.
Double membrane-bound organelles
● Nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplast are
double membrane-bound organelles
present only in a eukaryotic cell.
Cell Membrane
● It is a selectively permeable membrane of
the cells, which is composed of a lipid
bilayer and proteins.
● The plasma membrane is present both in
plant and animal cells.
● It functions as the selectively permeable
membrane, by permitting the entry of
selective materials in and out of the cell
according to the requirement.
● In an animal cell, the cell membrane
functions by providing shape and protects
the inner contents of the cell.
● Based on the structure of the plasma
membrane, it is regarded as the fluid
mosaic model.
● According to the fluid mosaic model, the
plasma membranes are subcellular
structures, made of a lipid bilayer in which
the protein molecules are embedded.
Cytoplasm
● The cytoplasm is present both in plant and
animal cells.
● They are jelly-like substances, found
between the cell membrane and nucleus.
● They are mainly composed of water,
organic and inorganic compounds.
● The cytoplasm is one of the essential
components of the cell, where all the cell
organelles are embedded.
Nucleus
● The nucleus is a double-membraned
organelle found in all eukaryotic cells.
● It is the largest organelle, which functions
as the control centre of the cellular activities
and is the storehouse of the cell’s DNA.
○ By structure, the nucleus is dark,
round, surrounded by a nuclear
membrane. It is a porous
membrane (like cell membrane)
and forms a wall between
cytoplasm and nucleus.
● Within the nucleus, there are tiny spherical
bodies called nucleolus. It also carries an
essential structure called chromosomes
● The primary function of the nucleus is to
monitor cellular activities including
metabolism and growth by making use of
DNA’s genetic information.
● Nucleoli in the nucleus are responsible for
the synthesis of protein and RNA.
●
Chromosome
● Chromosomes are thin and thread-like
structures which carry another important
structure called a gene.
○ Genes are a hereditary unit in
organisms i.e., it helps in the
inheritance of traits from one
generation (parents) to another
(offspring). Hence, the nucleus
controls the characters and
functions of cells in our body.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
● The Endoplasmic Reticulum is a network of
membranous canals filled with fluid. They
 are the transport system of the cell,
involved in transporting materials
throughout the cell.
● There are two types:
1. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum – They are
composed of cisternae, tubules, and
vesicles, which are found throughout the
cell and are involved in protein
manufacture.
2. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum – They are
the storage organelle, associated with the
production of lipids, steroids, and also
responsible for detoxifying the cell.
Ribosome
● Ribosomes are non-membrane-bound and
important cytoplasmic organelles found in
close association with the endoplasmic
reticulum.
● Ribosomes are found in the form of tiny
particles in a large number of cells and are
mainly composed of 2/3rd of RNA and 1/3rd
of protein.
● They are named as the 70s (found in
prokaryotes) or 80s (found in eukaryotes)
○ The letter S refers to the density
and the size, known as
Svedberg’s Unit. Both 70S and
80S ribosomes are composed of
two subunits.
● Ribosomes are either encompassed within
the endoplasmic reticulum or are freely
traced in the cell’s cytoplasm.
● Ribosomal RNA and Ribosomal proteins
are the two components that together
constitute ribosomes.
● The primary function of the ribosomes
includes protein synthesis in all living cells
that ensure the survival of the cell.
Mitochondria
● Mitochondria are called the powerhouses of
the cell as they produce energy-rich
molecules for the cell.
● The mitochondrial genome is inherited
maternally in several organisms.
● It is a double membrane-bound, sausage-
shaped organelle, found in almost all
eukaryotic cells.
● The double membranes divide its lumen
into two distinct aqueous compartments.
● The inner compartment is called a ‘matrix’
which is folded into cristae whereas the
outer membrane forms a continuous
boundary with the cytoplasm.
● They usually vary in their size and are
found either round or oval in shape.
● Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic
respiration in the cell, produces energy in
the form of ATP and helps in the
transformation of the molecules.
Golgi Apparatus
● is also termed as Golgi Complex.
● It is a membrane-bound organelle, which is
mainly composed of a series of flattened,
stacked pouches called cisternae.
● This cell organelle is primarily responsible
for transporting, modifying, and packaging
proteins and lipids to targeted destinations.
● Golgi Apparatus is found within the
cytoplasm of a cell and is present in both
plant and animal cells.
Carbohydrates
● Carbohydrates (or sugars) were originally
believed to be “hydrates of carbon,”
because they have the general formula
Cx(H2O)y.
● “optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or
ketones or the compounds which produce
units of such type on hydrolysis”.
Association of Cells
● Cells of multicellular organisms interact and
must communicate.
○ Interacting cells sense that they
are part of a larger organism and
identify how they should
differentiate.
 ○ This requires extensive
intercellular communication.
● Cells can secrete messenger compounds.
● Plant cells cannot communicate via direct
physical contact.
○ In plants the cell wall and middle
lamella are a barrier.
○ Plasmodesmata allow direct
communication
Plasmodesmata
● Plasmodesmata are small channels that
connect adjacent cells.
○ The plasma membrane passes
through them and creates a
contiguous membrane from cell
to cell.
○ A small stream of the cystol and
a section of the ER also pass
through the plasmodesmata.
○ These occur singly or in clusters
called primary pit fields.
● Plasmodesmata connect protoplasts to
create the symplast.
● Many cells do not about each other tightly,
so there is intercellular space between.
● All intercellular space and cell walls
together are called the apoplast.
● The symplast and apoplast together make
up the entire plant.
Cell Size
● Cells of higher plants generally vary in
length between 10 and 100 micrometers
Cell Wall
● The first cell structure discovered by Robert
Hooke in 1665 was the cell wall
● The main structural component of cell walls
is cellulose, which is composed of 100 to
15,000 glucose monomers in long chains,
and is the most abundant polymer on earth
● In addition to cellulose, cell walls typically
contain a matrix of hemicellulose (a gluelike
substance that holds cellulose fibrils
together), pectin (the organic material that
gives stiffness to fruit jellies), and
glycoproteins
● A middle lamella, which consists of a layer
of pectin, is first produced when new cell
walls are formed.
● Secondary walls, which are produced inside
the primary walls, are derived from primary
walls by thickening and inclusion of lignin, a
complex polymer.
● During secondary wall formation, cellulose
microfibrils become embedded in lignin,
much like steel rods are embedded in
concrete to form prestressed concrete
Plastids
● The plastid is a membrane-bound organelle
found in the cells of plants, algae, and
some other eukaryotic organisms.
● They are considered to be intracellular
endosymbiotic cyanobacteria.
● Examples include chloroplasts (used for
photosynthesis), chromoplasts (used for
pigment synthesis and storage), and
leucoplasts (non-pigmented plastids that
can sometimes differentiate)
Chloroplast
● The liquid portion of the chloroplast is a
colorless fluid matrix called stroma, which
contains enzymes involved in
photosynthesis
Vacuole
● The vacuole evidently received its name
because of a belief that it was just an empty
space; hence its name has the same Latin
root as the word vacuum (from vacuus—
meaning “empty”).
● Vacuoles, however, are filled with a watery
fluid called cell sap, which is slightly to
moderately acidic. Cell sap, which helps to
maintain pressures within the cell
Cytoskeleton
● The cytoskeleton is involved in movement
within a cell and in a cell’s architecture. It is
an intricate network constructed mainly of
two kinds of fibers—microtubules and
microfilaments.
Microtubules
● Microtubules control the addition of
cellulose to the cell wall. They are also
involved in cell division, movement of
cytoplasmic organelles, controlling the
movement of vesicles containing cell-wall
components assembled by dictyosomes,
and movement of the tiny whip like flagella
and cilia possessed by some cells
● Microtubules are unbranched, thin, hollow,
tubelike structures that resemble tiny
straws. They are composed of proteins
called tubulins and are of varying lengths,
most being between 15 and 25 nanometers
in diameter. They are most commonly
found just inside the plasma membrane
 ● Microtubules are unbranched, thin, hollow,
tubelike structures that resemble tiny
straws. They are composed of proteins
called tubulins and are of varying lengths,
most being between 15 and 25 nanometers
in diameter. They are most commonly
found just inside the plasma membrane
Module 5
Cellular Reproduction
The Cell Cycle
 When cells divide, they go through an
orderly series of events known as the cell
cycle. This cycle is usually divided into
interphase and mitosis, mitosis itself being
subdivided into four phases
Mitosis
Interphase
 Living cells that are not dividing are said to
be in interphase, a period during which
chromosomes are not visible with light
microscopes.
 For many years, immature cells were
considered to be “resting” when they were
not actually dividing, but we know now that
three consecutive periods of intense activity
take place during interphase.
 These intervals are designated as gap (or
growth) 1, synthesis, and gap (or growth) 2
periods, usually referred to as G1, S, and
G2, respectively.
G1
 is relatively lengthy and begins immediately
after a nucleus has divided.
 During this period, the cell increases in
size. Also, ribosomes, RNA, and
substances that either inhibit or stimulate
the S period that follows are produced.
S Phase
 During the S period, the unique process of
DNA replication (duplication) takes place
G2
● In the G2 period, mitochondria and other
organelles divide, and microtubules and
other substances directly involved in mitosis
are produced. Coiling and condensation of
chromosomes also begin during G2.
● This animal cell has also made a copy of
its centrosome, an organelle that will play
a key role in orchestrating mitosis, so there
are two centrosomes. (Plant cells generally
don’t have centrosomes with centrioles, but
have a different type of microtubule
organizing center that plays a similar role.)
● All organisms begin life as a single cell.
This cell usually divides almost
immediately, producing two new cells.
These two cells, in turn, divide, with each of
them producing two more cells. This
process is called mitosis.
● It ensures that the two new cells (daughter
cells) resulting from a cell undergoing
mitosis each have precisely equal amounts
of DNA and certain other substances
duplicated during interphase
● refers to the division of the nucleus alone,
but with a few exceptions seen in algae and
fungi
● In flowering plants, conifers, and other
higher plants, mitosis occurs in specific
regions, or tissues, called meristems
 Meristems are found in the root
and stem tips and also in a thin,
perforated, and branching
cylinder of tissue called the
vascular cambium
● When mitosis occurs, the number of
chromosomes in the nucleus, whether small
or large, makes no difference in the way the
process takes place.
● The daughter cells that result from mitosis
each have exactly the same number of
 chromosomes and distribution of DNA as surface of each centromere;
the parent cell. spindle fibers become attached to
the kinetochore.
● Mitosis is a continuous process, which may
take as little as 5 minutes or as long as
several hours from start to finish. Typically,  Late Prophase
however, it takes from 30 minutes to 2 or 3  In late prophase (sometimes also
hours. called prometaphase), the mitotic
spindle begins to capture and
● Mitosis is initiated with the appearance of a
organize the chromosomes.
ringlike preprophase band of microtubules
 The chromosomes become even
just beneath the plasma membrane
more condensed, so they are
Prophase very compact.
 The nuclear envelope breaks
● the chromosomes become shorter and down, releasing the
thicker, and their two-stranded nature chromosomes.
becomes apparent; the nuclear envelope  The mitotic spindle grows more,
fragments, and the nucleolus disintegrates. and some of the microtubules
start to “capture” chromosomes.
● The beginning of prophase is marked by 
the appearance of the chromosomes as
faint threads in the nucleus.

● These chromosomes gradually coil or fold

into thicker and shorter structures, and
soon, two strands, or chromatids, can be
distinguished for each chromosome.

 Early Prophase
 In early prophase, the cell starts
to break down some structures
Metaphase
and build others up, setting the
stage for division of the ● In metaphase, the spindle has captured all
chromosomes. the chromosomes and lined them up at the
 The chromosomes start to middle of the cell, ready to divide.
condense (making them easier to
pull apart later on). ● All the chromosomes align at the
 The mitotic spindle begins to metaphase plate (not a physical structure,
form. The spindle is a structure just a term for the plane where the
made of microtubules, strong chromosomes line up).
fibers that are part of the cell’s
“skeleton.” Its job is to organize ● At this stage, the two kinetochores of each
the chromosomes and move chromosome should be attached to
them around during mitosis. The microtubules from opposite spindle poles.
spindle grows between the
centrosomes as they move apart.
 The nucleolus (or nucleoli,
plural), a part of the nucleus
where ribosomes are made,
disappears. This is a sign that the
nucleus is getting ready to break
down
 The chromatids are themselves
independently coiled and are
identical to each other.
 The coils appear to tighten and
condensed until the
chromosomes have become ● Before proceeding to anaphase, the cell will
relatively short thick, and rodlike, check to make sure that all the
with areas called centromeres chromosomes are at the metaphase plate
holding each pair of chromatids with their kinetochores correctly attached to
together microtubules.
 The centromere is located at a
constriction on the chromosome. ● This is called the spindle checkpoint and
 A kinetochore, which is a dense helps ensure that the sister chromatids will
region composed of a protein split evenly between the two daughter cells
complex, is located on the outer when they separate in the next step. If a
 chromosome is not properly aligned or
attached, the cell will halt division until the
problem is fixed.
Anaphase
● In anaphase, the sister chromatids separate
from each other and are pulled towards
opposite ends of the cell.
● The protein “glue” that holds the sister
chromatids together is broken down,
allowing them to separate. Each is now its
own chromosome. The chromosomes of
each pair are pulled towards opposite ends
of the cell.
● Microtubules not attached to chromosomes
elongate and push apart, separating the
poles and making the cell longer.
● All of these processes are driven by motor
proteins, molecular machines that can
“walk” along microtubule tracks and carry a
cargo. In mitosis, motor proteins carry
chromosomes or other microtubules as they
walk.
Telophase
● In telophase, the cell is nearly done
dividing, and it starts to re-establish its
normal structures as cytokinesis (division of
the cell contents) takes place.
● The mitotic spindle is broken down into its
building blocks.
● Two new nuclei form, one for each set of
chromosomes. Nuclear membranes and
nucleoli reappear.
● The chromosomes begin to decondense
and return to their “stringy” form.
Cytokinesis
● Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm
to form two new cells, overlaps with the
final stages of mitosis. It may start in either
anaphase or telophase, depending on the
cell, and finishes shortly after telophase.
● In animal cells, cytokinesis is contractile,
pinching the cell in two like a coin purse
with a drawstring. The “drawstring” is a
band of filaments made of a protein called
actin, and the pinch crease is known as
the cleavage furrow.
● Plant cells can’t be divided like this because
they have a cell wall and are too stiff.
Instead, a structure called the cell
plate forms down the middle of the cell,
splitting it into two daughter cells separated
by a new wall.
Early G1
● When cytokinesis finishes, we end up with
two new cells, each with a complete set of
chromosomes identical to those of the
mother cell. The daughter cells can now
begin their own cellular “lives,” and –
depending on what they decide to be when
they grow up – may undergo mitosis
themselves, repeating the cycle.

LA 1
Identification, Manipulation and Magnification using a
Compound Microscope
Mechanical Parts
1. Base: Bottom base of the microscope that houses
the illumination & supports the compound
microscope.
2. Arm: Supports the microscope head and attaches
it to the base.
3. Stage or Platform: The platform upon which the
specimen or slide are placed. The height of the
mechanical stage is adjustable on most
compound microscopes.
4. Pillar: The vertical support structure that connects
the base to the microscope head, providing
stability and height adjustment.
5. Inclination Joint: The adjustable joint that allows
the microscope head to be tilted or inclined for
comfortable viewing.
6. Stage clips: Clips on the stage that hold the slide
in place on the mechanical stage.
7. Substage: The component beneath the stage or
platform that includes important parts such as the
condenser and iris diaphragm.
8. Body Tube: The cylindrical tube that connects the
eyepiece to the revolving nosepiece and houses
the objective lenses.
9. Course Adjustment: The larger, outer knob on
the focusing mechanism located on the body tube.
It is used for initial, r
10. ough focusing by moving the objective lenses
closer to or farther away from the specimen.
11. Fine Adjustment: The vertical support structure
that connects the base to the microscope head,
providing stability and height adjustment.
12. Revolving Nosepiece: Holds the objective lenses
& attaches them to the microscope head. This
part rotates to change which objective lens is
active.
13. Draw Tube: The tube that holds the eyepiece and
can be pulled up or down to adjust the focus
length.
14. Diaphragm: Knob used to adjust the amount of
light that reaches the specimen or slide from the
base illumination.
Magnifying Parts
1. Eyepiece or Ocular: The part that is looked
through at the top of the compound microscope.
Eyepieces typically have a magnification between
5x & 30x.
2. Objectives:
a) Scanner Objective: Low-magnification objective
(4x or 5x) used for quickly scanning a specimen to
locate areas of interest.
b) Low Power Objective: Medium-magnification
objective (10x) used for general observation,
providing a larger, more detailed view of the
specimen.
c) High Power Objective: High-magnification
objective (40x or 50x) used for detailed
examination of small structures within the
specimen.
d) Oil Immersion Objective: Specialized high-
magnification objective (100x) used with
immersion oil to achieve extremely high
magnification and improve image clarity when
observing very small and detailed structures.
Illuminating Parts
1. Mirror: Reflects light into the base of the
microscope. Earlier microscopes used mirrors that
reflected light into the base of the microscope
instead of halogen bulbs as their source of
illumination.
2. Condenser: optical component that concentrates
and controls the illumination, improving the
brightness, contrast, and resolution of the
observed specimen.
 When should the high power objective be used?
The low power objevtive?
The high-power objective should be used when
you require detailed examination of fine structures or small
objects within your specimen, as it provides a higher level of
magnification (typically 40x or 50x). It's best suited for tasks
that demand precision and when you need to observe
intricate details. On the other hand, the low-power objective
(usually 10x) is used initially to locate and orient the specimen
due to its wider field of view, making it ideal for getting an
overview and finding the region of interest. It's particularly
useful for finding and centering your specimen before
switching to higher magnification objectives.
 In finding an objective in the field, why should not
be the HPO be used?
The high-power objective (HPO) should not be
used for locating an objective in the field because it has a
narrow field of view and limited depth of focus, making it
difficult to quickly locate objects or specimens. Instead, the
low-power objective (LPO) with its wider field of view and
greater depth of focus is better suited for this initial task,
allowing for easier navigation and specimen identification
before switching to higher magnification objectives.
 Explain why the view of e is inverted?
The inverted view in microscopes occurs because
of the way light rays interact with the lenses within the
microscope. As light passes through the objective and
eyepiece lenses, it is refracted, causing an inverted image to
be formed on the intermediate image plane. This inverted
image is then corrected by the eyepiece, presenting a right-
side-up view to the observer's eyes.
LA 2
The Different Abiotic Factors in Plant Ecology and
Plant Association in an Ecosystem
Different Abiotic Factors in Plant Ecology and its Significance
1. Temperature:
Temperature affects plant growth,
development, and metabolism. It influences the
rate of photosynthesis, respiration, and the
availability of water to plants.
2. Water:
Adequate water is essential for plant
survival, as it is a vital component for
photosynthesis and nutrient absorption. Water
availability influences plant distribution and the
types of plants that can thrive in a particular
ecosystem.
3. Sunlight:
Sunlight is necessary for
photosynthesis, the process by which plants
convert light energy into chemical energy. It
determines the amount of energy available for
plant growth and influences the orientation and
structure of plants.
4. Wind:
Wind can influence plant morphology,
as plants may develop adaptations to withstand
strong winds. It aids in the dispersal of seeds and
pollen, impacting plant reproduction.
5. Soil:
Soil properties, such as nutrient
content, pH, and texture, affect plant growth and
nutrient uptake. Soil moisture levels determine the
availability of water to plants.
6. Disturbances:
Disturbances, such as fires, floods,
and human activities, shape plant communities by
creating opportunities for some species to thrive.
They can also disrupt established ecosystems
and impact plant diversity
Different Abiotic Factors in Plant Ecology
I. Symbiosis:
 Symbiosis is a biological interaction where two
different species live together in close physical
proximity, often for an extended period.
 In plant associations, this can refer to mutually
beneficial relationships, such as mycorrhizal
associations, where fungi help plants absorb
nutrients in exchange for carbohydrates
II. Mutualism:
 Mutualism is a type of symbiosis in which both
species involved benefit from the interaction.
 In plant associations, examples include pollination
by insects, where plants receive pollination
services, and pollinators obtain nectar or pollen as
food.
III. Commensalism:
 Commensalism is a type of symbiosis in which
one species benefits from the association, while
the other is neither significantly harmed nor
helped.
 In plant associations, an example could be
epiphytic plants that grow on trees. The epiphytes
benefit from the support of the tree, while the tree
is generally unaffected.
IV. Parasitism:
 Parasitism is a type of symbiosis in which one
species (the parasite) benefits at the expense of
the other (the host).
 In plant associations, parasitic plants like
mistletoe attach to and derive nutrients from their
host plants, potentially harming them.
V. Predation:
 Predation is an interaction in which one organism
(the predator) consumes another organism (the
prey).
 In plant associations, herbivores that feed on
plants represent predation. These herbivores can
include insects, mammals, or other organisms that
consume plant tissues.
VI. Competition:
 Competition occurs when two or more species vie
for limited resources in the same habitat.
 In plant associations, this can involve competing
for sunlight, water, nutrients, and space.
Competition can influence which plant species
dominate in a particular ecosystem.
Different Example of Terrestrial and Aquatic
Biomes.
 Example of Terrestrial Biomes
1. Tropical Forests:
Description: Lush and dense forests found near the equator
with high rainfall and temperatures year-round.
Features: Exceptional biodiversity, abundant plant and animal
species, high productivity, and a complex canopy structure.
2. Savannas:
Description: Grasslands with scattered trees, typically found
in tropical and subtropical regions.
Features: Dominated by grasses, occasional droughts, large
herbivores, and a mix of herbivores and predators.
3. Grasslands:
Description: Areas dominated by grasses, often with seasonal
rainfall variations.
Features: Rich soil, adapted grassland species, grazing
herbivores, and fire-adapted vegetation.
4. Deserts:
Description: Arid regions with extremely low precipitation and
temperature variations.
Features: Sparse vegetation, extreme temperature
fluctuations, specialized desert-adapted plants and animals.
5. Chaparral:
Description: Shrubby, temperate biome characterized by hot,
dry summers and mild, wet winters.
Features: Drought-resistant plants like shrubs and small
trees, frequent wildfires, and adaptations for fire recovery.
6. Temperate Deciduous Forests:
Description: Forests with deciduous trees that lose their
leaves in winter, found in temperate regions.
Features: Seasonal changes, diverse tree species, and a
variety of wildlife.
7. Coniferous Forests:
Description: Forests dominated by evergreen coniferous trees
like pines and spruces, often in colder climates.
Features: Needle-like leaves, cold-adapted animals, and
ecosystems well-suited to snow and ice.
8. Tundra:
Description: Treeless, cold biome with a short growing
season, often found in polar regions.
Features: Permafrost (permanently frozen soil), low plant
diversity, hardy vegetation, and migratory bird species.
 Example of Aquatic Biomes
1. Lakes and Ponds:
Description: Standing freshwater bodies surrounded by land.
Features: Vary in size, can be oligotrophic (nutrient-poor) or
eutrophic (nutrient-rich), support diverse aquatic life including
fish and aquatic plants.
2. Freshwater Wetlands:
Description: Areas of land periodically saturated with water,
supporting unique plant species.
Features: Include marshes, swamps, and bogs, important for
water filtration, flood control, and habitat for waterfowl.
3. Streams and Rivers:
Description: Flowing bodies of freshwater that can vary in size
from small streams to large rivers.
Features: Water flow can vary from fast to slow, support
diverse aquatic life, and provide water resources for humans.
4. Oceans:
Description: Vast saltwater bodies covering about 71% of
Earth's surface.
Features: Divided into zones (e.g., pelagic, benthic) with
varying temperatures and depths, host diverse marine life
from tiny plankton to large whales.
5. Estuaries and Salt Marshes:
Description: Transitional areas where freshwater rivers meet
the salty ocean, resulting in brackish water.
Features: Highly productive ecosystems, vital for juvenile fish
and bird species, serve as nurseries and provide protection
from storms.
 What do you think is the most important abiotic
factors you observed during your visit?
During my visit, I found that temperature and
water availability were the most important abiotic factors.
Temperature influenced the types of plants and animals
present, while water availability played a crucial role in
shaping the overall ecosystem and supporting diverse life
forms.
 How lichen was considered a definitive example
of mutualism?
Lichen is considered a definitive example of
mutualism because it is a symbiotic association between a
fungus and an alga or cyanobacterium where both partners
benefit. The algal component performs photosynthesis,
producing nutrients for the fungus, while the fungal
component provides a protected environment and anchorage
for the algae.
 How does the commensalism relationship of a
rainforest tree and epiphytes work?
In the commensalism relationship between
rainforest trees and epiphytes, the trees provide physical
support and access to light for the epiphytes, which grow
harmlessly on the tree's branches. The epiphytes benefit from
the tree's structure while not significantly affecting the tree's
health or fitness, making it a one-sided, neutral interaction.
 Is mistletoe parasitic seed plants? Why?
Yes, mistletoe is considered a parasitic seed
plant. Mistletoe plants attach to the branches or trunks of host
trees and shrubs, penetrating their host's vascular system to
extract water, minerals, and nutrients. This reliance on a host
for essential resources qualifies mistletoe as a parasitic plant.
 What is adaptation? Can a plant to any temporary
environment in case of emergency? Support your
answer and give an example.
Adaptation refers to the process by which
organisms evolve traits that enhance their ability to survive
and reproduce in a specific environment. While plants can
exhibit various adaptive mechanisms to thrive in specific
conditions, their ability to adapt rapidly to entirely new,
temporary environments is limited due to their relatively slow
rate of evolution. For example, some desert plants like cacti
have adaptations, such as water storage tissues and reduced
leaves, that enable them to thrive in arid environments.
However, these adaptations are the result of long-term
evolutionary processes and may not allow rapid survival in
drastically different, temporary environments.
LA 3
Preparation of the Different Fresh Specimen and
Identification of Plant Cells
A. Types of Fresh Specimen Preparation
1. Describe the advantage and disadvantage of fresh
specimen and permanent slides?
The advantage of using fresh specimens in
biological studies lies in their ability to offer
immediate, real-time observations of living organisms
or tissues, preserving their natural behaviors and
characteristics. This is particularly valuable for
studying dynamic processes and interactions.
However, the disadvantage is that fresh specimens
can deteriorate rapidly, limiting the time available for
observation and making long-term storage
impractical. In contrast, permanent slides, while
lacking the dynamic nature of fresh specimens,
provide a stable and enduring record suitable for
reference and archival purposes.
B. The Plant Cells
1. How do Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells differ?
Give an example of each kind of cell
Prokaryotic cells lack a true nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles, while eukaryotic cells
have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. An
example of a prokaryotic cell is a bacterial cell, and an
example of a eukaryotic cell is a plant cell.
2. How are mitochondria and chloroplast alike? How
are they different?
Mitochondria and chloroplasts are alike in
that they both have double membranes and are
involved in energy-related processes. However, they
differ in their functions: mitochondria are responsible
for cellular respiration and ATP production, while
chloroplasts are involved in photosynthesis,
converting light energy into chemical energy.
3. A plant cell secretes protein. Trace the protein’s
production, packaging and release from the cell.
In a plant cell, protein secretion typically
starts in the rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER), where
ribosomes synthesize proteins. The proteins are then
modified, packaged, and transported to the Golgi
apparatus, which further processes and sorts them.
Finally, the Golgi apparatus releases the proteins
through vesicles that fuse with the plasma membrane,
allowing the proteins to be secreted outside the cell.
4. Describe or give the function/s of each parts of a
plant cell.
 Protoplasm: The entire living substance of
the cell.
 Cell Wall: Provides structural support and
protection.
 Plasma Membrane: Controls the entry and
exit of substances.
 Cytoplasm: Houses organelles and cellular
structures.
 Mitochondria: Produce energy (ATP)
through cellular respiration.
 Golgi Bodies: Modify, process, and
package proteins.
 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: Involved in
protein synthesis and processing.
 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum:
Synthesizes lipids and detoxifies.
 Ribosomes: Synthesize proteins.
 Microbodies: Contain enzymes for various
metabolic reactions.
 Plastids: Involved in photosynthesis and
storage of pigments and starch.
 Microtubules: Provide structural support
and assist in cell division.
 Microfilaments: Involved in cell movement
and shape maintenance.
 Vacuoles: Store water, nutrients, and waste
products.
 Nucleus: Contains genetic material and
controls cell activities.
 Nucleolus: Synthesizes ribosomal RNA.
5. Compare plant cell from animal cell. Make an
illustration for each and label properly.
Plant cells differ from animal cells in that
they have cell walls, chloroplasts, and large central
vacuoles. Animal cells lack these structures and have
a more flexible cell membrane.
 1. What is Diffusion? What are the factors affecting
diffusion rate?

Diffusion is the passive movement of

molecules from an area of higher concentration to an
area of lower concentration. Factors affecting
diffusion rate include the concentration gradient (the
steeper the gradient, the faster the diffusion),
temperature (higher temperatures increase molecular
kinetic energy and thus diffusion rate), molecular size
(smaller molecules diffuse more quickly), and the
presence of a membrane (cell membranes can restrict
the passage of certain molecules).

2. Which potato lost the greater percentage weight?

Why?

The potato with a higher salt concentration

lost the greater percentage of weight due to the
process of osmosis. Water moved out of the potato
cells into the surrounding solution with the higher salt
concentration, causing the potato to lose water and
weight as a result of osmotic pressure.

LA 4
The Effect of Osmosis and
Diffusion in Plant Cells

A. Effect of Osmosis

1. What is Osmosis? Discuss the factors that may

affect osmosis Percentage = Total weight loss after soaking x 100%
Weight before soaking
Eosin is added to the root hair of an onion
to make the cell's contents visible and to stain the cell
membrane. This staining process is possible because
eosin is a dye that can bind to cellular components,
allowing for better visualization of structures during
microscopy.

2. What is the purpose of adding eosin on the root

hair of onion? Why it is made possible?

Eosin is added to the root hair of an onion

to make the cell's contents visible and to stain the cell
membrane. This staining process is possible because
eosin is a dye that can bind to cellular components,
allowing for better visualization of structures during
microscopy.

3. Discuss the importance of osmosis in reaching the

endodermis via symplast and apoplast pathway?

Osmosis plays a crucial role in plant

physiology by aiding in the transport of water and
nutrients through plant roots. The symplast pathway
involves the movement of water and solutes through
the living cell cytoplasm via plasmodesmata, while the
apoplast pathway involves the movement of water
and solutes through the non-living cell walls. Both
pathways are important for efficient water and nutrient
uptake by plant roots and help in reaching the
endodermis, which acts as a selective barrier,
controlling which substances enter the vascular tissue
of the plant.

B. Effect of Diffusion