ADVANCED SEMINAR ON ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS AND ISSUES

Direct and indirect interactions between species strongly influence the dynamics of
populations and the structure of communities. Describe the nature of indirect interactions, giving
examples that illustrate the different kinds of indirect interactions. Explain the relative importance
of indirect interactions, relative to direct interactions, in mediating population and community
processes.

The success of species in a community is determined not only by the direct interaction but also
indirect interactions. Indirect effects will occur if an associate species changes the abundance of
intermediate species in a chain of interactions that ultimately affect the growth of some focal species.
There are various kinds of indirect interaction between organisms. These interaction between organisms
relatively important in mediating population and community processes.

One example of indirect interaction between organisms is exploitation competition. Exploitation

competition occurs when individuals interact indirectly as they compete for common resources, like
territory, prey or food. Simply put, the use of the resource by one individual will decrease the amount
available for other individuals. Whether by interference or exploitation, over time a superior competitor
can eliminate an inferior one from the area, resulting in competitive exclusion (Hardin 1960). The
outcomes of competition between two species can be predicted using equations, and one of the most
well known is the Lotka-Volterra model (Volterra 1926, Lotka 1932). This model relates the population
density and carrying capacity of two species to each other and includes their overall effect on each
other. The four outcomes of this model are: 1) species A competitively excludes species B; 2) species B
competitively excludes species A; 3) either species wins based on population densities; or 4) coexistence
occurs. Species can survive together if intra-specific is stronger than inter-specific competition. This
means that each species will inhibit their own population growth before they inhibit that of the
competitor, leading to coexistence.

Another form of indirect interaction is apparent competition. Apparent competition occurs

when two individuals that do not directly compete for resources affect each other indirectly by being
prey for the same predator (Hatcher et al. 2006). Consider a hawk (predator, see below) that preys both
on squirrels and mice. In this relationship, if the squirrel population increases, then the mouse
population may be positively affected since more squirrels will be available as prey for the hawks.
However, an increased squirrel population may eventually lead to a higher population of hawks
requiring more prey, thus, negatively affecting the mice through increased predation pressure as the
squirrel population declines. The opposite effect could also occur through a decrease in food resources
for the predator. If the squirrel population decreases, it can indirectly lead to a reduction in the mouse
population since they will be the more abundant food source for the hawks. Apparent competition can
be difficult to identify in nature, often because of the complexity of indirect interactions that involve
multiple species and changing environmental conditions.

The third kind of indirect interaction is competitive mutualism or facilitation. Facilitation is any
unidirectional positive effect of one species on another. Facilitation can include mutualism and
commensalism, as well as some exploitation relationships. Facilitation may be an important and
overlooked aspect of community interactions (Bertness and Callaway, 1994). Plants in stressful
environments can facilitate each other (Callaway, 1995; Callaway and Walker, 1997). Few macrophyte
and wetland plant assemblages have been studied with regard to facilitation, but it could be important
in stressful freshwater habitats, as has been demonstrated for estuarine marshes (Bertness and Hacker,
1994). For instance, emergent freshwater marsh plants that are aerenchymous (transport oxygen to
their roots) can facilitate other emergent plants living nearby by aerating the sediments (Callaway and
King, 1996). As more research is done on aquatic plant assemblages, more examples of facilitation will
likely be documented, given the importance of facilitation among terrestrial plants (Brooker et al.,
2008).

We need ways of taking an entire multi-dimensional system, or a complex network, and

reducing it to some kind of a graphical state in which we can begin to appreciate the structure and
organization of that entire system. Loehle (1987) said "the mere attempt to define phenomena
operationally can dramatically increase theory maturity."

Prepared by:

MAVRIC KHENT R. SIBAYAN

References:

https://www.jstor.org/stable/2462893

https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/species-interactions-and-competition-
102131429/#:~:text=Exploitation%20competition%20occurs%20when%20individuals,amount
%20available%20for%20other%20individuals.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/mutualism