1.

Introduction

• Fluid mechanics: It is the branch of engineering science which deals fluids

behavior under influence of forces and energy at rest or under motion.
• Fluid statics: The study fluid at rest is called fluid statics.
• Fluid kinematics: The study of fluid in motion, where pressure force is not
considered is called fluid kinematics.
• Fluid dynamics: The study of fluid in motion, where pressure force is considered is
called fluid dynamics.

❖ Properties of Fluid
1. Density or mass density (ρ):
▪ It is the ratio of the mass of fluid to its volume.
▪ ρ water is 1000 kg/m3 or 1 gm/cm3
▪ [ML-3]
2. Specific weight or weight density (γ):
▪ It is the ratio of weight of a fluid to its volume.
▪ γ = ρg {1N = kg.m/sec2}
▪ γ water is 9810 N/m3
▪ [ML-2T-2]
3. Specific volume:
▪ It is defined as the volume of a fluid occupied by a unit mass or volume
per unit mass.
▪ It is reciprocal of mass density.
▪ It is expressed in m3/kg
▪ [M-1L3]
4. Specific gravity (S):
▪ It is ratio of the weight density of a fluid to the weight density of
standard fluid.
▪ Smercury is 13.6
▪ Swater is 1
5. Viscosity or Dynamic viscosity (µ):
▪ It is the property of a fluid which offers resistance to the movement of
one layer of fluid over another adjacent layer of the fluid.
▪ The viscosity of liquids decreases with increase in temperature.
▪ The viscosity of gases increases with increase in temperature.
▪ SI unit is N.s/m2 or Pa.s {1Poise = 0.1 N.s/m2 }
▪ CGS unit is dyne-sec/cm2 {1Pa.S = 1 kg/m-s }
 ▪ [ML-1T-1]
▪ The viscosity of water at 200C is 0.01poise or 1 centipoise

6. Kinematic Viscosity (υ):

▪ It is the ratio between dynamic viscosity and density of fluid.
µ
▪ υ= {1 Stoke = 1 cm2/s}
ρ
▪ SI unit is m2/s {1 Stoke = 10-4 m2/s}
▪ CGS unit is Stoke {1kgf = 9.81 N }
▪ [L T ]
2 -1

7. Bulk modulus (K):

▪ It is the ratio of compressive stress to volumetric strain.
▪ SI unit is N/m2
▪ [M1L-1 T-2]
8. Compressibility:
▪ It is the reciprocal of bulk modulus.
▪ SI unit is m2/N
▪ [M-1L1 T2]
9. Surface tension (σ):
▪ It is defines as the tensile force per unit length.
▪ Surface tension is inversely proportional to temperature.
▪ It is due to cohesion only.
▪ SI unit is N/m.
▪ [MT-2]
𝟖𝝈
▪ Pressure inside bubble -
𝒅
𝟒𝝈
▪ Pressure inside droplet -
𝒅
𝟐𝛔
▪ Pressure inside jet -
𝐝
10. Capillarity:
▪ It is defined as a phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid surface in a
small tube relative to the adjacent general level of liquid when tube is
held vertically in the liquid.
▪ It is due to cohesion & adhesion
▪ SI unit is m.
▪ For tube diameter greater than 12 mm capillary effects are negligible.
𝟒𝝈
▪ Capillary rise (h): {ϴ = 0…. ϴ between water & glass}
𝛒𝐠𝒅
𝟒𝝈𝒄𝒐𝒔𝚹
▪ Capillary fall(h): {ϴ = 128…. ϴ between Mercury & glass}
𝛒𝐠𝒅
 11.Vapour Pressure:
▪ At a liquid air interface, a continuous exchange of molecules takes
place. The liquid evaporates because the liquid molecules escape form
the surface into gaseous form called vapour. These vapour molecules
exert partial pressure in the space is known as vapour pressure.
❖ Newton’s law of viscosity:
▪ It states that shear stress (τ) on a fluid element layer is directly
proportional to rate of shear strain.
du
▪ τ =µ
dy
❖ Types of fluid

1. Ideal fluid:
▪ A fluid which is incompressible is having no viscosity is known as
ideal fluid.
2. Real fluid:
▪ A fluid which possesses viscosity is known as real fluid.
3. Newtonian fluid:
▪ A real fluid in which shear stress is directly proportional to the rate of
shear strain is known as Newtonian fluid.
4. Non Newtonian fluid:
▪ A real fluid in which shear stress is not directly proportional to the rate
of shear strain is known as Non Newtonian fluid.
▪ Types of Non Newtonian fluid
I. Dilatant fluid:
• Fluid for which apparent velocity increases with du/dy are called
dilatant fluid.
• It is also known as shear thickening fluid
• Ex. Butter, quick sand
II. Pseudo plastic fluid:
• Fluid for which apparent velocity decreases with du/dy are called
pseudo plastic fluid.
• It is also known as shear thinning fluid
• Ex. Milk, Paper pulp, Lipsticks, paints, Blood, Syrup.
III. Binghm plastic fluid:
• Bimgham plastic fluid require a certain minimum shear stress before
they start flowing
• Ex. Tooth paste, Drilling mud, Sewage sludge, gel.
 IV. Thixotropic fluid:
• It shows an increase in viscosity with time.
• Ex. Printers ink, Enamels, ketchup.
V. Rheopectic fluid:
• It shows an decrease in viscosity with time.
• Ex. Bentonite solution, Gypsum paste.
5. Ideal plastic fluid:
▪ A fluid in which shear stress is more than the yield value & shear stress
is proportional to the rate of shear strain is known as ideal plastic fluid.

2. Pressure & IT’s Measurement

❖ Pascal’s law: It states that the pressure or intensity of pressure at a point in a static
fluid is equal in all directions.
❖ Types of pressure
• Atmospheric pressure:
➢ 1 Atm pressure = 10.3 m of water or 76 cm of Hg or 101. KN/m2

• Gauge pressure:
➢ It is defined as the pressure which is measured with the help of a pressure
measuring instrument in which the atmospheric pressure is taken as datum.
• Absolute pressure:
➢ It is defined as the pressure which is measured with reference to absolute
vacuum pressure
➢ Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure.
• Vacuum pressure: It is defined as the pressure below the atmospheric pressure.
➢ Vacuum pressure = Atmospheric pressure + Absolute pressure.

❖ Pressure measuring devices

1. Barometer and Aneroid meter: It is pressure gauge used for measuring the
local atmospheric pressure.
2. Piezometer: It is pressure gauge which measures pressure of the fluids at given
point.
3. Inverted U-tube manometer: Measure the difference of low pressure between
two points where better accuracy required.
4. Micro manometer: Measurement of very small pressure difference with very
high precision is made.
5. Mechanical gauge: Generally used for measuring high pressure where high
precision is not required. Ex. Bordon tube pressure gauge.
 3. Static Fluid

❖ Hydrostatic:
• It is a branch of fluid mechanics deals with fluid behavior under rest.
• Centre of pressure is defined as the point of application of the resultant
pressure.
• 𝒉=𝒙 ̅ …. For Horizontal immersed surface
𝑰𝑮
• 𝒉= ̅
̅
+𝒙 …. For vertically immersed surface
𝑨𝒙
𝑰𝑮 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝚹
• 𝒉= ̅
̅
+𝒙 …. For inclined immersed surface
𝑨𝒙
• The centre of pressure for vertical surface lies at a depth:
𝟐
➢ For rectangle 𝒉 = 𝑯
𝟑
𝟑
➢ For Triangle 𝒉 = 𝑯
𝟒
𝑯
➢ For Inverted Triangle 𝒉 =
𝟐
𝟓
➢ For Circle 𝒉 = 𝑫
𝟖

4. Buoyancy & Floatation

❖ Buoyancy:
• When a body is immersed in fluid an upward force is exerted by the fluid
body. This upward force is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the
body and is called as buoyancy
• Centre of buoyancy is defined as the point through the force of buoyancy is
supposed to act.
• Stability of Submerged body
1. Stable equilibrium: Centre of buoyancy lies above C.G.
2. Neutral equilibrium: Centre of buoyancy coincide with C.G.
3. Unstable equilibrium: Centre of buoyancy lies below C.G.

❖ Floatation:
• Meta-centre: The point about which body starts oscillating when body is
tilted is known as meta-centre.
• Mete-centric height: The distance between the meta-centre and centre of
gravity is known as meta-centric height.
 • Stability of Floating body
1. Stable equilibrium: Meta-centre lies above C.G.
2. Neutral equilibrium: Meta-centre coincide with C.G.
3. Unstable equilibrium: Meta-centre lies below C.G.

5. Fluid Kinematics
Fluid kinematics is a branch of fluid mechanics which deals with motion of particles
without considering the forces causing motion.

❖ There are two approaches to study kinematics

• In lagrangian approach, a single fluid particle is followed during motion &
its velocity, acceleration, density etc. are described.
• In Eulerian approach, velocity, acceleration, density etc. are described at a
point in flow field.

❖ Types of fluid flow

1. Steady flow: It is defined as type of flow in which fluid property does not
change with time.
2. Unsteady flow: It is defined as type of flow in which fluid property change
with time.
3. Uniform flow: It is defined as type of flow in which velocity at any given
time does not change with space.
4. Non-uniform flow: It is defined as type of flow in which velocity at any
given time change with space.
5. Compressible flow: It is the type of flow in which mass density of fluid
changes from point to point. Density is not constant for the fluid.
6. Incompressible flow: It is the type of flow in which the density is constant
for the fluid flow.
7. Rotational flow: It is that type of flow in which the fluid particles while
flowing along stream line also rotate their own axis.
8. Irrotational flow: It is that type of flow in which the fluid particles while
flowing along stream line do not rotate their own axis.
9. Laminar flow: It is defined as that type of flow in which the fluid particles
move along well-defined paths or stream line.
10. Turbulent flow: It is that type of flow in which fluid particles move in a
zigzag way.
❖ Types of line
• Path line: A single fluid particle places the path is called path line.
• Stream line: It is a tangent line at given point in space. Scream lines are
always parallel to each other.
• Streak line: It is a line joining fluid particles at given instant of time.
• Equipotential line: It is a line along which velocity potential is constant.
• Flow net: It is graphical representation of grid or perpendicular lines made by
stream lines & equipotential lines. It analyzing 2D irrotational flow
problems.

❖ Continuity equation
• The equation based on the principle of conservation of mass.
• A1V1 = A2V2
❖ Types of motion
a) Linear Translation (Pure Translation): It is defined as the movement of a
fluid element in such a way that it moves bodily from one position to another
position.
b) Linear deformation: It is defined as the deformation of fluid element in
linear direction when the element moves.
c) Angular deformation or shear deformation: It is defined as the average
change in the angle contained by two adjacent sides
d) Rotation (ω): It is defined as the movement of a fluid element in such a way
that both of its axes rotate in the same direction.
e) Vorticity: It is defined as the value twice of the rotation.
f) Vortex motion:
• It is one type of liquid matter rotational motion. Certain quantity of
fluid made to rotate is named as vortex motion.
• Two types of vortex motion
I. Free vortex motion: Certain mass of the fluid rotated without efforts
(without force or torque or power).
II. Forced vortex motion: Certain mass of the fluid rotated with some
external efforts (with force or torque or power).
❖ Source flow: The source of flow is the flow coming from a point & moving out
radially in all directions of a plane at uniform rate.
❖ Sink flow: The sink flow is the flow in which fluid moves radially inwards towards
a point where it disappears at a constant rate.
 6. Fluid Dynamics
Fluid dynamics is the study of fluid in motion, where pressure force is considered.

❖ Equations of motion
• Newton’s equation of motion
Fx = (Fg)x + (Fp)x + (Fv)x + (Ft)x + (Fc)x
• Reynolds equation of motion
Fx = (Fg)x + (Fp)x + (Fv)x + (Ft)x …..Fc is neglecting.
• Navier stokes equation
Fx = (Fg)x + (Fp)x + (Fv)x …..Ft, Fc is neglecting.
• Euler’s equation of motion
Fx = (Fg)x + (Fp)x ….. Ft, Fc, Fv is neglecting.
Where,
(Fg)x - Gravity force
(Fp)x - Pressure force
(Fv)x - Viscosity force
(Ft)x - turbulence force
(Fc)x - Compressibility force

❖ Bernoulli’s equation
• It is based on principle of conservation of energy.
p V2
• + + z = constant
ρg 2g
• Assumptions of Bernoulli’s equation
1. The fluid is ideal.
2. The flow is steady.
3. The flow is incompressible.
4. The flow is irrotational.
• Practical Application of Bernoulli’s equation
1. Pitot tube:
▪ It is used for measuring the velocity of flow at any point in a pipe or a
channel.
▪ It is based on principle of conversion of kinetic head to pressure head.
▪ The point at which velocity reduces to zero is called stagnation point.
▪ 𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝐶𝑣 × √2𝑔ℎ {Cv = 0.98 }
 2. Venturimeter:
▪ It is used for measuring rate of flow of a fluid through pipes.
𝑎1 𝑎2
▪ 𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝐶𝑑 × × √2𝑔ℎ {Cd =0.94 - 0.98 }
√𝑎1 2 −𝑎2 2
▪ Angle of convergence – 200 – 300
▪ Angle of divergence – 60 – 70 (It should not greater than 7 to avoid flow
separation)
3. Orifice meter:
▪ It is used for measuring rate of flow of a fluid through pipes.
▪ It is cheaper device compared to venturimeter.
▪ The orifice diameter is kept generally 0.5 times the diameter of pipe. It
may vary from 0.4 – 0.8 times the pipe diameter.
▪ It has more energy loss
𝑎1 𝑎0
▪ 𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝐶𝑑 × × √2𝑔ℎ {Cd =0.64 - 0.76 }
√𝑎1 2 −𝑎0 2
▪ Cd for orifice meter much smaller than that for a venturimeter.

❖ The momentum equation

• It is based on the law of conservation of momentum.

❖ Free liquid jets

Free liquid jet is defined as the jet of water coming from the nozzle in atmosphere.
The path travelled by the jet is parabolic.
𝑼𝟐 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜭
1. Maximum height attained by the jet(S):
𝟐𝒈
2. Time of flight (T):
▪ It is the time taken by the fluid particle in reaching from nozzle to
tangent point of jet.
𝟐𝑼𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜭
▪ 𝑻=
𝒈
3. Time to reach highest point (T*):
▪ The time to reach highest point is half the time of flight.
𝑼𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜭
▪ 𝑻∗ =
𝒈
 7. Orifices & Mouthpieces
❖ Orifice:
• Orifice is a small opening of any cross section on the side or at bottom of a tank,
through which a fluid is flowing. It is used for measuring the rate of flow of fluid.
• Classification of orifices
A. According to size
1. Small orifice: If the head of liquid from the centre of orifice is more than
five times the depth of orifice.
2. Large orifice: If the head of liquid from the centre of orifice is less than
five times the depth of orifice.

B. According to shape
1. Circular orifice
2. Triangular orifice
3. Rectangular orifice
4. Square orifice
C. According to shape of the upstream edge
1. Sharp edge orifice
2. Bell mouthed orifice
D. According to nature of discharge
1. Fully submerged orifices.
2. Partially submerged orifices.
• Hydraulic coefficients
▪ Coefficient of velocity(Cv): 0.95 to 0.99 (generally Cv = 0.98 is taken)
▪ Coefficient of contraction(Cc): 0.61 to 0.69 (generally Cc = 0.64 is taken)
▪ Coefficient of discharge(Cd): 0.61 to 0.95 (generally Cd = 0.62 is taken)
▪ 𝑪𝒅 = 𝑪𝒗 × 𝑪𝒄

• Discharge through large rectangular orifice

𝟐 𝟑 𝟑
𝑸 = × 𝑪𝒅 × 𝒃√𝟐𝒈 [𝑯𝟐 − 𝑯𝟏 𝟐 ]
𝟐
𝟑
• Discharge through fully submerged orifice

𝑸 = 𝑪𝒅 × (𝑯𝟐 − 𝑯𝟏 )√𝟐𝒈𝒉
• Mouthpieces:
• A mouthpiece is a short length of a pipe which is two to three rimes it’s diameter in
fitted in a tank or vessel containing the fluids. It is used for measuring the rate of
flow of fluid.
• Classification of orifices
A. According to position with respect to tank
1. External mouthpiece { Cd = 0.855}
2. Internal mouthpiece (Borda’s or Re-entrant mouthpiece)
B. According to shape
1. Cylindrical mouthpiece
2. Convergent mouthpiece
3. Convergent-Divergent mouthpiece { Cd = 1}
C. According to Nature of discharge
1. Mouthpiece running full { Cd = 0.707}
2. Mouthpiece running free { Cd = 0.50}
• The value of Cd for mouthpiece is more than orifice & so discharge through
mouthpiece will be more.

8. Notches & Weirs

❖ Notches
• A notch is a device used for measuring the rate of flow a fluid through a small
channel or a tank.
• The sheet of water flowing through a notch or over a weir is called nappe or vein.
• The bottom edge of a notch or a top of a weir over which the water flows is known
as the sill or crest.
• Classification of Notches
A. According to the shape of the opening
1. Rectangular notch
2. Triangular notch
3. Trapezoidal notch
4. Stepped notch
B. According to the effect of the sides on the nappe
1. Notch with end contraction.
2. Notch without end contraction or suppressed notch.
❖ Weir
• A weir is a concrete or masonry structure placed in an open channel over which the
flow occurs.
• Classification of Notches
A. According to the shape of the opening
1. Rectangular weir
2. Triangular weir
3. Trapezoidal weir
B. According to the shape of the crest
1. Sharp crested weir.
2. Broad crested weir
3. Narrow crested weir
4. Ogee shaped weir

C. According to the effect of sides on the emerging nappe

1. Weir with end contraction
2. Weir without end contraction.

❖ Discharge over a rectangular notch or weir

𝟐 𝟑
𝑸= × 𝑪𝒅 × 𝑳√𝟐𝒈 [𝑯𝟐 ]
𝟑
❖ Discharge over a triangular notch or weir
𝟖 𝜭 𝟓
𝑸= × 𝑪𝒅 × 𝐭𝐚𝐧 × 𝑳√𝟐𝒈 [𝑯𝟐 ]
𝟏𝟓 𝟐
❖ Discharge over a trapezoidal notch or weir
𝟐 𝟑 𝟖 𝜭 𝟓
𝑸= × 𝑪𝒅 × 𝑳√𝟐𝒈 [𝑯𝟐 ] + × 𝑪𝒅 × 𝐭𝐚𝐧 × 𝑳√𝟐𝒈 [𝑯𝟐 ]
𝟑 𝟏𝟓 𝟐
❖ Effect on discharge over a notch or weir due to error in the measurement of
fluid.
• For rectangular weir or notch: An error of 1% in measuring H will produce 1.5%
errors in discharge over a rectangular weir or notch.
• For triangular weir or notch: An error of 1% in measuring H will produce 2.5%
errors in discharge over a triangular weir or notch.
 9. Viscous Flow
1. The flow viscous fluid through circular pipe
𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥
▪ Ratio of maximum & average velocity { ̅
}: 2
𝑢
𝟑𝟐µ𝐮
̅𝐋
▪ Loss of pressure head (hf): … (Hagen poiseuille formula)
𝛒𝐠𝐝𝟐
2. The flow viscous fluid through two parallel plates
𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥
▪ Ratio of maximum & average velocity { ̅
}: 1.5
𝑢
𝟏𝟐µ𝐮
̅𝐋
▪ Loss of pressure head (hf):
𝛒𝐠𝐭 𝟐
3. Kinetic energy correction factor (α)
𝐾𝐸 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
▪ 𝛼=
𝐾𝐸 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
▪ α = 2 for circular pipe & laminar flow
▪ α = 1.33 for turbulent flow
4. Momentum correction factor (β)
𝐾𝐸 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
▪ 𝛽=
𝐾𝐸 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
▪ β = 1.33 for circular pipe & laminar flow.
▪ β = 1.2 for turbulent flow.

10. Flow through Pipes

❖ Major loss in pipes
4𝑓𝑙𝑉 2
1. Head loss due to friction ( Darcy weisbach equation): ℎ𝑓 =
2𝑔𝑑
❖ Minor losses in pipes
(𝑽𝟏 −𝑽𝟐 )𝟐
1. Loss of head due to sudden expansion: 𝒉𝒆 =
𝟐𝒈

𝟏 𝑽𝟐 𝟐
2. Loss of head due to sudden contraction: 𝒉𝒄 = ( − 𝟏)
𝑪𝒄 𝟐𝒈

𝑽𝟐 𝟐
3. Loss of head at the entrance of a pipe: 𝒉𝒊 = 𝟎. 𝟓
𝟐𝒈

𝑽𝟐
4. Loss of head at the exit of a pipe: 𝒉𝒐 =
𝟐𝒈
 𝑝
❖ Hydraulic gradient line (HGL): Pressure head ( ) + datum head (z).
𝑤
𝑝 𝑉2
❖ Total energy line (TEL): Pressure head ( ) +Velocity head ( ) + datum head (z).
𝑤 2𝑔
❖ Flow through siphon
▪ Siphon is a long bent pipe used to transfer liquids from a reservoir at a higher
level to another reservoir at a lower level, when the two reservoirs are
separated by high level ground.
▪ The maximum vacuum created at the summit of siphon is 7.4 m of water.
❖ Flow through pipes in series or flow through compounds pipes
▪ Pipes in series or compound pipes are defined as the pipes of different
diameters connected end to end (in series) to form pipe.
4𝑓 𝐿1 𝑉 2 1 𝐿2 𝑉 2 2 𝐿3 𝑉 2 3
▪ 𝐻= { + + + ….}
2𝑔 𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3
▪ Pipes are connected in parallel – loss of head is constant
▪ Pipes are connected in series– discharge is constant

❖ Equivalent Pipe
▪ It is defined as the pipe of uniform diameter having loss of head & discharge
equal to the loss of head & discharge of a compound pipe consisting of
several pipes of different lengths & diameters.
▪ The uniform diameter of the equivalent pipe is called equivalent size of the
pipe.
𝐿 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3
▪ = 5 + 5 + + … ..
𝑑5 𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3 5
❖ Water hammer in pipes
▪ When a liquid is flowing through a long pipe fitted with a valve at the end of
the pipe the valve is closed suddenly, a pressure wave of high intensity is
produced behind the valve. This pressure wave of high intensity is having the
effect of hammering action on the walls of the pipe. This phenomenon is
known as water hammer.
𝟐𝑳
▪ Gradual closure of valve: 𝑻 >
𝑪
𝟐𝑳
▪ Sudden closure of valve: 𝑻 <
𝑪
❖ Pipe Network
▪ A pipe network is an interconnected system of pipes forming several loops or
circuits.
▪ To analyse a pipe network Hardy cross method is used.
 11. Dimensional analysis
❖ Types of forces acting in moving fluid
1. Inertia Force (Fi): It is equal to the product of mass & acceleration of
flowing fluid & acts in the direction opposite to the direction of acceleration.
2. Viscous force (Fv): It is equal to the product of shear stress due to viscosity &
surface area of the flow.
3. Gravity force (Fg): It is equal to the product of mass & acceleration due to
gravity of the fluid flowing.
4. Pressure force (Fp): It is equal to the product intensity & cross sections area
of the flowing fluid.
5. Surface tension force (Fs): It is equal to the product of surface tension &
length of surface of the flowing fluid.
6. Elastic Force (Fe): It is equal to the product of elastic stress & area of the
flowing fluid.

❖ Dimensionless numbers
1. Reynold’s number (Re):
▪ It is the ratio of inertia force to viscous force.
𝜌𝑉𝑑
▪ 𝑅𝑒 =
µ
2. Froude’s number (Fe):
▪ It is the square root of the ratio of inertia force to gravity force.
𝑉
▪ 𝐹𝑒 =
√𝐿𝑔
▪ Fe < 1 : Flow is subcritical flow
▪ Fe = 1 : Flow is critical flow
▪ Fe > 1 : Flow is supercritical flow
3. Euler’s number (Eu):
▪ It is the square root of the ratio of inertia force to pressure force.
𝑉
▪ 𝐸𝑢 = 𝑝
√𝜌

4. Weber’s number (We):

▪ It is the square root of the ratio of inertia force to surface tension force.
𝑉
▪ 𝑊𝑒 = 𝜎
√𝜌𝐿

5. Mach number (Me):

▪ It is the square root of the ratio of inertia force to surface tension force.
 𝑉
▪ 𝑀𝑒 = 𝑘
√𝜌

▪ M < 1 : Flow is subsonic flow

▪ M = 1 : Flow is sonic flow
▪ M > 1 : Flow is supersonic flow

12. Forces on submerged body

❖ Drag force: The force exerted by a fluid on a solid body immersed in the fluid in
the direction of motion is called drag force.
❖ Lift force: The force perpendicular to the direction of motion on the body is known
as lift force.
❖ Total drag = Pressure drag + friction drag
❖ Streamlined body: A body whose surface coincides with the stream lines when the
body is placed in a flow is called stream lined body.
❖ Bluff body: If the surface of the body does not coincide with the stream lines the
body is called bluff body.

13. Flow in open channels

Flow in open channels is defined as the flow of a liquid with a free surface. A liquid
flowing at atmospheric pressure is known as flow in open channels.

❖ Laminar flow & Turbulent flow

Flow condition Pipe flow Open channel flow
Laminar flow Re ≤ 2000 Re ≤ 500
Transitional flow 2000 < Re <4000 500 < Re < 2000
Turbulent flow Re > 4000 Re > 2000

❖ Chezy’s Formula:
▪ 𝑄 = 𝐴 × 𝐶 √𝑚𝑖
𝟏
▪ The dimension of Chezy’s Constant (C): {𝑳𝟐 𝑻−𝟏 }
❖ Manning’s Formula:
2 1
1
▪ 𝑄= × 𝑅3 × 𝑆 2
𝑁
❖ Relation between Chezy’s & manning’s formula
1
1
▪ 𝐶= × 𝑅6
𝑁
❖ Most economical section or channels
1. Rectangular channel
▪ b = 2d …. Most economical channel condition
𝐴 𝑑
▪ 𝑅= =
𝑃 2
▪ A = bd
▪ P = b+2d
2. Trapezoidal channel
𝑏+2𝑛𝑑
▪ = 𝑑√𝑛2 + 1…. Most economical channel condition
2
𝐴 𝑑
▪ 𝑅= =
𝑃 2
▪ A = (b+nd)d
▪ P = 2(b+nd)
▪ A semicircle drawn from the midpoint of the top width with radius equal to
depth of flow will touch the three sides of the channel.
3. Circular channel
▪ Condition for maximum velocity through a circular channel:
➢ d = 0.81D where d is depth of flow
➢ R = 0.305D where D is diameter of circular channel

▪ Condition for maximum velocity through a circular channel:

➢ d = 0.95D where d is depth of flow
❖ Specific energy & Specific energy curve
1. Specific energy:
▪ Specific energy of a flowing liquid is defined as energy per unit weight of
the liquid with respect to bottom of the channel
𝑉2
▪ 𝐸 =𝑦+
2𝑔
2. Specific energy curve:
▪ It is defined as the curve which shows the variation of specific energy with
depth of flow.
𝑞2
▪ 𝐸 =𝑦+
2𝑔𝑦 2
3. Critical depth (yc):
▪ It is defined as that depth of flow of water at which specific energy is
minimum.
1
𝑞2 3
▪ 𝑦𝑐 = ( )
𝑔
 4. Critical velocity(Vc):
▪ The velocity of flow at the critical depth is known as critical velocity.
▪ 𝑉𝑐 = √𝑔 × 𝑦𝑐
5. Minimum specific energy in terms of critical depth
3
▪ 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑦𝑐 for rectangular channel
2
4
▪ 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑦𝑐 for parabolic channel
3
5
▪ 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑦𝑐 for triangular channel
4
6. Condition for critical flow for any shape of channel
𝑄2 𝐴3
▪ =
𝑔 𝑇
7. Energy loss
(𝑦2 −𝑦1 )3
▪ ∆𝐸 =
4𝑦1 𝑦2
8. Height of jump: y2 – y1
9. Length of jump: 6.9(y2 – y1)
❖ Hydraulic Jump or standing wave
• The rise of water level which takes place due to transformation of the unstable
shooting flow (Supercritical flow) to the stable streaming flow (Subcritical
flow) is called hydraulic jump.
• Length of jump is defined as the length between the two sections where one
section is taken before hydraulic jump & the second is taken immediately
after the jump.
• Types of hydraulic jump according to Fr number
▪ Critical jump: 1
▪ Undular jump: 1 – 1.7
▪ Weak jump: 1.7 – 2.5
▪ Oscillating jump: 2.5 – 4.5
▪ Steady jump: 4.5 – 9
▪ Strong jump: > 9
 14. Hydraulic Machines Turbines
Hydraulic machines are defined as those machines which convert either hydraulic energy
into mechanical energy or mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.

Turbines are defined as the hydraulic machines convert hydraulic energy mechanical
energy

❖ Specific speed (Ns)

• It is the speed of geometrically similar turbine which develop unit power while
working under unit head.
𝑁 √𝑃
• 𝑁𝑠 = 5
𝐻4
Where, Ns is specific speed
N is Speed
P is power developed
H is Head of liquid
1⁄ −1⁄ −5⁄
• {𝑀 2𝐿 4𝑇 2}

❖ Classification of turbines
A. Classification according to head available at input

Head Value of Head Turbine

High H > 300 m Pelton wheel
Medium 30 to 300 m Francis Turbine
Low H < 30 m Kaplan & Propeller Turbine

B. Classification according to energy available at input

Sr. Impulse Turbine Reaction Turbine

No.
1 Input energy is only kinetic
energy
2 Pressure remains constant
throughout the working & which
is equal to atmospheric.
3 Useful for high head & low
discharge
4 Degree of reaction is zero
5 Draft tube is absent
6 E.g. Pelton wheel
Input energy is kinetic energy &
potential energy
Pressure drops takes place
Useful for low head & high
discharge
Degree of reaction is not zero
Draft tube is present
E.g. Francis Turbine, Kaplan &
Propeller Turbine
 C. Classification of turbine based on specific speed

Turbine Specific
speed
1. Pelton wheel with single jet < 30
2. Pelton wheel with multi jet 30 to 60
3. Francis Turbine 60 to 300
4. Propeller Turbine 300 to 600
5. Kaplan Turbine > 600

D. Classification according to direction of water flow across the blade of

turbine
1) Pelton wheel: Tangential flow turbine
2) Francis turbine: Radial inlet, Axial outlet
3) Kaplan & Propeller turbine: Axial flow turbine
❖ Hydraulic power plant
• It is use to convert hydraulic energy into mechanical energy & after that
mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy.
• Components parts of Hydraulic power plant
1. Dam/Reservoir: It may be natural or artificial use to store water.
2. Penstock: It is large dam pipe (Diameter: 0.3 to 3 m) which carries water
from dam to powerhouse.
3. Surge tank: It is reservoir placed near to the turbine & use to avoid water
hammer in penstock. It is use to adjust water flow rate.
4. Turbine: It is use to convert hydraulic energy into mechanical energy.
5. Head race: Upper level of dam water is called head race.
6. Tail race: Upper level of water coming from turbine is called as tail race.
7. Generator: The device which converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy is called generator.
8. Nozzle: It converts fluid energy into kinetic energy.
9. Rotor/Runner: It is rotating element which is mounted on shaft which
consist of 22 to 24 blade or vanes.
10.Casing: No hydraulic function but use to avoid splashing of water.
11.Braking jet: It is use to stop the runner during emergency. Maximum
number of nozzle for pelton wheel is 6.
❖ Types of head
• Gross head (Hg): It is difference between head race & tail race level. It is the
head under which plants working
• Frictional head (hf): It is the head loss due to friction.
• Net head (Hnet): It is the head available of water at the inlet of turbine & it is
the head under which turbine is working. It is the difference between gross
head & frictional head.
❖ Types of Power
▪ Water power: Power available at nozzle.
▪ Runner power: Power available at runner.
▪ Shaft power: Power available at shaft.
❖ Types of efficiency
𝑅𝑢𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑅.𝑃.
▪ .Hydraulic efficiency: 𝜂𝐻 = =
𝑊𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑊.𝑃.

𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑆.𝑃.

▪ Mechanical efficiency: 𝜂𝑚 = =
𝑅𝑢𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑅.𝑃.

𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑆.𝑃.

▪ Overall efficiency: 𝜂𝑂 = = ; 𝜼𝑶 = 𝜼𝒎 × 𝜼𝑯
𝑊𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑊.𝑃.
▪
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒
▪ Volumetric efficiency: 𝜂𝑉 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒

❖ Pumps
• Centrifugal pump: High discharge, Low head
• Multistage centrifugal pump: High discharge, High head
• Reciprocating pump: low discharge, High head
• Pumps are connected in series: Increase head at constant discharge
• Pumps are connected in parallel: Increase discharge at constant head
❖ Characteristics of pumps
▪ Main characteristics curve: Curves at constant head
▪ Operating characteristics curve: curves at constant speed
▪ Muschel curve: Curves at constant efficiency.