Colour - Design - Theories - and - Applications - 15 Patterns - (Part - III - Colour, - Design - and - Coloration)

15
Colour symmetry: the systematic coloration of

patterns and tilings
B. G. THOMAS, University of Leeds, UK
Abstract: This chapter presents a range of geometric concepts associated

with the analysis and construction of patterns and tilings according to
their constituent symmetry characteristics. A comprehensive review
traces the theoretical developments and cross-fertilisation of ideas
between the arts, science and mathematics; from conceptual origins in
x-ray crystallography to one of the most practical applications of
symmetry – the classification and construction of regularly repeating
patterns and tilings. Following certain geometrical rules, a system by
which regularly repeating patterns can be created is discussed and
illustrated. Attention is focused on the design possibilities observed
when colour is systematically applied to a pattern’s underlying geometric
structure, through the introduction of colour symmetries, and the
methods for creating such patterns.
Key words: pattern geometry, symmetry, colour symmetry, counterchange

patterns.
15.1 Introduction
The presence of symmetry, pattern and complexity in nature has long fas-
cinated both scientists and artists. For centuries geometry has been used as
a tool across the disciplines by artists, engineers, biochemists, physicists and
mathematicians, to understand, explain and order phenomena in the world
around us. Biologist and philosopher Ernst Haeckel made detailed studies
of microscopic life forms exhibiting unusual symmetric characteristics, illus-
Copyright © 2012. Elsevier Science & Technology. All rights reserved.
trating over 4000 species of radiolaria, such as those shown in Fig. 15.1
(Haeckel, 1862; 1904). In 1940, French structural innovator Robert le Rico-
laris proposed a geodesic shell structure based on the triangulated networks
of radiolaria (Motro, 2007) and Buckminster Fuller’s independent innova-
tion of the geodesic dome, dating from 1948, also displays a similar structure
to many radiolaria. Fuller’s ideas on geodesic structures stimulated signifi-
cant scientific developments with the 1985 discovery of a super-stable all-
carbon C60 molecule, appropriately named Buckminsterfullerene. Variants
of this form, collectively known as fullerenes, have been the subject of
intense research in various branches of engineering. Fuller’s concepts also
had an impact in the field of virology when scientists again drew inspiration
from the structure of his geodesic domes in the quest to understand the
assembly of virion protein shells (Vega Science Trust, 2005). The geometric
381
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012
Best, J. (Ed.). (2012). Colour design : Theories and applications. Elsevier Science & Technology.
Created from arteiasiro on 2021-11-11 07:59:49.
382 Colour design
15.1 Plate 10 from Ernst Haeckel’s ‘Die Radiolarien’ (1862).
similarities between the triangulated networks of radiolaria, Fuller’s geo-

desic dome and virus protein structures are clearly apparent from Aaron
Klug’s biological models shown in Fig. 15.2.
The arts and the sciences are often considered as polar opposites, although
both rely on a process of observation, experimentation and synthesis.
An elegant example of one such connection between these disciplines is
demonstrated in the parallels between crystallographic theory and the design
Colour symmetry: the systematic coloration of patterns and tilings 383
15.2 Selection of Aaron Klug’s models in assorted materials to show

the geometry of viruses, c. 1960s. Courtesy of MRC Laboratory of
Molecular Biology.
15.3 Snow crystal. Image obtained using a low-temperature scanning

electron microscope (LT-SEM). Courtesy of the Electron and Confocal
Microscopy Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, US Department
of Agriculture.
of repeating patterns and tilings, both of which are underpinned by geomet-

ric symmetry. Crystals are made up from a regular arrangement of units,
of identical shape and content, with each unit containing one or more mol-
ecules, packed together in a symmetrical way. The hexagonal nature of
snowflakes (or snow crystals) provides an exemplar of symmetry within
crystallised form, as shown in Fig. 15.3. In a similar manner, the possibilities
384 Colour design
for the design of two-dimensional patterns rely on the creation of one or

more motifs, which are arranged in a symmetrical manner. The renowned
work of Dutch graphic artist M.C. Escher was greatly enhanced through his
introduction to crystallography by his half brother, who realised his ‘regular
divisions of the plane’, applied two-dimensional crystallographic theory
(Schattschneider, 1990). Escher owed much to the illustrative material of
Pólya (1924) and Haag (1923) and, in turn, Escher’s divisions of the plane
captured the imagination of scientists with his extensive investigations into
the systematic colouring of his motifs anticipating the work of crystallogra-
phers by 20 years.
The underlying theme throughout this diverse work was the continued
endeavour to identify, classify or create structures by reference to their
symmetry characteristics. This chapter reviews the development of a recog-
nised method by which repeating patterns and tilings can be classified and
constructed by reference to their constituent symmetries. Although the
fundamentals of pattern geometry have been widely published, the major-
ity of studies are not accessible to the design audience and many have not
considered the added complexity of symmetries that involve colour change.
The concern of this chapter therefore is to explain and illustrate a method
for the construction of regularly repeating patterns, demonstrating the
diverse possibilities observed through the systematic coloration of pattern
by reference to symmetry. To ensure understanding across a wide spectrum
of readers, this chapter establishes the historical background and basic
principles underpinning pattern geometry, before subsequently discussing
the more complex idea of colour symmetry. More experienced readers may
wish to move directly to the later sections of the chapter.
15.2 Patterns and tilings: a historical perspective

Although it has been long recognised that geometry plays an important role
in the structure of repeating patterns, this was usually manifested in practice

rather than theory, and little formal investigation of patterns and tilings
took place before the end of the nineteenth century (Martin, 1982). The
early-twentieth century saw the evolution of a new perspective in pattern
analysis: the consideration of patterns by reference to their symmetry char-
acteristics. Pioneered by the Russian crystallographer Fedorov (1885, 1891),
scientific studies determined that an element that regularly repeats in two
or three dimensions may be classified into a specific periodic group accord-
ing to its symmetry characteristics. However, it was not until the 1920s that
interest in the enumeration of the plane crystallographic groups was aroused
through the work of Pólya (1924) and Haag (1923). These advances came
about through the invention of the technique of x-ray diffraction for the
analysis of crystallised structures.
15.2.1 Advancements in the scientific understanding

of pattern
The development of x-ray crystallography during the twentieth century
allowed the study of matter at subatomic level and the depiction of the
arrangement of atoms within a molecule. The Braggs, who pioneered the
use of x-ray diffraction as a method for determining crystal structures, laid
the foundations of this science in 1912. Developments in the application of
x-ray diffraction continued and by the 1940s x-ray crystallography had
become one of the most significant branches of science at the time. The
physicist Astbury initiated the use of x-ray crystallography to establish the
relationships between the molecular structure, anatomical form and physi-
cal performance of textile fibres. Today Astbury is widely credited with the
definition of the field of molecular biology (Bernal, 1963). H. J. Woods, a
researcher for Astbury in the 1930s, realised the potential benefit of this
knowledge to textile designers and presented a geometric framework for
the design of textile patterns (Woods, 1935a, b, c, 1936). In addition to clas-
sifying motifs, border patterns and wallpaper patterns, Woods focused
attention on the application of two-colour symmetry to regularly repeating
designs for textiles. Conceptually several years ahead of theoretical crystal-
lographic developments worldwide, Woods is recognised for laying the
foundation of current thinking in the area of pattern geometry. Unfortu-
nately, this pioneering work went relatively unnoticed for nearly 40 years
until Branko Grünbaum recognised its relevance to current research on
coloured patterns and tilings and brought it to the attention of the math-
ematical audience (Crowe, 1986).
Although historically much of the explanatory literature was not readily
accessible to design practitioners, the application of crystallographic theory
to pattern design was readily apparent to the scientific community. This
shared geometric framework assisted in the visual explanation of this excit-
ing new science and from the early days of x-ray diffraction the Braggs
frequently used examples of wallpaper designs to explain the principles of
crystallography. Realising the design potential offered by crystal structures,
crystallographer Helen Megaw proposed that crystal structure diagrams
and contour maps could be themselves used as motifs in the design of tex-
tiles. Although crystallography did not provide a convenient shortcut to
good design, it acted as a catalyst for design inspiration (Thomas, 1951).
Pioneered by Mark Hartland Thomas, chief industrial officer at the Council
of Industrial Design, the Festival Pattern Group was formed from a collec-
tive of leading manufacturers who were invited to produce furnishings and
interior products decorated with crystal structure designs for the 1951 Fes-
tival of Britain, with Megaw as scientific consultant. Working as Assistant
Director of Research at Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge where
386 Colour design
W.L. Bragg was building a world-class team of crystallographic researchers,

Megaw’s influence saw that the design inspiration was supplied by many of
the leading crystallographers of the day (Jackson, 2008). Despite the success
of the Festival Pattern Group and the efforts of the Council of Industrial
Design to stimulate a new design aesthetic, the influence of crystal patterns
on the design industry was short-lived.
15.2.2 Development of geometric techniques for

design analysis
The analysis of decorative work belonging to different cultures through
consideration of their symmetry characteristics seemingly originated with
Pólya in 1924 (Grünbaum and Shephard, 1987). This mathematical approach
contrasted with earlier investigations, which relied solely on descriptive
methods based on the characteristics of a pattern’s constituent motif(s), as
demonstrated in the works of Jones (1856), Bourgoin (1897) and Christie
(1910). With only a small number of exceptions, this mathematical approach
to the analysis of patterns was not widely adopted by archaeologists, anthro-
pologists and design historians until the 1970s. Until this time, the concept
of symmetry in design was usually referred to in one of two ways: either by
inferring the presence of symmetry by employing terms such as harmony
or balance, or alternatively using the term symmetry to refer soley to bilat-
eral symmetry.
While design historians did not adopt the theoretical perspectives being
developed by crystallographers, certain observers exhibited an awareness
of the geometric principles underlying the construction of patterns and
tilings (Hann and Thomson, 1992). Meyer (1894), for example, grouped
designs according to spatial characteristics and recognised that there was a
‘. . . certain division, a subsidiary construction or a network’ underlying the
structure patterns. Stevenson and Suddards (1897, chapters 2–5) illustrated
constructions based on rectangular, rhombic, hexagonal and square lattices

in their appraisal of the geometry of Jacquard woven patterns, a principle
dealt with later within this chapter. Similarly, Day (1903) emphasised the
geometrical construction of patterns, illustrating wallpaper patterns based
on lattices. Christie’s Pattern Design, first published in 1910, made a formal
ordering of patterns according to the motifs appearing within them. This
work represented the first stage in the categorisation of patterns by refer-
ence to geometric properties, although it was still not a standardised means
of classification.
Brainerd (1942) was seemingly the first archaeological investigator to use
symmetry in the fuller geometrical sense developed by crystallographers,
providing an insight into its potential value as a tool for cross-cultural
analysis in the comparison of decorated objects. In another notable study,
Buerger and Lukesh (1937) presented a series of symbols denoting lattice

structures, orders of rotation and the presence of reflection and glide-
reflection axes to account for the symmetries of pattern. Other exceptions
include Müller’s study of the symmetry in the tiling patterns of the Alham-
bra Palace, in Granada, Spain (Müller, 1944). Although subsequent research
has indicated minor flaws in Müller’s work (Grünbaum and Shephard,
1987), it represents the first systematic attempt to apply the principles of
symmetry to the analysis of patterns from a defined period and specific
cultural context. Shephard (1948) gave a detailed account of how the prin-
ciples of geometric symmetry could be applied to the classification of orna-
ment on archaeological artefacts, highlighting problems that may be faced
by the analyst and remarking on the tendency for certain symmetries to
predominate within a given cultural context. Archaeologists and anthro-
pologists have since used symmetry classification as an analytical tool when
looking at artefacts from different time periods and cultural settings. These
studies established symmetry classification as an objective, systematic
means of producing standardised descriptions of repeating patterns. Studies
such as those by Crowe (1971, 1975, 1982), Van Esterik (1979), Kent (1983),
Washburn (1977, 1983, 1986), Washburn and Crowe (1988, 2004), Campbell
(1989) and Hann (1992, 1993, 2003a, b, c) have shown that when a repre-
sentative sample of patterns from a defined cultural context is classified by
reference to symmetry characteristics, unique symmetry preferences may
act as an indicator of cultural continuity and change (Hann, 2003c).
15.2.3 Symmetry: connecting design, science and

mathematics
The cross-fertilisation of ideas between the arts and sciences continued
from the mid-twentieth century with symmetry forming the fundamental
basis for visual studies across the disciplines. In 1965, MacGillavry illus-
trated a textbook for students of crystallography with examples taken from

the work of Dutch artist M.C. Escher. Escher’s periodic drawings, which are
extraordinary visualisations of mathematical and scientific principles, were
inspired, in part, by the tiling panels of the Alhambra following a visit to
Granada in the mid-1930s (Locher, 1982). It was Escher’s half brother,
Professor B.G. Escher of the University of Leiden, who first made the con-
nection between his brother’s work and the interests of the scientific com-
munity, directing his brother to articles in Zeitschrift für Kristallographie. It
was within these papers that Escher first encountered the work of Pólya
(Schattschneider, 1990). Drawing on knowledge from crystallographic
theory, Escher became preoccupied with filling the plane with regularly
repeating motifs. By 1942 he had compiled a notebook illustrating patterns
that exhibited both rotation and glide-reflection, utilising between two and
388 Colour design
six systematically applied colours (Washburn and Crowe, 1988, 11). Reflec-
tion is the only symmetry operation that is not well represented in Escher’s
work and, when present, it is usually the consequence of using symmetric
motifs. Schattschneider’s definitive study of Escher’s periodic drawings
presents a symmetry inventory of all Escher’s periodic drawings, classifying
them according to their underlying geometry and colour symmetry group
(Schattschneider, 1990). This study not only provides an insight into the
periodic drawings of the artist, but has encouraged also an understanding
of the concepts of symmetry beyond a mathematically aware audience.
Despite wide interest in the role of symmetry across the disciplines, the
presentation of geometrical concepts, in a way understandable to designers,
remained largely absent from the relevant literature until the late twentieth
century. In 1980, Crowe presented a flowchart to aid the recognition of the
17 classes of wallpaper patterns. This was further developed in collaboration
with Washburn to incorporate the two-colour possibilities (Crowe and
Washburn, 1986). In 1988 Washburn and Crowe published an impressive
treatise dealing with the theory and practice of pattern analysis using sym-
metry in the analysis of designs from different cultures. Flowchart tech-
niques for the classification of one- and two-colour designs were also
discussed. This has proved a classic reference for anthropologists, archae-
ologists, art historians, mathematicians and designers. A more recent volume
(Washburn and Crowe, 2004) develops the perspectives of the original and
explores how cultures use pattern to encode meaning.
Stevens’ publication Handbook of Regular Patterns (1984) considered the
symmetry characteristics of each of the 17 pattern classes. Acting as a guide
for designers, detailed instructions were presented on the construction of
regular repeating patterns. Schattschneider (1978, 1986) provided the
authoritative papers on pattern construction using symmetry concepts, pro-
viding accessible guides to designers and pattern analysts alike. Hargittai
(1986, 1989) published two compendia containing over 100 papers from the
sciences, arts and humanities, discussing the occurrence and application of

symmetry. Hargittai and Hargittai (1994, 2000, 2009) have also published
profusely illustrated reviews of the principles of symmetry with the aim of
encouraging awareness amongst non-specialists. Kappraff (1991) recog-
nised the possibilities offered by symmetry in the fields of mathematics,
science and art. He also acknowledged the reluctance that designers often
feel if expected to work within the perceived rigidity of mathematical group
theory, stating that:
Symmetry is a concept that has inspired the creative work of artist and scientist;
it is the common root of artistic endeavour. To an artist or architect symmetry
conjures up feelings of order, balance and harmony and an organic relation
between the whole and its parts. On the other hand, making these notions
useful to a mathematician or scientist requires a precise definition. Although
such a definition may make the idea of symmetry less flexible than the artist’s
intuitive feeling for it, that precision can actually help designers unravel the
complexities of design and see greater possibilities for symmetry in their own
work. (Kappraff, 1991, 405)
Over the past 20 years, numerous contributions have been made in the
development of pattern geometry as a tool for artists and designers, with
contributions in the area of pattern analysis within a cultural context by
Hann and Thomson (1992) and layer symmetry in woven fabric (Scivier and
Hann, 2000a, b). The work of Horne (2000) developed geometric concepts
in an approach understandable to designers. Hann (2003a, b, c) provided a
range of original designs, including examples of two-colour repeating pat-
terns, in addition to explaining the geometric principles involved. Following
up this work, Hann and Thomas (2007) outlined the concepts underpinning
the three-colour pattern possibilities, supporting this with original illustra-
tive material. Recent developments have focused on the geometry underly-
ing the application of plane patterns and tilings to three-dimensional space
(Thomas and Hann, 2007a, b, 2008) and the possibilities when introducing
colour symmetries (Thomas, 2009).
15.3 Principles of pattern geometry

As previously discussed, the fundamentals of symmetry, which have their
origin in the study of crystal structures, form the basis of a systematic
method for the classification of repeating pattern in all forms of ornamen-
tation, including textiles and other types of surface decoration. Regularly
repeating patterns can be defined as designs that exhibit repetition of a
figure (or motif) at regular intervals across the plane. This regular repetition
is governed by the presence of symmetry, and designs possessing the same
symmetry operations are said to belong to the same symmetry class and
may be categorised accordingly. The term tiling refers to a restrictive cat-
egory of patterns that tessellate to cover the plane without gap or overlap.
The same symmetry rules govern both patterns and tilings; the former is
considered to consist of foreground motifs (or figures) against a (back)
ground and the latter of tiles that cover the plane without gap or overlap.
Since the bulk of commentary is applicable to both types of design, the
terms pattern and tiling are often used interchangeably, although the intro-
duction of colour symmetry makes the distinction between these terms of
greater consequence, as discussed later in this chapter.
It is possible for designs to decorate the surface in a number of ways:
there may be no regular repetition, elements may repeat at regular intervals
around a point, or elements may repeat by translational symmetry in one,
two or more non-parallel directions. Designs that repeat around a fixed
point are known as figures or motifs. Synonymous terms include finite
390 Colour design
groups (Schattschneider, 1978), point groups (Stevens, 1984) and finite

designs (Horne, 2000). Those that exhibit repetition through translational
symmetry in one direction are categorised as border patterns. Synonymous
terms include frieze groups (Schattschneider, 1978), line groups (Stevens,
1984), one-dimensional designs (Washburn and Crowe, 1988) and mono-
translational designs (Horne, 2000). Designs possessing translation in two
independent directions may be called wallpaper patterns. Synonymous
terms include plane groups (Stevens, 1984), periodic patterns (Grünbaum
and Shephard, 1987), two-dimensional patterns (Washburn and Crowe,
1988), all-over patterns (Hann and Thomson, 1992) and ditranslational
designs (Horne, 2000). All regularly repeating patterns are based on a struc-
tural framework of lattice points. These points when joined form unit cells
of identical shape, size and content. Each unit cell also contains a funda-
mental or generating region that when transformed by any of the symmetry
operations present creates the complete design.
The classification of motifs, border patterns and wallpaper patterns with
regard to their symmetry characteristics is reviewed below. The purpose is
not to extensively examine the occurrence of symmetry within patterns,
but rather to outline the basic principles of how symmetry is defined, how
operations may interact and how they can be utilised in the creation of
repeating patterns and tilings. Although the mathematical classification of
repeating patterns may not appear especially useful from a designer’s per-
spective, in order to understand the geometrical basis of repeating patterns
the fundamentals of pattern classification will be discussed. The grouping
of these designs by reference to their symmetries also provides a conve-
nient foundation when explaining colour symmetry possibilities. Detailed
accounts of the classification and construction of regularly repeating pat-
terns and tilings were provided by Woods (1935a, b, c), Cadwell (1966),
Budden (1972), Shubnikov and Koptsik (1974), Schattschneider (1978),
Stevens (1984), Washburn and Crowe (1988), Hann and Thomson (1992),
Horne (2000) and Hann and Thomas (2010).
15.3.1 Symmetry in patterns and tilings

It is well established that symmetry in two-dimensional patterns and tilings
is characterised by one or more of the following geometrical actions: trans-
lation, rotation, reflection and glide-reflection. These four geometric actions
are known as symmetries (Grünbaum and Shephard, 1987), isometries
(Schattschneider, 1978), transformations (Shubnikov and Koptsik, 1974) or
symmetry operations (Hann and Thomson, 1992) and can be defined as the
actions or rigid motions that map a figure onto itself, thus determining how
parts of the design are arranged providing the underlying geometric
Translation Rotation Reflection Glide-reflection
Key:
Translation axis
Two-fold rotation
Reflection axis
Glide-reflection axis
15.4 The four symmetry operations.
15.5 Example of bilateral symmetry in nature. Courtesy of Dave Cavill,

2009.
structure. The four symmetry operations are described below and relevant
schematic illustrations are provided in Fig. 15.4.

Translation moves a figure (without reflection or rotation) over a given
distance and given direction whilst maintaining the same orientation.
A translated figure may undergo repetition horizontally, vertically or
diagonally.
Rotational symmetry is determined by the number of times a figure
repeats itself in a 360 degree revolution around a fixed point, known as the
centre of rotation (or rotocentre). Repetition occurs at regular intervals
around the centre of rotation, with the angle of rotation measured in rela-
tion to this fixed point and the number of repetitions (n) indicating the
highest order of rotation.
A reflection produces a figure’s mirror image over a reflection axis (or
mirror line). This characteristic is also known as bilateral symmetry, dividing
392 Colour design
(a) (b)
Key:
axis of reflection
translation vector
centre of two-fold rotation
15.6 The product of two reflections is (a) a translation if axes are
parallel or (b) a rotation if axes intersect.
15.7 Architectural example of eight-fold rotation produced by the

intersection of eight reflection axes. Dome of the Cathedral of
Manacor, Spain. Courtesy of Nils Wiese, 2009.
a figure into two mirror-image parts, and is well represented in the living
world as can be seen in Figure 15.5 (Shubnikov and Koptsik, 1974). The
product of reflections across two perpendicular axes is two-fold rotation.
The product of two reflections is therefore either a translation or a rotation,
depending on whether the reflection axes are parallel or if they intersect,
as shown in Fig. 15.6. The presence of intersecting reflection axes thus
implies the presence of a rotation (by an angle which is twice the angle of
intersection) about their point of intersection (Washburn and Crowe, 1988).
The architectural structure of the dome shown in Fig. 15.7 comprises eight
intersecting reflection axes, producing eight-fold rotation about their point
of intersection.
The transformation combining reflection and translation along an axis in

a single action is known as glide-reflection. This is the only type of symme-
try in the plane that combines more than one symmetry operation. By
repeating glide-reflection twice, a transformation equivalent to a pure trans-
lation is produced.
15.3.2 Motifs
Motifs may be considered as the building blocks of patterns and are often
used as the recurring component within the repeating design. Defined as
either symmetrical or asymmetrical, the finite repetition of their structure
means that motifs do not exhibit translation or glide-reflection. Symmetrical
motifs do, however, exhibit reflection and/or rotation and consist of two or
more identical parts, divided by one or more reflection axes or a centre of
rotation. Asymmetrical motifs exhibit no symmetrical properties and,
instead, coincide with themselves after a full rotation of 360 degrees.
Symmetrical motifs may be categorised into two distinct groups: cyclic
(cn) or dihedral (dn), each denoting particular symmetry characteristics.
Motifs from class cn exhibit only rotational symmetry, with the value of n
being determined by the order of rotation. Motifs from class dn exhibit
reflection and, where more than one reflection axis is present, also rota-
tional symmetry. In this instance, n equals the number of reflection axes
present and also the highest order of rotation.
A motif of class cn is considered to have n-fold rotational symmetry
around a fixed point (centre of rotation). This occurs when an asymmetric
unit is repeated by successive rotations through an angle of 360/n degrees.
Schematic illustrations of cn motifs are given in Fig. 15.8. Class cn motifs
exhibit rotational symmetry characteristics in all cases where n is greater
than 1 (such a motif coincides with itself after a full rotation of 360 degrees
and is therefore considered is asymmetrical). There is no limitation to the
value of n which, in the extreme case, may be represented by a circle with

a rotational centre of infinite order.
The primary characteristic of class dn motifs is that they exhibit reflec-
tion, as illustrated schematically in Fig. 15.9. A class d1 motif has a single
c2 c3 c4 c5 c6
15.8 Schematic illustrations of class cn motifs (from classes c2 to c6).
394 Colour design
d1 d2 d3 d4 d5 d6
15.9 Schematic illustrations of class dn motifs (from classes d1 to d6).
reflection axis passing through its geometrical centre, and is thus composed
of two equal parts. Such motifs exhibit a characteristic often termed bilateral
symmetry. Motifs from class dn, where n is greater than one, exhibit both n
reflection axes and n-fold rotation centres at the intersection points of these
axes. Thus where there is more than one axis of reflection in a motif, rota-
tion is created.
15.3.3 Border patterns

Border patterns and tilings are characterised by the translation of a motif,
or other repeating unit, along a horizontal axis known as a translation axis.
Such designs are of specified width and may be considered to be of infinite
length. Using combinations of the four symmetry operations it is possible
to produce only seven primary classes of border patterns (considering solely
the geometric properties and disregarding the presence of colour), as shown
schematically in Fig. 15.10. Although all four symmetry operations are
admitted in the construction of border patterns, only two-fold rotation and
translation in one direction are permitted in order to maintain the pattern’s
orientation. Reflection may be present in both a parallel and a perpendicu-
lar direction to the translation axis. Glide-reflection may only occur in a
direction parallel to the translation axis.
A further geometrical element is used within repeating patterns in addi-
tion to any symmetry operation present: a framework of corresponding

points that form a lattice. Crystallographers have termed these Bravais lat-
tices, after Bravais who initially verified that lattices could be classified into
five types, as shown in Fig. 15.11 (Grünbaum and Shephard, 1987). These
lattice points may be connected producing unit cells of identical size, shape
and content which, when translated, produce the full repeating pattern. The
unit cell is therefore defined as the minimal part of a repeating pattern that
will produce the whole pattern by translations alone. Although there are a
total of five distinct lattice types, only three of these types may be used as
generators for border pattern classes: the parallelogram, rectangular and
square types, which allow consecutive, parallel translations.
As mentioned previously, regularly repeating patterns may be created
through repetition of a fundamental or generating region, which is the
p111
p1a1
pm11
p1m1
p112
pma2
pmm2
15.10 Schematic illustrations of the seven primary classes of border

patterns and tilings.
minimum area that can be repeated to create a complete pattern. The fun-
damental region will always comprise a rational part of the unit cell and its
size can vary according to pattern class due to the differing symmetry
operations present (Schattschneider, 1978). Fig. 15.12 illustrates the seven
unit cells of border patterns along with each constituent generating (or
fundamental) region. It can be observed from the schematic illustrations
that the unit cell often contains more than one fundamental region.
Several different systems of notation have been proposed for the classi-
fication of border patterns but it is the scheme adopted by the International
Union of Crystallography (Henry and Lonsdale, 1952) that is the most
396 Colour design
b b
θ b
θ
a θ
a
a
Parallelogram lattice Rectangular lattice Square lattice
a ≠ b, θ < 90° a ≠ b, θ = 90° a = b, θ = 90°
b b
θ θ
a a
Hexagonal lattice Rhombic (centred cell) lattice

a = b, θ = 60° a = b, θ ≠ 60° or 90°
15.11 The five types of geometric lattice.
p111 p1a1 pm11 p1m1
p112 pma2 pmm2

Key:
Centre of two-fold rotation Translation vector
Axis of reflection Outline of unit cell
Axis of glide-reflection Fundamental region
15.12 The seven unit cells of border patterns and tilings.
widely used. This system, of the form pxyz, provides a concise summary of
the constituent symmetries establishing the presence or absence of the four
symmetry operations in each case. Detailed explanation of this notation was
provided by Washburn and Crowe (1988) and Hann and Thomson (1992).
Table 15.1 presents a summary of the symmetry characteristics of the seven
classes of border patterns and tilings.
Table 15.1 Summary of the symmetry characteristics of the seven primary

classes of border patterns
Symmetry
operations
Lattice structure present
Two-fold rotation
Glide-reflection
Parallelogram
Rectangular
Reflection
Square
Pattern Area of fundamen-

class tal region/unit cell
p111 ✓ ✓ ✓ 1 –
pm11 ✓ ✓ 1/
2 – ✓
p1m1 ✓ ✓ 1/
2 – ✓
p1a1 ✓ ✓ 1/
2 – ✓
p112 ✓ ✓ ✓ 1/
2 ✓
pmm2 ✓ ✓ 1/
4 ✓ ✓
pma2 ✓ ✓ 1/
4 ✓ ✓ ✓
Source: Tantiwong (2000).
15.3.4 Wallpaper patterns

As indicated above, translation is the symmetry operation that underlies
the regularity of repeating border and wallpaper patterns. Unlike border
patterns, in which translational symmetry is confined to only one direction,
wallpaper patterns are defined by their characteristic translation in two
independent directions. The introduction of one or more of the remaining

symmetries to the underlying operation of translation permits the genera-
tion of a total of 17 wallpaper pattern classes. Although it is possible for all
of the four symmetry operations to be admitted in the construction of
wallpaper patterns, only two-, three-, four- and six-fold rotational symmetry
is permitted, as discussion further below.
In a similar manner as found in border patterns, a lattice structure is also
present in addition to combinations of the symmetry operations. All five of
the distinct lattice types – parallelogram, rectangular, rhombic, square and
hexagonal (with a rhombic unit cell consisting of two equilateral triangles)
– may be used as generators for wallpaper pattern classes. Five-fold rota-
tional symmetry is not possible in a two- or three-dimensional lattice struc-
ture. This characteristic is known as the crystallographic restriction. Fig.
398 Colour design
Y1 Z1
Y Z
x
15.13 Geometric lattice containing five-fold rotational symmetry.

Adapted from Senechal (1990, 18).
15.13 illustrates the impossibility of a lattice containing centres of five-fold

rotational symmetry. Since a lattice is a geometric framework composed of
corresponding points, there is a minimum distance x between its points and
all points are equivalent. Fig. 15.13 denotes two points, Y and Z, which lie
on axes of five-fold rotation. The distance between Y and Z is the minimum
distance x. It can be seen that points Y1 and Z1, generated by five-fold rota-
tion, are closer than the minimum distance x.
Schematic illustrations of the 17 wallpaper pattern classes are provided
in Fig. 15.14, and diagrams of the unit cells specifying the symmetry char-
acteristics and fundamental region for each of the pattern class, are detailed
in Fig. 15.15. A summary of the symmetry characteristics of the 17 primary
classes of wallpaper patterns is provided in Table 15.2.
There are various notations that have been used by mathematicians and
crystallographers in the classification of wallpaper patterns as reviewed by
Schattschneider (1978). As is the case with border patterns, the most widely
accepted four-symbol notation, pxyz or cxyz, is taken from the International
Tables of X-Ray Crystallography (Henry and Lonsdale, 1952) and indicates
the type of unit cell, the highest order of rotation and the symmetry axes
present in two directions. Further explanation of this notation has been
provided by Schattschneider (1978), Washburn and Crowe (1988) and Hann
and Thomson (1992).
p1 pg pm cm
p2 pgg pmg pmm
cmm p3 p31m p3m1
p4 p4m p4g p6
p6m
15.14 Schematic illustrations of the 17 primary classes of wallpaper

400 Colour design
Table 15.2 Summary of the symmetry characteristics of the 17 primary classes

of wallpaper patterns
Symmetry
operations
Lattice structure present
Highest order of
Glide-reflection
Parallelogram
Rectangular
Hexagonal
Reflection
Area of
Rhombic
rotation
Square fundamental
Pattern region/unit
class cell
p1 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 1 1
pg ✓ ✓ 1/
2 1 ✓
pm ✓ ✓ 1/
2 1 ✓
cm ✓ ✓ ✓ 1/
2 1 ✓ ✓
p2 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 1/
2 2
pgg ✓ ✓ 1/
4 2 ✓
pmg ✓ ✓ 1/
4 2 ✓ ✓
pmm ✓ ✓ 1/
4 2 ✓
cmm ✓ ✓ ✓ 1/
4 2 ✓ ✓
p3 ✓ 1/
3 3
p31m ✓ 1/
6 3 ✓ ✓
p3m1 ✓ 1/
6 3 ✓ ✓
p4 ✓ 1/
4 4
p4g ✓ 1/
8 4 ✓ ✓
p4m ✓ 1/
8 4 ✓
p6 ✓ 1/
6 6
p6m ✓ 1/
12 6 ✓ ✓
Source: Tantiwong (2000).

15.4 Colour symmetry

This chapter has so far been concerned with the symmetries of patterns that
do not involve colour change. The following sections will elaborate on the
systematic interchange of colours within motifs, border patterns and wall-
paper patterns, outlining their construction and classification in conjunction
with the accepted systems of notation.
A colour symmetry of a pattern, with two or more colours, is a symmetry
operation of the (uncoloured) pattern that induces a permutation of the
colours across the pattern (or tiling). A pattern can be said to have colour
symmetry if there is at least one symmetry of the pattern that is a colour
changing symmetry. The distinction between patterns and tilings becomes
more significant when considering colour symmetries. Although the concept
p1 pm pg
cm p2 pmm
pmg pgg cmm
p3 p3m1 p31m
p4 p4m p4g
p6 p6m
Key:
Centre of two-fold rotation Axis of reflection
Centre of three-fold rotation Axis of glide-reflection
Centre of four-fold rotation Translation vector
Centre of six-fold rotation Outline of unit cell
Outline of centred cell
Fundamental region
15.15 The 17 unit cells of wallpaper patterns and tilings.
402 Colour design
15.16 TSP motifs, constructed by solving instances of the Traveling

Salesman Problem. Courtesy of Bob Bosch, Oberlin College, 2010.
can be readily applied to both types of design, there is a degree of ambigu-

ity in the colouring of a pattern that needs to be resolved by the designer.
This arises because of the figure-ground aspect of patterns, which are not
present in tilings, and the designer must choose whether to consider the
ground as part of the colouring (Schattschneider, 1986). The motifs shown
in Fig. 15.16 illustrate the uncertainty that can be created by the figure-
ground relationship within patterns. At first glance, the two colours appear
to consistently interchange in conjunction with the rotational symmetry of
the designs. However, closer inspection reveals that the darker blue regions
form the ground of the motifs and therefore may potentially be disregarded
when analysing the symmetry of the patterns, resulting in their classification
as one-colour designs.
The perfect colouring of a pattern is one in which every symmetry of the
(uncoloured) pattern either fixes colours or interchanges colours. Symme-
tries that consistently interchange or preserve colour are said to be consis-
tent with colour (Washburn and Crowe, 1988). The equivalent phrase,
compatible with colour, is also used (Grünbaum and Shephard, 1987). The
symmetry operations consistent with colour are therefore of two types:
those that interchange colour and those that preserve colour. Figure 15.17
shows a three-colour tiling in which the colouring is compatible with the
symmetry of the design. Each reflection leaves one colour preserved and
A B C
15.17 Example of a three-colour tiling in which the colouring is

compatible with the reflection and rotational symmetry of the design.
Adapted from Hann and Thomas (2007).
interchanges the other two. Along vertical axis A, reflection transforms blue
tiles to white tiles (or white tiles to blue tiles) while leaving the green area
unchanged. Along vertical reflection axis B, reflection transforms white tiles
to green tiles (or green tiles to white tiles) while leaving the blue tiles
unchanged. Along reflection axis C, the operation of reflection transforms
green tiles to blue tiles (or blue tiles to green tiles) and leaves white tiles
unchanged. Rotational symmetry is also a characteristic of the design, and
colour changes around three-fold rotational centre R in such a way that
systematically transforms one colour to each of the others.
The systematic colouring of plane patterns results in a finite number of
combinations when using a given number of colours. The application of two
colours in conjunction with one or more of the constituent symmetries, to
the seven primary border patterns results in a total of 17 possibilities. The
introduction of two colours to the 17 primary wallpaper patterns results in
a total of 46 two-colour possibilities. Three-colour symmetry, dealt with later

in this chapter, allows for seven and 23 possibilities for border patterns and
wallpaper patterns, respectively.
Many patterns observed in the decorative arts present symmetries con-
sistent with colour but where the overall design falls short of a perfect
colouring. The Moorish tiling shown in Fig. 15.18, dating from fourteenth
century Andalusia, can be classified as primary wallpaper pattern class p3
(disregarding the presence of colour). If the star motifs are discounted and
considered as background, the interchange of colour in conjunction with
translational symmetry, reduces the symmetry of tiling to a four-colour p1
design.
The patterning of the architectural façade shown in Figs 15.19 and 15.20
was inspired by M.C. Escher’s ‘Metamorphosis’ series. The two colours of
404 Colour design
15.18 Detail of a p3 tiling, fourteenth century, Court of the Myrtles,

Alhambra Palace, Granada.
15.19 Architectural façade designed by Julio Barbero, 2007, Conde de

Romanones, 14, Madrid. Courtesy of Pablo Echávarri, 2008.
15.20 Detail of the architectural façade in Conde de Romanones, 14,

Madrid. Courtesy of Álvaro Ibáñez, 2010.
15.21 Architectural detail of Nidwaldner Museum, Stans, Switzerland.

Courtesy of Roland Zumbühl/Picswiss, 2005.
the design are systematically interchanged at centres of four-fold rotation

but preserved at centres of two-fold rotation. The patterned façade displays
a perfect two-colouring of a p4 repeating design (classified as a p4[2]2 and
shown schematically in Fig. 15.35). Architecture provides a rich source of
examples of the use of geometric principles in design, from impressive
dome structures down to the smallest finishing details, such as the colour
symmetry used in the door and shutters illustrated in Fig. 15.21. If the panels
are viewed independently, this design my be considered to be a two-colour
p1m1 border pattern (classified as a p1m1[2]3 and shown schematically in
Fig. 15.29).
406 Colour design
The classification of patterns and tilings, taking into account their colour
symmetry, is comparatively recent in relation to the classification of designs
by geometric symmetry. Woods (1936) was the first to produce complete
enumerations the 17 counterchange border patterns and the 46 counter-
change wallpaper patterns. This visionary work anticipated the later theo-
retical developments of crystallographers and mathematicians worldwide
(Schattschneider, 1990). An array of literature has since been published on
the subject of colour symmetry. Schwarzenberger (1984) identified over 100
research papers or other publications dealing with colour symmetry from
a mathematical perspective. Historically, valuable contributions in the area
of colour symmetry include those made by Woods (1936), Loeb (1971),
Senechal (1975), Lockwood and Macmillan (1978), Weiting (1981) and
Grünbaum and Shephard (1987). The works of Washburn and Crowe (1988),
Schattschneider (1986) and Hann and Thomas (2007) are more readily
accessible to a non-mathematical audience.
Although there is no universally accepted notation, the type/sub-type
notation developed by Coxeter (1986) is currently the most commonly used
amongst mathematicians for the classification of two-colour patterns. The
pattern type is determined by considering all the symmetries of the pattern,
both those that preserve colour and those that interchange colour. The
pattern subtype is determined by the symmetry formed by one of the
colours alone. The modified form of the pxyz notation, proposed by Belov
and Tarkhova (1964), is another system of notation often used by artists
and designers. In this notation a prime (') is attached to the symbol if the
corresponding operation is associated with a colour change, although there
are several exceptions to this rule. Grünbaum and Shephard (1977, 1987)
proposed a straightforward notation in which, for example, p2[2]1 is the first
of the perfectly two-coloured versions of p2; p31m[3]2 is the second of the
perfectly three-coloured version of p31m, and so on. As this form of nota-
tion easily accounts for colour symmetry of higher orders (and is considered
to be definitive when considering three-colour patterns), it is this system

that will be used to notate colour symmetries within this chapter. Washburn
and Crowe (1988, 280) provide a useful table of comparative notations for
the two-colour wallpaper patterns.
15.5 Counterchange colouring

A colour changing symmetry that systematically interchanges, or alterna-
tively preserves, only two colours is known as counterchange symmetry. This
characteristic is also known as antisymmetry (Hargittai and Hargittai, 1994).
An infinite checkerboard is a typical example of a tiling that exhibits coun-
terchange symmetry; it sends every part of the pattern that is black to a
congruent part of the pattern that is white, and vice versa. The elements of
the pattern of one colour and the elements of the pattern of the other colour
are exactly the same. The pattern is therefore made up of two identical
components, with at least one symmetry of the pattern interchanging the
two parts (either part can be figure, the other ground). These perfect two-
colour patterns, often referred to as counterchange patterns in art and design
literature (Woods, 1936; Gombrich, 1979; Hann and Thomson, 1992), are
balanced designs exhibiting equal numbers of the two-coloured motifs. The
pattern’s symmetries are emphasised as each symmetry operation of the
uncoloured pattern creates a given permutation of the two colours across
the design.
The creation and perfect coloration of a counterchange pattern is a rela-
tively straightforward task if the principles outlined in Section 15.3 are
employed. To begin with, a patterned area, which forms the fundamental
region must be constructed based on the unit cells illustrated in Figs 15.12
and 15.15. The colour of the generating region should then be determined.
For each of the symmetries present within the unit cell the colour symme-
try must be established by deciding whether the operation will preserve
colour or change colour. By implementing these colour symmetries on the
fundamental region, followed by the symmetries present within the unit cell,
the perfectly coloured pattern will result. The characteristics of counter-
change motifs, border patterns and wallpaper patterns are reviewed below
alongside suggested methods for their construction. Although there is not
scope within this chapter to provide detailed exposition of the constructions
of all possible two-colour motifs, border patterns and wallpaper pattern
classes, the description of the method for creating perfectly coloured coun-
terchange designs, and the schematic illustrations provided, should make
this a relatively straightforward task.
15.5.1 Counterchange motifs

As discussed previously, symmetrical motifs can be classified as either cyclic

(cn) or dihedral (dn) depending on their symmetry characteristics. A motif
from class cn may be produced by circle-wise repetition of the fundamental
region. In the construction of a class c6 motif, for example, it is convenient
to begin with a circular segment with an angle of 60 degrees (illustrated in
Fig. 15.22). Under six-fold rotational symmetry, with the fundamental unit
rotated through increments of 60 degrees, this segment will produce the
complete circle. Similar procedures can be used in the production of other
motifs from class cn. When considering colour symmetries, there is only one
possible way to introduce two colours systematically to a class cn motif and
that is to allow rotation to interchange colour around the design. This effect
is only possible when n is an even number. The counterchange cn motifs
are illustrated schematically in Fig. 15.23.
408 Colour design
360°
300° 60°
120°
240°
180°
15.22 Example of the counterchange colouring of ac6 motif showing

the rotational aspect of its structure and construction.
15.23 Schematic illustrations of counterchange cn motifs (n = even

numbers).
15.24 Schematic illustrations of counterchange dn motifs (n = odd

numbers).
When considering group dn motifs there are two possible approaches to

systematically introducing counterchange symmetry. Where n is an odd
number, only one type of counterchange is possible, as illustrated in Fig.
15.24, with all reflections reversing colours and all rotations preserving
them. Where n is an even number, two counterchange colourings are pos-
sible. In the first colouring, all reflections interchange colour and all rota-
tions preserve colour. The second possible colouring results in reflection
axes alternately reversing and preserving colours, while rotations at angles
less than 360 degrees reverse colours. Relevant illustrations are shown in
Fig. 15.25.
15.25 Schematic illustrations of counterchange dn motifs (n = even

numbers).
360°
36°
288° 72°
216° 144°
15.26 The construction and counterchange colouring of a d5 motif.

Procedures equivalent to that used in the construction of class cn motifs

may also be used in the production of class dn motifs as, with the exception
of class d1, these motifs exhibit both rotation and reflection. Class dn motifs
can be constructed by rotating a bilaterally-symmetrical unit (which con-
tains two fundamental regions) or by successive reflection of the fundamen-
tal region across reflection axes intersecting at angles equal to 180 degrees
divided by n (where n is equal to the order of reflection present in the
particular motif).
In the construction of a class d5 motif, for example, a circular segment
may first be constructed with a central angle of 36 degrees. This area con-
stitutes the fundamental region for the motif and further patterning may
be added as desired. The fundamental region may then be reflected, simul-
taneously reversing the colour, to make a bilaterally symmetrical unit of
410 Colour design
twice the area. This latter unit can then be rotated five times through incre-
ments of 72 degrees, preserving the colour symmetry of the larger unit.
Alternatively, the fundamental region may be reflected across the five
reflection axes, intersecting at intervals of 36 degrees, with each reflection
interchanging the colour. The full d5 motif will be produced in each case.
Relevant illustrations are shown in Fig. 15.26.
Class d4 motifs are characterised by the presence of four bilaterally sym-
metrical units produced by four reflection axes, intersecting at 45 degrees.
The fundamental region is first constructed with a central angle of 45
degrees. This may then be reflected, simultaneously reversing the colour, to
make a bilaterally symmetrical unit of twice the area. Subsequent rotation
of this unit through intervals of 90 degrees, while preserving the colour
symmetry, will create the counterchange d4 motif shown in Fig. 15.27. Alter-
natively, the same counterchange colouring may be produced by successive
reflection of the fundamental region across the four reflection axes, with
each reflection reversing the colour.
An alternative counterchange colouring for motifs of class d4 may be
generated through the colour-preserving reflection of the fundamental
region in order to create a bilaterally symmetrical unit shown in Fig. 15.28.
360°
45°
270° 90°
180°
15.27 The construction and first possible counterchange colouring of
a d4 motif.
360°
45°
270° 90°
180°
15.28 The construction and second possible counterchange colouring
of a d4 motif.
The subsequent rotation of this larger unit through intervals of 90 degrees,

with each rotation reversing the colour of the unit, will create the second
possible colouring of a d4 motif.
15.5.2 Counterchange border patterns

Border patterns and tilings are characterised by the translation of a motif,
or other repeating unit, along a translation axis. The systematic addition of
two colours to the seven primary classes of border patterns results in a total
of 17 counterchange border patterns, as illustrated in Fig. 15.29. For the
purposes of differentiation, the notation proposed by Grünbaum and
Shephard (1987) is indicated.
In a similar manner as described in the construction of motifs, a funda-
mental or generating region must first be constructed. This forms the
minimum area that can be repeated to create a complete pattern. The con-
struction of the fundamental region, and the symmetries which act upon it,
should be based on one of the border pattern unit cells illustrated in Fig.
15.12. The colouring of the generating region should then be determined.
p111[2]
pma2[2]1
p1a1[2]
pma2[2]2
pm11[2]1
pma2[2]3
pm11[2]2
p1m1[2]1 pmm2[2]1
p1m1[2]2
pmm2[2]2
p1m1[2]3 pmm2[2]3
p112[2]1 pmm2[2]4
p112[2]2
pmm2[2]5
15.29 Schematic illustrations of the 17 counterchange border patterns

and tilings.
412 Colour design
For each of the symmetries present within the unit cell, the colour sym-
metry must be established, resolving the operations that will preserve
colour or reverse colour. The unit cell for a counterchange pattern is con-
sidered to be the same size as that for the uncoloured primary pattern,
although the translations that produce the whole pattern from the unit cell
are able to be colour changing. By implementing the colour symmetries on
the fundamental region, a perfectly coloured pattern will result.
From a geometrical viewpoint, class p111 is the most elementary of the
seven border pattern classes since the only constituent symmetry operation
is translation. The border pattern is constructed through the regular repeti-
tion of a motif or other repeating unit along a translation axis. The funda-
mental region, in this case, has the same area as the unit cell. There is only
one possible two-colouring for a p111 border pattern in which the action
of translation systematically reverses colour, as illustrated in Fig. 15.30.
Class p1m1 border patterns are characterised by two alternating reflec-
tion axes perpendicular to the translation axis, as shown in Fig. 15.31, and
p111
p111[2]
15.30 The construction of the counterchange colouring of a p111

border pattern.
pm11
pm11[2]1
(a)
pm11[2]2
(b)
15.31 The construction of the counterchange colouring of a p1m1

border pattern.
may be generated by the translation of a bilaterally symmetrical d1 motif.

There are two possible counterchange colourings for a p1m1 border pattern.
In the first instance, colour reverses across alternate vertical reflection axes.
The creation of a fundamental region followed by a colour preserving
reflection will create a unit cell of two identical halves (equivalent to a d1
motif). Subsequent translation of the unit cell, simultaneously reversing
colour, will produce the first colouring illustrated in Fig. 15.31a. In the
second counterchange colouring of pattern class p1m1 colour reverses
across all reflection axes. Successive colour reversing reflection of the fun-
damental region will create the perfect colouring shown in Fig. 15.31b.
Class pmm2 border patterns are constructed by the translation of a unit
cell equivalent to a d2 motif. There are five possible perfect colourings for
a pmm2 border pattern using only two colours, as illustrated in Fig. 15.32.
As observed from the first pmm2 colouring shown in Fig. 15.32a, the central
pmm2
pmm2[2]1
(a)
pmm2[2]2
(b)
pmm2[2]3
(c)
pmm2[2]4
(d)
pmm2[2]5
(e)
15.32 The construction of the counterchange colourings of a pmm2

border pattern.
414 Colour design
reflection axis (parallel to the direction of translation) preserves colour

while alternate reflection axes perpendicular to the central axis reverse
colour. Two-fold rotation centres formed where colour reversing reflection
axes intersect the central axis also reverse colour. This colouring may be
constructed through the creation of a unit cell where reflection axes and
two-fold rotation preserve colour. The subsequent colour reversing trans-
lation of the unit cell produces the completed counterchange pattern.
Figure 15.32b illustrates a pmm2 border tiling in which colour is reversed
across the central mirror axis but not across axes perpendicular to it. All
centres of rotation formed at the intersection of the reflection axes reverse
colour. This perfect colouring may be created through the colour reversing
reflection of the fundamental region over the horizontal reflection axis,
followed by reflection of the larger unit across the perpendicular reflection
axis preserving colour. Translation of unit cell preserves colour.
Colour reversal across the central horizontal mirror axis and alternate
reflection axes perpendicular to the central line produces the two-colouring
shown in Fig. 15.32c. Alternate two-fold rotation centres also reverse colour.
In this case, the unit cell may be created through the colour reversing reflec-
tion of the fundamental region over the central axis followed by reflection
of larger unit across the vertical reflection axis, preserving colour. The sub-
sequent translation of unit cell reverses colour.
The colouring illustrated in Fig. 15.32d exhibits colour reversal across
every mirror axis perpendicular to the central horizontal mirror axis, and
all rotational centres reversing colour. This colouring may be created
through the colour-preserving reflection of the fundamental region over the
horizontal reflection axis followed by reflection of the larger unit across the
perpendicular axis simultaneously reversing colour. Successive translation
of unit cell preserves colour.
The final colouring of primary class pmm2 exhibits colour reversal across
all reflection axes with centres of rotation preserving colour. Successive
colour reversing reflections of the fundamental region to form the unit cell,
followed by colour preserving translations, will create the perfect two-
colouring shown in Fig. 15.32e.
Late fifteenth century examples of class pmm2 Hispano–Islamic tilings
from the courtyard at Casa de Pilatos in Seville are illustrated in Figs 15.33
and 15.34. The two alternative colourings of the primary pattern may be
classified as counterchange classes pmm2[2]1 and pmm2[2]5, respectively
(equivalent to Fig. 15.32 a and e).
15.5.3 Counterchange wallpaper patterns

As stated earlier, there are only 17 distinct classes of primary wallpaper
patterns. By systematically introducing two colours to the primary
15.33 Detail of a pmm2[2]1 border tiling, late fifteenth century, Casa

de Pilatos, Seville.
15.34 Detail of a pmm2[2]5 border tiling, late fifteenth century, Casa

de Pilatos, Seville.
wallpaper patterns, a total of 46 classes of counterchange designs are pos-
sible, as illustrated in Fig. 15.35. A fourteenth century example of the coun-
terchange colouring of primary pattern class p6, found at the Alcázar in
Seville, is shown in Fig. 15.36.
Two-colour wallpaper patterns can be constructed in a similar manner as
described for the counterchange border patterns, with the exception that
the translations of the unit cell occur in two non-parallel directions. These
independent translations are able to be colour preserving or colour chang-
ing. As a result, the area of pattern that can create the complete design,
allowing only colour preserving translations, may be larger than the unit
cell of the primary pattern shown in Fig. 15.15. The detailed construction of
a selection of two-colour wallpaper patterns is described below.
416 Colour design
p1[2] pg[2]1 pg[2]2 pm[2]1
pm[2]2 pm[2]3 pm[2]4 pm[2]5
cm[2]1 cm[2]2 cm[2]3 p2[2]1
p2[2]2 pgg[2]1 pgg[2]2 pmg[2]1

pmg[2]2 pmg[2]3 pmg[2]4 pmg[2]5

(a)
15.35 Schematic illustrations of the 46 counterchange wallpaper
pmm[2]1 pmm[2]2 pmm[2]3 pmm[2]4
pmm[2]5 cmm[2]1 cmm[2]2 cmm[2]3
cmm[2]4 cmm[2]5 p31m[2] p3m1[2]
p4[2]1 p4[2]2 p4m[2]1 p4m[2]2

p4m[2]3 p4m[2]4 p4m[2]5 p4g[2]1

(b)
15.35 Continued
418 Colour design
p4g[2]2 p4g[2]3 p6[2] p6m[2]1
p6m[2]2 p6m[2]3
(c)
15.35 Continued
15.36 Detail of a p6[2] tiling, fourteenth century, Hall of the

Ambassador, Alcázar, Seville.
Pattern class p2 may be based on any of the five geometrical lattice types,
although the parallelogram lattice is the most frequently used. There are
two possible counterchange colourings for primary pattern class p2 as
shown in Fig. 15.37. Within the first colouring, shown in Fig. 15.37a, colour
reverses around all centres of two-fold rotation while translations preserve
colour. From this orientation, the construction of the two-colour pattern
requires both non-parallel translations to preserve colour. In the second
(a) (b)
p2[2]1 p2[2]2
15.37 The construction of the counterchange colourings of a p2

wallpaper pattern.
colouring, shown in Fig. 15.37b, colour reverses around alternate two-fold

rotational centres and results in the pattern displaying visual bands of the
alternating colours.
There are three wallpaper pattern classes in which the highest order of
rotation is through 120 degrees (three-fold rotation). These patterns are

constructed on a hexagonal lattice with unit cells equivalent to two equi-
lateral triangles. Alternatively, the pattern may be generated by translation
of the hexagonal lattice unit, which is three times the area of the unit cell.
Although when considering counterchange patterns, three-fold rotation
cannot be a colour reversing symmetry, the presence of reflection and glide-
reflection axes in pattern classes p3m1 and p31m allows for one possible
colouring in each case.
Pattern class p31m, illustrated in Fig. 15.38, exhibits reflection axes on
each side of the unit cell and also along the shortest diagonal of the cell.
Centres of three-fold rotation occur at the centres of the two triangular
units and also at the intersection point of the three reflection axes. Colour
reversal occurs across all reflection axes and glide-reflection axes, but colour
420 Colour design
is preserved around centres of rotation. The fundamental region, equal to

one-sixth of the area of the unit cell, may be rotated through increments of
120 degrees while preserving colour to construct an area equal to half the
unit cell. Subsequent reflection and colour reversal of this area will generate
the unit cell, which when translated (preserving colour) will produce the
perfect two-colour pattern.
The square lattice provides the construction base for pattern class p4m,
which is generated through reflection of a fundamental region equal to
one-eighth of the area of the unit cell. Reflection axes are present at the
unit sides, and also running diagonally across the unit cell, dividing it into
eight equal parts. Centres of four-fold rotation are located at the corners
p31m[2]
15.38 The construction of a counterchange colouring of a p31m

wallpaper pattern.
and centre of the cell where the four reflection axes intersect. Two-fold
rotational centres are positioned at the midpoint of each unit edge and are
intersected at right angles by axes of reflection and glide-reflection.
There are five possible perfect two-colourings of primary pattern class
p4m, as illustrated in Fig. 15.39. The colour class shown in Fig. 15.39a
displays colour reversal across reflection axes running parallel to the
(a) p4m[2]1 (b) p4m[2]2 (c) p4m[2]3

(d) p4m[2]4 (e) p4m[2]5
15.39 The construction of the counterchange colourings of a p4m

wallpaper pattern.
422 Colour design
glide-reflection axes and also those at the edges of the unit cell. The unit
cell may be created through the colour reversing reflection of the funda-
mental region followed by colour reversing rotation around the four-fold
point at the centre of the unit. Colour can be seen to interchange around
centres of two-fold rotation at the midpoint of each edge of the unit cell.
As a result translation in both non-parallel directions reverses the colour
of the unit cell.
The colouring shown in Fig. 15.39b may be created through the colour
reversing reflection of the generating region and subsequent rotation of this
unit at intervals of 90 degrees while preserving colour. As both translations
preserve colour, the counterchange translation unit is equivalent to that of
the primary pattern class.
In the orientation of the pattern shown in Fig. 15.39c, colour is preserved
by the diagonal reflection running through the fundamental region. Four-
fold rotation of this unit, while systematically interchanging colour, gener-
ates the unit cell, which may be translated (preserving colour) to create the
two-colour pattern.
Colour is interchanged across all glide-reflection and mirror axes that run
parallel to the glide axes in Fig. 15.39d. Colour is also interchanged around
centres of four-fold rotation, but preserved around all centres of two-fold
rotation in the pattern. This design may be created through a colour revers-
ing reflection of the generating region followed by rotation around a four-
fold centre that reverses colour. The ensuing translation preserves the
colour of the unit cell.
In Fig. 15.39e, colour is preserved by successive reflections of the funda-
mental region within the unit cell. Translation of the unit cell in both direc-
tions interchanges the two colours. In this orientation, colour reverses
across reflection axes present vertically and horizontally at the edges of the
unit cell but not across reflection axes running through the unit cell.
Figure 15.40 illustrates a p4m tiling dating from late fifteenth century
Seville. The design closely follows that of a counterchange p4m[2]5 pattern,

as shown in Fig. 15.39e, but incorporates a total of four colours within the
fundamental region. Whilst observing the transformational conditions of
the counterchange pattern class, the design steps beyond the geometric
rules by introducing additional colours within the generating region, which
are also systematically interchanged or preserved by the symmetries of the
unit cell.
Pattern classes in which the highest order of rotational symmetry is six
(60 degrees rotation) are constructed on a hexagonal lattice unit bounded
by two equilateral triangles, as previously observed in Fig. 15.38. Wallpaper
pattern class p6m and its colourings display the most complex symmetries
of all the plane patterns. As shown in Fig. 15.15, centres of six-fold rotation
are located at each corner of the unit cell. The fundamental region is
15.40 Detail of a p4m tiling, late fifteenth century, Casa de Pilatos,

Seville, Spain.
one-twelfth of the unit cell area and is bounded by reflection axes connect-
ing centres of two-, three- and six-fold rotation.
There are three possible counterchange colourings for pattern class p6m.
In Fig. 15.41a, three-fold rotation preserves colour while two-fold and six-
fold rotation reverse colour. Reflection axes alternately reverse and pre-
serve colour. This colouring can be constructed by the colour reversing
reflection of the fundamental region and subsequent colour preserving
rotation around the three-fold centre to generate an area equal to half the
unit cell. Subsequent reflection of this region, while preserving colour, will
generate a unit cell that when translated (preserving colour) will produce
the perfect two-colour pattern.

In the colouring shown in Fig. 15.41b, the generating region may be suc-
cessively reflected, while preserving colour, to construct an area equal to
half the unit cell. Colour-reversing reflection over the axis connecting the
shortest diagonals of the unit cell creates the whole unit, which when trans-
lated (whilst preserving colour) generates the repeating design.
The final colouring of p6m, shown in Fig. 15.41c, exhibits colour change
across all reflection axes while all rotational centres preserve colour. The
pattern may be constructed by the colour reversing reflection of the funda-
mental region and subsequent colour preserving rotation around the three-
fold centre. Reflection and colour reversal of this area will generate the unit
cell. When colour preserving translations are applied to the unit cell, the
two-colour pattern will result.
424 Colour design
(a) p6m[2]1 (b) p6m[2]2 (c) p6m[2]3
15.41 The construction of the counterchange colourings of a p6m

wallpaper pattern.
15.6 Colour symmetry of higher orders

The principles governing counterchange patterns and tilings are readily
applicable to higher-colour patterns, where prefix k may be used to denote

the number of colours available. The enumeration of colour symmetry pos-
sibilities for each of the primary classes of wallpaper patterns, for values of
k up to 12, is given in Table 15.3.
As previously seen with two-colour symmetry, a k-colouring is said to be
perfect if each symmetry action of the uncoloured pattern induces a per-
mutation of the k colours. With three-colour symmetry, individual tiles must
be coloured in such a way that each symmetry operation either consistently
preserves the colour or consistently changes each of the three coloured tiles
to one of the other colours, as shown previously in Fig. 15.17. Schematic
illustrations of the three-colour wallpaper pattern possibilities are provided
in Fig. 15.42. For further discussion of three-colour patterns, see Hann and
Thomas (2007).
Table 15.3 The number of k-colour possibilities for the primary wallpaper pattern classes, for values of k up to 12
Pattern class Number of colours
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
p1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 2
pg 2 2 4 2 5 2 7 3 6 2 11
pm 5 2 10 2 11 2 16 3 12 2 23
cm 3 2 7 2 7 2 13 3 8 2 17
p2 2 1 3 1 2 1 4 2 2 1 3
pgg 2 1 4 1 4 1 7 2 5 1 9
pmg 5 2 11 2 11 2 19 3 12 2 26
pmm 5 1 13 1 9 1 21 2 10 1 25
cmm 5 1 11 1 8 1 21 2 9 1 22
p3 – 2 1 – 1 1 – 3 – – 4
p31m 1 2 1 – 5 – 1 3 – – 7
p3m1 1 2 1 – 4 – 1 3 – – 7
p4 2 – 5 1 2 – 9 1 4 – 9
p4g 3 – 7 – 2 – 13 1 3 – 10
p4m 5 – 13 – 2 – 28 1 3 – 16
p6 1 2 1 – 5 1 1 3 – – 8
p6m 3 2 2 – 11 – 3 3 – – 20
Total wallpaper 46 23 96 14 90 15 166 40 75 13 219

groups
Source: Wieting (1981), Grünbaum and Shephard (1987, 407).

426 Colour design
p1[3] pg[3]1 pg[3]2 pm[3]1
pm[3]2 cm[3]1 cm[3]2 p2[3]
pgg[3] pmg[3]1 pmg[3]2 pmm[3]
cmm[3] p3[3]1 p3[3]2 p31m[3]1

p31m[3]2 p3m1[3]1 p3m1[3]2 p6[3]1
p6[3]2 p6m[3]1 p6m[3]2
15.42 Schematic illustrations of the 23 three-colour wallpaper patterns

and tilings.
15.7 Conclusions
Geometry has long been used as a tool to understand and explain phe-
nomena across the disciplines. The fundamentals of pattern geometry,
which originated in the study of crystal structures, have been shown to
provide a systematic means for pattern classification and construction in
all forms of ornamentation, including textiles and other types of surface
decoration.
Although the perfect colouring of patterns and tilings may be ascertained
by experimentation and common sense, it is a mathematical appreciation
of the structure of pattern that offers the key to finding all possible perfect
colourings, as geometry imposes restrictions on potential outcomes. Soft-
ware packages and plug-ins, such as Artlandia’s SymmetryWorks and Sym-
metryShop (2011), have been developed as tools to assist designers in the
construction of repeating designs. Utilising knowledge of pattern geometry
this software allows the designer to create a fundamental region and the
repeating pattern is generated automatically. Further manipulation of the
design is possible through the interactive editing shapes, including the appli-
cation of a regular colouring to the pattern structure.
Although this chapter has focused on the systematic colouring of
mathematically distinct patterns – a method that offers a finite number
of possible colourings – the number of artistically diverse patterns is far
greater and open to a wide variety of interpretations (as seen in Fig. 15.40).
Another artistic concern that is ignored in the technique of perfect colour-
ing relates to the map-colouring restriction, whereby no two tiles of the
same colour should share a boundary. This ensures that the individual
shape of each tile is clearly visible. M.C. Escher insisted that this restriction
must be met in the colouring of his periodic drawings and laid greater
emphasis on this characteristic than on his tilings being consistent with
colour (Schattschneider, 1986).
Recent developments have considered the application of patterns beyond

the two-dimensional plane, to repeat across the surface of certain three-
dimensional shapes (known as polyhedra) in a similar manner as observed
in two dimensions. This problem reflected on the ‘wrapping’ of a solid in a
repeating pattern rather than the application of colour directly to a solid’s
faces. It has been shown that only certain wallpaper pattern classes are
suited to the precise patterning of specific three-dimensional shapes, high-
lighting the importance of the inherent lattice structure and symmetry
operations of the pattern (Thomas and Hann 2007a, b, 2008).
An extension of this investigation is the application of perfectly coloured
patterns to the surface of polyhedra, which introduces the added restriction
that colour interchange must also occur in an identical manner as in the
plane. Figure 15.43 shows a still from an animated design by mathematical
428 Colour design
15.43 Patterned spiral polyhedron. Courtesy of Rinus Roelofs, 2004.

15.44 The 20-sided icosahedron patterned with counterchange class

p6m[2]3.
sculptor Rinus Roelofs, in which a spiral polyhedron is patterned with a

repeating Escher-type design. The pattern retains the three-colour symme-
tries it possesses in the plane as it folds into the three-dimensional spiral
form. Figure 15.44 illustrates a polyhedron composed of 20 equilateral tri-
angles, known as an icosahedron, patterned with counterchange class
p6m[2]3. The area of the p6m pattern that is applied to each triangular face
of the solid is equivalent to half the unit cell of the plane design, and all
faces of the solid are covered in an identical manner. For further discussion
of this problem, see Thomas (2009). The investigation into the application
of pattern to three-dimensional space, and the consideration of the colour
symmetries of such patterns, remains a relatively unexplored area with
enormous potential for future research.
15.8 References
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15

Colour symmetry: the systematic coloration of

Abstract: This chapter presents a range of geometric concepts associated

Key words: pattern geometry, symmetry, colour symmetry, counterchange

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012

15.1 Plate 10 from Ernst Haeckel’s ‘Die Radiolarien’ (1862).

similarities between the triangulated networks of radiolaria, Fuller’s geo-

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012

15.2 Selection of Aaron Klug’s models in assorted materials to show

15.3 Snow crystal. Image obtained using a low-temperature scanning

of repeating patterns and tilings, both of which are underpinned by geomet-

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012

for the design of two-dimensional patterns rely on the creation of one or

15.2 Patterns and tilings: a historical perspective

in the structure of repeating patterns, this was usually manifested in practice

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012

15.2.1 Advancements in the scientific understanding

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012

W.L. Bragg was building a world-class team of crystallographic researchers,

15.2.2 Development of geometric techniques for

constructions based on rectangular, rhombic, hexagonal and square lattices

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012

Buerger and Lukesh (1937) presented a series of symbols denoting lattice

15.2.3 Symmetry: connecting design, science and

trated a textbook for students of crystallography with examples taken from

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012

sciences, arts and humanities, discussing the occurrence and application of

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012

15.3 Principles of pattern geometry

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012

groups (Schattschneider, 1978), point groups (Stevens, 1984) and finite

Horne (2000) and Hann and Thomas (2010).

15.3.1 Symmetry in patterns and tilings

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012

Translation Rotation Reflection Glide-reflection

15.5 Example of bilateral symmetry in nature. Courtesy of Dave Cavill,

schematic illustrations are provided in Fig. 15.4.

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012

15.7 Architectural example of eight-fold rotation produced by the

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012

The transformation combining reflection and translation along an axis in

value of n which, in the extreme case, may be represented by a circle with

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012

15.3.3 Border patterns

tion to any symmetry operation present: a framework of corresponding

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012

15.10 Schematic illustrations of the seven primary classes of border

patterns and tilings.

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012

Hexagonal lattice Rhombic (centred cell) lattice

15.11 The five types of geometric lattice.

p111 p1a1 pm11 p1m1

p112 pma2 pmm2

15.12 The seven unit cells of border patterns and tilings.

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012

Table 15.1 Summary of the symmetry characteristics of the seven primary

Pattern Area of fundamen-

Source: Tantiwong (2000).

15.3.4 Wallpaper patterns

independent directions. The introduction of one or more of the remaining

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012

15.13 Geometric lattice containing five-fold rotational symmetry.

15.13 illustrates the impossibility of a lattice containing centres of five-fold