Conductors and Dielectrics

EM Theory-I (EEE/ECE/INSTR F212)

Ashish Chittora
Lecture-12

8-9-2023
Current and Current-density
• Current: Rate of movement of (positive) charge
passing a given reference point (or crossing a given
reference plane)

• In field theory, Current-density (J) is more useful

quantity than the Current (I)
• The increment of current ΔI crossing an
incremental surface ΔS normal to the current
density is
ΔS
JN
Current and Current-density
• In the case where the current density is not
perpendicular to the surface,

• Total current (I) can be obtained by

Current and Current-density
• Current density may be related to
velocity of ‘volume charge density’ at
a point
• Consider a charge element

• In time Δt the charge element has

moved by distance Δx
• The amount of charge moved in
time Δt through a reference plane
Current and Current-density
• The resulting current

• If vx and Jx is x-component of velocity and current

density then
• In general current density

• Charge in motion constitutes a current, and it is

called Convection current and J = ρvv is called
Convection current density
Continuity of current
• Charge conservation
• Current through a closed surface = rate of decrease
in internal positive charge (Qi)

• If we modify the above equation by divergence

theorem

• If we keep the surface area (and enclosed volume)

constant
Continuity of current
• Now point form of the Continuity-equation

• Integral form of Continuity-equation

• The current (or charge per second), diverging from

a small volume per unit volume is equal to the time
rate of decrease of charge per unit volume at every
point. [Divergence interpretation]
Lecture-13

11-9-2023
Metallic conductors
• Conductors : No energy gap between valance and
conduction bands, so electrons move freely
• Insulators: Large energy gaps, dielectric breakdown
• Semiconductors: relatively small energy gap, electrons
jump to conduction band using modest energy by heat,
light, electric field.
Electrons’ flow in conductors
• Applied force on an electron of charge Q = -e in an electric field

Velocity and field have opposite directions

• From which, Conductivity : 𝜎 = −𝜌𝑒 𝜇𝑒

• The expression J = 𝜎𝐄 is ohm’s law in point form.
• In semiconductor holes also contribute to conductivity
Resistance : Ohm’s law
• Consider a cylinder with voltage V applied at its ends
• Uniform current flows along length and cross section
• Voltage and current in terms of field quantities:
Conductor properties and Boundary conditions
• No charge and No Electric-field may exist within a
within a conductor
ρv = 0 and E = 0 inside conductor
• Charge immediately distributes over the surface of
conductor
• Tangential component of E-field on conductor
surface is zero in ‘static conditions‘
• Electric flux density in coulombs per square meter leaving
the surface normally is equal to the surface charge density
in coulombs per square meter DN = ρS
Conductor-free space boundary conditions
• To find the condition on tangential field on surface
of conductor along a closed path abcda

• As Δh approaches zero, second and third term also

approaches zero, hence
𝐸𝑡 = 0
Conductor-free space boundary conditions
• To find the condition on normal fields
• Assume a cylindrical gaussian surface (Δh height
and ΔS cross section area) across the boundary
• Gauss’s law
or

• For bottom integral, E-field inside conductor zero

• For sides, E-field and surface are orthogonal
• First term non zero

or
Conductor-free space boundary conditions
• Conductor to free space boundary condition in
electrostatics

• In vector form
• n is a unit vector normal and away from conductor
surface
• The electric flux leaves the conductor in a direction
normal to the surface
• The normal component of electric flux density is equal
to the surface charge density
• Conductor surface is an equi-potential surface
Lecture-14

31-9-2023
Method of images
• In dipole field an infinite plane with V=0 exist at
midway between two charges
• This plane can be replaced by a conducting plane
and removing the negative charge below
• Field configuration will remain same
• Opposite or reverse can also be done, and
opposite charge is called image charge

No charge,
Zero field
Method of images
• A conductor plane near a charge can be replaced
by Equipotential surface (V=0) with equal and
opposite charge on other side of plane.
• This method is useful to find the field and charge
on the conducting plane.
Example
• Find the surface charge density at P (2,5,0) on the
conducting plane at z=0, if a line charge 30nC/m is
located at x=0, z=3

• We remove the plane and

place a negative line charge
at x=0, z=-3
• Field at P is superposition of fields due to two line
charges
• The radial vector from the positive line charge to P is R+ =
2ax − 3az , while R− = 2ax + 3az .
Example
• Thus, the individual fields are

E- = -

• Adding these

• Field is directed towards the conducting plane

ρS =
Dielectric materials
• Dielectric in an electric field can be viewed as a free-
space arrangement of microscopic electric dipoles
• These are not free charges, and they cannot
contribute to the conduction process/ conductivity.
• The dipoles can only shift or respond to the external E-
field and store the E-field energy
• Storage of E-field energy takes place by means of a
shift in the relative positions of the internal dipoles
(bound positive and negative charges) against the
normal molecular and atomic forces.
• The shift or Displacement represents potential energy
Dielectric materials No E-field applied

• Polar materials:
• Naturally have dipoles (molecule or atoms)
• Dipoles oriented randomly
• External field aligns of dipoles
• Strong field can produce additional
displacement
• Non-polar materials:
• No natural dipoles exist
• External field creates and aligns the dipoles

Figure: effect of E-field in a

dielectric material
Dielectric materials
• A dipole can be described by its dipole moment

• In a volume Δv total dipole moment

• Dielectric Polarization or Polarization : dipole moment

per unit volume

• Incremental volume Δv : large enough to contain many

atoms or molecules and small enough to be
considered as incremental
Dielectric materials
• Total bound charge

• Total enclosed charge by surface S

• Combining three relations

Free charge enclosed
• When polarizable material is present in E-field
then extra term (P) appears in D

And free charge enclosed

Lecture-15

15-9-2023
Dielectric materials : Polarization field
• Utilizing several charge densities we have

• Equivalent divergence relations

• Linear relationship between P and E is:

Where, χe (chi_e) is called electric susceptibility of

the material
Dielectric materials
• The relationship between D and E becomes

• Where is called relative permittivity or

dielectric constant (dimensionless) of the material
• Therefore,
And Permittivity of the material
• For anisotropic materials, D and E (and P) are not
parallel

or 𝐃 = [𝛜]𝐄
Relative permittivity
Dielectric materials
• In summary for any dielectric material
where
• This electric flux density D is still related to free
charge as
and

• Edielectric = Efree-space / εr = reduced field value

• Use of makes the separate consideration
of Polarization (P), dipole moment (p) and bound
charge unnecessary
Complex dielectric-constant
• Will be discussed later in detail
• εr(ω) = ε′(ω) - jε′’(ω)
• ε′ is the real part of the permittivity
• ε″ is the imaginary part of the permittivity
• δ is the loss angle
• Loss tangent = tanδ = ε′’(ω)/ε’(ω)
Dielectric-dielectric boundary conditions
• For tangential field components
In a close loop

Or
Other two terms are zero as Δh approaches zero.
and

• Tangential component of E-field is continuous at

dielectric-dielectric boundary.
• Tangential D-field is discontinuous.
Dielectric-dielectric boundary conditions
• For normal field components,
Applying Gauss’s law to the small Δh

Pillbox

or
(DN and ΔS (curved surface) are orthogonal)
• If charge density on boundary (interface) is zero,
and
Normal component of D is continuous and normal
component of E is discontinuous.
• General conditions in vector form:
and
Refraction at dielectric interface
• Effect on D and E-field on the surface (ρS = 0)

• If then ,direction
of D and E is same on each side of interface.
• Magnitude of fields

• D is larger in the region of larger permittivity (unless θ1 = θ2 = 0o

where the magnitude is unchanged)
Semiconductors
• Intrinsic semiconductors
• Charge carriers : electrons and holes
• Doped semiconductors
• N-type (donor impurity)
• P-type (acceptor impurity)
• Conductivity

• Intrinsic semiconductors satisfy the point form of

Ohm’s law
• Conductivity of Intrinsic semiconductors increases
with temperature, while for conductors, it
decreases
Thank you

Questions?