Intermetallics: Anomalous Yielding
alies,’’ and discuss in more detail the examples of L1 ,
Some materials exhibit a positive temperature de-
pendence of the flow stress in a finite temperature
domain, which results in a stress maximum (‘‘peak’’)
at the upper bound of this ‘‘anomalous’’ temperature
range. This counterintuitive behavior is known as a
‘‘stress anomaly,’’ and is systematically associated
with a large work-hardening rate, a very small strain-
rate sensitivity, and serrated flow under specific
loading conditions. It is mainly observed in various
ordered intermetallic compounds, i.e., long-range
ordered alloys made of two different metallic elements
located on different sublattices, but also in some
hexagonal or bcc metals and alloys, and in a few
ceramics (Louchet 1999).
The magnitude of the anomaly in single crystals
depends on stress orientation, suggesting that cross
slip should play an important role. The stress peak
corresponds to a change in the predominant slip
system. The observed increase of the stress-peak
temperature with strain rate suggests a transition from
a mechanism with a small strain-rate sensitivity in the
anomalous region to an alternative thermally acti-
vated one at higher temperatures, as shown schem-
atically in Fig. 1. We shall critically review the different
models proposed so far to account for this set of
Figure 1
Schematic representation of a typical yield stress anomaly
at different strain rates ε0 (solid line) and ε0 ε0 (dotted
"
line). The strain-rate sensitivity #
is close to zero "in the
anomalous domain, where both curves nearly coincide. It
is positive outside this domain, leading to a shift of the
stress peak towards high temperatures at larger strain
rates. The intermediate mechanism (strain-rate sensitivity
l 0) and the high-temperature one (strain-rate
sensitivity
0) are represented schematically separated by
dashed lines.
properties referred to hereafter as ‘‘strength anom-
L1 , and B2 intermetallics. #
!
1. Velocity- and Density-type Mechanisms
Orowan’s equation:
εc l ρmbV (1)
relates the strain rate, ε0 l dε\dt, to the mobile dis-
location density, ρm, the dislocation velocity V, and the
magnitude of the Burgers vector, b. It can be seen from
this equation that in mechanical tests conducted at
constant strain rate, the flow stress anomaly can stem
from an anomalous temperature dependence of either
the individual dislocation velocity or the steady-state
mobile dislocation density. Many of the models
proposed so far, though accounting for the positive
temperature dependence of the flow stresses, do not
explain the other different and concomitant associated
features (low strain rate sensitivity, large work hard-
ening rate, serrated flow). A possible reason for this is
that they assume that the behavior of each individual
dislocation reflects that of the whole population. This
assumption is not unreasonable in many situations,
but can be misleading in others, particularly if the
steady-state mobile dislocation density varies signi-
ficantly upon changes in the temperature or strain
rate (Kocks and Mecking 1980).
1.1 ‘‘Velocity-type’’ or ‘‘V-type’’ Models
In these models, the mobile dislocation density is
implicitly taken as independent of temperature, and
the anomaly stems from a negative temperature
dependence of the average dislocation velocity V,
which is generally ascribed to thermally actiŠated
pinning of mobile dislocations followed by some stress-
driven unpinning process. An increase of temperature
has thus to be balanced by an increase of stress in
order to maintain the velocity constant. Owing to the
variety of dislocation microstructures, specific models
are proposed for each type of material.
The so-called locking–unlocking model, though
belonging to this family, aims at a wider generality,
since it refers to the behavior of screw dislocations that
are often observed in many materials exhibiting the
strength anomaly. It is based on in situ TEM obser-
vations of the jerky motion of screw dislocations,
analyzed as a series of thermally activated locking and
subsequent unlocking events, and related to the
possible existence of two different metastable core
structures, one glissile and the other sessile. The
locking and unlocking frequencies both increase with
temperature and are defined through their corre-
sponding activation energies, ∆GL and ∆GUL. In situ
1
Anomalous Yielding in Intermetallic Alloys
observations and theoretical estimates suggest
∆GUL
∆GL (Caillard et al. 1993, Caillard and Couret
1996), and the resulting average dislocation velocity,
given by the equation
E G
∆GULk∆GL
V(σ, T ) ` exp k (2)
F
kT H
(where σ is the effective stress) has a normal temp-
erature dependence, unless some additional ingredient
is introduced (see Sect. 2). This is a typical ‘‘v-type’’
model in which there is no intrinsic provision for a
small strain-rate sensitivity.
1.2 ‘‘Density-type’’ or ‘‘ρ-type’’ Models
In contrast to the previous case, V(σ, T ) is now
supposed to have a normal temperature dependence
(bV\bT
0), even in the domain of anomalous beha-
vior. But since the flow stress is observed to increase
with temperature, the anomaly has to be associated
with a strong decrease of the lifetime of mobile
dislocations, compensated for by an increase of both
velocity and multiplication rate in order to maintain a
constant strain rate. Considering the different possible
processes responsible for generation and elimination
of dislocations, the evolution equations that govern
the mobile and sessile dislocation densities can be
written as:
ρc m l (MkL)ρmV(σ, T )
kAρm # V #(σ, T )kAhρ ρ V(σ, T )jUρ (3)
s m s
ρc s l LρmV(σ, T )kAhρs ρm V(σ, T )kAdρs#kUρs (4)
where σ is the effective stress, ρm and ρS are the mobile
and stored dislocation densities, and L and M are
proportionality factors (in m−") which account for the
exhaustion (self-locking) and multiplication of in-
dividual dislocations, respectively. The factors A, Ah,
and Ad, which have different dimensionalities, stand
for the annihilation of different kinds of dislocation
pairs (mobile\mobile, mobile\sessile, and sessile\
sessile), while U is related to the unlocking (or
unpinning) of sessile dislocations. Under steady-state
deformation, the mobile dislocation density at con-
stant applied strain rate satisfies the condition ρ0 m l 0.
The normal or anomalous stress response of the system
to a change in temperature results from the relative
stress and temperature dependencies of the different
dislocation generation and annihilation factors in-
volved in Eqn. (3).
The early approach of Greenberg and Ivanov (1992)
was roughly based on these ideas, but considered a
unique multiplication rate for the total dislocation
density. Assuming that the locking rate exceeds the
unlocking rate, and provided some other (and more
questionable) assumptions are made (as, for instance,
a stress-independent dislocation velocity), an analy-
2
tical solution is found for σ(T,ε0 ), which goes through
a maximum as the temperature is raised. This means
that the temperature dependence of the flow stress is
positive in a finite temperature range, but no conc-
lusion is drawn about the strain-rate sensitivity.
The exhaustion–multiplication models (Louchet
1995a) are again based on equations similar to Eqns.
(3) and (4), but the basic assumption is that steady-
state flow essentially results from a balance between
the multiplication of mobile dislocations and their
thermally activated exhaustion, the other terms being
negligible in the domain of the flow-stress anomaly.
Equation (1) then becomes
1
ρc m l (MkL)ρmV(σ, T ) l (MkL) εc . (5)
b
Under steady-state conditions, the mobile dislocation
density is constant, i.e., ρ0 m l 0, so that:
MkL l 0 (6)
which is independent of strain rate, and depends only
on stress and temperature.
If exhaustion L is thermally activated, then its
increase with temperature has to be balanced by an
increase of M, i.e., an increase of stress, to fulfill Eqn.
(6). This yields a positive temperature dependence of
the flow stress. The increase of stress is, in turn,
responsible for an increase of individual dislocation
velocities. The anomaly is thence expected to be
associated, at constant strain rate, with a drop in the
mobile dislocation density. In addition, since Eqn. (6)
is independent of ε0 , a strain-rate jump at constant
temperature does not change the steady-state stress,
i.e., the steady-state strain rate sensitiŠity is zero. The
continuous dislocation storage due to the exhaustion
of mobile dislocations ( ρ0 s
0) yields an increased
work hardening rate. Finally, the small strain-rate
sensitivity and the low mobile-dislocation density are
likely to favor serrated flow. Thus, exhaustion–
multiplication models account for the main features of
strength anomalies. However, they probably could be
improved by considering exhaustion and multipli-
cation of dislocation groups instead of single dis-
locations in order to better describe work hardening
and plastic instabilities.
Actually, the above-mentioned models can all be
described in the framework of Eqns. (3) and (4). They
differ in the choice of the mechanisms responsible for
creation and destruction of mobile dislocations. The
locking\unlocking approach is a particular limiting
case, in that the choice is made of locking and
unlocking the same dislocation. This choice reduces
the problem to a V-type one, and precludes any
possibility of accounting for a zero strain-rate sen-
sitivity through a self-adjustment of the mobile dis-
location density. The exhaustion–multiplication and
Greenberg and Ivanov models, though based on
roughly the same ideas, differ in two respects: (i)

mobile and sessile dislocations are treated as a whole
in the Greenberg and Ivanov model, but separately in
the exhaustion–multiplication model, (ii) the latter
model considers that exhaustion and multiplication
are the two dominant mechanisms. This last choice
seems to be the only one so far able to account in a
general manner (i.e., independently of the details
of each material) for both a zero strain rate sensiti-
vity and a positive temperature dependence of flow
stress.
2. L12 Intermetallics
From the very beginning the idea arose that locking of
screw superdislocations could take place through cross
slip from the octahedral onto the cube plane (Flinn
1960). This is still a key point in the most recent
approaches, but the models differ in both the exact
geometry of pinning and in the way in which the
obstacles are overcome.
The early approach of Takeuchi and Kuramoto
(1973), further improved by Paidar et al. (1984), was
based on the dynamical motion of screw dislocations
creating and breaking away small sessile portions
formed by thermally activated cross slip into the cube
plane. Due to its thermally activated character, the
pinning rate is an increasing function of temperature,
leading to a decreased separation between pinning
points. Since the mobile dislocation density is assumed
constant (V-type model), the resulting steady charac-
ter of individual dislocation motion demands that the
unpinning rate also has to increase with temperature;
Figure 2
Schematic dislocation behavior: (a) In a L1 alloy. Kear-Wilsdorf locks (double lines) are connected to mobile superkinks
(AB, EF, CD, GH) by jogs located at A, B,# E, F, …). The dislocation propagates through lateral motion of these
superkinks. Multiplication can also occur at large superkinks like GH. Part of the new loop (dotted line), produced at GH,
locks again as a Kear-Wilsdorf segment IJ. (b) In a L1 alloy. The cusped ordinary dislocation can move through jog
dragging (A), dipole dragging (C), or unzipping (B). !
Anomalous Yielding in Intermetallic Alloys
this in turn requires an increase of stress. Since
unpinning (or unlocking) and multiplication rates are
not governed by the same power of ρm (see Eqns.
(3,4)), these models do not, in principle, systematically
account for a zero strain-rate sensitivity.
The locking\unlocking model considers, in its L1
version, that the two metastable states for super-#
dislocations are the glissile dissociation in the octa-
hedral plane, and long Kear-Wilsdorf locks formed
through cross slip from the octahedral towards the
cube plane (Couret and Caillard 1991, Farenc et al.
1995, Caillard and Paidar 1996). In its latest develop-
ments, the authors consider that the unlocking mech-
anism requires a stress that increases with the amount
of cross slip into the cube plane, i.e., with temperature,
which is responsible for the anomaly. The predictions
are as stated above.
In contrast, the possible importance of superkinks
in multiplication and transport of superdislocations
was first pointed out in 1988 (Sun and Hazzledine
1988) (Fig. 2a). The views of Hirsch (1992) are based
on a sophisticated analysis of superdislocation, jog,
and superkink geometries, and suggest different mech-
anisms depending on the relative velocities of jogs and
superkinks on which some of the following superlink
models are founded. The anomaly is supposed to arise
here from the competition between thermally activated
formation and stress-assisted unzipping or (and)
bypassing of Kear-Wilsdorf locks.
In the simulation by Mills and Chrzan (1992) of
dislocation dynamics, superdislocations are repre-
sented as an array of points, in a similar way to local
pinning models. Pinning is treated by assigning to each
3
Anomalous Yielding in Intermetallic Alloys
point a temperature-dependent pinning probability.
Unpinning is deterministic, and takes place if the
bowing angle at the pinning point exceeds a critical
value. As a result, near-screw superdislocations move
by the rapid lateral motion of superkinks; the dis-
tribution of their heights is exponential for small
superkinks, in agreement with measurements (Couret
et al. 1993). The distribution of larger superkinks
strongly departs from that of the smaller ones but
remains exponential, though with a different average
value. The simulation suggests that the smallest
superkinks are immobile, and thus that only the largest
ones are responsible for dislocation motion. Fur-
thermore, owing to fluctuations in the superkink
distribution, the motion of superdislocations can
become completely exhausted.
Another model (Louchet 1995b) is a statistical
exhaustion–multiplication type approach, based i) on
the fact that superdislocations gliding in the octahedral
plane can occasionally lock by cross slip to the cube
plane, and ii) on the idea developed in superkink
models that the resulting Kear-Wilsdorf locks can be
unzipped (CD in Fig. 2a) or bypassed (GH in Fig. 2a)
by superkinks. This mechanism continuously gener-
ates new superkink configurations on super-
dislocations. Since dislocation locking is thermally
activated, the resulting superkink height distribution
scales as exp (k∆GL\kT ).
Superkink mobility is assumed to be controlled by
a dragging force Fo on ‘‘jogs’’ (i.e., junctions between
superkink and Kear-Wilsdorf locks (Fig. 2a)). As a
result, a superkink is mobile only if its height h exceeds
a stress-dependent critical value hc l 2Fo\σb. A super-
dislocation evolving through superkink motion ex-
plores a variety of configurations characterized by a
specific distribution of superkink heights. A dislo-
cation that falls into a configuration in which no
superkink is larger than hc becomes sessile (exhaus-
tion). The balance between exhaustion and multi-
plication leads to the usual consequences of
exhaustion–multiplication models (see Sects. 1–2). Re-
cent Monte Carlo simulations based on the assump-
tions of this model (Louchet and Lebyodkine 1998)
also reproduced experimental results on the occur-
rence of serrated flow at large strains or upon a sudden
decrease in strain rate (Demura and Hirano 1997), and
on the variations of the work-hardening rate with
strain rate, provided a small amount of unlocking is
introduced.
More recently, a 2D simulation of dislocation
dynamics was proposed (Devincre et al. 1997), based
on the mesoscale models developed by Le! pinoux and
Kubin (1987). It is assumed that: (i) the formation of
Kear-Wilsdorf locks is controlled by the cross-slip
probability into the cube plane of the leading partial;
(ii) the unlocking probability is stress-controlled; and
(iii) the superkink mobility is controlled by a drag
force, related to the frictional stress τj opposing the
movement along the screw direction of both the jog
4
and the part of the Kear-Wilsdorf lock extended on
the cube plane; τj is assumed to be independent of
temperature, and is obviously independent of the
length of the superkink. The stress τj in the Devincre et
al. simulation has the same physical meaning as the
force Fo in Lauchet’s model.
This simulation confirms the two basic assumptions
of Lauchet’s model. (i) In order to obtain a yield stress
anomaly, unlocking has to be very difficult. (ii) Super-
kink glide has to be controlled by a strong frictional
stress, independent of the length of the superkink, in
order to allow significant exhaustion to occur. The
possible consequences on strain-rate sensitivity and
work-hardening rate, though not developed by the
authors, are the same as for Lauchet’s model.
3. L10 Intermetallics
Except for some specific orientations, the stress
anomaly in TiAl is observed when ordinary a\2f110g
dislocations are activated (in this structure, the Burg-
ers vectors of a\2f110g type that connect two atoms
of the same chemical nature (in pure o001q Ti planes
or Al planes) are referred to using Hug’s notation
a\2f110], which means that equivalent directions are
obtained by permutation of only the two first indices).
Though elongated along the screw direction, they
exhibit a number of cusps with apexes that are aligned
amazingly well along the screw direction (Viguier et al.
1995, Sriram et al. 1997) (Fig. 2(b)).
The locking\unlocking approach is again based
here on in situ observations that dislocations move in
a jerky way (Farenc and Couret 1992), the anomaly
arising from the variations with temperature of the
transformation rates between these states. The con-
clusions of the model are qualitatively the same as for
stress anomalies in other materials.
The exhaustion–multiplication model of Louchet
and Viguier (1994, 1995) assumes that screws ex-
perience a bcc-like Peierls friction that promotes kink
pair nucleation on various planes containing the slip
direction. Kinks propagating on these different planes
combine into obstacles (‘‘cross kinks’’ or jogs) on
which cusps are readily formed through the accumu-
lation of kinks. The cusps can glide conservatively
along the screw direction, but nevertheless experience
some friction (Sriram et al. 1997, Simmons et al. 1994),
and can be swept out only if they are asymmetrical
enough (Fig. 2b), restoring the initial screw orientation
(this is the ‘‘local pinning unzipping’’ mechanism).
The density of cusps increases with temperature
(Louchet and Viguier 1995), and a statistical analysis
shows that the probability of finding such an unzipping
configuration (which ensures that the dislocations are
mobile) at constant stress decreases rapidly as the
temperature is raised. The resulting exhaustion of
mobile dislocations is responsible for the observed
stress anomaly. This model is an exhaustion–

multiplication one, and, therefore, also accounts for
the small strain-rate sensitivity measured in the anom-
alous temperature range of γ-TiAl.
Sriram et al. (1997) recently proposed the outlines of
a model which is not an exhaustion–multiplication
model, but could be an alternative process to move
heavily cusped dislocations: instead of unzipping jogs,
screw dislocations are supposed to propagate through
either jog dragging or dipole dragging (Fig. 2(b)). The
anomalous character of this dipole-dragging or jog-
dragging mechanism relies on an increasing density of
pinning points, and a supposed increasing height of
jogs as the temperature is raised. This last assumption
still awaits justification.
In a recent paper based on in situ observations of
dislocation motion, Ha$ ussler et al. (1999) proposed a
normal dependence of the flow stress on temperature,
similar to that for precipitation hardening at low
temperatures (T 850 K), and related the yield-
strength anomaly to strain-aging effects above 850 K.
However, the shapes and behavior that the dis-
locations should have in support of this idea were
found in specimens deformed above the peak tem-
perature, which is usually around 900 K (Viguier et al.
1995).
The locking\unlocking model incorporates the ob-
served jerky motion of screw dislocations, but ignores
the cusps that seem to be an essential feature in the
domain of the flow-stress anomaly. In contrast, the
role of cusps is essential in both the Louchet and
Sriram models, which are based on similar dislocation
structures, but on totally different mechanisms. It has
been shown very recently (Louchet and Viguier 2000)
that dipole dragging and local-pinning-unzipping
mechanisms produce a flow-stress anomaly, but dipole
dragging operates for stresses between two and four
times larger than those for local-pinning-unzip-
ping, and is thus probably irrelevant. In contrast,
jog dragging has a normal stress–temperature
dependence.
The strength anomaly in TiAl can thus reasonably
be described by the local-pinning-unzipping mech-
anism (Louchet Viguier model), but the jog-dragging
model probably controls plastic flow above the peak
temperature, the stress peak being the transition
between them.
The Louchet–Viguier model could also probably be
applied to stress anomalies in materials in which its
three basic ingredients (lattice friction on screw dis-
locations, profuse cross slip, and some friction on
edges) are found. This is the case for magnesium and
titanium, where the necessary friction on cusps of
mixed character could arise from solute\dislocation
interactions (the anomoly in Ti is only observed in the
impure material), and for beryllium, in which similar
dislocation behavior has been observed (Beuers et al.
1987). In the same way, the two first ingredients of the
Louchet–Viguier model, but not the third one, are
found in pure bcc metals. One can therefore wonder
Anomalous Yielding in Intermetallic Alloys
whether the anomaly reported in hydrogen-doped
niobium, vanadium, and tantalum (Chen and
Arsenault 1975) could be described by a similar
mechanism associated with a possible slowing down of
kinks due to hydrogen addition.
4. B2 Intermetallics
Since the ordered B2 structure is based on the bcc
lattice, superdislocations consisting of two 1\2f111g
dislocation superpartials separated by an antiphase
boundary are usually active below the temperature of
the stress peak in most of these materials, the case of
NiAl being somewhat particular.
A number of models have been proposed to account
for stress anomalies, mostly in β-CuZn. For the sake of
brevity, we shall only present here the outlines of the
main models, and refer the reader to a couple of recent
papers (Caillard and Couret 1996, Morris and Morris
1997) for more details.
The first idea (Brown 1959) was that of a gradual
relaxation of the degree of long-range order of the
antiphase boundary associated with super-
dislocations, as evidenced in FeAl by in situ annealing
(Morris and Leboeuf 1994). In this case, the trailing
superpartial cannot totally restore the order as it
sweeps out the antiphase boundary created by the
leading one, resulting in a ‘‘chemical’’ friction force.
The diffusion-assisted relaxation rate increases with
temperature and produces a stress anomaly. However,
extended antiphase boundaries that are expected in
this case are not commonly observed.
A second type of model assumes that f111g super-
dislocations can achieve a sessile configuration, either
through cross slip of screws between o110q and o112q
planes (Umakoshi et al. 1976) or through climb of
superpartials in opposite directions via an exchange of
point defects. As for the antiphase boundary relax-
ation, the climb dissociation version requires dif-
fusion and should produce a negative strain-rate
sensitivity.
Another possible mechanism proposed for FeAl
(Carleton et al. 1995, George and Baker 1998) invokes
vacancy hardening. This mechanism for the stress
anomaly is not totally satisfactory because it does not
account for several of its associated features, as, for
instance, a small strain-rate sensitivity and the
orientation-dependence of the flow stress.
Finally, in agreement with the observation that the
stress peak corresponds to a change from f111g
dislocations below it to f001g ones above, the last
approach (Saka and Kawase 1984, Yoshimi and
Hanada 1993, Morris and Morris 1997) is based on the
decomposition of f111g superdislocations into ordi-
nary ones of the type f001g and f110g. There is
circumstantial evidence that both f001g and f110g
dislocations have poor mobility, and this decom-
position reaction, which is supposed to be thermally
5
Anomalous Yielding in Intermetallic Alloys
activated, should be responsible for locking of super-
dislocations until the reaction products become
mobile at high temperatures. This model is supported
by careful characterizations of dislocations over a
range of temperatures. The decomposition process
might be dependent on orientation, and the exhaustion
of mobile dislocations produced by locking could be
consistent with a small strain-rate sensitivity, as
predicted by exhaustion–multiplication models.
All these models provide different microscopic
mechanisms which can be directly used as a V-type
description of flow-stress anomalies. In contrast, only
the second one (cross slip of f111g dislocations) and
the fourth one (decomposition of f111g dislocations)
can provide for the exhaustion of dislocations instead
of a gradual decrease in their mobility, and can thus be
incorporated into a ρ-type exhaustion–multiplication
approach. The small strain-rate sensitivity observed in
FeAl favors of this possibility.
5. Conclusions
The long-lasting problem of strength anomalies in
intermetallic alloys has spawned a number of un-
successful attempts to directly adapt concepts used in
other types of (more classical) materials. A number of
them directly deal with the core structure and mobility
of dislocations, but assume that the macroscopic
behavior of the crystal reflects their individual mo-
bility (v-type). However, the associated features of the
strength anomaly are either predicted using as many
different arguments as the number of materials inve-
stigated, or not predicted at all.
In contrast, another category of models (the ρ-
types) incorporates both the core-structure-related
locking mechanisms and the possible evolution with
strain rate and temperature of the steady-state mobile
dislocation density, described by evolution equations.
The anomaly is thus associated with a reduced mobile
dislocation density due to thermally activated exhaus-
tion rather than with a reduced dislocation mobility.
In the particular case where the major mechanisms of
dislocation evolution are multiplication and exhaus-
tion, the steady-state flow stress becomes independent
of the strain rate (i.e., the strain-rate sensitivity
vanishes).
In some cases, a possible role of dynamical strain
aging, suggested by the recurrent observation of
serrated flow, has been put forward. But the flow stress
serrations accompanying stress anomalies are often
associated with a small but positive strain rate sensi-
tivity, in disagreement with a possible Portevin–Le
Chatelier effect. In this respect, post mortem cir-
cumstantial evidence of solute segregation on dis-
locations may be more consistent with the decoration
of dislocations previously locked by an ‘‘intrinsic’’
exhaustion mechanism, rather than with any dynamic
strain-aging effect.
6
Future progress in modeling strength anomalies
should take into account the variations of both
dislocation mobilities and mobile dislocation densities.
This can be done in two different ways: (i) make the
situation much simpler through a choice of a few
carefully chosen parameters to describe both the
kinetics of single dislocation motion and the evolution
of the dislocation density in an analytical manner
through evolution equations, (ii) incorporate most
of the ingredients that rule the kinetics of a single
dislocation, and extend the calculation to a large
number of interacting dislocations. Since this task is
impossible to carry out analytically, this approach
requires the use of mesoscale simulations.
Acknowledgements
The author thanks Dr M. Lebyodkine for carefully
reading the manuscript.
See also: Intermetallics: Mechanical Properties; Inter-
metallics: Crystal Structures
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