Professional Documents
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Surveying
Surveying
👉 Principal of surveying:
1. To work from whole to the part
2. To locate a new station at least two measurement
👉 If the curvature of earth is considered then it is called Geodetic surveying (Area >
250 km2)
👉 If the curvature of earth is not considered then it is called Plane surveying (Area <
250 km2)
👉 The difference between the length arch of circle and subtended chord on the surface
of earth is 0.1m for 18.2km, 0.3m for 54.3km, 0.5m for 91 km
👉 Sum of the angles on spherical triangle on the earth surface & corresponding plane
triangle is 1 sec per 195.5 Sq. km area.
👉 Vernier scale: It is small scale which slides along the main scale. The
divisions on the Vernier scale are little smaller or larger than divisions of main
scale.
Types of Vernier scale
1. Direct Vernier: The division on the Vernier slightly shorter than main
scale
2. Indirect Vernier: It is also known as retrograde Vernier. The
divisions on Vernier indicates in opposite direction as that of main scale.
The smallest divisions of Vernier is little larger than the smaller division
on main scale.
3. Double Vernier: The divisions on Vernier represented in both the
directions the zero is marked at the centre. It is combination of both
direct and retrograde Vernier.
4. Extended Vernier: n division of Vernier scale is equal to (2n - 1)
division of main scale.
👉Correct length= ( )
2
RF of wrong scale
× Measured length
RF of correct scale
👉 Peg: It is used to indicate position of survey stations or end points of the survey line.
👉 Ranging rod: It is used to locate intermediate points such that these points lie on the
straight line joining the end stations.
🔸 Topographical map: Shows the hills, Valleys, rivers, Village, towns, forests
etc.
🔹 Cadastral map: Showing the boundaries of fields, houses & other properties.
🔸 Contour map: Determine the capacity of reservoir and to find best possible
route for roads & railways
🔹 Military map: showing the road & railway communication with different
parts of a country such a map also shows the different strategic points important
for the defence of a country.
🔸 Archaeological Map: Showing areas including places where ancient relics
exist.
👉 Buildings: 1 cm = 10m
Field book
👉 Double line field book is most commonly used for ordinary survey works
where accuracy is less
👉 Single line field book is used for very large-scale works where more details
are to be entered.
🔸 Check line or proof line: The lines used for check the accuracy of the frame work
of triangles.
🔸 Main stations: Major control points to divide the area called main stations.
🔸 Base line: Longest line in that area divide the almost in two part.
🔸 Tie line: Any line drawn to collect more information about different objects in area.
🔸 Leader: The chainman at the forward end of the chain, who drags the chain forward
is known as leader.
🔸 Follower: The chainman at the rear end of the chain, who holds the zero end of the
chain at the station is known as follower.
👉 Range type offset: It is an Oblique offset taken along the line of wall a
building.
🔸 Obstacles in chaining
👉 Chaining around the obstacle is possible e.g pond or lake.
🔹 A triangle is said to be well conditioned when it's angke should be lie between 30°
and 120°
Compass surveying
🔸 The principle of compass surveying is traversing which involves a series of
connected lines.
🔸 Compass surveying: It measures the angle between the magnetic meridian and a
given line.
👉 Prismatic compass:
~ The angles are measured from 0° to 360°. This system is called whole
circle bearing system.
~ Bearing of line measured in clockwise direction from North.
~ Sighting the object and taking readings are done simultaneously.
👉 Surveyors compass:
~Angle are measured ranges from 0° to 90°. This system is called Reduced
bearing or quadrantal bearing system
~ Bearing of line measured east or west from North or south which ever nearer
🔸 Fore bearing: The bearing of a line in the direction of progress of survey is called
fore bearing or forward bearing.
🔸 Back bearing: The bearing of a line opposite in direction is known as back bearing.
It is also known as reverse bearing.
🔸 Types of meridian
👉 True meridian: The true meridian at a point is passing through that point and
geographical North and South poles of earth surface.
👉 Grid meridian: For a survey of a state the true meridian of central place is
taken as reference meridian for whole circle bearing is called grid meridian
👉 Arbitrary meridian: Meridian taken in any convenient direction towards a
permanent and prominent mark or signal is known as arbitrary meridian.
🔸 Types of bearing
👉 True bearing: The horizontal angle between the true meridian and a given
line is called true bearing or Azimuth of a line
👉 Magnetic bearing: The angle between the magnetic meridian and a given
line is called magnetic bearing or bearing of a line
👉 Grid bearing: Horizontal angle between grid meridian and a given line is
called grid bearing.
🔸 Magnetic Declination: The horizontal angle between the magnetic meridian and
true meridian is called declination or magnetic declination.
🔸 Dip: Dip is the inclination of the magnetic needle with the horizontal. It is 0° at the
equator and 90° at the poles
🔸 Local attraction
👉 The magnetic needle is deflected from its normal position when it is place near to
external attractive forces such as steel structure and magnet such as disturbing
influence is known as local acceleration.
👉 If the difference between fore bearing and back bearing is 180°. There is no local
attraction of both the station.
🔸 Types of declination
The declination at a place does not remains constant but it changes from time to
time.
1. Secular variation:
👉 secular variation of declination occur over a long period of time 100
year or 150 year.
🔸 The North line of the map is marked on the right hand top corner
🔸 It is graphical method of surveying where the field work and plotting are done
simultaneously.
🔸 The working edge of the alidade is called fudicial edge or bevelled edge
🔸 Orientation: The preparation of keeping the plane table at each station parallel to the
position occupied at the previous station is known as orientation.
👉 Radiation:
~ Detailed plotting generally done by radiation.
~ These method is suitable for survey of small areas which can be done for a
single station.
👉 Intersection:
~ It is employed when inaccessible points to be surveyed
~ Suitable for hilly areas
👉 Traversing:
~ It is used to plot the areas
👉 Resection:
~ Resection is the process of finding the location of plane table with the help of
known locations.
~ Resection is done by following methods
1. Compass method
2. Back ray method
3. Two point method :
~ It is more laborious than three point problems
~ Orientation of plane table by solving two point problems is adopted
only when given points are accessible
4. Three point problems
~ methods of Three point problems
A. Trial & error (Lehmann's method): It is more accurate and
quick.
B. Mechanical method (tracing paper)
C. Graphical method (Bessel's method)
Levelling
👉 The aim of levelling is to determine the relative heights of different objects on or
below the surface of the earth.
♦️Definitions
👉 Levelling: The art of determining the relative heights of different points on or below
the surface of the earth. Is known as levelling.
👉 Level surface: surface parallel to the mean spheroidal surface of the earth is said to
be a level surface.
👉 Horizontal plane: Plane tangential to the level surface at any point is known as
horizontal plane.
👉 Horizontal line: Line laying on the horizontal plane is said to be horizontal line.
👉 Vertical line: The direction indicated by a plumb line is known as vertical line.
👉 Vertical plane: A plane passing through the vertical line is known as vertical plane.
👉 Datum line: This is an imaginary line from which vertical distances of different
points are measured. In India datum adopted MSL at Karachi
👉 Reduced level: The vertical distance of a point above or below the datum line is
known as reduced level.
👉 Axis of the telescope: The axis is a line passing through the optical centre of the
object glass and the optical centre of the eye piece
👉 Focussing: The operation of setting the eye piece and the object glass a proper
distance apart for clear vision of the object is known as focussing.
👉 Backsight reading (BS): This is first staff reading taken in any set up of the
instrument after the levelling.
👉 Change point (CP): This point indicates the shifting of the instrument
👉 Parallax: The apparent movement of the image relative to the cross hairs is known
as parallax
♦️ Bench mark (BM): These are fixed points or marks of known RL determine with
reference to the Datum line.
🔸 Types of benchmarks
👉 GTS bench mark: These benchmarks are established by the survey of India
at a large interval all over the country.
👉 Temporary bench mark: when the bench mark are established temporarily
at the end of a day’s work they are said to be temporary bench mark.
♦️Types of levelling
🔸 Simple levelling:
👉 Find the difference of elevation of two points which are visible from a
single position of instrument
👉 Find the difference of elevation of two points require more than one
instrument station.
🔸 Fly levelling:
🔸 Profile levelling:
🔸 Reciprocal Levelling:
👉 It is used to finding the elevation of two points which are having certain
distance and it is not possible to setup the instrument in between the two
points.
🔸 Check Levelling:
👉 The operation of levelling from finishing point to the starting point at
the end of a day’s work is known as check levelling.
👉 The vertical distance between the line of sight and the level line at a particular
place is called the curvature correction.
👉 Cc = d2/2R or (0.0785d2)
👉 Cr = (1/7)*Cc or (0.0112d2)
🔸 Combined correction
👉 D = 3.853√h or √(h/0.0673)
Theodolite Surveying
♦️Definitions
👉 Transiting: The method of turning the telescope about its horizontal axis in a
vertical plane through 180° is termed as transiting. In other words, transiting
results in change of face.
👉 Face left (Telescope normal): the vertical circle of the theodolite is on the
left of the observer at the time of taking readings.
👉 Changing face: The operation of bringing the vertical circle from one side of
the observer to other is known as changing face.
🔸 Latitude (L):
🔸 Departure:
👉 D=sinθ
🔸 The latitude and departure of any point w.r.to. previous point are known as
consecutive co-ordinate of the point.
🔸 The latitude and departure of any point w.r.to. common origin are known as
Independent co-ordinate of the point.
👉 Length of line=√(L 2+ D 2)
♦️Balancing of traverse
🔸 Transit rule
🔸 Third rule
Tacheometric Surveying
🔸 Characteristics of tacheometer
🔸 As the distance between the tacheometer and staff increases, the staff intercept by
stadia hair increases
Curves
🔴 Horizontal curve
🔸 Simple curve
🔸 Compound curve
🔸 Reverse curve
🔸 Lamniscate curve
👉 Length of unit chord should not be more than 1/20th of the radius
👉 Radius - 1146/D
♦️Centrifugal ratio
👉 The ratio between the centrifugal force & the weight of the vehicle is known
as centrifugal ratio
🔸 Back tangent (Rear tangent): The tangent line before the beginning of the curve is
called back tangent
🔸 Forward tangent: The tangent line after the end of curve is called forward tangent
🔸 Vortex (point of intersection): The back tangent and forward tangent extended
intercepts at a point is known as vortex
🔸 Intersection angle (Deflection angle): The angle between back tangent and forward
tangent.
🔸 Point of curvature: It is the point on the back tangent at the beginning of the curve
🔸 Point of tangency: It is the point on the forward tangent at the end of the curve.
🔸 External distance: Distance between point of intersection & middle point of curve
🔸 Mid ordinate: Distance between mid-point of the curve and mid-point of long
chord
👉 Angular method
1. Rankine's method of tangential angle
2. Theodolite method
3. Techeometric method
Area calculation
Area= ( ∑ of ordinate
No .Of ordinates ) ×length of base line
🔸 Trapezoidal rule
🔸 Simpson's rule
👉 The boundaries between the ends of ordinate are assumed to form an arc of a
parabola
1
Area= ×common distance × { First ordinate+ Last ordinate+ 4 (∑ of even ordinate)+2( ∑ of odd o
3
👉 When the tracing point is moved along a circle without rotation of the wheel
then the circle is known as Zero circle.
👉 When the anchor point is inside the figure the area of the zero circle is added
Volume calculation
🔸 Trapezoidal rule (Avg. End area rule)
1
Volume= ×common distance × { Area of First section+area of last section+2 ×area of other section
2
Contouring
🔸 Contour: An imaginary line on the ground joining the points of equal elevation
🔸 Contour interval: The vertical distance between any two consecutive contours is
known as contour interval
🔸 Characteristics of contours
👉 Contour lines cannot cross one another, except in the case of an overhanging
cliff
🔸 Methods of contouring
A. Direct method:
👉 Spatial data
🔸 Elements of GIS
👉 Hardware
👉 Software
👉 Data
👉 User or People
Remote sensing
🔸 Remote sensing refers to gathering and processing of information about the earth
surface without having physical contact
🔸 Swatch refers to the width of the area scanned by scanners of the satellite
👉 There are 24 satellites revolving at 20,000 km altitude with orbit time of 12 hours in
six orbital clanes.
🔸 Latitude: It measures the distance of a point on the earth surface with respect to
equator.
🔸 Longitude: It measures the distance of a point on the earth surface with respect to
prime meridian.
🔸 If photographs are taken from the stations on the ground surface then it is called
Terrestrial photogrammetry
🔸 Camera axis: It is the line passing through the centre of the camera lens
perpendicular to picture plane
🔸 Focal length: It is the perpendicular distance from the optical centre to the picture
plane.
🔸 Isocentre: The point on the photographs where the bisector of angle of tilt meeting
the photographic plane.
🔸 Vertical photograph: It is obtained with axial camera when the ground is perfectly
flat and optical axis is vertical.
🔸 Tilted photograph: It is obtained when the optical axis is inclined to the vertical at
an angle not more than 3°
🔸 Oblique photograph: It is obtained when the optical axis is tilted more than 3°
🔸 Relief displacement: The relief of the terrain i.e. undulating ground surface is the
major source of an image displacement. It is termed as relief displacement.
♦️Formulae
🔸 Photo scale: (Distance on photo/ Distance on ground)
🔸 Plotting is the process of adding more details with respect to control points
🔸 Methods of plotting
Hydrographic surveying
🔸 Sounding: The measurement of depth below the water surface is called sounding.
👉 Sounding boat
👉 Fathometer: It is used for ocean sounding where depth of water is too much
~ Depth (h) :- Vt/2
Where,
V = Speed of sound in water
t = Time interval between transmitter and receiver