Performance Characteristics of Concrete With Nano- Graphene Oxide

Inundations
Geetha Ellala (  geethaellala9209@gmail.com )
Vidya Jyothi Institute of Technology, Hyderabad
Shrihari Saduwale
Vidya Jyothi Institute of Technology, Hyderabad

Research Article

Keywords: Graphene oxide (GO), Calcium-Silicate Hydrate gel, Compressive strength, durability, Rapid Chloride Permeability Test (RCPT)

Posted Date: August 2nd, 2022

DOI: https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1899759/v1

License:   This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Read Full License

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Abstract
Graphene oxide (GO) is one of the prominent Nano material, this has been utilized in producing cement composite materials. Graphene oxide represents
unique range properties likely to enhance the strength and toughness of concrete. In this study, the performance of graphene oxide (GO) was evaluated on the
workability, strength and durability properties of the fresh and hardened cement concrete. Different percentages of graphene oxide were added at 0wt%,
0.01wt%, 0.02wt%, 0.03wt%, 0.04wt%, 0.05% by weight of cement. Workability tests in terms of fluidity were conducted to the fresh GO based concrete.
Compressive strength, split tensile strength and flexural strength tests were conducted to the hardened GO based concrete at 7 days,14 days and 28 days.
Durability tests viz: Rapid chloride permeability test and sorptivity investigated the role of GO in concrete to enhance the performance characteristics of
concrete. Results demonstrated that, graphene oxide (GO) addition increases the viscosity, decreases the fluidity of concrete. Increased compressive, split
tensile and flexural strength results were appeared due to the addition of graphene oxide (GO) at different dosages. At 0.03% wt of graphene oxide dosage, the
average compressive strength was achieved by 85% at 7 days and 93% was attained at 14 days as that of 28days strength. It indicates that the early age
strength can be achieved by GO based concrete.

1. Introduction
Currently cement composite is most widely used material in concrete structures. Although cementitious composites are high in compressive strength, it has
disadvantages such as low tensile and flexural strength and also high cracking tendency [1]. As hardened cement pate consists of hydrated products such as
calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) gel, calcium hydroxide (CH),, and ettringite (AFt), monosulfonate (AFm). Among those hydration crystals, CH, AFt and AFm
typically exhibit rod-like and needle-like crystals. So, to improve the ductility and tensile strength various reinforcing materials are used and unsuccessful [2].
Later, Researchers concentrated towards the regulation or modification of microstructure which includes the hydration crystal shape in cement mix. As cement
composite exhibits porous nature due to lack of bonding between crystal structures in the cementitious matrix, the porosity in cementitious material plays a
major role [3, 4]. Due to size and structural features of pores, it can affect the mechanical properties, fluid diffusion characteristics and durability of material.
So, the refinement in the pore structure of the cement composites could be caused by the rate of increase in the degree of hydration [5].

It is well-known that, Nanoscale materials show excellent physical and chemical characteristics which improve effectiveness of materials. As Nanomaterials
have small particle sizes, large specific surface areas, and strong interface interactions with the cement matrix, they are easy to be merged with cement to
prepare cement-based nanocomposites and thus enhances the mechanical performance and service life. Add to this, nano inundations help to reduce the
cement dosage. Different types of Nano materials such as Nano Silica (SiO2), Carbon Nano Tubes (CNTs), Nano Titanium Oxide (TiO2), Graphene Oxide (GO)
are used to reinforce the cement matrix. There is a paradigm shift towards developing GO based nano cement composites due to its high-performance
characteristics in cement concrete [6, 7]. Therefore, the toughness of concrete is being improved by modifying the hydration structure of cement at microlevel
using one of the Nano materials i.e., Graphene Oxide. Graphene Oxide is made from the Graphite powder by using Hummer’s Method [8]. Generally, Nano
materials have one big disadvantage with their dispersibility property but in case of GO, it has supremacy over any other materials despite of the oxidative
functionalities that allow to disperse easily in water. The structure of Graphene oxide is a layered Nano material, consists oxygenated graphene sheets, and
consisting hydroxyl and epoxide functional groups on their basal planes and has carbonyl groups positioned on the sheet edges. So, this oxygen containing
functional groups make the easiest dispersion of Graphene Oxide (GO) in water and also the GO addition enhances the strength properties of OPC paste [9–
11]. The fluidity properties of the cement pastes have been reduced with an increase in dosage of GO, the plastic viscosity and yield stress has been increased
with the increase in the percentage of GO. An appropriate amount of silica fume can improve Graphene Oxide dispersion in the cement matrix and can
enhance compressive strength [12].

When, Graphene Oxide is introduced in cement composite then, as a result of the rich oxygen- containing functional groups on the surface of GO, its addition
to alkaline multi-ionic cement paste, GO can probably combine with Ca2+ ions in cement hydration but due to this addition in cement-based composites it has
adverse effect on workability due to its large surface area that tend to absorb more water molecule to get wet. To increase the workability of GO based
concrete, fly ash material is to be introduced [13]. The main role of Graphene Oxide in cement composite is to modify the structure of cement composite by
acting as a catalyst during hydration product formation [14]. So, the microstructure will convert from Needle like structure to flower type structure. During the
conversion of needle type to flower type, the ductility of concrete will be improved. The tensile strength and elastic modulus that Graphene Oxide exhibits is
around 130 MPa and 32 GPa respectively [15–20].

Though many researchers identified the role of GO in cement composites, no such literature is highly available on performance characteristics of GO addition
in cement concrete. It is necessitated to investigate the physical, mechanical and durability performance of concrete with GO inundation.

2. Experimental Work
In this study, an experimental analysis was performed to confirm the mechanical strength and durability characteristics of GO based concrete by using
parameters of experimental work viz: dosage of GO, age of curing.

2.1 MATERIALS USED:

Selection of each material likes Cement, Aggregates, and water of appropriate quality is very crucial to find performance studies on cement concrete.

a. Cement: Cement used in the investigation was 53 grade ordinary Portland cement conforming to IS 269-2015 [21]. The specific gravity of the cement was
3.12 and its specific surface area was 345 m2 /g.

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 b. Fine Aggregate: The fine aggregate conformed to Zone-2 according to IS 383-2016 [22]. The fine aggregate used was obtained from a nearby river source.
The specific gravity of fine aggregate is 2.62.
c. Coarse Aggregate: A well-graded aggregate crushed granite aggregate, conforming to IS 383 – 2016 [22], of 20 mm nominal size was used as coarse
aggregate. Its specific gravity of coarse aggregate is 2.7.
d. Water : Potable water as per IS 456-2000 [23]
e. Graphene oxide. Graphene oxide (GO) is a unique material with various oxygen containing functionalities such as epoxide, carbonyl, carboxyl and
hydroxyl groups.

PRODUCT SPECIFICATIONS
Form: Brown colour dry powder
Sheet dimension: < 90 µm, < 125 µm
Odor: Odorless
Dispersibility: Polar solvents (water, ethanol, DMF, etc.)
Tapped Density: ̴ 0.53 g/cm3
Elemental analysis: C: 62 - 71%, O: 28 - 33%, S: 0.5 - 1.8%, Si: 0.08 - 0.60%
Stability: Stable under room conditions

f. Fly ash

Fly ash is a heterogenous by product material procured from National Thermal Power Station Ramagundam, Telangana India. Addition of fly ash particles in
GO based concrete adds workability. Added to this, fly ash particles contribute towards pozzolanic reaction to improve the performance of concrete.

2.1.1 DESIGN MIX:

The mix design was done for M40 grade concrete based on the IS: 10262-2019 [24].Water cement ratio adopted as 0.40.

GO based concrete is prepared with different dosages of Graphene Oxide as GO-0%, 0.01%, 0.02%, 0.03%, 0.04%, 0.05% in cement concrete mixture for testing
the strength and durability properties. For testing the compressive strength, split tensile strength and flexural strength specimen sizes were considered for GO
Concrete as cubes of size 150mm x 150mm x 150mm, cylinders of size 150mm diameter and 300mm height and prisms of size 100x100x500mm were cast
as per the proportions of concrete which is specified in Table-1. After casting in iron moulds, the specimens were placed in conventional water curing for
specified age of curing.

TABLE 1

MIX PROPORTIONS OF M40 WITHOUT AND WITH GO

% of Graphene Cement (Kg/m3) Fine Aggregate Coarse Aggregate Fly ash (Kg/m3) Water (Kg/m3) Graphene Oxide

Mix Oxide (Kg/m3) (Kg/m3) (g)

M1 0 372 601 1109 93 186 0

M2 0.01 372 601 1109 93 186 37.2

M3 0.02 372 601 1109 93 186 74.4

M4 0.03 372 601 1109 93 186 111.6

M5 0.04 372 601 1109 93 186 148.8

M6 0.05 372 601 1109 93 186 186.0

2.2 FRESH PROPERTIES OF GO BASED CONCRETE:

Various tests (slump cone, compaction factor) were carried to check for satisfactory fresh properties. The tests are conducted based on IS1199-2018 [25].

2.3 MECHANICAL TESTS ON CONCRETE:

2.3.1 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH:

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The compressive strength test was done at the age of 7 d, 14 d and 28 d, with an average of three specimens for each curing period. They were tested, at a
load rate of 140 kg/cm2 per minute, under axial compression using a 200-t compressive strength testing machine in accordance with IS 516-1956
[26]

2.3.2 SPLIT TENSILE STRENGTH:

The cylinder specimens of size 300mm height and 150mm diameter were tested in accordance with IS 516-1956 [26] for performing split tensile strength. The
cylindrical specimens were subjected to compression loads along two axial lines which are diametrically opposite. The test was carried out by placing the
specimen horizontally between the loading surfaces of the compression testing machine for split tensile strength and the axis of the specimen was carefully
aligned with center of the loading frames. The load was applied and increased continuously till the specimen broke. The maximum load was recorded and the
split tensile strength (Fst) was calculated using the Equation 1. The average of three repetitive samples was presented as the split tensile strength.

Where,

P - Maximum load applied to the specimen in 'Newton'

l - Length of the specimen in ‘mm’

d - Diameter of the specimen in 'mm'

2.3.3 FLEXURAL STRENGTH

Flexural strength is expressed in terms of modulus of rupture, which is the maximum stress at the extreme fibers in bending. The prism specimens of size 500
× 100 × 100mm are tested on a loading frame of 20 Ton capacity. The bed of the testing machine was provided with two steel rollers 38mm in diameter on
which the specimen was supported, and these rollers were so mounted that the distance from the center is 40cm. The load was applied through two similar
rollers mounted at the third point of the supporting span i.e. spaced at 13.33cm center to center. The load will be divided equally between the two loading
rollers, and all the rollers were mounted in such a manner that the load was applied axially and without subjecting the specimen to any torsional stresses and
restraints. The test was done as per IS: 516-1956 [26]. The modulus of rupture “Ff” was calculated for the maximum load taken by the member as follows and
the presented result is the average of three repetitive samples.

i) For a > 133 mm

Where,

P - Maximum load applied to the specimen in 'N'

l - Length of the span on which the specimen is supported in ‘mm’

b - Measured width of the specimen in ‘mm’

a - Distance between line of fracture and the nearer support measured on centerline of the tension side of specimen in ‘mm’

d - Measured depth of the specimen in ‘mm’

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2.4 TESTS ON DURABILITY PROPERTIES

2.4.1 SORPTIVITY TEST

The sorptivity tests were carried out on GO based specimens with size of 100 mm diameter and 50mm thick. The preparation of samples also included water
impermeability of their lateral faces, reducing the effect of water evaporation. The test started weighing the samples and afterwards they are placed in a
recipient in contact with a level of water capable to submerge them about 5 mm as shown in Fig 1. After a predefined period of time, the samples are removed
from the recipient and they are weighted. The procedure was repeated, consecutively, at various times such as 10min, 20min. 30min, 1hr, 2hr, 3hr and 6hrs
[27].

Because of a small initial surface tension and buoyancy effects, the relationship between cumulative water absorption (kg/m2) and square root of exposure
time (t0.5) shows deviation from linearity during first few minutes. Thus, for the calculation of sorptivity coefficient, the section of curves for the above
exposure period of 10min to 6 hours and linear curves were plotted. The sorptivity coefficient (S) was taken by using the following expression obtained from
equation of curve line:

2.4.3 RAPID CHLORIDE PERMEABILITY TEST

According to ASTM C1202 test [28], a water-saturated, 50 mm thick, 100 mm thick diameter concrete specimen is subjected to a 60V applied DC voltage for 6
hours using the apparatus and the cell arrangement is shown in Figure 2. In one reservoir is a 3.0% NaC1 solution and in the other reservoir is a 0.3 M NaOH
solution. The total charge passed is determined and this is used to rate the concrete according to the criteria included as Table 5. Figure 2 shows a schematic
diagram of RCPT test.

Table 2

RCPT ratings (as per ASTM C1202)

CHARGE PASSED( coloumbs) CHLORIDE ION PENETRABILITY

>4000 High

2000-4000 Moderate

1000-2000 Low

100-1000 Very low

<100 Negligible

3. Results And Discussions:

3.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

The fresh properties of GO based concrete are determined as per IS 1199-2018. Table 3 presents the fresh property values of different tests conducted for
different dosages of GO. It is observed that the increase in content of GO modified the fresh properties and slightly reduced the workability of concrete and this
is due to high specific surface area of GO particles. The results indicated that for 0% GO concrete i.e. conventional concrete, the fresh properties are high and it
is low in case of 0.05% GO based concrete, however the values are within acceptable range. The results are within acceptable range due to incorporation of fly
ash particles.

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 TABLE-3

FRESH PROPERTY VALUES OF GO BASED CONCRETE

GO BY % WEIGHT OF CEMENT Slump Cone (mm) Compaction Factor (Ratio)

MIX

M1 0 78 0.96

M2 0.01 69 0.91

M3 0.02 65 0.89

M4 0.03 63 0.87

M5 0.04 60 0.86

M6 0.05 58 0.85

3.2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

3.2.1 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH:

Tables 4 & 5 show that the compressive strength increased with age of 7, 14, 28 days for M40 grade of concrete. The trend between normalized compressive
strength and compressive strength for mixes M1, M2, M3, M4, M5, and M6 are shown in figure 3 & 4. Comparing the results obtained from the specimens
under the different curing regime, it is seeming that the optimal dosage value of GO Nano sheets for improving the compressive and flexural strengths of
specimens at standard curing and under curing was 0.03% by weight of cement and the corresponding value of an average compressive strength at 28 days
was 58.9 MPa. At the age of 28 days, when compared the average compressive strength by GO-0% of graphene oxide, the percentage of average compressive
strength is increased at GO-0.01% is 5.86%, GO-0.02% is 10.7%, GO-0.03% is 19%, GO-0.04% is 16.2%, GO-0.05 is 12.5%. From GO-0% the average compressive
strength of the concrete is gradually increased up to GO- 0.03% at the age of 28 days and it is represented in Table-4. By the percentage values of compressive
strength, it is apparent that compressive strength is gradually increased up to the addition of GO-0.03% and then it is gradually decreased due to the excessive
addition of graphene oxide leads to the formation of agglomeration. So, that it causes to uneven dispersion of graphene oxide in concrete.

TABLE-4

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH RESULT

GO BY % WEIGHT OF CEMENT AVERAGE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (MPa)

MIX 7 DAYS 14 DAYS 28 DAYS

M1 0 35.6 41.8 49.5

M2 0.01 40.9 44.5 52.4

M3 0.02 44.9 47.8 54.8

M4 0.03 49.5 54.5 58.9

M5 0.04 47.4 51.6 57.5

M6 0.05 45.8 50.4 55.7

NORMALIZED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH:

The rate of compressive strength of each category of the samples cured for 7 days to those
for 28 days as normalized strength ratio. The ratio of the average compressive strength of specimens cured for 7 days to that of the specimens cured for 28 da
observe that, at the GO-0.03% dosage the value is in the range of 0.85 compared to the value of 0.72 at GO-0% (without GO mix). So, it is identified that,
whatever the strength it is to be achieved at 28 days, 85% of the strength is achieved at 7days which is a consequence for early age strength. while, in case of
14 days, 93% of strength is to be achieved. So, by the addition of graphene oxide it identifies the decreasing curing time.

TABLE-5

NORMALIZED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH RESULT

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 MIX NORMALIZED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH VALUE

7D/28D 14D/28D

M1 0.72 0.85

M2 0.79 0.85

M3 0.82 0.88

M4 0.85 0.93

M5 0.83 0.90

M6 0.83 0.91

3.2.2 SPLIT TENSILE STRENGTH

From various dosages of graphene oxide (GO-0.01%, 0.02%,0.03%,0.04%,0.05%), the split tensile strength is gradually increased up to the addition of 0.03% of
GO is 7.89 MPa (Table 6). When the average split tensile strength is compared with control concrete (without graphene
oxide), the percentage of average split tensile strength is increased by GO-0.01% is 19.4%, GO-0.02% is 29%, GO-0.03% is 45%, GO-0.04% is 33%, GO-0.05% is
30%. From the result, the split tensile strength is gradually increased up to the graphene oxide dosage at 0.03% and
then gradually decreased due to the excessive amount of graphene oxide cause agglomeration. Figure 5 represents the increment of average split tensile
strength with respect to curing days of 7days, 14 days, 28 days of different mixes. And figure 6 shows the increment of split tensile strength with respect to
compressive strength.

TABLE-6

SPLIT TENSILE STRENGTH RESULT

GO BY % WEIGHT OF CEMENT AVERAGE SPLIT TENSILE STRENGTH (MPa)

MIX 7 DAYS 14 DAYS 28 DAYS

M1 0 3.78 3.76 5.42

M2 0.01 4.29 5.12 6.47

M3 0.02 5.61 5.86 6.99

M4 0.03 6.33 7.09 7.89

M5 0.04 5.85 6.42 7.19

M6 0.05 5.64 6.28 7.07

3.2.3 FLEXURAL STRENGTH:

For enhancing the improvement in mechanical properties of concrete, different graphene oxide (GO) dosages of 0.01wt%, 0.02wt%, 0.03wt%, 0.04% and 0.05%w
incorporated in the cement composites. At the age of 28 days, when compared with control sample (without GO), the percentage of flexural strength is
increased by GO-0.01% is 4%, GO-0.02% is 14%, GO-0.03% is 23%, GO-0.04% is 19.4%, GO-0.05% is 15%. From the results of Table-
7, it was observed that the flexural of the hardened cement paste was increased with the gradual increment up to the graphene oxide (GO) dosage of 0.03%
and then it gradually decreased due to the excessive amount of addition of GO leads to
Agglomeration. Figure 7 represents the average flexural strength that is increased with respect to the curing age of 7days, 14 days, 28 days of different mixes.
And Figure 8 shows the flexural strength with respect to compressive strength.

TABLE-7

FLEXURAL STRENGTH RESULT

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 GO BY % WEIGHT OF CEMENT AVERAGE FLEXURAL STRENGTH (MPa)

MIX 7 DAYS 14 DAYS 28 DAYS

M1 0 4.02 4.39 5.42

M2 0.01 4.14 4.67 5.63

M3 0.02 4.95 5.37 6.18

M4 0.03 5.58 6.16 6.68

M5 0.04 5.33 5.80 6.47

M6 0.05 5.14 5.67 6.28

3.3. DURABILITY:

For understanding the durability properties of graphene oxide-based concrete, durability tests (viz: Sorptivity and Rapid chloride permeability test (RCPT))
were conducted to the specimens by immersion in water for 28 days’ period. Mostly durability of concrete depends on capability of a fluid to penetrate into its
microstructure. These tests were conducted to sample specimens cast with 0%, 0.01%, 0.02%, 0.03%, 0.04% and 0.05% dosages of graphene oxide (GO) and
compared the level of water penetration into the samples using sorptivity and chloride ion penetration resistance using Rapid Chloride Permeability Test.

3.3.1 SORPTIVITY:

The absorption and transmission of water by capillary action, called ‘sorptivity’, can be determined based on the increase in weight of specimens at the end of
a standard interval of time. Sorptivity tests were conducted on specimens without and with various dosages of Graphene Oxide based concrete specimens.
Cylindrical discs of size 100 mm diameter and 50mm thick cured until 28 days of curing were sealed with wax on three sides to allow water transmission only
from the bottom portion and weighed before the test. The specimens were kept in a water trough in contact with water up to a height of about 5 mm. The
specimens were weighed, under saturated surface dry condition, at the end of 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 min and then at intervals of 30 min.

The results presented in Table – 8 indicated the decreased water penetration into the GO based concrete for increased dosages of graphene oxide, when
compared with control (without GO) sample. It describes that the presence of graphene oxide nano particles hinders the penetration of moisture into concrete
and thus acts as a barrier against water capillary rise. From the results, it was observed that denser interlocked network of cement hydration crystals was
formed due to the filling of void spaces or pores in the cement composite by the high surface area of graphene oxide Nano sheets. This denser formation of
cement hydration crystals is not only enhancing the strength properties but also decreases the water penetration into the capillary pores or void spaces of
cement composite by acting as a water infiltration barrier [8,9].

TABLE-8

SORPTIVITY VALUES FOR DIFFERENT MIXES

MIX TYPE GO BY % WEIGHT OF CEMENT SORPTIVITY

mm/s1/2

M1 0 0.0587

M2 0.01 0.0234

M3 0.02 0.0203

M4 0.03 0.0098

M5 0.04 0.0172

M6 0.05 0.0176
3.3.2 RAPID CHLORIDE PERMEABILITY TEST:

RCPT indicates the permeability of chloride ions into the concrete based on charge passed through the sample. Higher the amount of the charge passed,
higher will be the permeability of concrete. According to ASTM C1202 [28], a water-saturated,50 mm thick, 100 mm thick diameter concrete specimen is
subjected to a 60 V applied DC voltage for 6 hours using RCPT apparatus. The total charge passed is determined and used to rate the concrete according to
the criteria proposed in ASTM C1202. From Table 9, it can be observed that chloride ion penetration is low for concrete specimens without GO and low for Go
based mixes. Nano inundation at optimum dosages added advantage to concrete in minimizing the chloride ion permeability. The concrete with GO-0.03%
(M4) has attained minimum charge compared to other mixes. The less permeability results less susceptibility to corrosion.

TABLE-9

RCPT VALUES FOR DIFFERENT MIXES

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 MIX TYPE GO BY % WEIGHT OF CEMENT CHARGE PASSED (coulombs) CHLORIDE ION PERMEABILITY

M1 0 1953 LOW

M2 0.01 1429 LOW

M3 0.02 1212 LOW

M4 0.03 812 VERY LOW

M5 0.04 942 VERY LOW

M6 0.05 1145 LOW

4. Conclusions
A comprehensive study of a different kind of properties of concrete incorporating GO with the water to cement ratio of 0.4 was conducted and the following
conclusions are drawn.

1. The average compressive strength that is increased at the graphene oxide dosage of 0.03% is 58.9 MPa when compared with control concrete (without
GO) is 49.5 MPa.
2. By the addition of graphene oxide, the split tensile strength is increased by 12% value of the compressive strength and mostly, toughness of concrete
could be increased due to the modification of microstructure of hydration crystals in cement composite by the incorporation of Graphene Oxide.
3. The pore structure of cement matrix refines by the incorporation of GO due to the filling of large pores by GO agglomerates.
4. As a result of adding Graphene Oxide, we can observe that the compressive strength that is gaining 85% at the age of 7 Days and 93% is gaining at 14
days. It is also called as Normalized compressive strength.
5. By the addition of Graphene, porous nature of concrete will be decreased so that durability of structure will be increased.

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Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
24. BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards) (2019) IS: 10262-2019 Guidelines for concrete mix design proportioning, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
25. BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards) (2018) IS: 1199-2018 Fresh Concrete – Methods of Sampling, Testing and Analysis, Bureau of Indian Standards, New
Delhi, India.
26. BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards) (1956) IS: 516 -1956 (Reaffirmed 1999) Indian Standard Methods of Tests for Strength of Concrete, Bureau of Indian
Standards, New Delhi, India.
27. ASTM C1585-20, Standard Test Method for Measurement of Rate of Absorption of Water by Hydraulic-Cement Concretes, ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, PA, 2020, www.astm.org
28. ASTM C1202-19, Standard Test Method for Electrical Indication of Concrete's Ability to Resist Chloride Ion Penetration, ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, PA, 2019, www.astm.org

Figures

Figure 1

Schematic Diagram of Sorptivity measurement

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Figure 2

RCPT test on concrete

Figure 3

Average compressive strength with Mix ID

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Figure 4

Normalized compressive strength with Mix ID

Figure 5

Average split tensile strength with Mix ID

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Figure 6

Split tensile strength Vs Compressive strength

Figure 7

Average flexural tensile strength with Mix ID

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Figure 8

Flexural strength Vs Compressive strength

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