Measuring dough

characteristics during
fermentation/proofing
Dr. M. Hikmet Boyacioglu
Applications Development Specialist
KPM Analytics
 Importance of Bread

“Bread, symbol of life itself; in abundance the guarantee of well-being, in times of want to dream
and the cry of the famine-ridden”.

“Flour for Men’s Bread”;

Starck and Teague, 1952

“If you desire peace, cultivate justice, but at the same time, cultivate the fields to produce more
bread; otherwise, there will be no peace.”

Dr. Norman Borlaug

Nobel Peace Price Recipient, 1970
 Importance of Baker

“The baker converts the flour produced by the miller from wheat grown by the
producer into delicious basic foods favored by the consumer and capable of being
eaten with every meal, by every ethnic and age group every day of the year,
regardless of economic level from the cradle to the grave.”

Simon S. Jackel, 1986

The baker is a public servant at first importance. To him is confided the

responsibility of furnishing to millions of people a food which is very agreeable to
them in appearance and eating qualities and one which is in low price. Besides,
bread is always freshly manufactured. This public confidence in bread has caused
it to become the world’s greatest food.
 Historical Overview

➢ Egyptians discovered breadbaking, 1800 BC.

➢ From Egypt, the art of breadmaking came to Israel and Greece, Around 776 BC.
➢ After the Roman had conquered the Greeks, they learned from the Greeks how to make bread.
➢ Around the turn of the century, the Romans introduced bread to central Europe.
➢ The production of baker’s yeast began in Europe around 1900.
➢ In Europe, research in the area of baking technology started in the second half of the 19th
century and was intensified at the beginning of the 20th century (development of machineries,
improvement of raw materials and processing techniques).
➢ In the last decades, research in the area of baking technology has passed through various
phases, depending on nutritional concerns, application of new or improved techniques, and
consumer trends.
 Historical Overview
I. NUTRITIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS

Marketing studies have indicated that it is necessary to develop a wide variety of products with
excellent sensory properties and good freshness in order to increase the consumption of cereal foods.

1. Expanding the varieties of bread

2. Use of non-wheat grains
2.1. Materials of plant and animal origin
Soybean, wheat germ, bran, raisin, etc.
Non-fat dry milk, whey powder, etc.
2.2. Special baking techniques
2.3. Breads with altered nutritive value
Protein enrichment (vital gluten, soy protein, milk),
Light products, Dietetic breads, Vitaminized breads, Fiber-enriched breads, Gluten-free breads, etc.
2.4. ‘Bio’ breads (alternative breads)
2.5. Optimization of bread formulations
 Historical Overview

II. PROCESSING TECHNIQUES

• Milling techniques
• Developments in dough and bread
making techniques
• Computer-assisted baking machinery
• Extrusion cooking, Freezing techniques,
Sourdough procedure, etc.
 Breadmaking
Baking is a complex process!!!
The breadmaking process is the interaction of raw materials, equipment and people in a
particular environment.

The factors of ingredients and equipment determine the end products, but consumer
requirements and expectations frame the style and character of finished baked foods.
Breadmaking
Baking – 3 essential stages

1- Mixing / kneading
- Initiating bread structure

2- Fermentation / proofing
- Developing bread structure

3- Baking
- Setting bread structure
 Breadmaking
Dough Mixing is a critical and important part in the baking process!

Major functions:

➢ Uniform dispersion of the

ingredients to form a
homogenous mixture,

➢ Properly develop the gluten so

it has certain characteristics.
These are pliability (flexibility)
of the dough, elasticity and
hydration.
 Breadmaking
Fermentation (Proofing) is a key functional step!

The aim of fermentation is to continue the process of dough development that was started during mixing.

Major functions:

➢ Production of carbon dioxide from fermentable sugars so that the dough in which it is
generated is aerated!

➢ Assist in the ripening or mellowing of the gluten of the dough so that when the loaf is
in the oven, the gluten is in such a condition that it allows for even expansion of the
gases and at the same time be able to retain them!

➢ Contributes to flavor development as a result of the production of alcohols, acids,

esters, and other flavor precursors!
Breadmaking
Baking!

The final step in breadmaking is the actual baking process in which the raw
dough piece, under the influence of heat is transformed into a light,
porous, readily digestible and flavorful product.
 Breadmaking
Baking!

The various reactions that underlie this transformation are both basic-they irreversibly alter the
structural nature of the major dough constituents
• Physical interactions: film formation, gas expansion, gas solubility reduction, alcohol
evaporation
• Chemical interactions: yeast action, CO2 formation, starch gelatinization, gluten
coagulation, sugar caramelization, browning reaction
• Biochemical interactions
Role of fermentation in baking
Fermentation (Proofing) is a key functional step

From starch to carbon dioxide

Amylase

Yeast

CO2
Role of fermentation in baking
Fermentation (Proofing) is a key functional step

CO2 production
+ Dough rising
CO2 retention
 Role of fermentation in baking
Fermentation (Proofing) is a key functional step

Two groups of forces during fermentation:

Those associated with gas production!

Those associated with gas retention!

Factors increasing gas production: Factors decreasing gas production:

Increase in yeast level, Salt,
Addition of sugar or diastatic malt, High amounts of yeast foods,
Use of yeast foods, Excessively high temperature.
Increase in temperature up to 35oC.
Role of fermentation in baking
Fermentation (Proofing) is a key functional step

Factors governing gas retention:

Proteolytic enzymes,

Chemical and physical means. Examples – minerals,

hydrogen ion concentration, pH, oxidizing agents,

Mechanical factors – stretching under gas evolution –

punching, dividing, rounding, moulding.
 Role of fermentation in baking
Fermentation (Proofing) is a key functional step

The aim of fermentation control is

to have gas production capacity and gas retention capacity develop at a parallel and even rate!
• Most flours yield a range of fermentation times over which gas production and gas
retention are properly balanced
• This range may be properly designated as the fermentation tolerance of the flour.

Optimum fermentation time represents that point at which the effects of interacting factors such
as character of flour, yeast level, temperature, formula ingredients, degree of oxidation, etc. are
in balance.
Role of fermentation in baking
Fermentation (Proofing) is a key functional step

Most flour possessing adequate baking properties pass

through a stage in the course of fermentation during which
gas production and gas retention are in optimum balance.

• The time range over which this is true may properly

be designated as the flour’s fermentation
tolerance.
• Fermentation is subject to many influences that
affect its course
• One and the same flour may have rather limited
fermentation tolerance under one set of conditions,
but good tolerance under a different set of
conditions.
 Specific functions of fermentation

The effects of starch damage and yeast fermentation on the formation of acrylamide in wheat
bread were studied.
Compared with the unleavened bread, dough fermentation significantly decreased the
content of acrylamide in leavened bread.
This study clearly showed that damaged starch content in wheat flour and dough fermentation
are two major determinants of the formation of acrylamide in bread.
The mitigation of acrylamide formation in bread can be achieved by reducing damaged starch
in flour and by fermentation of the dough.
Wang et al., 2017
 Specific functions of fermentation

Staling of white wheat bread produced from frozen part-baked bread of different fermentation times
(90–120–420 min) and fiber contents (6% wheat bran and 6% wheat bran +2% inulin) was studied.
The bread with the longest fermentation process led to the lowest starch retrogradation and slowest
firming and cohesiveness loss kinetics.
Consequently, the increase in fermentation time showed a positive effect in delaying bread staling.
Ronda et al., 2014
 Specific functions of fermentation

This study aimed to study how structural changes in gluten-free breads, caused by different baking
conditions (level of dough hydration and fermentation time), impact oral processing (bread
breakdown and bolus formation) and sensory perception.
Longer fermentation resulted in gluten-free breads with a more open structure (bigger air cells and
less density) with crumbs presenting lower instrumental hardness values. Because of that expansion,
the long-fermented gluten-free loaves were bigger than loaves using short fermentation.

The implication of this study for the gluten-free bread industry is that baking conditions, such as
fermentation time, can improve gluten-free bread’s sensory characteristics regarding texture,
creating more aerated sensations that are usually missed in gluten-free breads.
Puerta et al., 2021
 Effects of specific ingredients on fermentation

The objective of this work was to study the characteristics of four gluten-free bread formulations
prepared with chickpea flour, pea isolate, carob germ flour or soya flour, to determine effect of
legume flours on baking characteristics of gluten-free bread
Gas production and retention was not significantly different in any of the formulations studied but
carob germ batter showed the lowest batter height .
Miñarro et al., 2012
 Effects of specific ingredients on fermentation
The main objective of this investigation was to study the effect of fungal phytase, alpha-amylase
addition, bran content and particle size distribution of bran on the functional behaviour of
wheat flour dough during mixing and fermentation, as well as on the concentration of phytates in
bread.

The interactions between proteins and bran prevent the free expansion of wheat dough during
proofing, which decreased the dough height.
Alfa-Amylase addition had a significant positive effect on dough development and gassing power
parameters during proofing.
The maltose produced by the action of amylases on damaged starch, is the most important sugar in
dough and that the leavening ability of the baker’s yeast is closely related to its maltose
fermentation capacity.
Penella et al., 2008
 Effects of specific ingredients on fermentation

The aim of the research was to study the rheofermentation properties of dough prepared
from composite flours made up of wheat flour T650 (70%), and the addition of 30%, and
evaluate changes caused by addition in the ability of dough to retain fermentation gases.
Doughs with addition of pseudocereals (spelt, amaranth, buckwheat) flour had
significantly lower gas retention coefficient (measured by rheofermentometer) mainly
due to a lower proportion of gluten in the flour composition.”
Bojnanska and Smitalova, 2015
 Compliant with AACC Approved Method 89-01.01.
AACC Approved Methods of Analysis, 11th Edition
Yeast

AACC Method 89-01.01

Yeast Activity, Gas Production

Objective
The method determines the total gas production of yeast, expressed in ml, at standard barometric pressure over time. It permits
comparison of gassing activity among various samples of yeast and provides a means to monitor yeast consistency. It is not intended to
predict performance in the bakery because variations in formulation and processing conditions cannot be duplicated in the activity test
method. The method is applicable to commercial yeasts, including compressed yeast (CY) with approximately 30% solids, active dry yeast
(ADY) with approximately 92% solids, and, by using a slightly different testing procedure, instant dry yeast (IDY) with approximately 95%
solids. High levels of sugar may significantly affect yeast activity. Formulas containing 0, 8, and 20% sugar (flour basis) are provided. Dough
formulations are calculated so that equal weights of dough contain equal weights of yeast solids (0.70 g of yeast solids per 100 g of
dough).
Yeast activity in terms of gas production is greatly affected by variations in time, temperature, and ingredients. One approach to account
for these sources of variation is to include a standard sample from a single lot of IDY, stored at 4° in a refrigerator. Several type of
instruments can be used in this method, but comparison of results should be limited to data obtained from the same type of measuring
device within the same laboratory.
 How to follow fermentation?
A desirable loaf volume is achieved only if the dough provides a favorable environment for
yeast growth and gas retention and, at the same time, possesses a gluten matrix that is
capable of maximum retention.

The latter attribute is most conveniently determined by measuring the volume increase of a
fermenting dough, whereas gas production can be estimated by any of several procedures.

The AACC Approved Methods describe a pressumeter method and a volumetric method for
measuring the gas production that is an index of diastatic activity.

Zymotachygraphe to Rheofermentometer
Zymotachygraphe
Zymotachygraphe II
Rheofermentometer
 Rheofermentometer: Standard protocol

- Test temperature*: 28.5°C

- Dough composition: 250g of flour, 3g (1.2%) of quick-rising dry yeast (or 7g of

baker's fresh yeast), 5g of salt, adapted hydration (based on moisture and
Alveograph"P" value)
- Dough prepared from Alveograph mixer* set at 27°C
- After 1min mixing, 5g of salt is added
- Sample weight: 315g
- Weight applied on the sample: 2kg
- 13min after beginning of mixing, Rheo is started
- Test duration*: 3h
* IMPORTANT : The instrument only controls time and temperature.
Results from Rheofermentometer

3 curves on 2 graphs:
- Dough development
- Gas production + gas retention

To get a complete image of dough

proofing properties, these 3 curves
need to be considered together!
 Results from Rheofermentometer–Dough development

T1: Time to maximum dough development in hours and minutes.

Hm: Maximum dough development height under stress, in mm.
T2 and T’2: Telative stabilization time at the maximum point located at a height of 0.88Hm without being
lower than Hm-6mm.
ΔT2=T2-T’2= Dough tolerance
h: Dough development height at the end of the test
(Hm-h)/Hm: % of drop in development after 3h (case of the CHOPIN protocol) compared with T1
Sample graphs
Excellent dough development, but sudden large drop
in tolerance
Good dough
development.
Excellent tolerance

Good flour Very good dough

allowing a second development.
dough rising Drop in tolerance
after two hours
Excellent dough
development.
Tolerance remains
correct

Abnormally slow development

 Results from Rheofermentometer – Gas production

H’m: Maximum height of the gas release curve.

T1: Time required to obtain H’m
Tx: Dough porosity time (time when the dough starts to lose CO2).
Total volume: Total volume of gas produced in ml (A1+A2 of the curve).
Volume of CO2 lost: Carbon dioxide volume in ml that the dough has lost during proofing (A2).
Retention volume: Carbon dioxide volume in ml still retained in the dough at the end of the test (A1).
 Sample graphs
Relatively low proofing capacity Relatively high proofing capacity. Quick start of CO2
production, but Tx appears too early. High permeability

Relatively high proofing

Relatively low proofing capacity. Quick start of CO2
capacity. Should be slightly production, but sudden drop
increased before 2 1/2 hours.

Normal and prolonged proofing capacity, which is positive.

Normal proofing capacity. Normal appearance of Tx. But very early appearance of Tx and high permeability.
Corresponds to a totally normal curve for a bakery flour Characteristic curve of a flour with high extraction rate
Key applications
✓ Biscuit, baguette and pan ✓ Ascorbic acid
bread flours
✓ Amylase
✓ Flours with same falling
✓ Salt substitutes
number
✓ High fiber formulations
✓ Yeast activity (different
/whole grain
yeast, different quantity,
yeast aging) ✓ Frozen dough
✓ Vital wheat gluten ✓ Rye
(different quantity, ✓ Gluten-free products
different quality)

Protocol can be customized: Analyzes all types of yeast doughs!

 Key applications
70
Effects of flour type/protein content 60 Pan bread flour (protein=14%)
50
Flours with different protein 40 Biscuit flour (protein=9%)
contents have different 30

behaviors during proofing. 20

Baguette flour (protein=12%)

10

0 Biscuit flour (protein = 9%) Baguette flour (protein = 12%)

Pan bread flour (protein = 14%)
Rheofermentometer 80
identifies the optimal 70
properties for every 60

products. 50
40
30
20
10
0 Biscuit flour (protein = 9%) Baguette flour (protein = 12%)
Pan bread flour (protein = 14%)
 Key applications
70

60
0.65 Effects of flour type/ash content
50

40

30

20 1.50
10

0
00:00 00:30 01:00 01:30 02:00 02:31
T65 T80 T120 T150

Ash 0.65 0.80 1.20 1.50

Flours with high fiber/mineral
80
content have lower dough
70
development and gas retention,
60
50
and earlier porosity.
40
30
20 With Rheofermentometer,
10 optimize high fiber bread
0 formulation.
00:00 00:30
T65 01:00T80 01:30 02:00
T120 02:31T150
 Key applications 60

Effects of same falling number value 50 2 flours with FN 340

40

Flours with same falling number can 30

show different results during proofing. 20

10
For example, flour 2 has higher gas
0
retention. 00:00 00:30 01:00 01:30 02:00 02:31

70 Rheofermentometer gives
60 complete and precise results
50
directly related to volume of the
40

30
2 flours with FN 340 final products.
20

10

0
00:00 00:30 01:00 01:30 02:00 02:31
 Key applications
60

Effects of yeast type 50 Dry yeast

40
Different types of yeast give different
30 Fresh yeast
maximum dough development and gas
20
production.
10

Rheofermentometer measures yeast 0

performance in their "real" environment. 00:00 00:30

Levures séches
01:00 01:30 02:00
Levures fraiches
02:31
Levures liquides

Liquid yeast
80 Dry Yeast
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
00:00 00:30 01:00 01:30 02:00 02:31
Levures séches Levures fraiches Levures liquides

Dry Yeast Fresh yeast Liquid yeast

 Key applications
70

60

Yeast activity, Aging effect 50

Hauteur (mm)
40

After 1 week at 47°C, yeast show lower 30

dough development and gas production. 20

10
70
0
60 00:00 00:30 01:00 01:30 02:00 02:31

50 7963 (témoin) 7963 (témoin) (47°C)

40
Hauteur (mm)

30

20

10

0
00:00 00:30 01:00 01:30 02:00 02:31
7963 (témoin) 7963 (témoin) (47°C)
 Key applications
70
Flour+4% gluten
60

Effects of vital wheat gluten 50

Flour
40
The more VWG added, the stronger 30

dough development. 20

10

0
00:00 00:30 01:00 01:30 02:00 02:31
Flour Flour +1% gluten Flour +2% gluten Flour +4% gluten

Flour Flour+1% gluten Flour+4% gluten

80
70
60
50
Flour
40
With Rheofermentometer, adjust 30
precisely the quantity of VWG 20

needed for optimal dough 10

0
development. 00:00
Flour
00:30 01:00
Flour +1% gluten
01:30 02:00
Flour +2% gluten
02:31
Flour +4% gluten

Flour+2% gluten
 Key applications
Vital wheat gluten

All VWG are not the same.

Samples A and B increase dough
development, but only sample B
eliminates porosity.

With Rheofermentometer, select

the VWG better suited to your
products.
 Key applications
Effects of ascorbic acid
Oxidizing agents generally improves gas retention but they differ in their critical levels
of application.
70 Ascorbic acid increase dough
60 development while keeping gas
50
production to the same level.
40

30

20 90 Flour Flour + 40ppm Flour + 80ppm

80 Flour + 120ppm Flour + 160ppm
10
70
0 60
Flour Flour + 40ppm Flour + 80ppm
Flour + 120ppm Flour + 160ppm 50
40

With Rheofermentometer, adjust 30

20
precisely the quantity of ascorbic 10

acid to use in your mixes. 0

 Key applications
Effects of α-amylase enzyme Dough Development

Alpha-amylase increase fermentative Dough + Amylase

capacities of dough: Higher dough

development and gas production. Dough

Dough + Amylase
With Rheofermentometer, identify
precisely effects of α- amylase on
dough behavior. Dough

Gas Development
 Key applications
Effects of salt subtitues 70

60

The different replacers of NaCl have very 50

different and sometimes opposite effects on 40

dough proofing properties. 30

20
With Rheofermentometer, anticipate dough
10
behavior and fine tune salt substitutes
0
addition to your formulas. Flour 5g NaCl Flour 5g Ksalt Flour 5g LactoSalt Flour 5g LX1015

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Flour 5g NaCl Flour 5g Ksalt Flour 5g LactoSalt Flour 5g LX1015
 Key applications
Frozen doughs
Pre-frozen dough shows lower gas production than fresh dough. Increased yeast
amount or additives may be used to correct this.
With Rheofermentometer, evaluate and optimize fermentative performance of pre-
frozen dough.

Control dough

Frozen dough
 Key applications
Rye based products 60

50
Wheat flour
Rye flour shows much lower dough
development and gas production 40

(compared to a standard wheat flour). 30

20
70 Rye flour
Wheat flour 10
60
0
50 Seigle T55

40
Rye flour With Rheofermentometer,
30
analyze and optimize rye bread
20
products.
10

0
Seigle T55
 Key applications
Gluten free products
Rheofermentometer was used to
optimize baking performance of a
corn-based complete gluten-free
formula.
→ Yellow-semolina-flour >>
yellow-maize-flour
→ Particle size effects
 Key applications
Gluten free products
4.06 cm 3/g

3.29 cm 3/g

Rheofermentometer was used to 2.72 cm 3/g

optimize the mixing stage of a rice-
based complete gluten-free formula
→ Shorter mixing, better volume
 Other applications
✓ Analysis of complete formulas containing sugar, fats, etc.
✓ Analysis of the effects of additives such as cysteine, vitamins, etc.
 CONCLUSION

• A desirable loaf volume is achieved only if the dough provides a

favorable environment for yeast growth and gas generation, and at the
same time, possess a gluten matrix that is capable of maximum gas
retention.

• The most apparent physical change marking the course of fermentation

in dough is the steady increase in the volume of its mass.

• The principal task of the baker is to control fermentation so that the

forces of gas production and gas retention are properly balanced.

We can monitor fermentation process through measurement of dough

development, total gas production, dough porosity/gas retention, and
dough tolerance during proofing!
 CONCLUSION
What happens if we don’t monitor the fermentation

Under-fermented or too young doughs: Bread made from young doughs:

✓ It has not been properly or insufficiently matured ✓ Small volume,

or riped, ✓ Dark reddish brown crust,
✓ Toughness but will break short if stretched, ✓ Sharp corners,
✓ Stickiness in make-up machines, ✓ Crust blisters,
✓ Slowness and stickiness in proof, ✓ Coarse grain,
✓ Crust colors rapidly and develop in oven, ✓ Yellowish crumb,
✓ Small oven rise. ✓ “Wild” breaks, top crust separates from the
remaining crumb.
 CONCLUSION
What happens if we don’t monitor the fermentation

Over-fermented or old doughs: Bread made from old doughs:

✓ Weakness of dough – breaks rapidly, ✓ Pale crust,

✓ Stickiness in make-up machines,
✓ Start to rise in oven and then collapses,
✓ Strong odor,
✓ Crust colors very slowly in oven.
✓ Grey crumb,
✓ Weak texture (crumbless easily),
✓ Strong odor – poor flavor,
✓ Poor keeping qualities,
✓ Irregular break and shred.
 CONCLUSION

Optimum Fermentation!!!

If we don’t monitor the optimum fermentation time,

we should be ready for surprises/an unknown bread quality!
 CONCLUSION
NO Fermentation!!!

If we don’t monitor the optimum fermentation time,

we should be ready for surprises/an unknown bread quality!
THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION
ANY QUESTIONS ?
hboyacioglu@kpmanalytics.com