LATTICE TRUSSES & GIRDERS Configuration A truss generally has a horizontal bottom chord and inclined top chord whereas a lattice girder generally has parallel top and bottom chords. A few examples are given below although there are a variety of other possible general configurations. Howe truss Fink truss Pratt girder Warren girder A basis characteristic of any truss or lattice girder of light construction is that it is triangulated so that the loads are carried primarily as axial forces rather than bending moment on the whole truss or girder. Eccentricity at the connections should be kept to a minimum by attempting to get all member centre-lines to meet at a point. To simplify fabrication and improve appearance, it is recommended that the same section be used across the complete truss for the top and bottom chords respectively, and that web members are grouped and designed for the critical member in each group.The spacing of intersection points along the top chord of the truss will depend on the sheeting used, but should generally be between 1.6 and 2.2 m. Intersection points of members should not be too far apart as most members will be in compression at some stage due to load reversal, on the other hand the intersection points should not be to close together as this increases fabricating costs. Typical sections used in trusses and lattice girders include angles (equal, unequal and back-to-back), channels, T's and circular and rectangular hollow sections. It is important to note however that hollow sections have a very effective cross-section and look attractive, but are very expensive. ‘An economical ratio of apex height to span for triangular truss configurations is between about 1/6 to 1/5. For spans of between 10 to 30 m, a bolted truss should have a mass of between 10 and 15 kg/m? and a welded truss should have a mass of between 8 and 10 kg/m?. This rough guide can be used to check whether a design is efficient. Loading Dead Load The dead load is due to the roof sheeting or decking, insulation, purlins and the members themselves. The load for each or these elements must be obtained. The range of values given below can be used to verify the order of the intensity of loading, Roof sheeting - 0.05 to 0.10 KN/m? Purlins = 0.02 to 0.04 kN/m? Insulation - 0.10 to 0.15 kN/m? Members. = 0.08 to 0.15 KNim? Live Load The live load depends on the accessibility of the roof. For inaccessible roofs the live load is due to construction or maintenance and is taken between 0.3 to 0.5 kN/m*. For accessible roofs the live load is generally taken as 2 kN/im? but we need to also consider the intended use. These live loads cater for nominal accumulations of snow and hail, but consider a heavier loading for locations where the depth of snow could exceed 250 mm. Wind Loads As per SABS 0160 2Analysis Analysis is best carried out using a suitable computer program which will allow for the connections and loads to be modelled and catered for in a very similar manner to the actual application on structure. For hand calculations on the other hand, a simplification of the connections and loading on the truss is required. Consider the following statements which are assumed to be true when analysing a plane pin jointed truss by hand. 1 IL loads are ied at the nod Very often the loads (except for the self-weight of members) are in fact applied at the nodes by positioning the purlins at node points. If the loads are applied between the nodes, the top chord can be analysed separately as a continuous beam supported at the nodes or as a series of fixed- end beams supported at the nodes. The bending stresses are combined with the axial stresses obtained by an analysis carried out assuming that all loading is applied at the nodes. ok Ny ak 4 , 1 f t produces bending moments produces axial forces 2 Members are weightless To overcome the fact that members obviously do have a self-weight, the total weight of all members can be determined and suitably distributed as point loads amongst the nodes of a truss. ‘A computer program allows us to automatically allow for the self-weight of members3 I nodes ai Where two or more bolts connect the end of a member or if the members are connected by welding, then there will be restraint to rotation and the assumption of having a perfect ‘pin’ is incorrect. However, due to the triangulated configuration, the induced moments will be insignificant and axial forces will be approximately the same whether the connections are considered as pinned or fixed. ign Pi Topchord The top chord is generally designed as a strut but may need to be considered as a ‘beam-column’ if subjected to bending moment where the purlin positions do not coincide with the nodes. The unrestrained length in the plane of the truss will be the distance between the nodes and the unrestrained length in the plane of the sheeting should be the distance between the purlins. The effective length factor K should be taken as 1.0 for all unrestrained lengths of chords since the web members offering the restraint have a lower stiffness than the chord itself. Bottom chord The bottom chord is primarily designed as a tension member, but load reversal under the action of wind uplift can put the member into compression in which case it requires a slendemess ratio not exceeding 200 in addition to it being able to resist the compression force. Longitudinal ties running the length of the building can be used to offer lateral restraint at intervals along the bottom chord. These members must be capable of resisting a tension force of 0.01 n* times the net total maximum ultimate compressive force in the bottom chord. (n is the number of chords being stabilised) Knee braces can also be used to offer the required lateral restraint to bottom chords. Web members These are very straightforward to design and an effective length factor of 1.0 can be conservatively be used although a factor of 0.85 is sometimes adopted.Overall Stability Considerations Trusses are extremely slender until such time as the purlins are properly fixed. Failure due to lateral buckling will occur if the top chord is not suitably stabilised during erection. Special precautions may be needed during the lifting of trusses, so that they do not buckle under their own weight. A point of detail to watch is the apex gusset. A gusset in the vertical plane tends to act as a hinge in the horizontal plane and can lead to buckling of an unsupported truss. It is usually necessary to use a bent splice plate over the top of the rafter, in addition to the gusset in the vertical plane, to ensure stability With monitors or wide ridge ventilators the top chord is unrestrained laterally even after the purlins and sheeting has ben fixed. A ridge strut along the full length of the roof can provide the necessary lateral restraint at this point.Manserd slope : © oy © Upto &m Spon . Foune 24—Typiclrases, Note: the hick lies indicate strats « Upto 12 m Span Fiouns 7.5—Typicl irases. 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