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Fault tolerant oxygen control of a diesel engine air system

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 Fault tolerant oxygen control of a diesel engine air
system
Rainer Nitsche, Matthias Bitzer, Mahmoud El Khaldi, Gérard Bloch

To cite this version:

Rainer Nitsche, Matthias Bitzer, Mahmoud El Khaldi, Gérard Bloch. Fault tolerant oxygen
control of a diesel engine air system. IFAC Symposium Advances in Automotive Control, AAC
2010, Jul 2010, Munich, Germany. pp.CDROM, 2010. <hal-00475414>

HAL Id: hal-00475414

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 Fault Tolerant Oxygen Control of a Diesel
Engine Air System
Rainer Nitsche ∗ Matthias Bitzer ∗ Mahmoud El Khaldi ∗∗
Gérard Bloch ∗∗
∗
Robert Bosch GmbH, Dept. CR/AEH3 – Control Theory Group,
P.O. Box 30 02 40, D-7 04 42 Stuttgart, Germany
(e-mail: {rainer.nitsche,matthias.bitzer2}@de.bosch.com)
∗∗
Université Henri Poincaré, Nancy 1, Centre de Recherche en
Automatique de Nancy (CRAN), CNRS UMR 7039, Nancy, France
(e-mail: gerard.bloch@esstin.uhp-nancy.fr)

Abstract: This paper is devoted to the fault tolerant control problem of a Diesel engine air
system having a jammed Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) valve. The fault tolerant control is
based on replaning the trajectory in order to track a new controlled variable which is the oxygen
concentration in the intake manifold instead of the fresh air mass flow. The trajectory planning
is based on an inverse model approach, utilizing the fundamental thermodynamic relations of
the air system.

Keywords: Fault tolerant control, Diesel engine, Air system, Model-based trajectory planning

1. INTRODUCTION

Diesel engines have made significant progress in terms of

performance over the last years and have become very
popular and increasingly attractive for passenger cars
thanks to their low fuel consumption and high torque at
low speed. However, they are significant contributors to
overall emissions, especially of nitrogen oxides (NOx ) and
particulate matter (PM, also called soot).
The air system of a Diesel engine, shown in Figure 1, is
responsible for introducing air into the engine cylinders
in order to ensure the fuel combustion. The functioning
of the air system is the following. Fresh air entering the
air system is compressed by the compressor unit of the
turbocharger. The air leaves the compressor with higher
pressure, and its temperature increases as a result of the
compression. A charge air cooler (CAC), not represented in
the Figure, cools down the compressed air before it reaches
the throttle valve (TVA; or throttle blade, TB). The fresh
air is then mixed with recirculated exhaust gas in the
intake manifold and the mixture goes into the engine 1 .
The waste of the combustion is then expelled from the
engine, and a part of the exhaust gas is sent to the intake
manifold over the exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) valve
to be mixed with fresh air. The rest of the exhaust gas
passes through the variable nozzle turbine (VNT) unit of
the turbocharger, where its energy is used to drive the
compressor wheel via the shaft, which connects the turbine
and the compressor wheels.
The main purpose of the exhaust gas recirculation is to
reduce the nitrogen oxide (NOx ) emissions. Indeed, mixing
the exhaust gas with the fresh air reduces the oxygen
concentration in the intake manifold. Thus, since there is
1 In this paper, the term engine stands for the combustion chamber
(cylinders) and not for the overall engine.
Figure 1. Air system of the Diesel engine.
less oxygen to react with the fuel in the engine, fewer NOx
are produced during the combustion. On the other hand,
a lower oxygen rate in the engine leads to an incomplete
combustion, and induces the production of more carbon
hybrid and particulate matter (PM).
The EGR valve is the main component in the exhaust
gas recirculation system. The valve is located between the
intake and exhaust manifolds, then a part of the exhaust
gas can flow back into the engine. The rate of exhaust
gas mixed with the fresh air in the intake manifold is
controlled by acting on the cross section area of the valve.
However, as any physical system, EGR valves are subject
to faults. The main fault that can affect an EGR valve
is the blocking at a certain position, which increases the
emissions of pollutants.
The paper will deal thus with the fault tolerant control
(FTC) of the Diesel engine air system having a jammed
EGR valve, with the aim of reducing pollutant emissions.
Section 2 introduces the overall faultless control and fault
tolerant control structures of the air system. The different
parts of the fault tolerant control are described in Sections • The Air System Model (ASMod) estimates the air
3, 4 and 5. Some simulations results are presented in system signals that cannot be measured with the
Section 6, before concluding remarks. available sensors. From the modelling of the system, it
also dynamically corrects the measured signals, when
2. AIR SYSTEM CONTROL STRUCTURE the measured value is in the range of low sensitivity
of the sensor. The outputs of the ASMod are used by
2.1 System models and faultless control structure the model-based controllers, briefly described next.
• The Model-based Boost Control (MBC) controls
The air system is controlled by using a particular model- the boost pressure p21 by manipulating the VNT
based approach. Such an approach performs three tasks: input Aef f
V N T . The two-degree of freedom design is
planning of trajectories with bounding conditions, calcu- based on an inverse model of the turbocharger for
lation of nominal control variables through the inverted the feedforward part of the controller and a PI-
system and stabilization of the system around the desired structure for the feedback part. The MBC uses a
trajectory by closed-loop control. The advantages include family of PID controllers, each of them providing a
the consideration of physical coupling and effects, the satisfactory control for a particular operating point
simultaneous control of desired values and the fulfillment (gain scheduling). It can work either in open or closed
of high dynamic requirements. loop, depending on the operating point. In closed
A schematic representation of the air system is presented loop mode, the MBC regulates the boost pressure to
in Figure 2 with the main describing variables. avoid getting too high pressure that may damage the
turbocharger.
ṁV N T
patm , Tatm m 4 , p 4 , T4 ṁout
eng
ṁf uel
• The Model-based Charge Control (MCC) controls
m 3 , p 3 , T3
the fresh air mass flow ṁF A and/or the EGR rate
VNT
rEGR , depending on the operating point, by acting
EGR on the throttle and EGR valves. Again, a two-degree
cooler
of freedom design is used. The MCC contains Kalman
p3 , TEGR
engine filters which estimate the current areas of the throttle
ω ṁEGR
EGR and EGR valves, an inverse model of the intake mani-
fold to calculate the desired areas, and PI-controllers.
m21 ,
p21 , T20 EGR
HFM p21 , T21
patm , Tatm patm , Tatm TVA
MCC
m22 , p22 , T22 TVA
compressor Air
CAC ṁT V A
ṁeng neng ASMod system
ṁHF M Measured
(also noted ṁF A ) signals

MBC VNT
Figure 2. Schematic representation of the air path.

This system is modelled with the so-called Robert Bosch

Standard Simulation Library (RBSL). The resulting air Figure 3. Current air system control unit.
system RBSL model consists of four volumes connected
by algebraic relations and has eleven states: 2.2 Fault tolerant control structure
- the boost pressure p21 , The fault-tolerant control strategy aims at keeping this
- the air mass in the boost pressure volume m21 , control structure in the faulty case, and not designing
- the intake manifold pressure p22 , new controllers. As the considered fault is an actuator
- the air mass in the intake manifold m22 , fault (EGR valve jam), there is no possibility to adapt the
- the mass of oxygen in the intake manifold mO2 ,22 , controller by simply changing its parameters for the faulty
- the rate of fresh air in the intake manifold rF A,22 , case. Instead, alternative actuators which have similar
- the exhaust manifold pressure p3 , interactions with the system have to be used (Blanke et al.,
- the air mass in the exhaust manifold m3 , 2006). The alternative actuator used here is the throttle
- the downstream pressure of the turbine (VNT) p4 , valve, which is controlled by the MCC.
- the downstream gas mass of the VNT m4 ,
- the angular speed of the turbocharger ω. For the faulty case, it is furthermore desired to switch to a
new controlled variable which is the oxygen concentration
The manipulated variables, i.e. the control inputs, are: in the intake manifold, because this variable is directly
- the effective area of the throttle valve (TVA) Aef f
T V A, linked with the pollutants emissions.
ef f
- the effective area of the EGR valve AEGR , The resulting closed loop structure is depicted in Figure 4
- the effective area of the VNT Aef f
V NT , with references to the main corresponding equations. The
first block, detailed in Section 3, calculates the desired
and the controlled variables: d
oxygen concentration in the intake manifold rO 2 ,EGR
. In
- the fresh air (FA) mass flow ṁF A , order to track this setpoint, the second task, detailed in
- the rate of EGR gas in the intake manifold rEGR,22 , Section 4, calculates, by inversion of the intake manifold
- the boost pressure p21 . model, the new desired fresh air mass flow ṁd∗ F A. A
The model-based control architecture of the air-path is reachability analysis (Section 5) allows the MCC to receive
shown in Figure 3. It consists of three modules: ṁd,final
FA as input.
 A∗EGR Estimation
Diagnosis
Jam Position ✛ ✛
(not treated here)
(not treated here)
ζ(t) ξ(t) λmin
❄ ❄ ❄ ❄ ṁd,final ✻
Oxygen Inverse FA
d∗ Reachability Control
d
mF A d
rO2 ,22 ṁF A ✲ EGR, TV Air System
✲ Concentra- ✲ Intake ✲ Look Up MBC, MCC, ✲ RBSL-Plant r✲
tion Manifold Tables and ✲ ASMod VNT
Fig. 1, Fig. 2
(3) (16) (20) Fig. 3
pd2 ✻

Figure 4. Overall closed-loop structure of the proposed fault tolerant control.

The known time variant parameters required for (3) and Therefore, the desired EGR mass flow ṁdEGR needed to
(16) are collected in the vectors ζ(t) and ξ(t). Note that compute (3) can be estimated from (4) and (5) by
the diagnosis task and the estimation of the jam positition pd
21 V̇eng
(Scheu, 2008) are not treated in this paper. Therefore, this cp,M ix RM ix − cp,F A ṁdF A T21
ˆ dEGR
ṁ = . (6)
jam position is assumed here to be perfectly known. cp,EGR TEGR
Moreover, with the overall mass balance and the oxygen
3. NEW CONTROLLED VARIABLE mass balance in the engine, the desired oxygen ratio
d
rO 2 ,EGR
in the EGR gas, also needed to compute (3), can
The new controlled variable, i.e., the oxygen concentration be obtained by:
rO2 ,22 in the intake manifold, is the ratio of the oxygen
mass flow ṁO2 ,eng over the total gas mass flow ṁeng , going d ṁdF A − rstoic ṁf uel
rO 2 ,EGR
= r O ,F A , (7)
in the engine:
2
ṁdF A + ṁf uel
ṁO2 ,eng where rstoic is the stoichiometric air to fuel coefficient and
rO2 ,22 = , (1)
ṁeng ṁf uel is the amount of injected fuel into the engine.
or, as the gas entering the engine is exclusively composed
of fresh air and EGR gas: 4. MODEL-BASED TRAJECTORY PLANNING OF
ṁF A rO2 ,F A + ṁEGR rO2 ,EGR THE DESIRED FRESH AIR MASS FLOW
rO2 ,22 = , (2)
ṁF A + ṁEGR
where rO2 ,F A and rO2 ,EGR are the oxygen ratios in the According to Figure 4, the desired oxygen concentration in
fresh air and EGR gas, respectively. the intake manifold can now be used to calculate the new
desired fresh air mass flow ṁd∗
F A in the faulty case. In other
This gives the desired oxygen concentration in the intake words, a new trajectory for the desired fresh air mass flow
manifold: has to be planned, depending on the known jam-position
d
ṁdF A rO2 ,F A + ṁdEGR rO
d
2 ,EGR
of the EGR valve and the desired oxygen concentration
rO 2 ,22
= , (3) in the intake manifold. For this, a model-based approach
ṁdF A + ṁdEGR
is used, where the inversion of the intake manifold model
where ṁdF A is the desired fresh air mass flow (given by the is based on a flatness analysis in the sense of Fliess et al.
Electronic Control Unit, ECU), and ṁdEGR is the desired (1992) and Rothfuß et al. (1997).
d
EGR mass flow and rO 2 ,EGR
the desired oxygen ratio in
the EGR gas, which can be calculated in the following way. 4.1 Inversion of the intake manifold model
The enthalpy balance in the intake manifold can be written
as For a model-based trajectory planning, the dynamics of
the intake manifold can be described with the following
cp,M ix ṁ22 T22 = cp,EGR ṁdEGR TEGR + cp,F A ṁdF A T21 , state, control input, and output definition:
(4)
where cp,M ix , cp,EGR and cp,F A are the heating capacities x = [mO2 ,22 , mO2 ,22 ]T , u = ṁF A , y = rO2 ,22 , (8)
of the mixture (EGR gas + fresh air), EGR gas and fresh where mO2 ,22 and mO2 ,22 are respectively the masses of
air, respectively, T22 is the intake manifold temperature, oxygen and all other gases in the intake manifold, with
TEGR the EGR gas temperature, and T21 the temperature the external time-varying parameters
of the fresh air over the throttle valve.
q = [ṁEGR , ṁeng , rO2 ,F A , rO2 ,EGR , neng ]T , (9)
Assuming that the upstream pressure p21 of the throttle with neng the engine speed.
valve is the same as the pressure p22 in the intake manifold
(Scheu, 2008), the ideal gas law gives: State Equations. The first state equation is obtained by
p22 V̇eng pd V̇eng considering the mass flow balance in the intake manifold:
ṁ22 T22 = = 21 , (5) ṁO2 ,22 = ṁO2 ,EGR + ṁO2 ,F A − ṁO2 ,eng ,
RM ix RM ix
where V̇eng is the variation of the engine volume, and RM ix which leads to
is the gas constant of the mixture (EGR gas + fresh air). ṁO2 ,22 = ṁEGR rO2 ,EGR + ṁF A rO2 ,F A − ṁeng rO2 ,22 ,
and finally to where
ẋ1 = q1 q4 + u q3 − y q2 . (10) p3 EGR
Π=
, Tcooler,out = T3 − ηHE (T3 − Tcoolingf luid ),
The second state equation is obtained as follows: p22
ṁO2 ,22 = ṁ22 − ṁO2 ,22 = ṁEGR + ṁF A − ṁeng − ẋ1 , and A∗EGR is the effective area of the EGR valve estimated
by a Kalman filter of a diagnosis algorithm developed by
leading to Scheu (2008).
ẋ2 = q1 + u − q2 − ẋ1 , (11)
or
ẋ2 = q1 + u − q2 − (q1 q4 + u q3 − y q2 ). 4.3 Calculation of the engine mass flow

Output Equation. The system output y is equal to To estimate the engine mass flow ṁeng , the following
mO2 ,22 equation can be used:
y = rO2 ,22 = ,
mO2 ,22 + mO2 ,22 pmeas
22 Veng
ṁeng = ASMod ψ (neng ) , (18)
which gives T22 R 2
x1
y= . (12) where pmeas
22 is the measured intake manifold pressure,
x1 + x2 ASMod
T22 is the ASMod estimation of the intake mani-
System Inversion. The input u can be expressed as a fold temperature, pmeas
22 is the measured intake manifold
ASMod
function of the output y and its successive derivatives. pressure, T22 is the ASMod estimation of the intake
Indeed, (12) gives manifold temperature, Veng is the engine volume, ψ (neng )
x1 = y(x1 + x2 ) = y m22 . is a correction term representing the engine volumetric
efficiency, R is the perfect gases constant, and cp the
As m22 = V22 heating capacity of the intake gas at constant pressure is
RM ix f (neng ) ṁeng , where the known function
V22
the measured intake manifold pressure.
RM ix f (neng ) ,
with V22 the intake manifold volume, con-
siders the amount of air consumption for the engine, the
first state becomes 4.4 Calculation of the oxygen rate in the exhaust gas
V22
x1 = q2 y. (13) To estimate the oxygen rate rO2 ,EGR in the exhaust gas,
RM ix f (neng )
(7) can be used by replacing the desired values by the real
Moreover, (12) gives values:
x1 ṁmeas − rstoic ṁf uel
x2 = − x1 rO2 ,EGR = rO2 ,F A F Ameas , (19)
y ṁF A + ṁf uel
and with rstoic = 14.5.
ẋ1 y − ẏ x1
ẋ2 = − ẋ1 . (14)
y2
Identifying (14) with (11) leads to
4.5 Test of the model-based trajectory planning in the
ẋ1 y − ẏ x1
q1 + u − q2 = . faultless case
y2
Then, using (10) and (13), simple calculations give finally Equation (16) has been implemented in the simulation
the output u as environment and tested using a special test cycle in the
q1 (q4 − y) − RM ixVf22(neng ) q2 ẏ faultless case. Since the faultless case is considered, the
u= . (15) old (given by the ECU) and the new desired fresh air
y − q3
mass flow should be equal. Figure 5 draws a comparison
New desired fresh air mass flow. This leads directly to of these two signals, which are shown most of the time
the expression of the new desired fresh air mass flow: equal. Therefore, it can be assessed that the model-based
d trajectory planning of the desired fresh air mass flow is
(rO2 ,EGR − rO 2 ,22
)ṁEGR correct.
ṁd∗
FA = d
rO 2 ,22
− rO2 ,F A 150
V22 d old desired
RM ix f(neng ) ṁeng ṙO2 ,22 new desired
− . (16)
fresh air mass flow [g/s]

rOd − rO2 ,F A
2 ,22 100

To compute (16), one needs to calculate the EGR mass

flow ṁEGR , the oxygen concentration rO2 ,EGR in the EGR
gas and the mass flow ṁeng going into the engine. 50

4.2 EGR mass flow

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
To calculate the mass flow over the jammed EGR valve, time [s]

the orifice equation can be used:

s Figure 5. Old ṁdF A and new ṁd∗F A desired fresh air mass
2Π−1 (1 − Π−1 ) flows, in the faultless case.
ṁEGR = p3 AEGR
∗
EGR
, (17)
Tcooler,out R
 faulty case 25%
5. REACHABILITY ANALYSIS OF THE DESIRED 500

FRESH AIR MASS FLOW AND CLOSED-LOOP 450 new desired

higher limit
STRUCTURE 400 lower limit

fresh air mass flow [g/s]

350

The next step (see Figure 4) is to check if the values of the 300

calculated new desired fresh air mass flow ṁd∗ F A (16) are
250

200
physically reachable (higher limit), and not below a certain
150
limit (lower limit). This reachability analysis is decribed
100
below.
50

0
Higher limit. The fresh air mass flow depends on sev- 0 50 100 150 200 250

eral variables: engine speed, injected fuel quantity, EGR

valve position, turbocharger VNT position, TVA position.
However, it is obvious that the throttle valve (TVA) has 0.24
to be fully opened to reach a maximal value. Therefore,
a look-up table is created with only these 4 first variables 0.22

as inputs, and the maximal reachable fresh air mass flow 0.2
as output. The output values of this table are the fresh

rO ,22 [−]
air mass flow values obtained in the faultless case from 0.18

2
appropriate simulation runs, where
0.16

• the engine speed varies between 1500rpm and desired

0.14
4000rpm with a step of 250; measured (with FTC)
measured (without FTC)
• the injected fuel quantity varies between 10mg/hub 0.12
0 50 100 150 200 250
and 55mg/hub with a step of 5; time [s]

• the EGR valve position varies between 0% (fully

opened) and 100% (fully closed) with a step of 10; Figure 7. Faulty case 25% at t = 50s. First plot: new
• the VNT position varies between 0% and 100% with desired fresh air mass flow with the maximal and min-
a step of 2. imal reachable values. Second plot: oxygen concentra-
tions in the intake manifold, desired and measured
Lower limit. The lower limit of the fresh air mass flow is (with and without FTC trajectory planning).
governed by the air to fuel ratio λ which has to be greater
than a certain limit λmin : that the system would require much more fresh air (blue
line) than the physical limit (green line) in order to reach
ṁF A
λ= ≥ λmin = 1.3, (20) the desired oxygen concentration in the intake manifold.
rstoic ṁf uel A closer look at the second plot, which compares the
where rstoic = 14.5 is the stoichiometric air/fuel ratio. measured oxygen concentrations in the intake manifold,
shows that, most of the time, the control with model-based
Figure 6 shows an example of the desired fresh air mass trajectory planning of the desired fresh air mass flow gives
flow in the faultless case, with the maximal reachable and similar results than without it, except on the low operating
minimal allowed values. points where the FTC is able to reach the desired oxygen
160
concentration in the intake manifold.
new desired
140
h igerh limit

120
lower limit Faulty case 50%. As in the previous case, the system
needs sometimes more fresh air than the maximal physi-
fresh air mass flow [g/s]

100
cally reachable value in order to reach the desired oxygen
80 concentration in the intake manifold (Figure 8, first plot).
60
However, in spite of the physical limitation of the system,
the model-based trajectory planning of the desired fresh
40
air mass flow makes the system reach the desired oxygen
20 concentration in the intake manifold in the most operating
0
regions (Figure 8, second plot), except in the full-load
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
time [s]
regions where the desired oxygen concentration requires
to have only fresh air in the intake manifold, and that is
Figure 6. The new desired fresh air mass flow ṁd∗
F A , with not possible when the EGR valve is blocked at a middle
the maximal reachable and minimal allowed values. position.

Faulty case 75%. In this case, the EGR valve is blocked

6. APPLICATION TO DIFFERENT JAM POSITIONS
Several simulation results are given here to illustrate the
behavior of the proposed fault tolerant control.
Faulty case 25%. When the EGR valve is blocked at 25%
position (widely opened), the first plot in Figure 7 shows
at 75% position, which means almost closed. Thus, less
EGR gas comes into the intake manifold and the system
needs less fresh air to reach the desired oxygen concentra-
tion in the intake manifold. However, the system is blocked
by the λmin -limit (20) and therefore it is constrained to
have more fresh air than desired in the intake manifold
(Figure 9, first plot). As a consequence, the measured
 faulty case 5 0 %
250 oxygen concentration in the intake manifold with FTC is
greater than the desired one; however, it is lower than
new desired
without FTC (Figure 9, second plot).
fresh air mass flow [g/s]

200
higher limit
lower limit

150
7. CONCLUSION
100
The model-based trajectory planning of the desired fresh
50
air mass flow has shown many advantages. It allows to
keep the same control structure, which already works
0
pretty well in the faultless case. Furthermore, regarding
0 50 100 150 200 250
the simulation results for different jam positions of the
EGR valve, it has come out that this fault-tolerant control
approach gives satisfactory results. Indeed, it makes the
0.24 system to get closer to the desired oxygen concentration
in the intake manifold than without any replanning of the
0.22
fresh air mass flow trajectory.
0.2
Another additional actuator could be used in parallel
rO ,22 [−]

0.18 to the throttle valve to improve the FTC performances.

2

Indeed, the Variable Nozzle Turbine influences the boost

0.16
desired
pressure and therefore the oxygen concentration in the
0.14
measured (with FTC) intake manifold. This would require a trajectory planning
measured (without FTC)
of the desired boost pressure (El Khaldi, 2009), in an
0.12
0 50 100 150 200 250 analogous way of the replanning of the desired fresh air
time [s]
mass flow.
Figure 8. Faulty case 50% at t = 50s. First plot: new
desired fresh air mass flow with the maximal and min- REFERENCES
imal reachable values. Second plot: oxygen concentra- Blanke, M., Kinnaert, M., Lunze, J., and Staroswiecki, M.
tions in the intake manifold, desired and measured (2006). Diagnosis and Fault-Tolerant Control. Springer-
(with and without FTC trajectory planning). Verlag, Berlin.
faulty case 7 5 %
El Khaldi, M. (2009). Fault-Tolerant Control of the
140 Diesel Engine Air system. Master’s thesis, Université
new desired
120 higher limit
Henri Poincaré Nancy 1, Robert Bosch GmbH, Dept.
lower limit CR/AEH3.
100
Fliess, M., Lévine, J., Martin, P., and Rouchon, P. (1992).
fresh air mass flow [g/s]

80 On differentially flat nonlinear systems. In Proc. IFAC

Symposium NOLCOS’92, Bordeaux, pp. 408–412.
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Rothfuß, R., Rudolph, J., and Zeitz, M. (1997). Flachheit:
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earer Systeme. Automatisierungstechnik, 45(11), 517–
525.
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 Scheu, H. (2008). Fehlertolerante Frischluftmassenregelung
eines PKW-Diesel-Motors. Master’s thesis, Universität
Stuttgart, Robert Bosch GmbH, Dept. CR/AEH3.
0.24

0.22

0.2
rO ,22 [−]

0.18
2

0.16
desired
measured (with FTC)
0.14
measured (without FTC)

0.12
0 50 100 150 200 250
time [s]

Figure 9. Faulty case 75% at t = 50s. First plot: new

desired fresh air mass flow with the maximal and min-
imal reachable values. Second plot: oxygen concentra-
tions in the intake manifold, desired and measured
(with and without FTC trajectory planning).

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