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Thought has evolved over time and various combinations and permutations have been a part
of it. However, there have been some prolific thinkers who pronounced the foundations of
Brahmanism very clearly. One such thinker is Manu. The ancient Indian Political Thought is
thought to begin from his teachings itself. Manu is often referred to as the progenitor of
mankind. Manu was the first person to systematically analyse and interpret the society and its
people. He taught the path of righteousness and guided the society to walk on the path of
dharma and hence is thought to be the first teacher and the initiator of knowledge. He showed
humans the right way to live in all spheres of life such as the royal, private, political or
economic sphere. Manu is also the first law-giver or legislator. He described and codified the
laws for avoiding conflict in society for the first time in great detail. It is believed that Manu
derived these laws by simplifying the teachings in the brahmanic scriptures- the Vedas. Manu
was even regarded as the first King by some people.
Manu has a book to his credit called Manusmriti. Manusmriti literally translates into ‘in the
memory of Manu’. Manusmriti is presumably not written by Manu, instead it is the
compilation of teachings of Manu done later, mainly by Maharishi Bhrigu, who was one of
the saptarishi that were entrusted to safeguard dharma in the world. Manu revealed his
knowledge of the man in society to Bhrigu. The saptarishi or seven sages were also called as
‘brahmin rishis’ primarily because they were thought to be the children of lord Brahma and
also because they were more knowledgeable than the rest of the society being the seekers of
knowledge. All the rishis also came up to Manu with their respective questions, subsequently
Manu answered each of their questions with the view of granting knowledge to the society.
Thus, knowledge of Bhrigu, in addition to the knowledge spread by Manu through his
preaching, was compiled and consolidated into the Manusmriti. Manusmriti, hence, is not a
continuous text. It is difficult to locate Manusmriti in exact era and date, it was written
roughly around 1200 BC- 2nd Century AD. Manusmriti is a treatise that lays down rules for
righteous conduct for people as well as rulers. It is also referred to as Manav Dharma-Shastra
because it contains social laws regarding humans.
Manu’s views on political and social life are of great relevance and so have later been
embodied in various Dharmashastras and Samhitas. V.R. Mehta regards Manusmriti as
perhaps the most influential book of rules that has been guiding ways of life since ancient
times. Manu believes that these seven laws will form the basis for the ideal society- a society
where everyone can be enabled to fulfil their dharma.
Manu’s First Social Law- Origin of Laws and Creation of the World
In the origin, primarily there is a ‘Beyond’ i.e., Brahman. Secondly, the process of cosmos
calls for differentiated reality as an extension of this supreme Brahman. Finally, it is when
man makes an effort to connect the beyond and the cosmos.
Nirguna Brahman is one of the first concepts covered by Manusmriti. It means that the
Brahman is beyond space and time and that it has no particular shape or size. This leads to
individuation and differentiation which leads to the manifestation of worlds and levels.
Another way of thought is Saguna Brahman which means “with qualities” i.e., with form. It
brings to light hundreds and thousands of gods and goddesses. However, there is not one god
or goddess which has Brahman within or is the Brahman, rather the there are certain qualities
of the Brahman that each of these gods/goddesses possess. Yoga, tantra and tapa (penance)
are the three mentioned practices to create an ‘in between’ link and to connect the manifested
with the unmanifested.
Only a part of the supreme cosmic reality, the Nirguna Brahma becomes manifest in the
endless cosmic cycles and other remain unmanifested:
o Manifest- Pneumatic (differentiated creations which follows certain rules imposed
by God himself at the point of creation to ensure order in the cosmic process)
o Unmanifest- Noetic (mysterious)
Karma-yoga is mentioned as the most important form of practice/yoga. It includes all the
other form of yoga; both ‘paravartt’ of (regulation of desires) and ‘nivritti’ (total eradication
of desires). Thus, Manu places considerable emphasis on
karma yoga. Karma yoga includes the practice of virtues that take the form of tapa (penance),
dhyana (meditation) and Japa (prayer) Manu links karma and dharma and advocates that it is
the pursuit of all individuals to break through the endless cycle of life-death and merge with
the ultimate.
1. Patience PFRNCMWKTN
2. Forgiveness
3. Restraint
4. No stealing
5. Cleanliness
6. Mortification
7. Wisdom
8. Knowledge
9. Truth
10. Not being angry
2. Truthfulness
3. Not accumulating illegal/illegitimate wealth or property
4. Cleanliness of thought, words and deed
5. Control of senses
STATUS OF WOMEN
Manu views the family as the most significant of all social groups. The family consists of husband, wife
and children. Manu does not allow any kind of divorce or separation between the husband and the wife
and views marriage as indissoluble during one’s lifetime. A husband can remarry under some
exceptional situations. Manu is against leading an independent and unprotected life by women.
According to him, a woman should always be taken care of by someone—by her father in childhood,
by her husband in youth and by her son in her old age. It implies that a woman is not fit for freedom.
But elsewhere Manu admired women and praised their role in family or in the household. He entrusted
the wife with the responsibility of managing financial and material resources of the house. He equates
the housewife with the Goddess of fortune because both ‘bestow illumination’.
Manusmriti declares that goodness resides where women are respected and honoured. Women
were not allowed to practice upanayana (Janaeu/initiation ceremony). Marriage was considered as
equivalent of upanayana for women. Women weren’t wage earners; they were given complete handle
of the household in an environment of love and affection. Pre-puberty marriages were promoted. There
is no mention of female students in Dharmashastra. In the later stages women were no more considered
as ‘dvija’ (twice-born) and were reduced to Shudras as they weren’t allowed to recite Vedic prayers.
Widows were supposed to lead a chaste life. They weren’t banned from festivities. They however, had
to renounce any property including her ‘stridhan’ and Manu opposed it. Manusmriti does not
recommend the practice of sati either. The Manusmriti places great emphasis on the role of women in
bearing and raising children. Childlessness was considered a significant issue, and women were
expected to fulfil their role as mothers to ensure the continuity of the family and society.
Marriage is viewed as a binding commitment which results in the procreation and nurturing
of future generations. Manu advocates purity of caste and therefore advocates marriage
within the same varna. Nevertheless, he recognises inter-caste marriages and gives a detailed
classification of the new castes produced through the union of two different castes. According
to Manu, the worst of all men are born through the union between a Sudhra man and a
Vaishya, Kshatriya or a Brahmin woman.
Manusmriti also gives two classifications with respect to inter-caste marriages.
Anuloma marriage(hypergamy) is between a higher caste man and a lower caste woman
whereas
Pratiloma marriage (hypogamy)is between a lower caste man and a higher caste woman.
The former was acceptable since it led to the upward movement of the girl in the caste
hierarchy, but the latter was completely unacceptable.
For Manu, divorce was completely impermissible because marriage is a sacred bond made in
the presence of fire. Widow remarriage was completely impermissible because if a woman
remarries, she takes away the right of another woman to marry that man. Women could not
leave their husbands for any reason, and a woman who did that must be shunned, be
outcasted and morally abused by the society. Furthermore, Manusmriti writes that a woman
does not need independence, and she must always be protected by a male all her life to live a
respectful life. On the contrary, if a man’s wife is quarrelsome, rebellious or disrespectful, the
husband had a right to marry another woman. He said it was important for man to have a
submissive, good wife for him to function properly.
There are eight different types of Hindu marriages according to Manu. Out of these eight
marriages, the first four are approved by the society, whereas the latter four are not approved
by the society and thus known as adharmya vivah.
BDAPGARP
1) Brahma Vivah: Brahma vivah is the most traditional and ideal type of marriage where the
bride and groom come from the same varna. Brahmacharya Ashram should be completed by
the boy prior to the wedding and there is no dowry, financial aspect involved in the marriage.
It is done very spiritually. The ritual of kanyadaan is performed by the bride’s father. It was
so ideal that it was considered to be set up by Brahma himself.
2) Daiva Vivah: Daivya vivah literally means ‘divine marriage’. It signifies a marriage where
a father gives away his daughter to a brahmin priest as an offering, a gift to assure
improvement of her karma. There was no monetary aspect involved but it was a ritual for a
girl to be heavily ornamented.
3) Arsha Vivah (Seer’s): Under Arsha Vivah, the groom is expected to give 1 cow and a pair
of bulls to the girl’s family to finalise the matrimonial bond. This arrangement is carried out
when the bride’s family is poor, and thus the gifts will help them meet the marriage expenses
and sustain themselves once their daughter gets married. Manu did not prefer this marriage
due to the monetary aspect involved. However, it happened within the same varna.
4) Prajapatya Vivah: In this, the father performs all the rituals and is called a Prajapati. He
gives away his daughter to a worthy person with the due honour by blessing them with the
sentence: “may both of you perform together your duties”. Such a blessing is given to ensure
that the spouses enjoy marital bliss and fulfil their dharma. However, the consent of the girl
isn’t taken. Prajapatya Vivah does not always explicitly involve the consent of the girl. In
many cases, the decision is made by the father, who acts in what he believes is the best
interest of his daughter. The blessing given by the father often includes a reference to
"dharma," which means duty or righteousness. The idea is that the couple should fulfil their
respective roles and duties as husband and wife.
5) Gandharva Vivah: Gandharva vivah is brought about by the mutual love and consent of
the bride and the groom. It is an inter-caste marriage essentially. The family and father of the
bride do not have any role to play in this marriage. It should also be based on anuloma
tradition. Manu does not disapprove of this marriage, but he does not consider it ideal either.
6) Asura Vivah (Demonic): Asura marriage occurs when the groom marries the bride by
paying a significant bride-price (dowry) to her family. This form of marriage is often
criticized as materialistic and is considered less virtuous as it demeans the sanctity and
spiritual ness of the marriage.
7) Rakshasa Vivah (Fiendish): Rakshasa marriage is a forceful marriage where the groom
abducts the bride against her will. It is not a legitimate form of marriage and is considered
dishonourable.
If a Shudra hurts a person belonging to a higher varna, then both their limbs which were used
for the attack must be cut off. If a Shudra sat at the same level as one from a higher varna, they
were beaten on buttocks and if a Shudra used his hands to beat up an upper caste, his hands
should be cut off. It was done to ensure that a Shudra remembers that they are inferior.
Furthermore, defamation was considered to be the most heinous crime. If a brahmin is defamed
by a Kshatriya, he will have to pay a fine of Rs 100, Vaishaya has to pay a fine of Rs. 150 for
the same but if a shudra does the same, he will be given corporal punishment. Similarly, if a
kshatriya is defamed then a Brahmin will have to pay Rs. 50, a Vaishya- Rs. 25 and a Shudra
Rs. 12. Manusmriti lays down that while corporal and capital punishment can be awarded to a
Shudra or a Vaishya, a Brahmin must never be slayed. For a Brahmin, the hardest punishment
is to shave their heads and send them into exile, which signifies the loss of knowledge and
degradation of status. Their body was considered pure and soulful thus had to be kept
physically intact. In case of damage to property of others, the amount to be paid should be
equal to the cost of damage. The punishment depended on the caste of the accused and the caste
of the victim. Manu spelt out 18 types of crimes which include- non-payment of loans/debts,
concerns amongst partners in business, sale and purchase issues, non-payment of wages, non-
performance of duties, sale without ownership, deposits and withdrawal, disputes between
owners and servants, resumption of gifts, disputes regarding boundaries, defamation, robbery
and theft, violence, assault, adultery, inheritance, duties of man and wife and gambling. Manu
warns the King to take account of violence else he will lose the throne. He asks the king to be
cautious while punishing people for their crimes, because a wrong conviction can destroy the
king. He also gives the theory of deterrent punishment for the smooth functioning of the society
and checking the violent tendencies in human behaviour. Manu says that if the king cannot be
fair in giving out punishments and if he cannot maintain an atmosphere of fear and respect, the
chaos will descend on the Kingdom.
Manu’s views on Kingship
Manu advocated a monarchical form of governance and prescribed the King to be belonging
to the Kshatriya clan. He considered the king to be like the Sun in the solar system, who is
central to the functioning, welfare and jurisprudence of the kingdom. A good king follows
dharma, asks others to follow their dharma and maintains order in the society and be on
righteous path. He rules by taking dharma as the foundation and will have dandaniti also.
CONCLUSION
Manusmriti has held a very dominant position in the Brahmanical political thought, and laid
down several important practices and philosophies that have supplemented the sastras.
Manu’s social philosophy provided a correct view of reality, and religion showed the correct
way of life. Manusmriti poses a viewpoint of the man-cosmic relationship which means that
the text is a depiction of our complex cosmic system, embedded in a conceptual structure that
encompasses the universe as a whole. Apart from it Manu thinks that politics is an integral
part of the society without which it can’t function. Manu’s social laws reveal the richness and
diversities of the social, political, economic, religious, ethical and aesthetic dimensions of
life. They form a formidable basis for law and orderly society. They were in accordance with
dharma and Danda.
Manu’s seven social laws aptly describe his social philosophy. Thus, Manu and his ideas
have had a profound impact on Indian society and in fact continue to be relevant in present
times.
Every political philosopher is a product of his own time. Manu is not an exception to it. His
philosophy reflected both localism and universalism. Manu represented the Indo-Aryan
Vedic culture, where religion played a vital role. Hence, his philosophy revolves round
Dharma or religion. His ideas like that of the benevolent king, rule of law, limited
government and theory of punishment, have universal appeal. He was one of the greatest
minds and most respected figures in the history of law-givers of antiquity.
The code of Manu or Manusmriti is a monumental work with universal appeal. It is a treatise
on statecraft, which will serve as a handbook for rulers and statesmen in times to come.
According to D. Mackenzie Brown, a philosopher, ‘To the Western world, the code of Manu
is the best-known work of its kind.’ To conclude, Manu’s contribution to Political Science is
outstanding and remarkable. He is a great thinker and philosopher of all times.