Earth’s Subsystem

Geosphere, Hydrosphere, Atmosphere, Biosphere

Geosphere- includes the continental and oceanic crust

Hydrosphere- It is the totality of the Earth’s water including the permanently frozen part called the
cryosphere

Evaporation: The process begins with the heating of the Earth's surface, primarily by the Sun. As the
Sun's energy warms the surface, water from various sources, such as oceans, lakes, rivers, and even
moist soil, begins to evaporate. During evaporation, water changes from its liquid form to water vapor
or steam, rising into the atmosphere.

Transpiration: In addition to water bodies, plants and trees play a role in the water cycle. Through a
process called transpiration, plants absorb water from the soil through their roots and release it as
water vapor through small openings in their leaves, known as stomata. This water vapor contributes to
the moisture in the atmosphere.

Condensation: As water vapor rises into the atmosphere, it cools and condenses to form tiny water
droplets or ice crystals. This process occurs in the upper atmosphere, creating clouds.

Cloud Formation: Clouds are collections of water droplets or ice crystals that have clustered together.
The type of cloud formed depends on factors such as temperature and humidity.

Precipitation: Once clouds become heavy with moisture, the water droplets or ice crystals combine and
fall to the Earth's surface as precipitation. Precipitation can take various forms, including rain, snow,
sleet, or hail, depending on temperature and other factors. This is a crucial stage as it provides the Earth
with the freshwater it needs for various purposes.

Runoff: When precipitation lands on the Earth's surface, it may follow different paths. The ground
absorbs some water and becomes groundwater, while some flows over the surface in rivers, streams,
and creeks. This surface flow is known as runoff, and it plays a critical role in maintaining the health of
ecosystems and replenishing bodies of water.

Infiltration: Infiltration is the process by which precipitation soaks into the ground, recharging
groundwater reserves. This water can be accessed through wells and springs. Storage: Water that enters
lakes, rivers, reservoirs, and underground aquifers is stored for future use. Release: Over time, the
stored water is released back into the environment through various processes like seepage from
underground aquifers, springs, and through the flow of rivers and streams, eventually making its way
back to the oceans or other water bodies. Some of this water may also be used by plants or humans and
animals.

Atmosphere- A blanket of air surrounding the planet which reaches over 560km up from the surface of
the earth

0.1% other gases, 78% nitrogen, 0.9%Argon, 21% Oxygen

Exosphere-960 to 6,200 miles up to 2,700°F, Exobase

Thermosphere 86 to 372 miles 932°F to 3,632°F, Karman line (start of outer space)

Mesosphere-32 to 85 miles, 32°F to -130°F

Stratosphere- 11 to 31 miles -60°F to 5°F, Ozone layer

Troposphere- o to 10 miles, 62°F to -60°F

Biosphere- A biosphere is made up of the parts of earth where life exists

Interactions of the earth’s Subsystem
Atmosphere: Dissolved gases from the atmosphere affect the chemistry of the geosphere. For example,
carbon dioxide dissolved in rainwater produces a weak acid that weathers rock at the earth's surface.

Biosphere: Organisms help form and weather rocks. Organisms in the ocean provide the material that
forms carbonate rocks at the bottom of the ocean. The roots of the plants break up rocks to increase
their weathering rates.
Hydrosphere: Water, the universal solvent, is a key agent of change causing chemical and mechanical
erosion of the earth’s geosphere. Eroded materials move down the watershed water makes its way to
the ocean.
Lesson 2

Mineral Properties:

Silicates - composed of silicon and oxygen - essential for bone growth, e.g., quartz, mica.

Oxides - consist of metal cations and oxygen - important for Earth's magnetic field, e.g., hematite.

Sulfides - involve a metal cation bonded to S2 - economically important ores, e.g., pyrite, galena.

Sulfates - consist of a metal cation bonded to SO4, e.g., barite.

Halides - composed of halogen ions (Cl, F) - commonly form in lakes, ponds, and landlocked seas, e.g.,
halite.

Carbonates - composed of the carbonic ion (CO3) bonded to elements such as Ca or Mg - common in
marine environments, e.g., calcite.

Native Elements - composed of a single metal, e.g., Copper, Gold, Argon.

Mineral Characteristics:

Color: Shade of the mineral.

Streak: Color of the mineral in powdered form

Hardness: Resistance of a mineral to scratching.

Cleavage: Even breaking of minerals resulting in flat surfaces.

Fracture: Irregular breaking of minerals.

Crystalline Structure: How crystals are arranged, either crystalline (has a pattern) or amorphous (has no
pattern).

Luster: How a mineral reflects light.

Specific Gravity: The weight of a mineral compared to water.

Tenacity: Resistance of a mineral to reactions with other minerals (brittleness, malleability, and
elasticity).

Transparency: How well a mineral allows light to pass through.

Odor: Distinct smell of a mineral.

Special Properties: Double refraction, radioactivity, taste, pleochroism, fluorescence.

Rock Types:

Igneous Rocks: Derived from magma, can be intrusive (cools below the Earth's surface) or extrusive
(cools above the Earth's surface).

Sedimentary Rocks: Form from eroded pieces of minerals, rocks, and fossils due to time and pressure.

Metamorphic Rocks: Form when other rocks change into new ones due to time, heat, and pressure.

Ores and Minerals:

Ores: Naturally occurring materials that can be profitably mined. Determined by overall composition,
percentage of extractable resource, market value, cost of extraction, location, concentration, depth, and
technologies.

Locating Ores: Hydrothermal fluid circulation, metamorphic processes, magmatic processes, chemical
sedimentary processes, action of ocean waves and currents, chemical weathering.

Mining Ores: Prospecting and exploration, drilling, modeling.

Extraction Methods: Sand and gravel extraction, extraction from buried ore bodies, ore processing, mine
site decommissioning.

Geothermal and Hydroelectric Energy:

Geothermal Energy: Uses heat generated beneath the Earth's surface. Types include dry steam power
plants, flash steam power plants, binary cycle power plants.

Hydroelectric Energy: Generated from the motion of water. Types include impound facilities, diversion
facilities, and pump storage facilities.

Lesson 3
Weathering Processes:

Mechanical Weathering:

Exfoliation: The peeling away of layers from a rock's surface due to pressure release.

Frost Wedging: The expansion of water as it freezes, breaking rock apart.

Salt Wedging: Crystallization of salts in rock crevices leading to its breakdown.

Temperature Changes: Repeated expansion and contraction due to temperature fluctuations.

Chemical Weathering:

Carbonation: The reaction of carbon dioxide with minerals to dissolve them.

Hydration: The addition of water to minerals, causing them to expand and disintegrate.

Oxidation: The reaction of minerals with oxygen, often leading to rusting.

Solution: Dissolving minerals in water, carrying them away.

Biological Weathering:

Lichen and Algae: Organisms contributing to the breakdown of rocks by secreting acids.

Plant Roots: Roots growing into cracks and expanding, causing rocks to break apart.

Erosion Processes:

Water Erosion (Fluvial):

Rain Splash Erosion: Raindrop impact loosening and mobilizing particles.

Sheet Erosion: Runoff water transporting particles down slopes.

Rill/Gully Erosion: Concentrated water eroding small channels.

Fluvial Erosion: Erosion during rainfall, runoff, or groundwater percolation.

Wind Erosion (Aeolian):

Deflation: Wind picking up and transporting particles.

Abrasion: Wind-transported particles sculpting the landscape.

Ice Erosion (Periglacial and Glacial):

Glacial Erosion: Incorporation and transport of particles within glaciers.

Friction and Abrasion: Ice and rock moving across bedrock, eroding it.

Gravity Erosion:

Downward movement of loosened, weathered materials without aid from other agents.

Mass Wasting Processes:

Rock Falls: Dislodged rocks falling down slopes due to changes in potential energy.

Landslides: Rapid, large-scale movement of rock material down slopes, often triggered by earthquakes
or heavy rainfall.

Debris/Mud Flows: Flows of eroded soils, sediments, and debris caused by heavy rainfall, capable of
carrying various-sized particles.

Slumps: Mass of materials collapsing, rotating, and moving downslope.

Creep: Slow, gradual downhill movement of soil, rock, and weathered materials, often influencing entire
slopes.

Deposition Process:

Deposition: The constructive process of placing eroded materials in different locations, creating various
landform features. This includes materials deposited by mechanical, chemical, or biological weathering,
as well as by water, wind, ice, or gravity-related erosion. Landforms like floodplains and sand dunes are
examples of deposition-driven features.

Lesson 4
Heat in the Earth’s Interior

Primordial Heat: Heat generated during earth’s formation.

Sources: a. accretion energy, b. adiabatic compression, c. core formation energy

Accretion energy: Heat released from collision of planetary objects during the early formation of the
planets.

Adiabatic compression: Hear generated as materials are compressed.

Formation energy: heat from the earth’s core

Radioactive heat:idk

Folding and Faulting

Folding-is the bending or curving of rock layers in the Earth's crust due to tectonic forces, resulting in
various types of folds such as anticlines and synclines.

Types of folds

Anticline: An anticline is an upward, convex fold where the oldest rock layers are located in the center,
and the layers get progressively younger outward. It often results from compressional forces in the
Earth's crust.

Anticline: An anticline is the type of fold where the oldest rock layers are found in the core or center of
the fold, and the layers become progressively younger as you move away from the center. It has a
convex-upward shape.

Syncline: In a syncline, the youngest rock layers are located in the core or center of the fold, and the
layers become older as you move outward. A syncline typically has a concave-upward shape.

Monocline: A monocline is a type of fold that involves a single flexure in the rock layers. The rock layers
on one side of the monocline are typically horizontal, while the layers on the other side are inclined.
Monoclines are often associated with faulting.

Dome: A dome is a circular or elliptical upwarping of rock layers. In a dome, the rock layers become
older as you move from the center to the outer edges. The center of the dome represents the youngest
rocks.

Basin: A basin is the opposite of a dome. It is a circular or elliptical down warping of rock layers. In a
basin, the rock layers become younger as you move from the center to the outer edges, with the center
representing the oldest rocks. Faulting- in endogenic processes refers to the breaking and shifting of
rocks along fractures known as faults, caused by tectonic forces originating within the Earth's crust and
mantle.

Types of Faults:

Normal Faults: Result from extensional forces, causing one block to move downward relative to the
other.

Reverse (Thrust) Faults: Form from compressional forces, leading to one block moving upward over the
other at a low angle.

Strike-Slip Faults: Involve horizontal movement along the fault plane without significant vertical
displacement. The two blocks slide past each other horizontally.
Magmatism- is the geological process involving the formation, movement, and solidification of magma
(molten rock) beneath the Earth's surface. It leads to the creation of intrusive and extrusive igneous
rocks, volcanic activity, and landforms like volcanoes, and is closely tied to plate tectonics. It plays a
crucial role in shaping the Earth's geology and landscape.

Mid-Oceanic Ridges: These are underwater mountain ranges that form where tectonic plates move
apart. As plates separate, the reduced pressure on the mantle rocks beneath the ridge causes partial
melting. This process creates magma, which rises to form new oceanic crust.

Mantle Plumes: Mantle plumes are hot upwellings of molten rock from deep within the Earth's mantle.
As the hot material rises, it can melt surrounding rocks, leading to the formation of magma. Mantle
plumes are responsible for the creation of volcanic hotspots like the Hawaiian Islands.

Subduction Zones: Subduction zones occur where one tectonic plate is pushed beneath another. The
descending plate carries water and other materials into the mantle. This addition of volatiles can reduce
the melting point of mantle rocks, leading to the formation of magma. Magma generated in subduction
zones often results in explosive volcanoes.

Plutonism: Plutonism refers to the formation and emplacement of intrusive igneous rocks within the
Earth's crust. It involves the cooling and solidification of magma deep beneath the Earth's surface,
resulting in the formation of intrusive features. Plutonic rocks, also known as intrusive rocks, are
typically coarse-grained and are created through slow cooling over extended periods. Common plutonic
features include batholiths, stocks, dikes, and sills.

Volcanism: Volcanism is the geological process by which molten rock material, magma, erupts onto the
Earth's surface as lava, gases, and volcanic ash. It is responsible for the formation of volcanic landforms
such as volcanoes, lava plateaus, and volcanic islands. Volcanism occurs primarily along tectonic plate
boundaries, where magma rises from the mantle, often leading to volcanic eruptions.

Metamorphism: Process of changing materials that make up the rock. The chemical components and
geologic characteristics of the rock change because of exposure to hear and pressure

Regional Metamorphism: This type of metamorphism occurs over large areas and is associated with
tectonic plate interactions. It typically results in the formation of foliated rocks like schist and gneiss. The
pressure and temperature conditions are high and extensive.

Contact Metamorphism: Contact metamorphism occurs when rocks come into direct contact with a heat
source, such as molten magma. This type of metamorphism can lead to non-foliated rocks like marble
and hornfels. The effects are localized and are associated with igneous intrusions.

Influencing Rock Behavior

Compression: Rocks push or squeeze against one another where the stress produced is directed towards
the center.

Tention: Rocks pulled apart Rocks may separate on opposite direction

shearing: some of the portion of a plate at the edge may break away in different directions. Eventually
making the plate smaller inside.

Confining:

The crust become compact, thus making it look smaller.