Sergio Castillos, Ingeniero electrónico

Direction finding refers to the use of specialized instruments,

antennas, and methodologies to determine the physical location
of a source of RF energy
Accuracy requirements vary
Targets are usually non-cooperative, but not always (e.g. search
and rescue)

2 Introduction to Direction Finding

 Power of arrival measures level at a given location

Not really direction finding

3 Introduction to Direction Finding

 Use variations in amplitude, frequency, and/or phase
to determine the direction (bearing, azimuth) towards
the source
Most DF methodologies use a single type of variation
(amplitude, frequency, or phase/time)

4 Introduction to Direction Finding

 A single bearing can be used when
homing towards a target
Multiple bearings taken from different
locations can be used to compute the
most probable location of a target (i.e.
triangulation)

5 Introduction to Direction Finding

 Manual the operator manually moves an antenna until
the strongest signal level is observed
Automatic the system automatically computes the
bearing based on a DF methodology (Doppler, Watson-
Watt, Correlative Interferometry, etc.)

6 Introduction to Direction Finding

 Multipath: receiving a signal from
different directions simultaneously
Caused by single or multiple reflections,
most commonly in an urban environment
Multipath is the single biggest challenge
in direction finding

7 Introduction to Direction Finding

8 Introduction to Direction Finding
 Amplitude comparison methodology
A directional antenna is physically moved / rotated until
direction of maximum receive strength (bearing) is obtained
Directional antenna can be hand-held or mounted
Angle is usually determined using a compass

9 Introduction to Direction Finding

 Low-cost and portable
Effectiveness depends strongly on the skill
level of the operator
Accuracy poor for distant targets
Antenna must have appropriate directivity
Difficulty dealing with short duration signals

10 Introduction to Direction Finding

11 Introduction to Direction Finding
 Doppler shift is a type of frequency modulation
Relative motion of objects towards each other causes the
observed frequency to increase
Relative motion away from each other causes observed
frequency to decrease
In the radio frequency domain, Doppler shift can be used for
direction finding

Christian Doppler (1803-1853)

12 Introduction to Direction Finding

 As we move towards a signal source, the received frequency will shift upwards (or vice-versa)
This shift can be used to determine if we are moving towards (or away from) the source
We want to move the DF receiver relative to the transmitter and measure the Doppler shift
Could we do this if the DF receiver is not in motion?
(And could we even move the receiver fast enough?)

13 Introduction to Direction Finding

14 Introduction to Direction Finding
 An antenna on a rotating disk is not practical
Required rotational speed is far too high
To simulate a rotating disk, Doppler DF switches
sequentially between a set of (usually) 4 antennas
Each antenna generates a series of Doppler pulses
and the system uses them to synthesize the
Doppler sine wave
Switching between the antennas must be very fast

15 Introduction to Direction Finding

16 Introduction to Direction Finding
 Most Doppler arrays contain four antennas
Larger numbers of antennas improves
results but only if the diameter of the array
is increased
Some Doppler systems have multiple sets
of elements for different frequency ranges
(4 for VHF, 4 for UHF, etc.)

17 Introduction to Direction Finding

 Lojack stolen vehicle tracking systems are based on Doppler

18 Introduction to Direction Finding

 Low cost compared to other DF systems
May use either commercial, off-the-shelf receivers (hobbyist
level) or specialized DF receivers (commercial systems)
Require a constant (CW) type signal. Not suitable for
intermittent signals or broadband noise
Antenna-based factors impact useful range:
Normally works best on VHF/UHF frequencies (< 1 GHz)

(Doppler antennas usually vertically polarized)

19 Introduction to Direction Finding

20 Introduction to Direction Finding
 Amplitude comparison DF system
Developed shortly after World War I
Named after Sir Robert Alexander Watson-Watt, one of the
inventors of radar
Uses Adcock (or crossed loop) antennas to compare the
level of the signal received at each antenna

Sir Robert Alexander Watson-Watt

(1892-1973)

21 Introduction to Direction Finding

 Four equally-spaced vertical elements arranged in pairs
Creates two figure-eight shaped lobes
Maximum sensitivity along the axis
Nulls perpendicular to the axis
Antenna pattern yields a unique set of magnitudes for
every direction
An omnidirectional sense antenna is used to resolve
180º ambiguities

22 Introduction to Direction Finding

23 Introduction to Direction Finding
 Typically monopoles (when ground plane is present) or
dipoles (for pole/tower mounted applications)
Also implemented as crossed loops
Spacing between elements is a compromise between
accuracy (closer together is better) and sensitivity
(farther apart is better)

24 Introduction to Direction Finding

25 Introduction to Direction Finding
26 Introduction to Direction Finding
 Method of choice for HF direction finding due to ease
of implementing small antennas at these frequencies
Fast response time
to obtain bearings
Accuracy and sensitivity are usually both very good
Accuracy depends on the circularity of the antenna
pattern
No measurement of elevation possible, and
decreasing azimuth accuracy as transmitter
elevation increases / decreases

27 Introduction to Direction Finding

 The US Coast Guard system Rescue 21 system uses over 225 Watson-Watt based DF sites to
radiolocate stations across over 40,000 miles of coastline
Speed and accuracy are critical
Watson-Watt ideal for the common maritime HF / VHF frequencies

28 Introduction to Direction Finding

29 Introduction to Direction Finding
 First used in radio astronomy
Calculates bearings based on phase
differences at multiple co-located
antenna elements
Odd number of antennas arranged in a
circular pattern

30 Introduction to Direction Finding

 °

31 Introduction to Direction Finding

 ° °
°
32 Introduction to Direction Finding
 ° °
° °

33 Introduction to Direction Finding

 Typical CI antennas have 5-9 elements enclosed in
a radome
Arrays can cover large frequency ranges (> 1 GHz)
The larger the diameter of the CI antenna, the better
immunity to reflections / multipath
Design and manufacturing tolerances are very tight

34 Introduction to Direction Finding

 Very high accuracy: less than 1º typical
Provides both a bearing and a quality (strength of
correlation) for the bearing
Higher immunity to multipath compared to other DF
methodologies
Cross-polarization does not decrease accuracy, only
sensitivity

35 Introduction to Direction Finding

36 Introduction to Direction Finding
 Three or more receivers at different locations
receive a signal
The paths between transmitter and each
receiver are usually of different length, so
there are differences in the time of arrival at
the different receiver locations
Time differences can be represented as
hyperbolae which cross at the transmitter
location

37 Introduction to Direction Finding

38 Introduction to Direction Finding
39 Introduction to Direction Finding
 Digitized IF (IQ data) from all receive stations is transferred over data links to a master station
Data must be precisely timestamped using a shared clock
Master station computes cross-correlation function for all stations
This calculation yields the time difference, which is then used to generate the hyperbolae

40 Introduction to Direction Finding

 1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5

41 Introduction to Direction Finding

42 Introduction to Direction Finding
 Normally purpose-built devices (sensors)
Non-directional antenna and receiver
Can be fixed (more common) or movable
Sensors require network, power and GPS
Good accuracy over a larger area requires large
number of TDOA sensors
Therefore, TDOA sensors tend to be inexpensive
(lower RF performance)

43 Introduction to Direction Finding

 TDOA results typically are accurate to
within several hundred meters
Outside the area surrounded by the
TDOA receive stations the location
accuracy can be poor

44 Introduction to Direction Finding

 Good location results within receiver coverage area
Better results for wideband than narrowband signals
Accuracy increases with number of receivers
But at some point, there is no additional
improvement (and calculation time increases
dramatically)
Reception of weak signals with nearby sensors
(proximity gain)
TDOA algorithms can process out some multipath
effects

45 Introduction to Direction Finding

 Mobiles are usually covered by multiple
base stations
Uplink signals are measured and
processed
However, localization of mobiles often
involves (pseudo-) cooperative
-Fi
receivers and applications)

46 Introduction to Direction Finding

 Automatic DF, then manual DF
General location via automatic DF,
final location manually
Combing automatic DF methodologies
Angle of arrival (AOA) plus time
difference of arrival (TDOA)

47 Introduction to Direction Finding

48 Introduction to Direction Finding
49 Introduction to Direction Finding
50 Introduction to Direction Finding
51 Introduction to Direction Finding
 Most commonly used DF methodologies
Manual angle of arrival (AOA)
Doppler
Watson-Watt
Correlative Interferometry
Time Difference of Arrival (TDOA)
Hybrid methodologies

52 Introduction to Direction Finding