Solution .

,
When the head varies only in E direction.
O<p
-=0
4 Elementary Problems: for
and the eqns. (3.8) reduce to
a7/
Confined or Semi-confined
dtp
v~= - k~~dE' v. = - k~ dE
dip Aquifers
and hence vJv~ = k~/k~~= - 2/3. This is the tangent of the angle II oC the
~Iocity ~or with the E-axis (see Fig. 3.2). Hence tan ({J) = - 2/3. or
II = - 33°41'.

Verify that every expression oC the Conn

tp = eru cos (exy)
where ex is arbitrary, is a solution of Laplace's equation.
In many cases of practical interest the groundwater flow occurs in a
Solution
water-bearing layer of relatively high permeability (a layer of sand),
By taking the second order partial derivatives with respect to x and y one obtains
confined between two layers of very low permeability (clay layers), Fig. 4.1.
a;
;p
= ex2eru cos (exy),
02
a;
= - ex2eru cos (exy)

. . . -
Addition of these expressions yields zero. whatever the value oC ex, for all x and y.

1. Sokolnikoff, I. S.• Tensor Analysis, 2nd. ed., Wiley (1964). .

2. Hubbert, M. K., 'The theory of ground-water motion', J. Geology, 48 (1940),
785-944.
Note: Hubbert's article contains an excellent discussion on the merits of the
various generalizations of Darcy's law. Valuable discussions of this law can also
Some elementary problems for such systems wilI be considered in this
be found in most of the books referred to in Chapters 1 and 2.
chapter.
A soil layer transmitting water is called a confined aquifer when its
pores are everywhere' filled with water and when it is bounded on its two
sides by completely impermeable layers. When one ot both of the layers
above and below the soil layer are not completely impermeable, but their
permeability is nevertheless very small compared with the permeability
of the layer itself, then this layer is said to be a semi<anfined aquifer.
25
 i:iememary rroi:Jiems iOI CUlliill~J UI St:llli-l;UU;iIU:J !'\\jiilftiii> '1:l
or, using Darcy's law,
(Prpf;29i)
-k ( -+-
ax2 0),2 AxAyH
The basic equation for the flow in a confined or semi-confined aquifer is,
as in all problems of steady flow, the equation of Laplace The amount of water percolating through the layer lout of the element is,
02qJ i2qJ 02qJ per unit time,
-+-+-=0
ox2 cy2 OZ2 k1 rp ~ tpl AxLly
It can be expected, however, that in such an aquifer the flow will mainly
be in the horizontal x,y-plane. If the flow in the vertical, z-direction, is . where qJl is the head in the layer above the confining layer 1•.and k1 and d1
entirely disregarded one may put ocp/oz = 0, and thus 02qJ/OZ2 = 0 in are the coefficient of permeability of the confining layer and its thickness,
eqn. (4.1) which then reduces to
o2q; f)2qJ
ox2+ ay2=0
This is the basic-equation for the flow in a completely confined aquifer of
cons~rit thickness. In the present chapter it will be simpler, however, to
regard a completely confined aquifcr as a special case of a scmi-confined
aquifer, for which the basic equation will next be established.
In a semi-confined aquifer the situation is somewhat complicated.
Through the confining layers of low permeability small amounts Qf water -
may enter (or leave) the aquifer, and therefore it is not correct to disregard'
the vertical flow altogether. Yet it can be expected that in the aquifer
proper the horizontal flow will predominate. In order to investigate this
the basic equation is derived directly from the fundamental principle of
continuity
"-'~""
and Darcy's law.
r c_' .••.': --- . . ,". ~"~ ,-' ~
It l~~';lw~q.tqat.~E.. '2'S,,,,,.-c,",. ""~'" I. il~" I
1.911e aquifer is of constant thickness, H. I
I 6y
2. Vertical velocities in the interior of the aquifer are small compared to
the horizontal velocities. FIG. 4.2 Continuity in element of confined aquifer
The second assumption is the essential one. It means that orp/az will be
small compared to aqJ/ax and ctp/ay, and therefore the head €I' can be respectively. Similarly, the contribution of the percolation through layer
considered to be practically constant over the height of the aquifer. 2 to the net flux out of the element is. .
oil
Now consider an element &:c 6y H of the aquifer, and formulate the
equation of continuity for this special case (Fig. 4.2). k €I'- Cf2 AxAy
2
d2
The net outward flux due to the flow in x- and y-directions is
Continuity now requir~s that the sum of all these quantities is zero, hence
~ +<>avrJy
OVr.
( ox
lI) A
ux.y A H
kH (a2~ + ~2rp) _ q; - tpl _ q; - tp2 = 0 (4.3)
ax 0T Cl C2
 28-- Theory of Groundwater Flow Elementary Problems for Confined or Semi-confined Aquifers 29
where C1 = d1/k1 and C2 = dJk2, the so-called hydraulic resistances of Hence, the basic equation becomes
the confining layers. Equation· (4.3) is the basic differential equation for
steady flow in a semi-confined aquifer. Some examples of mathematical kH (02ip + f)2ip) _ ip - rp1 _ ip - rp~ = 0 (4.5)
solutions will be presented in the following sections of this chapter, for cr ·fJr . C1 C2

different types of boundary conditions.

The terms (rp - rp1)/C1 and (rp - rp2)/C2 in eqn. (4.3) represent the vertical
leakage through the confining layers. In the basic equation (4.3), which is not
as (4.1) an equation holding in any spatial point, but an equation valid
along a vertical line of length H in the aquifer, these terms take the place
of the term fJ2q7/fJz2in eqn. (4.1). When the confining layers are completely
impermeable, k1 = k2 = 0, and eqn. (4.3) then reduces to (4.2), as of
course it should.
An alternative derivation of eqn. (4.3), which throws some more light
on its relation with the general equation (4.1) will next be presented.
Therefore, the starting point is eqn. (4.1) which must hold in every point
in the interior of the aquifer. The average head ip is defined as
This equation is formally identical with (4.3). The latter derivation has
the advantage that an insight into the validity of the equation is obtained.
The only step of an approximate character is the replacement of (rp)z-H
and (9')z-o by the a\'erage value ip. Thus eqn. (4.3),. or (4.5), is applicable
provided that either the values of the head on the tipper and lower faces
of the aquifer differ little from the average value over the height, or that
the last terms, representing the leakage, are relatively unimportant because
of large values of C1 and C2.

ip(x,y) = ~ i H
cp(x,y,z)dz (4.4) A simple application of the equations for the flow in a semi-confined
aquifer arises when, over a long distance, say in the y-direction, the
Multiplication of equation (4.1) with dz and then integrating over the situation (as it appears in a cross-section) does not vary. An example is
height H gives given in Fig. 4.3. where water flows in negative x-direction through an

fJ2ip
fJ2ip)
H ( -+-
fJr fJy
+ [fJrpJ
-fJz z-H - [fJrpJ
-
fJz z-o
=0

The term (8rp18z)Z_H is equal to - rVz/k)Z-H, and because of continuity

the vertical component of specific discharge at the upper side of the
aquifer is equal to the vertical component of the flow through the con- " '

fining layer, hence

......: : :'.:..'-:~.".".:' @
... ~ ..
fJrpJ I k1 .. ~: .....
[ 8z z-H =- k (VZ)Z_H = - kd {[rp)Z-H - rp1}
1

If, now, instead of (rplZ-H, the value of the head at the upper side of the
aquifer, the average value ip is used, one obtains
aquifer into a lake, with water infiltrating through the overlying confining
layer, above which the head is constant, 9'1' Since in all cross-sections
perpendicular to the y-axis the situation is the same, there will be no
variation of the head with y. Hence eqn. (4.3) reduces to
2
kH d rp _ rp - rp1 = 0 (4.6)
dx2 C
 where c is the hydraulic resistance of the confining layer. Eqn. (4.6) may direction, and in this case (see Fig. 4.3) the water flows in the opposite
alternatively be written as direction if 9'1 > 9'2'
2 A second case of some practical interest in which the flow occurs in one
d (9' - 9'1) 9' - PI = 0 (4.7) direction only is that of the seepage from a lake into a polder, separated
dx2 1.2
from the lake by a straight dike (Fig. 4.4), when this dike is completely
where J. = v(kHc), the so-called leakage factor. In the form (4.7) the impermeable and the soil consists of a permeable aquifer with an overlying
differential equation is easy to solve. Its general50lution is layer of low permeability. On one side of the dike water will percolate
9' - 9'1 = A eZ/A+ B e-z/J. (4.8)
where A and" B are as yet unknown constants. That (4.8) is a solution of
(4.7) is easily verified by direct substitution. It is the general solution since
it contains two constaRts, as the general solution of a second-order
differential equation should.
The constants A and B must be determined from the boundary con-
ditions. In the case of Fig. 4.3 one of the boundaries is the line x = 0,
whereas the second boundary lies very far away to the right, say at infinity.
"', The boundary conditions are
x-+ 00: 9'-9'1
x=O: 9'=P2
It follows from the first condition that A = 0, and from the second that
from the lake into the aquifer, and on the other side of the dike water will
B = 9'2 - 9'1 seep into the polder.
In order to solve this problem the aquifer is separated into three parts,
namely these are
9' = 9'1 - (9'1 - 9'2) e-z/J. (4.9)
- oo"<x<-L
In Fig. 4.3 the head 9' in the aquifer is indicated by a dashed line.
An interesting quantity to be calculated is the total discharge. Therefore -L<x< +L
the specific discharge is first determined by differentiating (4.9) with
respect to x.
+L<x< + 00
This gives For these three parts the solution will first b.e established, thereby intro-
ducing the values 9'2 and 9'3 of the head for x = - L and x = + L,
v = _ k d9' = _ k(9'l - 9'2) e-Z/J.
Z dx J. respectively, as unknown parameters. These parameters will thereafter be
determined from continuity-conditions along the common boundaries
The total discharge· Q (of a slice of width B in the direction perpendicular x = ± L of the three regions.
to the plane of flow) is obtained by multiplication of the specific discharge ..•. 1. In the region - 00 < x < - L infiltration from the lake occurs. The
for x = 0 with the area HB. This gives situation is similar to the preceding case (Fig. 4.3), of which the solution
Q = - kHB{9'l - 9'J/J. (4.!9l was seen to be eqn. (4.9). The solution for the present case is obtained by
replacing x by - (x + L), hence
"The minus sign in this expression stems from the fact that specific discharge
and total discharge have been taken as positive in the positive coordinate
32 Theory of Groundwater Flow Elementary Problems for Confined or Semi-confined Aquifers
It is easily verified that this solution satisfies the boundary conditions, Solution of these equations gives
which express that for x _ - 00 the head rp must tend to rpl>and that for
x = - L the head must be rpl/.'The value of rpl/.is as yet unknown. It will "'2 = rpi - (rpi - Pt) A 1(2L + 2A) (4.17)
be determined later;
The total discharge (through a slice of thickness B) at x = - L is found
"3 = rpt + (rpi - rpt) N(2L + 2).) (4.18)
Q = kHB(rpl - rpt)/(2L + 2A) (4.19)
to be
The last expression, eqn. (4.19), gives the total seepage into the polder.
Since, now Cf2and '13 are known, the head in any point of the aquifer can
+
2. In the region - L < x < L there is no infiltration. The basic be calculared by means of the formulae (4.11), (4.13) or (4.15).
differential equation in this part is therefore The leakage factor A, defined as

dllrp = 0
dxl/.
with the general solution rp = Ax + B. The constants A and B must be
determined such that for x = - L: rp = rpl/.'and for x = + L: rp = rpa·
It will easily be verified that these conditions are satisfied by the following
expression
rp = 1(rp2+ rps) - !(rp2 - rps) (xlL)
The total discharge in thIS region is
Q = HBvz = kHB(CfJ2 - rps)/2L
3. In the region + L <x < + 00 leakage takes place from the aquifer
into the polder. Equation (4.9) can be used if x is replaced by :x - L, and
deserves some closer inspection. Its dimension is that of a length. It was
found that for rectilinear flow in a semi-confined aquifer the solution for
the head contains a damping exponential function of the form e-zlA,
see eqn. (~.9), which means that the rate of damping is governed by the
factor i.. Since e-2 = 0·135, e-s = 0'050, e-t = 0'018, e-s = 0,007, it
follows that the contribution ofa term containing a factor e-zlAwill va~ish
at distances x larger than about 4J.. Thus, a knowledge of the value of J.
may in it5e1f already be of practical value. For instance, in the case of
Fig. (4.4) ~>necan state that at a distance 4J. from the dike the head in the
aquifer ",ill be equal to the head above it.
It may 21so be mentioned here that the behaviour of a formula of the
form (4.9" i.e.
rp = PI - (rpi - ,rp2) e- Z/A

rpi and rp2 by rp. and rps. This gives

rp = rp. - (rp. - rps) e- (s-LI/A (4.15)
For x _ 00 the head rp is seen to tend towards rp. and for x = Lone
obtains rp = rps. Hence (4.15) indeed satisfies the relevant boundary
conditions.
The total discharge at x = L is
To determine the values of rp2 and rps it should be noted that, as a con-
sequence of continuity of flow at the common boundaries x = ± L~the
values of the discharge, Q, in eqns. (4.12), (4.14) and (4.16) are the same.
In fact these three equations contain three unknown quantities, Q, Cf2
and rps.
can casil: be sketched if A is known. For x = 0 one obtains rp = rp2, and
the value of dlfldx at x = 0, that is the slope of the tangent to the curve
defined ~. the above formula, is found to be
[dpldxJz=o = (IJ'I - 1J'2)/J.
Thus, the tangent to the curve passes through the points x = 0, rp = rp2
and x = ;..,rp = Ph see also Fig. 4.3.
The property just mentioned is not only of interest for sketching the
head, but it also means that the total discharge in the case of Fig. 4.3, Le.
the disch2.rge through a semi-confined aquifer of seJIli-infinite extent, is
equal to the discharge through a completely confined aquifer of length
i.•at the t"Wi'O
ends of which the values of the head are rplandrp2 respectively.
Using this property, the total discharge in the case illustrated in Fig. 4.4
can be written down immediately, and one then obtains eqn. (4.19).
 With (4.22) the basic equation (4.3) for the flow in a semi-confined aquifer
becomes, in terms of polar coordinates,

Radial flow often occurs in the field, for instance in the vicinity of a kH (02rp + !op + .!. 02rp) _ rp - CPl _ rp - ({'2 = 0 (4.23)
pumping welL For the solution of problems concerning radial flow the or2 r or r2 002 C1 C2
In the special case of radial flow directed towards, or from, the origin of
the coordinates system, the head will be independent of O. Then eqn. (4.23)
reduces to

kH (d2rp +! drp) _ rp - rpl _ rp - rp2 _ 0 (4.24)

dr2 r dr Cl C2-
----- ----- Jr
I
This is an ordinary differential equation, since the head rp is now a function
I of the radial coordinate only.
I
I
I
I

use of polar coordinates is particularly well suited (Fig. 4.5). Therefore In this section the case of a completely confined aquifer in which the water
the basic equation in cartesian coordinates, eqn. (4.3), flows radially,. will be investigated. For a completely confined aquifer the
values of Cl and C2in eqn. (4.24) must be taken infinitely large. This yields
kH (02rp + 02rp) _ rp - rpl .:.. rp - rp2 = 0 the following differential equation
ox2 or Cl C2
2
will first be transformed into polar coordinates.
!
d rp + drp = 0
dr2 r dr
The relationship between polar coordinates r, 0 on the one hand and
cartesian coordinates x,y on the other, is
x = r cos 0, r =(r + y2)1/2 !!!. (r dP) =0
Y = r sin 0, '0 = arctan (Y/~)* (4.21) r dr dr
By using the chain rule of differel1tiation one obtains Successive integration now leads to the following general solution,
02rp x2 02rp r orp y2 02rp 2xy orp . rp = C1 In r +C2 (4.26)
or = r2 or2 + r3 or + r4 002 - -;:4 80
where C1 and C2 are constants, to be determined from the boundary
02rp = r 82rp + r Orp+ r 02rp + 2xy orp conditions.
oy2 r2 or2 r3 or r4 802 ~ 00 As boundary conditions one can take fixed values for the head for two
Adding these two equations gives the following important result values of r (an interior and exterior boundary of a soil mass), or one may
fix the value of the head along one boundary and specify that along a
02rp + 02cp = 82rp +! Orp+ .!.. 02rp (4.22) second boundary a certain amount of water enters or leaves the soil. The
or or or2 r or r2 a02 latter case arises when considering the flow towards a well in a circular
island, see Fig. 4.6. When the production of the well is Qo, and the head
 Elementary Problems for Confined or Semi-confined Aquifers 37
at the outer circumference of the island is fixed, the boundary conditions It should be noted that instead of using the toal discharge Q at r = rID as
are a boundary condition, one might as well consider:the value of the water
table in the well, fJJID' as a prescribed quantity. In that case the discharge
(I) r = R: fJJ = 'fl'
Qo is obtained as a result of the computations. Of course the final formulae
(2) r = rID: 2TTrHr T = - Qo. are the same, and one would then derive for Qo the following expression,
which is simply another form of (4.31)
The minus sign in the last equation appears since Qo is taken positive for
water leaving the soil, whereas the amount 2TTrHt', is the total discharge
flowing in positive r-direction, that is: flowing into the soil from the well.
From (4.26) and Darcy's law, which in the case of radial flow states that
Qo = 2TTkH =(~/~~ (4.32)

The solution (4.30) for the well in a completely confined aquifer possesses
dtp certain interesting properties, some being trivial, but others being of
~=-k- ~~ fundamental importance. First, it should be noted that the total discharge
dr
Q through the surface of a circular cylinder of radius r and height H is
2TTrHv, = - 2TTkHC1
. Hence, in order to satisfy the second boundary condition the value of C1
must be
Qo
C1 =2 'Il kH
The second constant is now easily obtained from the first boundary
condition, 2R
Qo FIG. 4.6 Well in circular island
C2 = fJJ1 - 2TTkH In R
equal to 2TTrHv, and this appears to be equal to - Qo. This quantity is
Substitution of the results (4.28) and (4.29) into the general solution (4.26) independent of the radius r, which is not very surprising, since it is an
gives the following e.quation as the solution for the case illustrated by immediate consequence of the principle of continui.ty.
Fig. 4.6. . Following on from this, note that the final solution, as expressed by

tp = tp1
Qo
+ 21TkH In
(r)R eqn. (4.30) is independent of the radius of the well, rID' This means that the
influence of a well upon the head at a certain distance depends only upon
the discharge of the well, and not upon its radius. It also means that the
Since in the region occupied by the soil body, r is always smaller than R, same solution (4.30) applies to the (hypothetical) case of a well of infinitely
the logarithm is always negative, and this indicates that the head tp is small radius, with finite production Qo' In the latter case, which is some-
everywhere lower than its boundary value fJJI> provided that Qo > O. times termed" the case of a mathematical sink, the head fJJw in the well (or
Thus, if water is extracted from the soil the head is lowered, as one would sink) itself, as given by (4.31), appears to be minus infinity. Physically
expect.
speaking, one may say that in order to have a finite amount of water Qo
The height of the water table in the well is obtained by putting r = rID flowing through an infinitely small area, the head in the well must be
in (4.30). This gives lowered by an infinitely large amount. Obviously such sinks cannot be

tpw
_
- fJJ1
Qo
+ 2TTkH I
n
(rRw) realized in practice. They are of importance, however, in general consider-
ations, and sometimes have great practical value (see section 6.1).
 Anotner interesting property of the solution (4.30) is that when R. the same as that at , = 'w' Actually, the solution (4.30) can be used in both
outer radius of the aquifer, becomes infinitely large, the solution degener- regions, ,
ates since then In ('IR) tends to - OJ, whatever the value of,. This means
that it is impossible to extract water at a steady rate from a confined 'w <, < '0: P =Po + --In
Qo
21Tk1H
(')-
'0
(4.35)
aquifer extending towards infinity. If a steady state were possible in such
an aquifer, the water flowing out of the soil through the well should be
I. '0 <, < R: P = P1+ --Qo In (')
.- (4.36)
supplied at infinity. As the formula indicates, this cannot be realized by 21Tk2H R
lowering the head by a finite amount. Fortunately, aquifers of infinite '0
where the value Po of the head at , = is as yet unknown. It can be deter-
mined from the last equation (4.36), by requiring that for, ='0 this
equation should give Po. Hence

Po= P1+ --In

Qo
21Tk2H
('-R0)
Since all quantities in the right hand side of (4.37) are given, the head
'0
Po at, = is now known. With (4.35) and (4.36) the head at any point in
the aquifer can be calculated.
The height of the water in the well is obtained by putting , = '1» in
(4.35). With (4.37) this gives

extent do not occur in reality; in most practical cases it is possible to
define a certain finite outer radius of the aquifer. More about this will be
said in section 6.1. It is also very instructive to consider the non-steady
flow towards a well in an infinite confined aquifer (Hantush1). Then it
appears that indeed there does not exist a limiting steady state.
Formula (4.30) is often written in a slightly different form by introducing
the so-called drawdown s,
s=~-P ~.3~
which represents the lowering of the head due to the action of the well.
With (4.33) eqn. (4.30) becomes
s =- ~
27ikll
In (!...)
R
(4.34)
As a second example of radial flow in a confined aquifer, which may
also serve to indicate how to deal with discontinuities in the permeability,
the case of a well with a filter of coarse material in a circular island will be
considered (Fig. 4.7).
In each of the two regions, which are separated at the radius '0, the
general solution (4.26) applies, but the constants may differ in the two
'0
regions. Because of continuity, the total discharge at , = must be the
rf!", = P1 + 21Tk
--QoH
1
w) --Qo
'0 + 21Tk
In ('-
2H
In -('0)R
In solving this problem use has !>eenmade of the fact that the head at
, = '0, as well as the total discharge, are continuous. These two principles
are the ones which are generally used along the interface of two regions
of different permeability. That the head is continuous is a consequence of
its definition, rf! = Z + plpg, and the fact that both the height, z, and the
pressure, p, are continuous. Observe also that this argument fails when
the density p is discontinuous, as for instance occurs in the case of an
abrupt interface between two fluids.
In the case of a single fluid, however, the head P must be a continuous
variable. The same holds true for the specific discharge, but it should be
remembered that the normal derivative of P (in the case of Fig. 4.7:
dp/d,) will be discontinuous at an interface where the coefficient of
permeability is discontinuous (in the case of Fig. 4.7: at , = '0)' .
An example of radial flow in a semi-confined aquifer is the flow towards
a well in such an aquifel (Fig. 4.8). It will appear that in this case a steady
 40 Theory of Groundwater Flow Elementary Problems for Confined or Semi-confined Aquifers 41
state solution can be obtained, even when the aquifer extends towards are independent solutions of (4.40). These functions are called modified
infinity in the radial direction. This is caused by the .fact that now the wat~r Bessel functions of order zero, and of the first (10), and second kind (Ko).
need not come from infinity, but enters the aqUifer through the semi- after the German astronomer Bessel who first studied the behaviour of
permeable confining layer. . . these and similar functions. Mathematicians have succeeded in deriving
With leakage taking place through one confiOlng layer only, the differ- convergent series expressions lor the Bessel functions and tables have
ential equation (4.24) becomes been prepared from numerical calculations (see Appendix). Therefore.
2
d 91 + !d91 _ 91 - 911 = 0 (4.39)
dr2 r dr kHc

This equation can be brought in a standard mathematical form"by intro-

ducing the drawdown s,
s=9'J.-91
and by writing r = x .y(kHc). Then the following homogeneous differ-
ential equation is obtained,
d2s 1 ds
dx2 +; dx - S =0 (4.40)

Differential equations of this and similar types are frequently met .in
mathematical physics, especially when considering axially symmetric
problems. Eqn (4.40) does not have solutions in terms of elementary
functions, such as eZ, sin x, cos x, etc. Since it is a second order linear
differential equation it can be expected, however, that the general solution
is a linear combination of two independent solutions. This solution is
written as
s = A /0 (x) + B Ko (x) (4.41)
where A and B are arbitrary constants, and where Io(x) and Ko(x) are
newly introduced functions, which are to be determined such that they
the Bessel functions can be considered as known functions, in the same
way as trigonometric and other elementary functions.
Graphi of fo (x) and Ko(x) are shown in Fig. 4.9. In this figure the
Bessel fur.ctions fl(x) and K1(x) are a150 shown. These are related to
fo(x) and Ko(x) by the following formulae (see Appendix),
d
dx fo(x) = fl(x)
:x Ko(x) = - K1(x)
In terms of the original radial coordinate, r = xi .• with A = .y(kHc)
(the leakage factor), the solution (4.41) becomes
Qo (i..) Ko(rIDIi..)
s = A 10(rli..) + B Ko(rf).) (4.43) s•• = 2'TTkH rID K1(r ••Ii..)

To determine the two constants A andB, use must be made of the boundary In practical applications rIDIi..is usually much smaller than 1, the leakage
conditions. In the case of a well of production Qo in an infinite aquifer, the factor being of the order of several tens or hundreds of meters, and r••
boundary conditions are
(1) r-OO: s=O
(2) r = rID: 2'TTrHv, = - Qo I
j

From the graphs of Fig. 4.9 it may be seen that for x - 00 the function
10(x) increases without limit, and that Ko(x) then approa<:hes ~r~. ~enc~, I
the only way in which the drawdown may be zero at mfintty IS If A IS
2
equal to zero,

2dHs
In that case the "term with 10(rli..)completely disappears from the solution,
which then reduces to °0
\
The specific discharge may now be obtained, using the second equation. \
\
\
of (4.42), \

dip ds k ds kB
\
,,
t' =- k - =k - =-- =- -). K1(rli..) , I
, dr dr i.. dx '{
,
00 ,.•.. 2 3
Hence, the total discharge at r = rIDis rn..

- Qo = 2'TTrIDH{v,],=r•• = - 2r.kH(r .•p.)BK1(r ••Ii..) FIG. 4.10 Drawdown due to well in infinite semi-confined aquifer.
Drawn line is exact, formula (4.49); dashed line is approximate,
In order that the second boundary condition be satisfied, the constant B formula (4.51)
must have the value
Qo j·lr•• being less than one meter. Then the following approximations hold (see
B = 2'TTkHK1(rIDIi..) Appendix),

With (4.46) the solution (4.45) becomes

Qo ( i..)
Ko(rf).)
s = 2'TTkH rID K1(Tv:P.)

Several aspects of this solution will next be discussed.

 44 Theory of Groundwater Flow Elementary Problems for Confined or Semi-confined Aquifers 45
The formulae (4.47) and (4.48) now become each part of the aquifer the general solution (4.43) applies, but in the two
regions the constants may be different. The solution and the boundary
s=~Ko (~) conditions are
2ckH ;"
S = Alo(r/i.) + BKo(rI1)
SllJ =~ In (1,123)')
s=O
2•.kH rllJ

In the vicinity of the well not only is rv:Ji. much smaller than I, but also
r/i.. Then, in eqn. (4.49), the Bessel function can also be approximated s = Clo(rli.) + DKo(rI1)
by a logarithm, hence
dsldr =0
for r~l: S = -
Qo
2•.kH In
(r)1'1231.
In these conditions the quantities CPl and CP2represent the values of the head
In Fig. 4.10 a graphical representation of the formula (4.49) and its in the upper layers outside and inside the polder, respectively. The head at
approximation (4.51) are given. It appears that the approximation is
satisfactory up to values of r of about O·V •. , , .,
,
By comparing formula (4.51) to the one describing the drawdown due to I
a well in a completely confined aquifer, eqn. (4.34), it may be seen that the 2R I
• I
I
two formulae are of the same form. It may be concluded. therefore. that
the head in the vicinity of a well in a semi-confi:led aquifer with leakage
factor 1corresponds to the head near a well in a confhed aquifer of the
same permeability and height, with external boundary at r = R = 1·1231.
The practice of comp:lring the head in the vicinity of a well.in a rather
complicated situation to the head near a well in a circular confined aquifer
of a certain radius is very common in the theory of groundwater flow.
The radius of the corresponding circular island is then called the equivl11ent
radius, Req• The advantage of this procedure is that one only needs to
remember the general formula r = R, which is as yet unknown, is denoted by CPo.With the help of the
relevant boundary conditions the solutions become
Qo
s= ---In ( -r )
2r.kH Req Ko(rI1)
(1) R<r< 00 : s = (CPl - CPo)Ko(RI1) (4.53)

plus a variety of expressions for the equivalent radius Req in different /0(rI1)
cases. see Huisman2• (2) O<r<R : S = - (CPo- CP2)/0(RI1) (4.54)
As a second example of radial flow in a semi-confined ·aquifer. the
problem of leakage into a circular polder from its surroundings (Fig. 4.11) It may be verified that these expressions have the character of the general
will be considered. In the region 0 < r < R water leaks through the solution, and that they satisfy the boundary conditions ated above. To
confining layer into the polder. and in the region r > R the aquifer is fed determine the value of CPoone may use the requirement lh, t at the com-
from the overlying layer, in which the head is assumed to be constant. In mon boundary of the regions, r = R, the specific disC' ;'ge must be
 each part of the aquifer the general solution (4.43) applies, but in the two
regions the constants may be different. The solution and the boundary
s=~Ko (:..) conditions are .
2-kH )"

Sw = ~ In (1'123},)
2-::kH \ riD

111 the vicinity of the well not only is r leI i. much smallcr than I, but also
rll, Then, in eqn, (4.49), the Bessel function can also be approximated s = Clo(rIA) + DKo(rIA)
by a logarithm, hence
dsldr = 0

for r ~A:
Qo
s = - 2-::kH In
(r)1.123i.
In these conditions the quantities f/'1 and f/'2 represent the values of the head
In Fig. 4.10 a graphical represc;ltation of the formula (4.49) and its in the upper layers outside and inside the polder, respectively. The head at
approximation (4.51) are given. It appears that the approximation is
satisfactory up to-Values of r of about 0·2i.. r •
I
i •
r
By comparing formula (4.51) to the one describing the drawdown due to I
a well ina completely confined aquifer, cqn. (4.34), it may be seen that the 2R
I
two formulae are of the same form. It may be concluded, therefore, that
the head in the vicinity of a well in a semi-confi:led aquifer with leakage
factor A corresponds to the head near a wcll in a confi_lcd aq uifer of the
same permeability and height, with external boundary at r = R = 1·123.1...
The practice of comparing the head in the vicinity of a well in a rather
complicated situation to the head near a well in a circular confined aquifer
of a certain radius is very common in the theory of groundwater flow.
The radius of the corresponding circular island is then called the equivalent
radius, R.q• The advantage of this procedure is that one only needs to
remember the general formula r = R, which is as yet unknown, is denoted by f/'o. With the help of the
relevant boundary conditions the solutions become
Qo' r )
s= ---In - Ko(rIA)
2ukH (R.q (1) R<r<co (4.53)
S = (f/'1 - f/'o) Ko(Rll)
plus a variety of expressions for the equivalent radius R.q in different Io(rl).)
cases, see Huisman2;- (2) O<r<R s = - (f/'o - f/'2) Io(RI).) (4.54)
As a second example of radial flow in a semi-confined aquifer, the
problem of leakage into a circular polder from its surroundings (Fig. 4.11) It may be verified that these expressions have the character of the general
will be considered. In the region 0 < r < R water leaks through the solution, and that they satisfy the boundary conditions stated above. To
confining layer into the polder, and in the region r > R the aquifer is fed determine the value of f/'o one may use the requirement that at the com-
from the overlying layer, in which the head is assumed to be constant. In mon boundary of the regio.ns, r = R, the specific discharge must be
4S Theory of Groundwater Flow
continuous. Hence, the values of ds/dr for r = R, as determined from
(4.53) and (4.54) must be the same. This requires that
K1(R/).) 11(R/).) Calculate the total leakage into a circular polder (Fig. 4.11) of radius R = 500 m,
(q;1 - Po) Ko(R/)') = (ffo - P~ Io(R/)') with PI = 20 m, ~ = 12m, and using the same numerical values for the soil
characteristics as in Example 4.1.
from which it follows, after some transformation, that Solution
(PI - P2)/I(R/A)Ko(R/A) For this problem the solution is given by eqn. (4.56). Since the soil characteristics
are the same as ~ Example 4.1, the value of A is again A = 200 m. Hence
(fo = 11(R/A)Ko(R/A) + Io(R/A)K1(R/A)
q;1 -
R/A = =
500/200 2'5. With the aid of Table A.l (see page 185)the values of the
Bessel functions are found to be: K1(2'5) = 0·0739 and 11(2'5)= 2·5167.
With the value of Po found, thedrawdown at any point in the aquifer may Eqn. (4.56) now gives: Q == 5-84 X 10-3 m3/s.
be calculated from (4.53) and (4.54). The total discharge in inward direction
at r == R is, using Vr == kds/dr and (4.53), Note: The leakage per meter dike is obtained after division of the total leakage
Q by the circumference 2."R of the polder. This gives:

Qo == - 27TRH[v,],.a
R) Kl(R/A)
== 27TkH(Pl - Po) ( I Ko(R/A)
Q/(2d) = 1-86 x 10-8 m2/s,
which is remarkably close to the value for the leakage per meter dike obtained in
Example 4.1, for the case of a straight dike. The reason for this correspondence
and with (4.55),

Qo = 27TkH(Pl - ~ (~r K1 (~) II (~)

is that in the present case the radius, R, of the polder is rather large compared
to the leakage factor A (R/A == 2'5), and this would justify the assumption that
the circular dike is locally straight.

where use has been made of the identity

I1(R/A) Ko(R/A) + Io(R/A)K (R/A)
1 = AfR

(see Appendix). Equation (4.56) is a useful formula, since it gives the total
amount of seepage into the polder.
Calculate the total leakage (per meter width) throu~h a ~-confined ~quifer
on which a straight impermeable dike has been. ~uJlt (see. Fig. ~.4)~ usmg ~
following data: 9'1 = 20 m, 9'. = 12 m, permeabJllty of mam aqUifer. k == 10
m/s, thickness: H = 10 m, permeability of confining layer: k1 = 5 x 10-8 m!s,
thickness: d = 2m. length of the dike: 2£ = 40 m.
1. Hantush, M. S., 'Hydraulics of wells', Advances in Hydroscience, I, Academic
Press (J964).
2. Huisman, L., Groundwater recovery and recharge, Macmillan (to be published).
3. Todd, D. K. and Santing, G., Water Resources Series,14 (1963) 13-104.
4. Hydrologic colloquium, Steady flow 0/groundwater towards wells, TNO (J964).
5. Watson, G. N., A treatise on the theory 0/ Bessel/unctions, 2nd ed., Cambridge
University Press (J944).
Note: Reference 4 contains an extensive compilation of formulae for the flow
towards wells, in confined, semi-confined, and unconfined aquifers. Reference 1
may serve as an introduction to the important work of Jacob and Hantush
(especially with regard to non-steady flow towards wells). The book by Watson
is the classic reference for the theory of Bessel functions.

Solution
The solution of this problem is expressed by eqn. (4.19). In this solution A stands
for '\IkHc (see (4.20». In the present case the hydraulic resistance of the con-
-=
fining layer is: c dlk1 = 2/(5 x 10-8) = 0·4 x 1()8S, and hence
A == '\I(JO-II X 10 x 0·4 x 1()8)= 200 m.
Substitution into (4.19) now gives QID = 1'82 x 10-8 m2/s.