Energy Conversion and Management 85 (2014) 343–353

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Energy Conversion and Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

Fractional order PID controller for load frequency control

Swati Sondhi ⇑, Yogesh V. Hote
Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Load frequency control (LFC) plays a very important role in providing quality power both in the case of
Received 11 February 2014 isolated as well as interconnected power systems. In order to maintain good quality power supply, the
Accepted 24 May 2014 LFC should possess robustness toward the parametric uncertainty of the system and good disturbance
rejection capability. The fractional order controller has the properties such as, eliminating steady state
error, robustness toward plant gain variations and also good disturbance rejection. This makes the
Keywords: fractional order PID (FOPID) controller quite suitable for the LFC. Therefore, in this paper a FOPID is
Fractional order PID (FOPID) controller
designed for single area LFC for all three types of turbines i.e., non-reheated, reheated and hydro turbines.
Single area load frequency control (LFC)
Non-reheated turbine
It is observed that the FOPID controller shows better robustness toward ±50% parametric uncertainty and
Reheated turbine disturbance rejection capability than the existing techniques. Finally, the optimization of controller
Hydro turbine parameters and robustness evaluation of the control technique is done on the basis of the integral error
Robustness criterion.
Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
In modern times the main sources of electrical energy are the
kinetic energy of water and the thermal energy of fossil fuels and
nuclear fission. This energy is converted into mechanical energy
by means of prime movers and further to electrical energy by the
synchronous generators. The prime mover governing systems pro-
vide a way of controlling power and frequency. This operation is
commonly termed as Load Frequency Control (LFC) or Automatic
Generation Control (AGC) [1]. A complete power system comprises
of the generation, transmission and distribution units individually
located in different areas connected through transmission lines
called tie-lines. In such a system, the area frequency and the tie
line power fluctuations occur very frequently. Therefore, the power
system needs to be stable so that the prescribed voltage levels and
synchronization is maintained during any transient disturbance.
This responsibility is shouldered by the LFC. Thus, LFC is considered
to be an important component of the power system design, capable
of supplying reliable electric power of good quality. The state of the
art LFC systems have evolved from the early analog systems to the
present day digital systems. The result is, a simple, yet robust,
decentralized system that is capable to control a complex, highly
nonlinear and continuously changing power system. An additional
insight into the requirements and performance of AGC can be seen
in [2,3]. They provide a good review of the properties of the con-
ventional AGC systems.
A power system may be an interconnected system of multiple
areas or an isolated system comprising of single service area. The
LFC plays an important role in both types of power systems. A
single area power system is the one which comprises of a single
generator supplying power to a single service area. The function
of LFC in a single area power system is to restore the frequency
to the specified nominal value in case of any fluctuation. However,
in case of an interconnected power system, two or more indepen-
dently controlled areas are connected together. In such systems,
along with frequency, generation within each area also has to be
controlled. This is required to maintain the scheduled power
interchange. So, the main aim of the load frequency control in
multi area power systems is to regulate the frequency to the
specified nominal value and to maintain the interchange power
between areas at the scheduled values. In such power systems,
the basic idea is to restore balance between each area load and
generation. However, in case of an isolated power system, preser-
vation of interchange power is not an issue. So, the function of LFC
is just to restore frequency to the specified nominal value.
To achieve this there is a need of a robust and efficient control
algorithm. The Load Frequency Controller needs to play the follow-
ing important roles for a power system [4]:

(a) Maintain zero steady state errors in case of frequency

⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 9897152605.
deviation.
E-mail addresses: swatiei@gmail.com (S. Sondhi), yhotefee@iitr.ernet.in
(b) Load disturbance rejection.
(Y.V. Hote).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2014.05.091
0196-8904/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
344 S. Sondhi, Y.V. Hote / Energy Conversion and Management 85 (2014) 343–353
(c) Minimization of the unscheduled tie line power flow
between neighboring areas.
(d) Handling modeling uncertainties and system nonlinearities.
Hence, the problem of load frequency control is that of objective
optimization and robust control.
To perform these tasks, conventionally the LFC in a single area
power system uses an integral controller [5]. But the major disad-
vantage of this is that the system performance is limited by the
integral gain of the controller. A high gain may lead to large oscilla-
tions and instability in such type of controllers. The increasing com-
plexity of the present day power systems has provoked researchers
to explore appropriate control algorithms for LFC. Many advanced
control methods have been proposed in the literature so far like
PI/PID control [6], optimal control [7], variable structure control
[8], adaptive and self tuning control [9,10], artificial intelligence
control [11–17], robust control [18–23], etc. Researchers are also
working exhaustively for developing the control algorithm of LFC
for both single area [24–28] as well as multi area systems
[29–45]. Recently, the concepts of reduced order modeling and inter-
nal model control have also been illustrated in the literature
[5,46,47]. However, all these techniques experience certain limita-
tions, especially in the case of uncertain environment, therefore
there is still lot of scope for improvement in this area. In recent years,
the fractional order control has emerged as a very efficient algorithm
for the systems working in uncertain environment. Therefore, in this
paper a load frequency control method has been suggested for single
area based on the concept of fractional order control.
This paper comprises of ten sections. Section 2 of the paper
states the motivation for working on this technique, Section 3 gives
the objectives of the paper, in Section 4 the preliminaries of frac-
tional order control and hardware implementation techniques of
the FOPID controller is given, while in Section 5 a brief introduction
of the single area load frequency control is given. Section 6 illus-
trates the FOPID controller design technique, Section 7 gives the
simulation results while Section 8 shows the performance analysis
of the proposed designed technique. In Section 9 the idea of imple-
menting this technique to multi area LFC is stated and the conclu-
sion of the paper is given in Section 10.
2. Motivation
As mentioned in the earlier section, there are many techniques
available in the literature for designing the robust controller for the
LFC. The conventional PID controllers have been widely used for
this problem. However, the parameter values of the various gener-
ating units of the power system like generators, turbines, gover-
nors etc., keep altering depending upon the power flow
conditions. Hence, it is essential that the control strategy applied,
should have good capability of handling uncertainties in the sys-
tem parameters and also good disturbance rejection but the con-
ventional PID controllers are not efficient enough to handle these
issues.
Moreover, in spite of the fact that there are many control tech-
niques available in the literature, parameter uncertainty and dis-
turbance rejection have always remained important issues and
constant efforts are made to formulate new design techniques
which can give better disturbance rejection and better perfor-
mance in the uncertain environment. A recent development in this
direction is the formulation of fractional order controllers. Accord-
ing to the recent literature available, the fractional order controller
is known to have an excellent capability of handling parameter
uncertainty. It also possess the properties of excellent disturbance
rejection, robustness to high frequency noise and elimination of
steady state errors. It also gives better stability in case of nonlinear
systems. The various advantages of the fractional order control can
be easily found in the literature [48].
All these properties make the fractional order control a very
adaptable and desirable control strategy. Application of this tech-
nique has proved beneficial in various areas like robotics, power
electronics, and process control [49–51]. The versatility and efficient
performance of this technique in different areas motivated us to
investigate its implementation to the problem of LFC. We observed
that the fractional order controller ensured good stability and
dynamic performance of LFC even under uncertain environment.
3. Objectives
This paper presents the application of fractional order control
technique for the design of a load frequency control system. The
basic objectives of this paper can be stated as:
 A FOPID controller is proposed for the load frequency control of
single area power system.
 The parameters of the proposed controller are optimized for LFC
using the integral error criterion.
 The robustness of the proposed controller is investigated by
inserting 50% uncertainty in each parameter of the LFC system.
 Finally, the optimal performance and robustness of the pro-
posed controller is evaluated on the basis of integral error
criterion.
4. Preliminaries of fractional order control
Before defining the FOPID controller, it is important to under-
stand the fractional order integral and fractional order derivative
operators. The mathematical details of these operators can be
referred from [52–54]. Once the fractional operator was mathe-
matically defined, the use of fractional calculus in control systems
became widespread. In 1999, a FOPID controller was proposed.
Mathematically, it is of the form [48]:
ki
CðsÞ ¼ kp þ þ k d sl : ð1Þ
sk
where k and l can take any value in the range ð0; 2Þ. If l P 2 or
k P 2 the controller is transformed to a higher-order structure
which is of different form in comparison to the conventional PID
controller. The fractional order controller described in (1) may be
regarded as the general case of the conventional PID controller.
In the field of control systems any control algorithm is practi-
cally useful only if the mathematically designed controller can be
converted into a hardware circuit. Hence, the analog realization
of the controller is a very important aspect for any control algo-
rithm. Therefore, the hardware implementation technique of the
FOPID controller given in the literature is illustrated here in brief.
A FOPID controller can be realized in the form of circuit using a
combination of resistors and capacitors. Let us consider a fractional
order integrator, of the form given in (2), having the frequency
band of practical interest (xL, xH),
1
C I ðsÞ ¼ : ð2Þ
sm
where m is the fractional power.
The form given in (2) is modified to (3) using the fractional
power pole method (FPP) [52],
Y
N1 
i

1 þ s=z0 ðabÞ
KI i¼0
C I ðsÞ ¼   m ¼ K I N    : ð3Þ
1 þ xsc Y i
1 þ s=p0 ðabÞ
i¼0
 S. Sondhi, Y.V. Hote / Energy Conversion and Management 85 (2014) 343–353 345

h i
y
y
y I(s)
where a ¼ 10 ð10ð1mÞÞ ;b ¼ 10½10m ; p0 ¼ xc 10½20m ; z0 ¼ ap0 ;
2   3
log xpmax
N ¼ integer 4
0
5 þ 1; xmax ¼ 100xH ; K I ¼ 1 ; R0 R1 Rn
logðabÞ xmc Rp
V(s)
y ¼ approximation error of FPP in decibels;usually assumed 1db; Cn
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi C0 C1
 y

xc ¼ xL 10ð10mÞ  1 and xc is the corner frequency of the FPP: ð4Þ
Fig. 2. Analogue realization of the fractional differentiator.
The fractional order integrator given in (3) can be realized into
an analog circuit as shown in Fig. 1 [55].
In Fig. 1, I(s) is the current entering the integrator, V(s) is the is a fractional order differentiator with 0 < mD < 1. The controller
voltage across the integrator, R0, R1, . . ., Rn denote resistors and in (10) can be approximated as (11) using FPP and FPZ techniques.
0 1   N    1
C0, C1, . . ., Cn denote capacitors, such that Y
N
i
Y i
B   1 þ s=z0 ðabÞ 1 þ s=z0 ðabÞ C
1h  i B TI C
Y
N
CðsÞ ¼ kp B i¼0
þ ½T D sK D i¼0 C:
KI 1 ðabÞðijÞ B1 þ s K I YN    YN   C
a @ i i A
j¼0 1 1 þ s=p0 ðabÞ 1 þ s=p0 ðabÞ
Ri ¼ N h
; Ci ¼ ; i ¼ 0; 1; 2; . . . ; n: ð5Þ i¼0 i¼0
Y i i
ðabÞ p0 Ri
ðijÞ ð11Þ
1  ðabÞ
j¼0 The structure of the FOPID controller is as shown in Fig. 3.
Similarly if we consider a fractional order differentiator of the To design a FOPID controller the proportional element, the frac-
form in (6), with the frequency band of practical interest (xL, xH), tional integrator and the fractional differentiator are individually
it can be modified to the form (7) using the fractional power zero designed and then placed in the structure shown in Fig. 3.
(FPZ) technique [52]
5. Model of single area load frequency control
C D ðsÞ ¼ sm ; ð6Þ

where m is the fractional power. The power system is usually a large scale system having very
complex nonlinear dynamics. In case of the load frequency control,
N 
Y   the power system taken into consideration is subjected to small
i
 m 1 þ s=z0 ðabÞ changes in load. Therefore, it can be appropriately represented by
s i¼0
C D ðsÞ ¼ K D ¼ KD N    ; ð7Þ the linear model, linearized around the operating point. This model
xc Y i of LFC consists of a governor, a turbine, load and machine, and
1 þ s=p0 ðabÞ
i¼0 droop characteristics. The droop characteristics is a type of feed-
back gain used to improve the damping properties of the power
y system.
where p0 ¼ az0 ; z0 ¼ xc 10½20m ; and K D ¼ xm
c : ð8Þ
Here we consider the case of single service area where the
The fractional order differentiator in (7) can be realized into a power is supplied by a single generator. The linear model of such
circuit as shown in Fig. 2 [55]. a system can be represented as shown in Fig. 4 [4]. The nomencla-
In Fig. 2, I(s) is the current entering the differentiator, V(s) is the ture of the different parameters used in the system is given in
voltage across the differentiator, Rp, R0, R1, . . ., Rn denote resistors Table 1.
and C0, C1, . . ., Cn denote capacitors, such that Mathematically, the overall system can be represented in trans-
fer function form as [4,56],
N h
Y  i
ðijÞ
1  aðabÞ Gp ðsÞGt ðsÞGg ðsÞ
KD j¼0
GðsÞ ¼ : ð12Þ
Ci ¼ ; Rp ¼ K D and 1 þ Gp ðsÞGt ðsÞGg ðsÞ=R
i N h
Y i
p0 ðabÞ ðijÞ
1  ðabÞ where
j¼0
1
1 ¼ droop characteristics; ð13Þ
Ri ¼ i
i ¼ 0; 1; 2; . . . ; n: ð9Þ R
ðabÞ p0 C i
1
Now consider the FOPID controller represented in (1). This con- Gg ðsÞ represents the governor dynamics : Gg ðsÞ ¼ : ð14Þ
TGs þ 1
troller can be represented in the form
     Gt(s) represents the turbine dynamics:
TI 1
CðsÞ ¼ kp 1 þ m
þ ½T D sðsmD Þ : ð10Þ
s s I

where TsI is a first order integrator, sm1I is a fractional order inte-

grator with 0 < mI < 1, [TDs] is a first order differentiator and, ðsmD Þ
kp
R0 R1 Rn
+
I(s) E(s) k i /s λ U(s)
+
+
V(s)
C0 C1 Cn
k d /s µ

Fig. 1. Analogue realization of the fractional integrator. Fig. 3. Structure of PIk Dl controller.
346 S. Sondhi, Y.V. Hote / Energy Conversion and Management 85 (2014) 343–353

Droop Characteristics

Pd

u - - f
XG PG
Governor Turbine Load & Machine

Fig. 4. Linear model of a single area power system.

Table 1 turbine, the various parameter values are [46]: KP = 120, TP = 20,
Nomenclature of power system parameters. TT = 0.3, TG = 0.08, R = 2.4. Hence, plant model of a power system
DP d Load disturbance (p.u. MW) using non-reheated turbine with droop characteristics, repre-
Kp Electric system gain sented by GNR, becomes,
Tp Electric system time constant (s)
TT Turbine time constant (s)
250
TG Governor time constant (s) GNR ðsÞ ¼ : ð20Þ
R Speed regulation due to governor action(Hz/p.u. MW) s3 þ 15:88s2 þ 42:46s þ 106:2
Tr Constant of reheat turbine
c Percentage of power generated in the reheat portion
Tw Time constant of hydro turbine
Df Incremental frequency deviation (Hz) 5.1.2. Reheated turbine
DP G Incremental change in generator output (p.u. MW) In this type of turbine, the steam, on leaving the high
DX G Incremental change in governor valve position pressure section, returns to the boiler, where it is passed
through a re-heater before returning to the intermediate
pressure section. The parameter values for the case of reheated
1 turbine are [46]: KP = 120, TP = 20, TT = 0.3, TG = 0.08, R = 2.4,
 In case of Non-reheated turbine : Gt ðsÞ ¼ : ð15Þ Tr = 4.2, c = 0.35.
TT s þ 1
The plant transfer function for the power system using reheated
cT r s þ 1 turbine with droop characteristics, represented by GR, is,
 In case of Reheated turbine : Gt ðsÞ ¼ : ð16Þ
ðT r s þ 1ÞðT T s þ 1Þ
87:5s þ 59:52
GR ðsÞ ¼ : ð21Þ
1  Tws s4 þ 16:12s3 þ 46:24s2 þ 48:65s þ 25:3
 In case of Hydro Turbine : Gt ðsÞ ¼ : ð17Þ
1 þ 0:5T w s

Gp ðsÞ represents the power systemðload &machineÞdynamics 5.2. Hydro turbine [1]
1
: Gp ðsÞ ¼ : The performance of this type of turbine depends on various
TPs þ 1
properties of the water column feeding the turbine, like water iner-
ð18Þ
tia, water compressibility and pipe wall elasticity in the penstock.
Hence, the model can be represented as: In case where the hydro turbine is used the parameter values are
[46]: KP = 1, TP = 6, Tw = 4, TG = 0.2, R = 0.05.
Gp ðsÞGt ðsÞGg ðsÞ
GðsÞ ¼ Therefore, the plant model for the case of power system using
1 þ Gp ðsÞGt ðsÞGg ðsÞ=R hydro turbine with droop characteristics, represented by GH is,
KP
¼ : ð19Þ
ðT P s þ 1ÞðT T s þ 1ÞðT G s þ 1Þ þ K P =R 1:667s þ 0:4167
GH ðsÞ ¼ : ð22Þ
s3 þ 5:667s2  29:92s þ 8:75
In the model given above, the turbine dynamics depends on the
type of turbine used in the power system. The turbine used in the
The models given in (20)–(22) are used for the FOPID controller
system may be a steam turbine or a hydro turbine. The mathemat-
design in the later section.
ical modeling of the power system using different turbines is given
below.

5.1. Steam turbines [1] Table 2

Solution values of controller parameters.

A steam turbine converts stored energy of high pressure and kp ki kd k l

high temperature steam into rotating energy, which in turn is Non-reheated turbine
converted into electrical energy by the generator. They can FOPID 2 3 0.4 0.9 1.15
further be of two types: non-reheated turbine and reheated PID 0.4036 0.6356 0.1832 1 1
turbine. Reheated turbine
FOPID 6 4 1 0.9 1.2
PID 2.7935 1.2735 0.7866 1 1
5.1.1. Non-reheated turbine
A non-reheated turbine is the one which does not have an Hydro turbine
FOPID 18.5 0.19 2.8 1.02 1.1
intermediate pressure section or a re-heater. In this case the steam
PID 18.85 0.152 1.8124 1 1
directly passes to the low pressure section. For the non-reheated
 S. Sondhi, Y.V. Hote / Energy Conversion and Management 85 (2014) 343–353 347

6. FOPID design for single area load frequency control The real and the imaginary parts of (28) are obtained as:
Real Part:
In this section the FOPID controller design technique is illus- n  po 3þk 
trated. This technique involves defining a stability region in the Cos ð1 þ kÞ x þ 42:46x1þk
2
ðkP  ki Þ plane for a fixed value of kd for all k 2 ð0; 2Þ and n  po 
l 2 ð0; 2Þ and then optimizing the values of kp ; ki ; k and l on the þ Cos k 15:88x2þk þ xk ð106:2 þ 250kP Þ
2
n  po
basis of the integral error criterion [57]. The design of FOPID con-
þ 250kd xkþl Cos ðk þ lÞ þ 250ki
troller for all three types of turbines is illustrated here. 2
¼ 0: ð30Þ
6.1. Non-reheated turbine
Imaginary Part:
For the case of non-reheated turbine consider the plant model n  po 3þk 
in (20) and the FOPID controller as given in (1). The characteristic Sin ð1 þ kÞ x þ 42:46x1þk
2
equation of the control system becomes, n  po 
þ Sin k 15:88x2þk þ xk ð106:2 þ 250kP Þ
Pðs; kp ; ki ; kd ; k; lÞ ¼ 1 þ GNR ðsÞCðsÞ ¼ 0: ð23Þ 2
n  po
Substituting (1) and (20) in (23) we get, þ 250kd xkþl Sin ðk þ lÞ
2

250 ¼ 0: ð31Þ
Pðs; kp ; ki ; kd ; k; lÞ ¼ 1 þ
s3 þ 15:88s2 þ 42:46s þ 106:2 Observe that here two equations are obtained in terms of three vari-

ki ables. So there are two possibilities for calculating the expressions
 kp þ k þ kd sl ¼ 0: ð24Þ
s of kP, ki and kd i.e.,
 either fix the value of kd arbitrarily and plot the CRB and the RRB
Pðs;kp ; ki ;kd ; k; lÞ ¼ s3þk þ 15:88s2þk þ 42:46s1þk þ 106:2 þ 250kp sk in the (kP  ki) plane for various k 2 ð0; 2Þ and l e (0, 2) or,
þ 250kd skþl þ 250ki ¼ 0: ð25Þ  fix the value of ki and plot the CRB and RRB in the (kP  kd) plane
for various k 2 ð0; 2Þ and l e (0, 2).
The closed-loop system expressed by (23) is stable if (25) has none
of the roots in the right half of the s-plane. The stability domain, say s0 , Here, we fix an arbitrary value of kd = 0.4. In the next step
can be defined as the region for which, if the parameters substituting kd = 0.4 and solving (30) and (31) simultaneously we
ðkp ; ki ; kd ; k; lÞ 2 s0 , then no roots of (25) lie in the right half s-plane. get the expressions of kp and ki as,
Since roots of the equation obtained in (25) are real as well as com- n 
plex. Therefore, the stability region s, for a FOPID controller is marked
1 p  p
kp ¼ p x3þk Cos ð1 þ kÞ þ 42:46x1þk Cos ð1 þ kÞ
by the intersection of the real root boundary (RRB) and the complex 250x Cos k 2
k 2 2
 p  p  p
root boundary (CRB). The real root boundary is the boundary where 2þk
15:88x Cos k þ 106:2x Cos k þ 100x Cos ðk þ lÞ
k kþl

the real roots cross the imaginary axis while the complex root bound- 2 2 2
ary is where the pair of complex roots cross the imaginary axis. þ250ki g; ð32Þ
Mathematically, these boundaries are described as
x3þk þ 42:46x1þk þ 100xkþl Sin l p2
RRB : Pð0; kp ; ki ; kd ; k; lÞ ¼ 0; for x 2 ð0; 1Þ; ki ¼ : ð33Þ
250Sin k p2
CRB : Pðjx; kp ; ki ; kd ; k; lÞ ¼ 0; for x 2 ð0; 1Þ: The expression for kP and ki are obtained in terms of k, l and x.
Substituting s = 0 in (25), the RRB is obtained as ki = 0. For (32) and (33) if k and l is fixed from within the set (0, 2) and x
To obtain the CRB, replace s = jx in (25), we get, is varied from (0, 1), the curve traced in (kP  ki) plane is called the
CRB. The region obtained by the intersection of the CRB and the
3þk 2þk 1þk
Pðjx; kp ; ki ; kd ; k; lÞ ¼ ðjxÞ þ 15:88ðjxÞ þ 42:46ðjxÞ RRB in the (kP  ki) plane is called the global stability region for
k
þ ð106:2 þ 250kp ÞðjxÞ þ 250kd ðjxÞ
kþl that combination of k and l i.e., for that combination of k and
l all the values of kP and ki within this region are capable of
þ 250ki ¼ 0: ð26Þ
Solve (26) using mathematical identity (27),
90

k kp kp
j ¼ cos þ j sin : ð27Þ 80
2 2
70
Thus we get,
n  p  po 3þk  60
Cos ð1 þ kÞ þ jSin ð1 þ kÞ x þ 42:46x1þk Global Stability
2 2 50
n  p  po  Region
Ki

þ Cos k þ jSin k 15:88x2þk þ xk ð106:2 þ 250kP Þ 40

2 2
n  p  po
Kp=2
Ki=3
þ 250kd xkþl Cos ðk þ lÞ þ jSin ðk þ lÞ þ 250ki ¼ 0: 30
2 2
ð28Þ 20

Express (28) in the form (29) and equate the real and imaginary 10

parts to 0: 0
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20
Pðx; kP ; ki ; kd ; k; lÞ ¼ RefPðx; kP ; ki ; kd ; k; lÞg Kp
þ jImfPðx; kP ; ki ; kd ; k; lÞg ¼ 0: ð29Þ
Fig. 5. Stability region obtained for k ¼ 0:9 and l ¼ 1:15.
348 S. Sondhi, Y.V. Hote / Energy Conversion and Management 85 (2014) 343–353

 p  p
stabilizing the system. Hence, by varying k 2 ð0; 2Þ and l e (0, 2), x4þk sin ð4 þ kÞ þ 16:12x3þk sin ð3 þ kÞ
we can obtain the global stability regions for all possible combina- 2 2
 p  p
tions ofk and l. The combination of k and l that gives the largest 2þk 1þk
þ 46:24x sin ð2 þ kÞ þ x sin ð1 þ kÞ 48:65 þ 87:5kp
stability region is selected. Once the stability region is obtained, 2 2
the values of kP and ki from within this region that give the most  p  p
þ xk sin k 25:3 þ 59:52kp þ 87:5kd x1þkþl sin ð1 þ k þ lÞ
optimum performance are chosen using the integral error criterion. 2 2
The stability region obtained in this case is shown in Fig. 5.  p 
The controller parameters in this case are kP = 2, ki = 3, kd = 0.4, þ 59:52kd xkþl sin ðk þ lÞ þ 87:5ki x ¼ 0: ð38Þ
2
k ¼ 0:9 and l = 1.15. The point kP = 2 and ki = 3 is shown in the
Fig. 5. by ‘+’. Hence for the case of non-reheated turbines the con- Solving (37) and (38) simultaneously, kP and ki are obtained as,
troller is obtained as:

 
87:5x5þ2k þ 4046x3þ2k  2213:75x1þ2k þ 7656:25kd x2þ2kþl sin l p2 þ 5208kd x1þ2kþl sin ðl  1Þ p2  959:4625x3þ2k þ 2895:648x1þ2k þ 5208kd x1þ2kþl sin ð1 þ lÞ p2 þ 3542:6304kd x2kþl sin l p2
ki ¼ ;
87:5x 87:5x1þk cos ð1 þ kÞ p2 þ 59:52xk cos k p2 þ 5208x1þk sin ð1 þ kÞ p2 þ 3542:6304xk cos k p2
ð39Þ

 
x4þk cos ð4 þ kÞ p2 þ 16:12x3þk cos ð3 þ kÞ p2 þ 46:24x2þk cos ð2 þ kÞ p2 þ 48:65x1þk cos ð1 þ kÞ p2 þ 25:3xk cos k p2 þ 87:5kd x1þkþl cos ð1 þ k þ lÞ p2 þ 59:52kd xkþl cos ðk þ lÞ p2 þ 59:52ki
kp ¼ :
87:5x1þk cos ð1 þ kÞ p2 þ 59:52xk cos k p2
ð40Þ

3
CðsÞ ¼ 2 þ þ 0:4s1:15 : ð34Þ
s0:9
By tracing the global stability region using the method
Note: Note that here the value of kd is arbitrarily chosen as 0.4 explained previously, the controller parameters are obtained as:
and can be chosen other than 0.4 also. It is also possible to fix an kP = 6, ki = 4, kd = 1, k ¼ 0:9 and l = 1.2. i.e.,
arbitrary value of ki instead of kd and then calculate the values of
kP and kd using the same procedure. The combination of k and l 4
that gives the largest stability region is selected because it provides CðsÞ ¼ 6 þ þ s1:2 : ð41Þ
s0:9
the largest number of possible values of kP and ki which are capable
of stabilizing the system. The optimization of the values of kP and ki
from within the obtained stability region, is done on the basis of 6.3. Hydro turbine
the integral error criterion i.e., the combination of kP and ki values
that gives the least error is chosen. When a hydro turbine is used, the plant model of the power sys-
tem is as given in (22). From Eqs. (22) and (1) the characteristic
6.2. Reheated turbine equation of the hydro turbine power system becomes as given in
(42)
The plant model for the case of reheated turbine power system 
given in (21) and the FOPID controller in (1) is now considered. The ki l
P s; kp ; ki ; kd ; k; l ¼ 1 þ kp þ þ kd s
same controller design procedure is followed as described for the sk

case of non-reheated turbines. The characteristic polynomial 1:667s þ 0:4167
 3 ¼ 0: ð42Þ
becomes, s þ 5:667s2  29:92s þ 8:75

ki
P s;kp ;ki ;kd ; k; l ¼ 1 þ kp þ k þ kd sl P s;kp ; ki ; kd ; k; l ¼ s3þk þ 5:667s2þk  29:92s1þk þ 8:75sk
s

87:5s þ 59:52  1:667kp s1þk þ 0:4167kp sk  1:667ki s
 4 3 2
¼ 0: ð35Þ
s þ 16:12s þ 46:24s þ 48:65s þ 25:3
þ 0:4167ki  1:667kd s1þkþl þ 0:4167kd skþl ¼ 0: ð43Þ
4þk 3þk 2þk 1þk
Pðs; kp ; ki ; kd ; k; lÞ ¼ s þ 16:12s þ 46:24s þ 48:65s
Separating (43) into real and imaginary parts by substituting
k
þ 25:3s þ 87:5kp s 1þk
þ ki 87:5s þ 87:5kd s1þkþl s ¼ jx,
þ 59:52kp sk þ 59:52ki þ 59:52kd skþl ¼ 0: ð36Þ Real Part:

Separating the real and imaginary parts of (36) by substituting  p  p

s ¼ jx, we get, x3þk cos ð3 þ kÞ þ 5:667x2þk cos ð2 þ kÞ
2 2
Real Part: 
1þk p
 p  p  x cos ð1 þ kÞ 29:92 þ 1:667kp
x4þk cos ð4 þ kÞ þ 16:12x3þk cos ð3 þ kÞ 2
2 2  p
 p  p þ xk cos k 8:75 þ 0:4167kp þ 0:4167ki
þ 46:24x2þk cos ð2 þ kÞ þ x1þk cos ð1 þ kÞ 48:65 þ 87:5kp 2
2 2 
 p  p p
þ xk cos k 25:3 þ 59:52kp þ 87:5kd x1þkþl cos ð1 þ k þ lÞ  1:667kd x1þkþl cos ð1 þ k þ lÞ
2 2 2
 p  p
þ 59:52kd xkþl cos ðk þ lÞ þ 59:52ki ¼ 0: ð37Þ kþl
þ 0:4167kd x cos ðk þ lÞ ¼ 0: ð44Þ
2 2
Imaginary Part: Imaginary Part:
 S. Sondhi, Y.V. Hote / Energy Conversion and Management 85 (2014) 343–353 349

 p  p
x3þk sin ð3 þ kÞ þ 5:667x2þk sin ð2 þ kÞ controller has a good capability to handle the parameter uncertain-
2 2 ties and disturbance rejection.
 p
1þk
 x sin ð1 þ kÞ 29:92 þ 1:667kp
2
 p 7. Simulation results
þ xk sin k 8:75 þ 0:4167kp  1:667ki x
2
 p In this section, the simulation results obtained by the imple-
 1:667kd x1þkþl sin ð1 þ k þ lÞ
2 mentation of the fractional order controller, designed in the previ-
 p
þ 0:4167kd xkþl sin ðk þ lÞ ous section, are presented. The response of the FOPID controller is
2 shown for both nominal as well as uncertain cases. It is observed
¼ 0: ð45Þ that the FOPID controller gives better response for the nominal
as well as the uncertain case for all the three types of turbines.
Solving (44) and (45) simultaneously we get,
Fig. 7a shows the response obtained by implementing the
From Eqs. (46) and (47), the controller parameters obtained are:
FOPID controller to the nominal non-reheated turbine power sys-

 
0:4167x3þ2k  12:4676x1þ2k þ 0:6946kd x1þ2kþl sin ð1  lÞ p2 þ 0:1736kd x2kþl sin l p2 1:667x4þ2k sin ð3 þ kÞ p2 cos ð1 þ kÞ p2  9:4468x3þ2k sin ð2 þ kÞ p2 cos ð1 þ kÞ p2 þ 48:876x2þ2k sin ð1 þ kÞ p2Þcos ð1 þ kÞ p2  14:586kd x1þ2k sin k p2 cos ð1 þ kÞ p2 þ 2:7788kd x2þ2kþl sin ð1 þ k þ lÞ p2 cos ð1 þ kÞ p2 0:6946kd x1þ2kþl sin ðk þ lÞ p2 cos ð1 þ kÞ p2
ki ¼ ;
1:667x 1:667x1þk cos ð1 þ kÞ p2 þ 0:4167xk cos k p2 þ 0:1736xk sin k p2

ð46Þ

 
x3þk cos ð3 þ kÞ p2 þ 5:667x2þk cos ð2 þ kÞ p2  29:92x1þk cos ð1 þ kÞ p2 þ 8:75xk cos k p2 þ 0:4167ki  1:667kd x1þkþl cos ð1 þ k þ lÞ p2 þ 0:4167kd xkþl cos ðk þ lÞ p2
kp ¼ :
1:667x1þk cos ð1 þ kÞ p2 þ 0:4167xk cos k p2
ð47Þ

kP ¼ 18:5; ki ¼ 0:19; kd ¼ 2:8; k ¼ 1:02 and
0:19
CðsÞ ¼ 18:5 þ þ 2:8s1:1 :
s1:02
The values of the controller parameters are given in Table 2.
6.4. Robustness
In the modern day complex power systems, the parameter
uncertainty is a major issue. Therefore, it is very essential that the
control technique being applied to the LFC should be robust toward
the parametric uncertainty of the system. So, once the controller is
designed, it is also important to check whether the controller has
the capability to deal with the parameter uncertainties or not. To
investigate the robustness of the controller the power system
model is considered as an uncertain model as shown in Fig. 6 [5].
For this, a ± 50% lower and upper bound uncertainties in the plant
parameters are considered i.e.,
 For non-reheated turbines: Kp e [60, 180], TP e [10, 30],
TT e [0.15, 0.45], TG e [0.04, 0.12] and R e [1.2, 3.6] .
 For reheated turbines: Kp e [60, 180], TP e [10, 30], TT e [0.15,
0.45], TG e [0.04, 0.12], Tr e [2.1, 6.3], c e [0.175, 0.525] and
R e [1.2, 3.6].
 For hydro turbines: Kp e [0.5, 1.5], TP e [3, 9], Tw e [2, 6], TG e
[0.1, 0.3] and R e [0.025, 0.075].
The proposed FOPID controller is implemented to the above
described uncertainties of the power system. The response of the
FOPID controller obtained for all three types of turbines is shown
in Figs. 7a–9c and the comparison of its performance to the exist-
ing techniques is shown in Tables 3–5. The details of the responses
of FOPID and the performance evaluation is given in Section 7 and
8 respectively. From the results obtained, it is observed that the
proposed FOPID controller gives better results, in case of parameter
uncertainties and shows better disturbance rejection, than the
IMC-PID designed in [46,47]. This highlights that the FOPID
l ¼ 1:1: i:e:; tem. In this case a disturbance of 0.01 is added to the system at
time 2 s. From Fig. 7a it is observed that the FOPID controller pro-
posed here gives the fastest disturbance rejection as compared to
ð48Þ the techniques illustrated in [46,47] i.e., the FOPID proposed here
gives faster disturbance rejection than the internal model control
based PID suggested by Tan (Tan’s IMC-PID), the controller sug-
gested by Tan using the second order plus delay time model (Tan’s
SOPDT), and the controllers designed using the model order reduc-
tion techniques like Pade approximation (Liu Pade), Routh approx-
imation(Liu Routh) and second order plus delay time(Liu SOPDT).
Hence it is evident from the figure that the FOPID controller per-
forms much better than the techniques proposed by Tan [46] and
Saxena [47]. Figs. 7b and 7c show the response of the FOPID con-
troller in case of ±50% parametric uncertainty. In these cases para-
metric uncertainty is added to the system, along with a
disturbance of 0.01 at time 2 s. It can be seen from Figs. 7b and
7c that in case of ±50% parametric uncertainty also, the proposed
FOPID controller gives better disturbance rejection than the exist-
ing techniques. It is clear from the figures that the capacity of the
proposed FOPID to handle disturbances under uncertain environ-
ment is also much better than the IMC-PID proposed in [46,5]
and the controller designed using the reduced order concept in
[47].
For the reheated as well as the hydro turbine power systems also
similar results are observed. The responses obtained for the
reheated turbine and hydro turbine power systems for the nominal
as well as the uncertain cases are illustrated in Figs. 8a–8c and
Figs. 9a–9c, respectively. From Fig. 8a–8c, it can be observed that
the concept of reduced order modeling suggested by Saxena in
[47] gives a large steady state error in both nominal as well as the
±50% uncertain cases. The responses in Figs. 8a–8c show that the
FOPID controller has a much better disturbance rejection capability
than the techniques suggested in [46,47], hence it is the most suit-
able controller for the case of reheated turbine power systems. In
case of the hydro turbine power systems, it is seen that the transfer
function model has unstable poles. So, in such cases, the controller
suggested in [47] is not applicable. Moreover, the IMC-PID tech-
nique proposed in [46] is capable of stabilizing the system but from
350 S. Sondhi, Y.V. Hote / Energy Conversion and Management 85 (2014) 343–353

1
δ5
RTG
+

u -
1 1 1 1 Kp 1
- TG + s TT + s Tp + s
- -

δ4 δ3 δ2 1
Power Tp
Governer Turbine
System +

δ1

Fig. 6. Linear model of power system with uncertain parameters.

Table 3
Comparison of the performance indices for the non-reheated turbine power system.

Design method 50% Uncertainty case

Nominal Lower bound Upper bound
ISE IAE ITAE ISE IAE ITAE ISE IAE ITAE
FOPID (proposed approach) 1.364  105 0.003877 0.0121 2.221  105 0.005813 0.01804 8.981  106 0.003828 0.01252
Tan’s IMC-PID[46] 0.0001377 0.01573 0.046 0.0001931 0.01968 0.06174 0.0000959 0.0157 0.05188
Liu SOPDT[47] 0.0008232 0.08061 0.4808 0.0008662 0.08247 0.4857 0.0008091 0.07825 0.4738
Liu Routh[47] 0.0008702 0.08166 0.4832 0.0009179 0.08329 0.4871 0.0008959 0.08118 0.4815
Liu Pade[47] 0.0008499 0.08183 0.484 0.0009027 0.08336 0.4871 0.0008468 0.07998 0.4794

ISE = Integral squared error, IAE = Integral absolute error, ITAE = Integral time-Weighted absolute error.

Table 4
Comparison of the performance indices for the reheated turbine power system.

Design method 50% Uncertainty case

Nominal Lower bound Upper bound
ISE IAE ITAE ISE IAE ITAE ISE IAE ITAE
FOPID (proposed approach) 1.58  105 0.0040 0.013 1.513  105 0.004462 0.01589 1.55  105 0.003545 0.011
Tan’s IMC-PID[46] 6.17  105 0.01119 0.04252 4.842  105 0.007893 0.0232 4.312  106 0.011 0.04874
Liu SOPDT[47] 7.735  106 0.003 0.02158 1.487  107 0.001312 0.01045 7.083  107 0.003 0.02396
Liu Routh[47] 2.52  106 0.0044 0.03 8.644  107 0.002261 0.01238 2.032  106 0.0044 0.03205
Liu Pade[47] 4.467  106 0.0066 0.04969 1.294  106 0.003196 0.02026 3.966  106 0.007 0.05374

Table 5
Comparison of the performance indices for the hydro turbine power system.

Design method 50% Uncertainty case

Nominal Lower bound Upper bound
ISE IAE ITAE ISE IAE ITAE ISE IAE ITAE
FOPID (proposed approach) 0.0002045 0.05109 0.4404 0.0001324 0.0497 0.552 0.0004703 0.07054 0.6012
Tan’s IMC-PID[46] 0.0002774 0.06574 0.6523 0.000193 0.06565 0.8451 0.0005289 0.08234 0.7932
Liu SOPDT[47] NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA
Liu Routh[47] NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA
Liu Pade[47] NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA

Figs. 9a–9c it can be seen that the proposed FOPID controller gives
better performance than the IMC-PID controller suggested in [46].
Hence, from Figs. 7a–9c it is clear that the disturbance rejection
capability of the proposed FOPID controller, in the nominal as well
as the uncertain operating conditions, is better than the existing
techniques for all three types of turbine systems.
This property of the FOPID controller makes it very suitable for
the LFC because the main task of the LFC is to handle frequency
fluctuations occurring in the power system even when the
parameters of the system are not constant. The disturbances
introduced into the system here represent the fluctuations occur-
ring in the power system while the ±50% variation in the various
parameters represents the parametric uncertainty occurring in
the system. Hence, from the obtained results it is observed that
the FOPID gives better performance than the existing control
techniques.
 S. Sondhi, Y.V. Hote / Energy Conversion and Management 85 (2014) 343–353 351

-3 0.01
x 10
14
Liu SOPDT
Tan's 0
12 Liu Routh
IMC-PID
Liu Pade FOPID
10 Tan's SOPDT -0.01 Steady State
Error
FOPID
FOPID Tan's IMC-PID

Amplitude
8 -0.02
Tan's
IMC-PID
Amplitude

6
-0.03
4
-0.04
2
FOPID
Tan's IMC-PID
-0.05
0 Liu Pade
Liu Routh
Liu SOPDT
-2 -0.06
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-4 Time
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time Fig. 8a. Responses of a reheated turbine power system using various controllers for
nominal parameters.
Fig. 7a. Responses of a non-reheated turbine power system using various control-
lers for nominal parameters.
0.005

0.01 0
FOPID
Steady State
-0.005 Error

0.005
-0.01
Amplitude
Tan's
IMC-PID

-0.015
0
Amplitude

-0.02

-0.005 -0.025
FOPID
LIU SOPDT Tan's IMC-PID
Tan's -0.03 Liu Pade
IMC-PID Liu Routh Liu Routh

-0.01 Liu Pade Liu SOPDT

FOPID Tan's SOPDT
-0.035
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
FOPID
Tan's IMC-PID Time
-0.015
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Fig. 8b. Responses of a reheated turbine power system using various controllers for
Time lower bound parameters.

Fig. 7b. Responses of a non-reheated turbine power system using various control-
lers for lower bound. 0.01

-3 0
x 10
2 FOPID
Steady State
-0.01 Error
0
Amplitude

Tan's
IMC-PID

-2 -0.02

-4 -0.03
Amplitude

-6 FOPID
-0.04 Tan's IMC-PID
Liu Pade
-8 Liu Routh
FOPID Liu SOPDT
Liu Routh -0.05
-10 Liu SOPDT 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Tan's Liu Pade
IMC-PID
Time
Tan's SOPDT
-12 FOPID
Tan's IMC-PID Fig. 8c. Responses of a reheated turbine power system using various controllers for
-14 upper bound parameters.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time

Fig. 7c. Responses of a non-reheated turbine power system using various control-
These indices help in making a clear comparative study of the per-
lers for upper bound. formance of the proposed technique with that of the existing
techniques. The responses presented in the previous section show
8. Performance analysis that the FOPID controller gives a much better disturbance rejection
than the one designed in [5,46,47]. Further, the performance of the
In order to analyze the performance of the proposed controller controllers can be quantitatively measured using the various inte-
quantitatively, the various integral error indices are calculated. gral error criterion like Integral Absolute Error, Integral Squared
352 S. Sondhi, Y.V. Hote / Energy Conversion and Management 85 (2014) 343–353

x 10
-3
suggested in [46,47], with the proposed technique, for the non-
1
reheated turbine is given in Table 3. The performance analysis
0
for the case of the reheated and hydro turbine are given in Tables
4 and 5, respectively. The comparison indicates that the proposed
-1 FOPID controller performs better than the existing methods in
nominal as well as uncertain conditions. Therefore, on comparing
-2 these results, it is observed that the FOPID gives better disturbance
Amplitude

FOPID
rejection as well as better control under uncertain operating envi-
-3
ronment in all the three turbine cases.
-4
From the results obtained in this section, it is seen that the con-
troller designed using the proposed approach is more robust in
-5 Tan's nature toward disturbances than the existing controllers, in both
IMC-PID
nominal as well as uncertain operating conditions.
-6 Thus, the main objective of designing a controller i.e., delivering
optimum performance under uncertain environment, has been
-7
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 successfully achieved.
Time
9. Multi-area load frequency control
Fig. 9a. Responses of a hydro turbine power system using various controllers for
nominal parameters.
The design of FOPID load frequency controller proposed in this
paper can be extended to multi-area power systems also. The dif-
x 10
-3 ference between LFC of multi-area and single area is that for multi
0.5
area systems the net interchange through the tie-line should
0 return to the scheduled values and the frequency of each area
should return to its nominal value. So a composite measure, called
-0.5
area control error (ACE), is used as the feedback variable. For area i,
-1 the ACE is defined as
-1.5 ACEi ¼ DPtiei þ Bi Dfi ð49Þ
Amplitude

FOPID
-2
where Bi is the frequency bias setting. The feedback control of the
-2.5 area i takes the form,
-3 ui ¼ K i ðsÞACEi ð50Þ
Tan's
-3.5 IMC-PID A decentralized controller can be tuned assuming that there is
-4 no tie-line exchange power, i.e., DPtiei = 0. In this case the local
feedback control will be
-4.5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
ui ¼ K i ðsÞBi Dfi ð51Þ
Time
So it is clear that to tune a decentralized load frequency control-
Fig. 9b. Responses of a hydro turbine power system using various controllers for ler, one just needs to multiply the plant model by the local bias
lower bound parameters.
coefficient, and then follow the same procedure as in single-area
LFC-PID tuning, i.e., tune FOPID controller for
-3
x 10 Ggi ðsÞGti ðsÞGpi ðsÞ
2 Pi ðsÞ ¼ Bi ð52Þ
1 þ Ggi ðsÞGti ðsÞGpi ðsÞ=Ri
0
Thus the fractional order controller for load frequency controller for
each area can be tuned independently using the proposed approach.
-2

FOPID 10. Conclusion

Amplitude

-4

With the ever increasing demand of electric power there is a

-6
great need to have an efficient LFC system which can handle the
Tan's system parameter uncertainty. In this paper, a Load Frequency
-8
IMC-PID Control design technique based on the concept of fractional order
control for all the three types of turbines i.e., non-reheated,
-10
reheated and the hydro turbines has been presented. Further, the
robustness of the FOPID controller for the parametric uncertainty
-12
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 has also been evaluated. Finally, the performance of the proposed
Time approach is compared to that of the IMC-PID controller proposed
recently. It is seen that the performance of the FOPID controller
Fig. 9c. Responses of a hydro turbine power system using various controllers for is much better than the IMC-PID controller as well as than the con-
upper bound parameters.
trollers designed using the concept of reduced order modeling. The
results also show that the proposed FOPID controller has a good
Error and Integral Time-Weighted Absolute Error. The comparison capability of disturbance rejection and handling parametric uncer-
of the performance indices, for the controller design techniques tainty and hence is very suitable for the problem of LFC.
 S. Sondhi, Y.V. Hote / Energy Conversion and Management 85 (2014) 343–353
Due to the limitation of space, the technique is demonstrated
here for a single area LFC system. However, in case of intercon-
nected systems each control area of the system is controlled in a
similar manner but independent of the other areas. Therefore,
the same control technique can be implemented for a multi area
interconnected LFC systems.
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