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Generic - Economics 1A
Generic - Economics 1A
Module Guide
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MANCOSA
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This Module Guide,
Economics 1A (NQF level 5)
will be used across the following programmes:
ECONOMICS 1A
Preface.................................................................................................................................................................... 2
List of Content
List of Figures
Figure 1-1 A production possibilities curve for the Wild Coast community........................................................ 15
Figure 4-7 A movement along a supply curve: change in quantity supplied ..................................................... 43
Figure 6- 1 Price elasticity of demand at different points along a linear demand curve .................................... 64
Figure 6-2 The relationship between price elasticity of demand and total revenue .......................................... 66
Figure 8-1: The demand curve for the product of the firm under perfect competition ....................................... 91
Figure 8-4: Total revenue, total cost and total economic profit ......................................................................... 93
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Economics 1A
Figure 8-5: Marginal revenue and marginal cost of a firm operating in a perfectly competitive market ............ 94
Figure 9-2: The equilibrium of the firm under monopoly ................................................................................. 104
Figure 9-3: Comparison between monopoly and a perfectly competitive industry .......................................... 105
Figure 9-4: The equilibrium of the firm under monopolistic competition .......................................................... 107
List of Tables
Table 7.1 Production schedule of a maize farmer with one variable input ........................................................ 80
Table 7.2:Production schedule of a maize farmer with one variable input ........................................................ 82
Table 7.3: Total, fixed and variable cost schedules of a maize farmer ............................................................. 85
Table 9.2: Average, total and marginal revenue when the demand curve for a firm's product slopes
downward ...................................................................................................................................... 102
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Economics 1A
Preface
A. Welcome
Dear Student
It is a great pleasure to welcome you to Economics 1A (ECO1A5). To make sure that you share our passion
about this area of study, we encourage you to read this overview thoroughly. Refer to it as often as you need to,
since it will certainly make studying this module a lot easier. The intention of this module is to develop both your
confidence and proficiency in this module.
The field of Economics is extremely dynamic and challenging. The learning content, activities and self- study
questions contained in this guide will therefore provide you with opportunities to explore the latest developments
in this field and help you to discover the field of Economics as it is practiced today.
This is a distance-learning module. Since you do not have a tutor standing next to you while you study, you need
to apply self-discipline. You will have the opportunity to collaborate with each other via social media tools. Your
study skills will include self-direction and responsibility. However, you will gain a lot from the experience! These
study skills will contribute to your life skills, which will help you to succeed in all areas of life.
MANCOSA does not own or purport to own, unless explicitly stated otherwise, any intellectual property rights in or
to multimedia used or provided in this module guide. Such multimedia is copyrighted by the respective creators
thereto and used by MANCOSA for educational purposes only. Should you wish to use copyrighted material from
this guide for purposes of your own that extend beyond fair dealing/use, you must obtain permission from the
copyright owner.
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Economics 1A
B. Module Overview
The module is a 15 credit module at NQF level 5
Understand and illustrate the economic Economic problem of scarcity and its implications is
problem of scarcity and its implications clarified to set business protection measures in place
Analyse how market forces of demand Market forces of demand and supply are analysed to
and supply determine equilibrium determine equilibrium
Understand the concept of price Concept of price elasticity of demand and implications on
elasticity of demand and implications on total revenue is simplified to emphasise the importance of
total revenue price elasticity of demand
Understand the theory of production and Theory of production and costs is identified to understand
costs types of costs associated with production
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Economics 1A
Compare the salient features of each Salient features of each market structure is compared to
market structure demonstrate how firms operate in a large variety of
environments
Understand the short-run and long-run The short-run and long-run equilibrium position of each
equilibrium position of each market market structure is identified to demonstrate situations that
structure firms may find themselves in
The purpose of the Module Guide is to allow you the opportunity to integrate the theoretical concepts from the
prescribed textbook and recommended readings. We suggest that you briefly skim read through the entire guide
to get an overview of its contents. At the beginning of each Unit, you will find a list of Learning Outcomes and
Associated Assessment Criteria. This outlines the main points that you should understand when you have
completed the Unit/s. Do not attempt to read and study everything at once. Each study session should be 90
minutes without a break
This module should be studied using the prescribed and recommended textbooks/readings and the relevant
sections of this Module Guide. You must read about the topic that you intend to study in the appropriate section
before you start reading the textbook in detail. Ensure that you make your own notes as you work through both the
textbook and this module. In the event that you do not have the prescribed and recommended textbooks/readings,
you must make use of any other source that deals with the sections in this module. If you want to do further reading,
and want to obtain publications that were used as source documents when we wrote this guide, you should look
at the reference list and the bibliography at the end of the Module Guide. In addition, at the end of each Unit there
may be link to the PowerPoint presentation and other useful reading.
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Economics 1A
F. Study Material
The study material for this module includes tutorial letters, programme handbook, this Module Guide, a list of
prescribed and recommended textbooks/readings which may be supplemented by additional readings.
Recommend Reading(s)
Berg, D. and Ward, D. (2016) Economics for Business. Fifth Edition. United Kingdom: Mcgraw-Hill Education.
This is the latest edition of the textbook that is available.
Schiller, B.R., (2013) Essentials of Economics. Thirteenth Edition. New York: Irwin Mcgraw–Hill. This is the
latest edition of the textbook that is available.
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H. Special Features
In the Module Guide, you will find the following icons together with a description. These are designed to help you
study. It is imperative that you work through them as they also provide guidelines for examination purposes.
LEARNING The Learning Outcomes indicate aspects of the particular Unit you
OUTCOMES have to master.
A Think Point asks you to stop and think about an issue. Sometimes
THINK POINT you are asked to apply a concept to your own experience or to think of
an example.
You may come across Activities that ask you to carry out specific
tasks. In most cases, there are no right or wrong answers to these
ACTIVITY
activities. The purpose of the activities is to give you an opportunity to
apply what you have learned.
At this point, you should read the references supplied. If you are
READINGS unable to acquire the suggested readings, then you are welcome to
consult any current source that deals with the subject.
PRACTICAL
Practical Application or Examples will be discussed to enhance
APPLICATION
understanding of this module.
OR EXAMPLES
You may come across Revision Questions that test your understanding
REVISION
of what you have learned so far. These may be attempted with the aid
QUESTIONS
of your textbooks, journal articles and Module Guide.
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Unit
1: Introduction to Microeconomics
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1.6 The Production Possibility Curve Illustrate the maximum amount of production that can be
produced by an economy with a given amount of
resources using a production possibility curve
1.7 Why do opportunity costs increase along Explain the reasoning why opportunity costs increase
the PPF? along the production possibility frontier
Prescribed Textbook
Prescribed Reading/Textbook
Mohr, P. and Fourie, L. (2020) Economics for South African Students. Sixth
Edition. Pretoria: Van Schaik. This is the latest edition of the textbook that
is available.
Recommend Reading(s)
Berg, D. and Ward, D. (2016) Economics for Business. Fifth Edition. United
Kingdom: Mcgraw-Hill Education. This is the latest edition of the textbook
that is available.
Schiller, B.R., (2013) Essentials of Economics. Thirteenth Edition. New
York: Irwin Mcgraw–Hill. This is the latest edition of the textbook that is
available.
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Economics 1A
1.1 Introduction
Economics is a social science that studies human behaviour as a relationship between ends and scarce means
which have alternative uses. Consequently, economics examines the problems that arise when individuals and
firms have consumption desires that are constrained by access to resources. This problem is often referred to as
infinite wants and finite resources.
Macroeconomics on the other hand is concerned with the economy as a whole. It focuses on aspects such as
the stability of the general price level (commonly known as inflation), the maintenance of full employment, economic
growth, the distribution of income, government spending, and the nation’s money supply.
Activity 1.1
State whether the following relate to macroeconomics or to
microeconomics:
(a) During the last 12 months average car prices have fallen
(b) Inflation for the past 12 months has been 3.5%
(c) Strong sales in the housing market have prevented the South African
Reserve Bank from reducing interest rates
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Economics 1A
People’s unlimited wants cannot be met with the limited resources available, as such choices need to be made.
But what are these resources which are in limited supply? Resources are used to produce goods and services and
are referred to as factors of production. Since the factors of production (resources) used in the production of
goods and services are limited, it follows that the goods and services which can be produced with them are also
limited.
Natural resources and labour are also known as primary factors of production, whilst capital and
entrepreneurship are called secondary factors.
As these factors of production are scarce, we are forced to make difficult choices. The use of scarce resources to
produce a certain good or service, means that those resources are not available to produce other goods or
services. Stated differently, a decision to produce more of one good means that less of another good can be
produced. Because resources are scarce, their use is never costless. This point is captured in the economic saying,
“there ain’t no such thing as a free lunch”. There are always costs involved. This leads us to the principle of
opportunity cost.
Every time we make a choice, we incur opportunity costs. Economist use opportunity cost to measure the costs
incurred in choices. Opportunity cost is a key concept in economics as it captures the essence of scarcity and
choice. The economic principles of scarcity, choice and opportunity cost are captured in the production
possibilities curve.
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Economics 1A
Note: Scarcity should not be confused with poverty. Scarcity affects everyone.
Activity 1.2
List goods or services that compete for your income. Similarly, list activities that
compete for your time. In deciding what you will spend your income on and how
you will allocate your time, do you minimise your opportunity cost?
One reason the United States can produce so much is that it has over 3 million acres of land. Tonga, with less
than 500 acres of land, will never produce as much. The U.S also has a population of over 300 million people.
That’s a lot less than China (1.3 billion), but far larger than 200 other nations (Tonga has a population of less than
125, 000).
So an abundance of resources gives us (U.S) the potential to produce a lot of output. But that greater production
capacity isn’t enough to satisfy all our desires.” (Schiller, 2013)
As previously noted, the economic principles of scarcity, choice and opportunity cost are captured in the
production possibilities curve. The production possibility curve (Figure 1-1) shows the maximum amount of
production that can be produced by an economy with a given amount of resources.
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Economics 1A
1Figure 1.1 A production possibilities curve for the Wild Coast community
(Mohr and Fourie, 2015:6)
The production possibility frontier (PPF) in Figure 1-1, shows the maximum amounts of potatoes and fish that can
be produced by a rural community when the community uses its resources fully and efficiently (refer to text for
detailed description).
At A, 100kg of potatoes can be produced per day by devoting all their time and available resources to gardening.
Likewise, at F, 5 baskets of fish can be produced per working day, if all time and available resources are devoted
to fishing. By shifting resources from one production possibility to the other, the community can enjoy a diet of both
fish and potatoes.
In our example, in moving from C to D, the community actually transforms part of the production of potatoes into
fish. Combinations on the PPF represent the maximum amounts that can be produced by efficiently using all
available resources. The PPF demonstrates graphically, the principle of opportunity cost. In our example, the
opportunity cost of producing 40kg of potatoes is the basket of fish forgone. Similarly, the opportunity cost of
producing 4 baskets of fish is the 60kg of potatoes forgone. All points to the right of the curve, such as G are
unattainable. G is unattainable due to scarcity, a lack of resources to achieve that level of production.
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Choice is illustrated by the need to choose between the combinations available, and opportunity cost is illustrated
by the negative slope of the curve. The negative slope, showing that more of one good can only be obtained
by sacrificing the other good. Opportunity cost increases as we move along the PPF. This can be seen by paying
attention to the concave shape of the curve.
There are difficulties in transferring labour, skills, capital and entrepreneurship between industries. These
difficulties are so well known that they are often referred to as the law of increasing opportunity cost. The law states
that ever-increasing quantities of other goods and services need to be given up in order to get more of a particular
good. This law is not solely based on the lack of movement of skilled labour.
The mix of factors required to make a certain good is also a factor. One good may require a more capital intensive
production process as opposed to the other (Schiller, 2013: 8).
YOU ARE NOW READY TO ANSWER THE QUESTIONS FOUND IN THE WORKBOOK RELATING TO THIS
STUDY UNIT
16 MANCOSA
Economics 1A
Unit
2: A Closer Look at the
Economic Problem of Scarcity
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2.1 Improved techniques or increased Illustrate using a production possibility curve, an improved
resources production technique
2.2 The three central economic questions State the three central economic questions
2.3 The choice of technique Understand the criteria in choosing whether or not to have
a capital intensive or labour intensive production process
2.4 For whom it should be produced Explain the parties for whom goods and services are
produced
Prescribed Textbook:
Prescribed Reading/Textbook
Mohr, P. and Fourie, L. (2020) Economics for South African Students.
Sixth Edition. Pretoria: Van Schaik. This is the latest edition of the textbook
that is available.
Recommend Reading(s)
Berg, D. and Ward, D. (2016) Economics for Business. Fifth Edition. United
Kingdom: Mcgraw-Hill Education. This is the latest edition of the textbook
that is available.
Schiller, B.R., (2013) Essentials of Economics. Thirteenth Edition. New
York: Irwin Mcgraw–Hill. This is the latest edition of the textbook that is
available.
18 MANCOSA
Economics 1A
Figure 2-1. With a given level of resources and a given state of technology, the community can produce various
combinations of fish and potato output. However, they cannot move beyond the points ABCDEF (AF for short).
This is why the curve is sometimes called a production possibility boundary of frontier.
It shows the maximum attainable combinations of goods that can be produced, or potential output. Its concave
shape (from the origin) indicates increasing opportunity costs. Any combination within the frontier is attainable,
however, such combinations are inefficient because either available resources are not being used to their
full potential (inefficiently) or some of them are left idle (unemployment).
In the event that the economy is operating at less than potential output (actual output is therefore less than potential
output), this would be illustrated as a point inside the production possibility curve/frontier (PPF). Some of the
available resources are either unemployed or not employed efficiently.
Point H in figure 2-1 is an example of this. At a point such as H, more output of one good would not require less
output of the other, there would be no opportunity cost when output is expanded. It is therefore possible to expand
production by simply using the existing resources fully and more efficiently (given the state of technology).
MANCOSA 19
Economics 1A
We need to fully and efficiently utilise scarce resources. This will occur when production is taking place on the
production possibilities curve. Actual output is equal to potential output when production takes place on the
production possibilities curve. Furthermore, when we are on it, it is impossible to produce more of one good without
sacrificing some production of the other good. “Production efficiency means more output of one good can be
obtained only by sacrificing output of other goods” (Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch, 2014:7).
A point such as G in figure 2-1 is unattainable. Any point beyond AF is unattainable. With the given available
resources and current production techniques, achieving a combination such as G or any combination outside of
AF is impossible. However, if over time the quantity of available resources increase, and/or production techniques
improve, then points beyond AF will be attainable. If this happens then the PPF will shift outwards. Outward
movements of the PPF illustrate economic growth.
Referring to Figure 2-2, an improved technique for producing capital goods has been developed. It is now
possible to produce more capital with the available factors of production. Assuming the available factors of
production and the technology for producing consumer goods remain the same, then maximum production of
consumer goods will remain at A.
If all available resource were used in the production of capital goods, then maximum production of capital goods
would increase from B to C, and the new PPF is AC. With the exception of point A, it is now possible to produce
more of both goods.
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Economics 1A
Production of both goods has increased, with the exception of the intercept point A. Remember, an improved
technique implies that less resources are required to produce the same level of output.
Therefore, if there is an improved technique for producing capital goods, then for any given level of capital
production, more resources could be moved over to the production of consumer goods.
Likewise, with the same levels of resources, we can now produce more capital goods. Therefore, as we move
resources over to capital goods production, we produce more output than we previously could have.
Referring to Figure 2-3. Similarly, new technique for producing consumer goods is developed. Available resources
and the technique for producing capital remains the same. Maximum potential output for consumer goods will
increase. PPF swivels around point B so the new PPF is DB. Except at point B, it is possible to produce more of
both goods.
Figure 2-4 below illustrates a shift in the PPF from AB to EF. A shift in the PPF occurs if the amount of available
resources (e.g.: labour, raw materials) and/or the productivity of available resources increase. There is now the
possibility of producing more of both capital and consumer goods. Potential output has increased.
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Economics 1A
In the case where the amount of resources or their productivity (efficiency) decrease, there will be a decline in
potential output. This decline can be illustrated by an inward shift of the PPF. In our case it would result in a reversal
of Figures 2-2, 2-3 and 2-4.
The PPF illustrates potential output, however, it does not indicate which of the possible combinations of output
should be produced. The final choice will depend on the preferences of society.
Activity 2.1
Consider an economy produces two goods, Ferrari cars and Ray-Ban
sunglasses. Using a production possibility frontier, assess what will happen to
the production of Ferrari cars if the production of Ray-ban sunglasses
decreases
22 MANCOSA
Economics 1A
However, once used these resources cannot be replaced. As a result, minerals are referred to as non-renewable
or exhaustible assets. As is the case with all the factors of production, both quality and the quantity of natural
resources are important.
Labour
Labour can be defined as the exercise of human and physical effort in the production of goods and services. The
quantity available depends on the size and proportion of the population which are willing and able to work. The
quality of labour is described by the term human capital, which refers to the skill, knowledge and health of the
workers. Education, training and experience are all determinants of human capital.
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Capital
Comprises of all manufactured resources (machines, tools and buildings), which are used in the production of
other goods and services. Capital goods are not produced for their own sake; they are produced to produce other
goods. When we talk about capital as a factor of production, we are referring to all those tangible things used in
the production process. When we produce capital goods, we sacrifice present consumption for future consumption.
Entrepreneurship
Factors of production have to be combined and organised by people who see opportunities and are willing to take
risks by producing goods in the expectation that they will be sold. Entrepreneurs are the people who do this. They
are the initiators, the innovators and the risk bearers, and they do this in anticipation of making profits.
Technology
Sometimes identified as the fifth factor of production. When new knowledge is put into practice, and more goods
and services are produced with a given level of natural resources, labour, capital and entrepreneurship, we say
that technology has improved. Invention is the discovery of new knowledge, whilst innovation is the incorporation
of the new knowledge into actual production.
Production often involves more than one technique with which to produce the good or service, for example when
manufacturing shoes one may choose a process which is dominated by machines or a process which requires
more labour than machines. If the production process is dominated by machines, the production process is referred
to as capital-intensive. However, if the emphasis is on labour, the production process is labour-intensive.
In choosing whether or not to have a capital intensive or labour intensive production process certain factors play
a role in the decision, these factors include: the availability of resources, the quality of the resources available, the
relative prices of the resources available (i.e. the price of labour against the price of capital), the labour laws of the
country and other relevant laws.
24 MANCOSA
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YOU ARE NOW READY TO ANSWER THE QUESTIONS FOUND IN THE WORKBOOK RELATING TO THIS
STUDY UNIT
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Unit
3: The Circular Flow of
Income and Spending
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3.2 A Simple Circular Flow Model Describe the flow of income in the circular flow model
of Income and Spending
Prescribed Textbook:
Below is the prescribed reading specific to this unit;
Prescribed Reading/Textbook
Mohr, P. and Fourie, L. (2020) Economics for South African Students.
Sixth Edition. Pretoria: Van Schaik. This is the latest edition of the textbook
that is available.
Recommend Reading(s)
Berg, D. and Ward, D. (2016) Economics for Business. Fifth Edition.
United Kingdom: Mcgraw-Hill Education. This is the latest edition of the
textbook that is available.
Schiller, B.R., (2013) Essentials of Economics. Thirteenth Edition. New
York: Irwin Mcgraw–Hill. This is the latest edition of the textbook that is
available.
MANCOSA 27
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3.1 Introduction
The circular Flow of Income shows the flow of inputs, outputs and payments between households and firms
within an economy. This model captures the essential essence of macroeconomic activity. The economy is
seen as nothing more than:
A revolving flow of goods
Production resources
Financial payments
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The circular flow model illustrates the mechanism by which income is generated from goods and services and
how this income is spent. This is best understood by analysing the diagram below:
Firstly, let us consider households who are buyers, and firms who are producers and sellers of goods and
services in the goods and services market: Firms are buyers of factors of production and households become
sellers of factors of production in the factor market.
The next participant that we introduce into the model is the government. The government is responsible for
providing public goods and services, such as roads, bridges, etc. for usage by households and firms.
In order for government to provide these public goods and services, it receives tax revenue from households
and firms. Hence, again we have flow of income in the form of tax paid by firms and consumers and tax received
by the government. In addition, government provides subsidies to firms and households - flow of income.
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Next, we introduce the financial sector, which mainly comprises of financial institutions, where consumers and
firms deposit funds and earn interest on savings. In addition, firms and consumers take loans to invest in capital
goods and assets, and have to pay interest on loans. Finally, we introduce the foreign sector. In the foreign
sector, importing countries pay using foreign exchange for imported goods and services, and exporting
countries earn foreign currency for exporting goods and services.
This simple circular flow model of income, output and spending represents the workings of a simple economy,
and illustrates the importance of economic interdependence. It further highlights the mutual dependence
between the micro economy and the macro economy.
Activity 3.1
Identify the leakages and injections components of aggregate expenditure in your
circular flow diagram
YOU ARE NOW READY TO ANSWER THE QUESTIONS FOUND IN THE WORKBOOK RELATING TO THIS
STUDY UNIT
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Unit
4: Demand, Supply and Prices
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4.2 Demand Draw and read simple demand and supply graphs
4.3 Movements along the demand Explain the difference between change in demand or supplied
curve and shifts of the demand and change in quantity demanded or supplied
curve
4.4 Shifts in the demand curve Distinguish between movement and shifts along a demand
and supply curve
4.6 Market Equilibrium Understand how the market arrives at a state of equilibrium
we need to understand disequilibrium
Prescribed Textbook:
Prescribed Reading/Textbook
Mohr, P. and Fourie, L. (2020) Economics for South African Students.
Sixth Edition. Pretoria: Van Schaik. This is the latest edition of the textbook
that is available.
Recommend Reading(s)
Berg, D. and Ward, D. (2016) Economics for Business. Fifth Edition. United
Kingdom: Mcgraw-Hill Education. This is the latest edition of the textbook
that is available.
Schiller, B.R., (2013) Essentials of Economics. Thirteenth Edition. New
York: Irwin Mcgraw–Hill. This is the latest edition of the textbook that is
available.
32 MANCOSA
Economics 1A
4.1 Introduction
This is an important study unit, as it lays the foundation for most of the economic analysis in Economics 1A.
4.2 Demand
In economics, demand for a good or service means that there is both the intent to buy it and the means (i.e.
purchasing power) to do so.
Therefore, demand refers to the quantities of a good or service that potential buyers are willing and able to
buy. Furthermore, demand relates to the plans of households, firms and other participants in the economy. It does
not relate to events which have already occurred. As demand is concerned with plans and not events which have
occurred, this means that the quantity demanded and the quantity actually bought may differ.
Quantity demanded may in fact be equal to, greater than, or less than the quantity bought.
Complements are goods that are used together with the good concerned. In our case bread (for sandwiches) and
onions (for cooking) are examples of goods that would complement tomatoes.
Substitutes are goods that can be used instead of using the good concerned. For example, tomatoes can be
replaced with other ingredients in a salad.
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In figure 4-1 above, the price of tomatoes (rand per kg) is on the vertical (y) axis and the quantity of tomatoes
demanded (kg per week) is listed on the horizontal (x) axis.
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Note, it is crucial that you label the axis of these graphs correctly as they form the basis of the diagram. Each point
on the diagram represents a combination of both price and quantity demanded. For example, at point a, 6kg of
tomatoes will be demanded if the price of tomatoes is R1 per kg.
By joining all the various points which express the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity
demanded, we obtain the demand curve.
The negative slope of the demand curve (point e to point a), indicates that there exists a negative or inverse
relationship between price and quantity demanded (i.e. the law of demand).
The negative relationship between price and quantity demanded is often exploited by businesses. For example, a
“buy one get one free” offer. Firms use such offers because they are sometimes reluctant to reduce the price of
their products. This is because explicit price reductions could lead to retaliatory price wars from rivals. Lower prices
may also provide a signal; to the market that the product is of an inferior quality. A ‘buy one get one free’ offer
allows the published price to stay the same but the effective price for consumers is halved. Under such an offer,
consumers are more willing to demand the product and, not surprisingly, companies use such promotions to boost
sales and gain market share.
Furthermore, we all like end-of-season sales at our favourite clothing retailers, but sales simply represent an
attempt by the retailers to shift products that we, as consumers, would not buy at the higher price and are, therefore,
another example of the demand curve in action.
We plot the demand curve for a good or service on the assumption that, all other determinants are constant (i.e.
ceteris paribus).
Market Demand
The market demand curve is simply the sum of all of the individual demand curves for a particular good or service.
Therefore, in a situation where the market consists of three prospective buyers, Anne Smith, Helen Rantho and
Purvi Bhana, to obtain the market demand curve we would add all their demand curves together.
The market demand curve is therefore obtained by adding the individual demand curves horizontally (i.e. at a price
of R5 Anne demands 2 tomatoes, Helen 0 and Purvi 1, therefore market demand at R5 = 3 tomatoes demanded).
This process of adding up the demand curves horizontally is demonstrated in figure 4-2 below, where the individual
demand curves are shown to the left and the market demand curve (the sum of the individual curves) is on the
right.
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If the information for the market was available, i.e. if we had the information for the total quantity demanded per
period, then we could simply plot the market demand curve as we did with the individual ones (joining the price
and quantity points plotted). As the market demand curve is simply all the individuals demand curves in that market
added together, the same factors which determine individual demand, also determine total quantities demanded.
4.3 Movements Along the Demand Curve and Shifts of the Demand Curve
Movements along the demand curve are related to changes in the price of the good or service. When the price of
a product changes, the quantity demanded will also change, ceteris paribus (all other factors remaining constant).
We can obtain the amount by which the quantity changed by comparing the relevant points on the demand curve.
Therefore, to determine by how much quantity demanded changed, we compare the movement along the demand
curve, i.e. we compare two points. (Refer to figure 4-3 below).
For example, if the price of tomatoes had to change from R4 per kg to R3 per kg, demand would change from 6
kg per week to 9 kg per week. Consumption of tomatoes is now 3 kg per week more than it was previously.
Remember, these conclusions are based on the assumption that all other things remain the same, i.e. ceteris
paribus! Therefore, when dealing with movements along the demand curve, we are dealing with the relationship
between the price of the product and the quantity demanded, ceteris paribus.
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Therefore, if a factor which determines the demand for a product changes (other than price of course), the demand
curve for the product will shift. This occurs because price has been placed as the cornerstone of the demand curve
(i.e. it is on the vertical axis). Changes in determinants other than price are therefore reflected as shifts of the
demand curve.
As mentioned earlier, there are a host of factors that influence demand other than the price of the product. We will
examine each one in detail:
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Examples of substitutes include Nike and reebok shoes, butter and margarine, beef and mutton. Differences in the
prices of these goods will determine, to an extent, the level of demand for the product in question.
Ceteris paribus, an increase in the price of a substitute will result in an increase in the quantity demanded for the
product in question.
This will result in a shift of the demand curve to the right, indicating that there is a greater quantity
demanded of the product at each price range. Increases in the prices of substitutes are therefore displayed as
shifts of the demand curve to the right for the product concerned, likewise, decreases in the prices of substitutes
are displayed as shifts to the left. Remember, this is under the ceteris paribus condition, all demand curves are
plotted under this condition. Figure 4-4 below shows a graphical representation of how an increase in the price of
a substitute shifts the demand curve for the product concerned to the right.
Have you ever felt for ice-cream on a hot day and as a result bought yourself an ice-cream cone? Although you
may not think it at the time, these are two separate goods that are complementing each other. You are therefore
using these two goods jointly to satisfy your want. This is the nature of complements, goods that tend to be used
jointly to satisfy the want of the consumer.
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Economics 1A
Other examples are golf clubs and golf balls, motorcars and petrol, and DVD players and DVDs. In the case of a
complement, a fall in the price of a complementary good result in an increase in demand for the good
concerned, ceteris paribus.
Graphically, this is shown as a shift to the right of the demand curve for the product. The opposite is true for an
increase in the price of a complementary good, in this case the demand curve for the good will shift to the left.
Remember, shifts in the demand curve indicate that the quantity demanded has changed at every price, i.e. there
is more/less quantity demanded of the good at every price.
It was mentioned earlier that we all have infinite wants, but these wants need to be distinguished from demand.
For there to be demand, the consumer must be willing and able to purchase the product. Clearly, our ability to
purchase affects the amount of goods we purchase.
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Economics 1A
Present consumption is therefore reduced. Graphically this will be displayed as a shift of the demand curve (for
the product) to the left, indicating that quantity demanded has decreased at all prices. If consumers expect future
prices to rise, ceteris paribus, then the opposite will occur. Present demand will be increased to maximise the
opportunity to purchase the good cheaply (shift to the right).
Activity 4.1
There must have been a time when you expected a sale at a store you liked and
decided to wait for it, waiting to purchase whatever item it is you wanted. This is
the same concept. These are things that we do on a daily basis, all that is
happening here is that it is given structure and form.
Try to relate to the concepts you read about
Distribution of Income
Changing the distribution of income among the households in the economy may also change demand.
Redistributing income from households with high incomes to households with low incomes changes the nature of
demand. Goods which are demanded by low-income households will increase (rightward shift) while goods which
are demanded by high-income households will decrease (leftward shift), ceteris paribus.
Distributing income influences the structure of the market, remember, the market serves us through the pricing
mechanism (for a market economy), and therefore those with money determine the composition.
40 MANCOSA
Economics 1A
Summary of movements along a demand curve and shift in the demand curve
4.5 Supply
The focus is now on supply. When dealing with supply it is useful to remember that supply has to do with
producers, so try to relate to it as if you were the business man/woman.
Supply is defined as, the quantities of a good or service that producers plan to sell at each price during a
period.
Just as demand refers to the plans of consumers who are willing and able to purchase, supply refers to the plans
of producers who are willing and able to supply the quantities of the product concerned.
Worth noting is the fact that producers are not guaranteed to sell the quantity that they supply, as this depends to
a large extent on demand.
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Economics 1A
The positive slope in the graph above indicates that more goods/services will be supplied to the market as the
price of the goods/services increase.
Remember what was said earlier, price is an indicator of profitability, producers use prices as an indicator of market
activity. Figure 4-6 is simply a graphical representation of this relationship.
Figure 4-6 graphically illustrates the law of supply, which states that the relationship between price and
supply is a positive one. More goods will be supplied at higher prices and fewer goods will be supplied at
lower prices, ceteris paribus.
42 MANCOSA
Economics 1A
4.5.3 Movements along the supply curve and shifts of the curve
As can be seen in the diagram below (Figure 4-7), at a price of P1 the quantity supplied is Q1, these two values are
represented by point a on the graph. Should the price of the good concerned increase to P2 then the quantity
supplied will increase to Q2, point b. As can be seen, price changes result in movements along the supply curve,
just as price changes result in movements along the demand curve. Remember, movements along the supply
curve due to price changes, are subject to the ceteris paribus assumption. Changes in price therefore result in a
change in quantity supplied.
Shifts of the supply curve however, are not as a result of price changes, but are due to changes in the other
determinants of supply. Shifts in the supply curve are therefore due to changes in factors other than price.
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Economics 1A
Recall what was said earlier about the supply function and the factors which determine it. Therefore, should a
factor like technology change, and a more efficient process of production is discovered, this would shift the supply
curve to the right, ceteris paribus. What this shift indicates is that there will be a greater amount of the good supplied
at each price level. We refer to this as a change in supply.
Changes in supply can be both positive and negative and as such should there be a negative change in a
determining factor, other than the price of the product, then the supply curve will shift to the left. Remember,
changes in any of the determinants of quantity supplied, except for the price of the product, will result in a shift of
the supply curve.
Table 4-5 in the prescribed text (Mohr and Fourie:2015:75) gives a good summary of what has been discussed.
Figure 4-8 below is a graphical illustration of shifts in the supply curve.
Note: How at a price of P1 the quantity supplied differs for each supply curve. The question that you should ask
yourself is: At a given price (P1 in this example) what will a change in a determinant (other than the price of the
product) do to the quantity supplied?
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Market equilibrium occurs where the quantity of a good/service demanded is equal to the quantity supplied of
that good/service. Equilibrium between households (demanders) and firms (suppliers) will occur at a certain price,
known as the equilibrium price.
At the equilibrium price, the plans of households and the plans of firms will be one and the same, in that households
will plan to purchase X amount of a good/service and firms will plan to sell the same amount of the good/service.
The result of this matching of plans is that the market will come to a state of rest, this state occurs as the two
opposing forces (demand and supply) are in a state of balance. As such, there will be no tendency for the conditions
to change. However, should the underlying forces change, the balance in the market will be upset and the market
will adjust accordingly.
To understand how the market arrives at a state of equilibrium we need to understand disequilibrium.
Disequilibrium occurs when the price charged is at a level other than the equilibrium price level, i.e. any price other
than the equilibrium price will bring about disequilibrium in the market.
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As can be seen in Figure 4-9 above, should a price above or below R5/kg be charged for tomatoes, then demand
and supply will not be equal (disequilibrium). At a price above R5/kg, the quantity supplied will be greater than the
quantity demanded, there will therefore be excess supply at prices above R5/kg.
This occurs as the higher price encourages producers to increase supply in the hope of making greater profits,
however, at prices greater than R5/kg consumers plan to purchase less of the good than they would have at R5/kg.
The result is that there will be more of the good on the market than consumers are willing and able to purchase,
excess supply. Similarly should the price fall below R5/kg then the quantity demanded will exceed the quantity
supplied. This occurs because (as you know) cheaper prices result in more of the good being demanded, ceteris
paribus (the law of demand).
Whereas consumers are demanding more, producers are now producing less than they would have if the good
was R5/kg (low prices signal low demand and less profits), there is now an excess demand in the market.
When the market is in disequilibrium, it goes through a process which leads it back to equilibrium. In the case of
excess demand there are too few goods on the market. Firms have therefore sold their total production but
households have not obtained the quantity of the good that they demanded at the particular price. As households
wish to obtain more of the good (at the going price) they offer more money for the product (i.e. prices higher than
the market price) in an effort to outbid other households. The result is that the price of the product rises.
As the price starts to rise firms realise that they can obtain a higher price for their product and therefore increase
their production of the good. However, as the price rises demand starts to slow down (law of demand), and with it
the rising price, production will slow with demand and the process ends when equilibrium is obtained.
In the case of excess supply, there is not enough demand for the amount of goods on the market. Firms are
therefore unable to sell their products and as such are left with a surplus of unsold goods (market surplus). These
unsold stocks are also known as inventories, and as the level of inventories rise, firms cut their production of the
product in an attempt to sell off the rising levels of stock and to compete with the other firms for the limited demand.
By reducing their level of production, firms lower their cost and as a result can charge lower prices in order to
compete. Graphically, this can be shown as a movement down the supply curve towards the point of equilibrium.
At the same time, demand will increase as the price decreases and producers and consumers will move toward
the point where quantity demanded and quantity supplied are equal to each other.
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Market equilibrium therefore occurs at the intersection of the demand and supply curves. This point is
characteristic of both buyers and sellers agreeing upon both the quantity of goods that will be exchanged on the
market and the price which these goods will be exchanged for. At equilibrium, there is no tendency for change.
YOU ARE NOW READY TO ANSWER THE QUESTIONS FOUND IN THE WORKBOOK RELATING TO THIS
STUDY UNIT
MANCOSA 47
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Unit
5: Demand and Supply in Action
48 MANCOSA
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5.1 Changes in demand Graphically illustrate how the changes in demand will affect the
equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity in the market
5.2 Changes in supply Graphically illustrate how the changes in supply will affect the
equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity in the market
5.4 Government intervention Show what happens if the government intervenes in the price
mechanism by setting maximum and minimum prices
Prescribed Textbook:
Prescribed Reading/Textbook
Mohr, P. and Fourie, L. (2020) Economics for South African Students.
Sixth Edition. Pretoria: Van Schaik. This is the latest edition of the textbook
that is available.
Recommend Reading(s)
Berg, D. and Ward, D. (2016) Economics for Business. Fifth Edition. United
Kingdom: Mcgraw-Hill Education. This is the latest edition of the textbook
that is available.
Schiller, B.R., (2013) Essentials of Economics. Thirteenth Edition. New
York: Irwin Mcgraw–Hill. This is the latest edition of the textbook that is
available.
MANCOSA 49
Economics 1A
Should there be a change in any of the determinants to this effect, then it will be termed as an increase in demand.
This can be seen on the left graph of Figure 5-1. Note that the change in demand has not affected the supply
curve. The change in demand from DD to D1D1 (right shift), results in excess demand at the current market price
of P0. This can be seen by extending the line P0E through to the demand curve D1D1. Therefore, at a price of P0,
demand for the product is greater than the amount of product being sold and as such consumers bid up the price.
As the price rises, firms increase their quantity supplied of the good.
At the same time demand slows and eventually equilibrium is reached at point E1. The characteristics of point E1
are: a higher price (P1) and a larger quantity supplied (Q1). The move to equilibrium is therefore characterised by
a movement along the supply curve from E to E1 and a movement along the new demand curve (D1D1) from where
the extended P0E would intersect D1D1 to the point E1.
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Similarly, there is the case of a decrease in demand. Like the case before, this occurs when there is a change in
any of the determinants of demand, except the price of the product.
Therefore, should:
1) the price of a substitute fall
2) the price of a complementary product increase
3) the consumers income fall
4) there be a reduced preference for the product
5) the price of the product be expected to fall then the demand curve would shift to the left.
Like in the case of an increase in demand, in the event of a decrease in demand there is a shift of the demand
curve from DD to D2D2 in our example, with the supply curve remaining unchanged. Looking at the graph on the
right, we see that at the market price of P0 there is now an excess supply of goods on the market. This can be
seen by looking at the difference in the quantity demanded at the point where P0E intersects D2D2 (the new demand
curve) and the quantity supplied at price P0 (this being Q0). This excess supply leads to a fall in the price of the
product, as producers have to compete to sell off their rising inventories. As producers cut back on production and
the price falls, demand for the product rises (law of demand) and equilibrium is reached at E2. E2 is characterised
by a lower price P2 and a lower quantity sold Q2.
The move to equilibrium is therefore characterised by a movement along the supply curve from E to E2 and a
movement along the new demand curve (D2D2) from where P0E intersects D2D2 to the point E2.
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In figure 5-2 above, an increase in supply can be seen on the graph of the left. Like in our examples of changes in
demand, changes in supply do not change the position of the demand curve. The increase in supply from SS to
S1S1 results in there being an excess supply of the product at the market price of P0.
This can be seen by extending the line P0E through to the new supply curve S1S1. As can be seen, the quantity
demanded at P0 is Q0 (corresponding to point E) whilst the quantity supplied would be greater (the quantity
corresponding to the point at which extended P0E intersects S1S1).
The result of the excess supply is that the price of the product will fall as firms compete for market share. The
falling price will result in a rise in the quantity demanded and the quantity supplied will slow. Market equilibrium will
be reached at point E1, this point characterised by a lower price P1 and a higher output Q1.
The move to equilibrium is therefore characterised by a movement along the demand curve from E to E1 and a
movement along the new supply curve (S1S1) from where the extended line P0E would intersect S1S1 to the point
E1.
A decrease in supply is shown as a shift of the supply curve to the left. This can be seen on the graph on the right
hand side of figure 5-2, and is depicted as a shift from SS to S2S2. The shift in the supply curve results from a
change in any of the determinants of supply, other than price that is.
52 MANCOSA
Economics 1A
The decrease in supply results in an excess demand at the original market price P0. This can be seen by referring
to the graph on the right of figure 5-2. If we look at the broken line P0E, what can be seen is that where it intersects
the new supply curve S2S2, the quantity which would be sold at that price is less than the quantity demanded or Q0
(the quantity corresponding to point E).
This excess demand drives up the price of the product as consumers bid up the price of the product in an attempt
to obtain the scarce product. The increasing price reduces the demand for the product and encourages producers
to increase production. Equilibrium is reached at point E2, where less of the product is sold (Q2) and the price of
the product has increased to P2.
The move to equilibrium is therefore characterised by a movement along the demand curve from E to E2 and a
movement along the new supply curve (S2S2) from where P0E intersects S2S2 to E2.
Note: these movements occur simultaneously. When we speak about moving along the supply and the
demand curves, we are not talking about moving along one and then the other. What is in fact happening
is that all these forces are acting at the same time. The market is therefore tending to the equilibrium point
at the same time, i.e. producers and consumers are moving toward equilibrium at the same time.
For example, should there be an increase in demand (due to a positive change in preferences toward the product),
accompanied by a decrease in supply (due to an increase in the price of the factors of production), then the only
thing that is certain is that the price of the product will rise. This is due to the fact that both of the changes result in
an increase in the equilibrium price in the market. What the equilibrium quantity will be however is uncertain. This
is because as far as equilibrium quantity is concerned, the two forces work in opposition to each other. An increase
in demand works to raise the equilibrium quantity, ceteris paribus, whilst a decrease in supply lowers the equilibrium
quantity, ceteris paribus.
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The outcome in the market therefore depends on the relative magnitudes of the changes. (Mohr and Fourie, 2015:
88). The reader is referred to Mohr and Fourie (2015:87-89) for a more detailed account of the topic.
We will deal with the first two interventions (price ceilings and floors) on our list of four.
Maximum prices (price ceilings) are often set for certain goods and not on the market as a whole.
Governments can set maximum prices with the intention of:
Keeping the prices of basic foodstuffs low (this may form part of policy to assist the poor)
Avoiding the exploitation of consumers by producers (producers may be charging “unfair” prices)
Combating inflation
Limiting the amount production of certain goods and services in times of war
Should the maximum price be set above the market clearing price (equilibrium price), then the intervention will not
have any effect on the outcome of the market. The market will therefore arrive at the equilibrium price and
equilibrium quantity. However, when the maximum price is set below the market clearing (equilibrium price), the
intervention disrupts the market mechanism (price mechanism) and therefore causes instability in the market.
In figure 5-3 below, we can see that if the market were left alone the forces of demand and supply (remember,
excess demand and excess supply) will result in the market achieving equilibrium with a price P0 and a quantity
supplied of Q0.
54 MANCOSA
Economics 1A
In Figure 5-3 above, the government has set a maximum price of Pm which is below the equilibrium price of P0. At
the price Pm producers are willing to sell Q1 units whilst consumers are demanding a quantity of Q2, this can be
seen if we follow the line Pm across to the supply curve (point a) and then across to the demand curve (point b).
The quantity demanded by consumers at a price of Pm is clearly greater than the quantity which producers are
willing to produce (Q1). As such there is now excess demand in the market (market shortage) and this excess
demand is equal to the difference between Q2 and Q1, i.e. Q2 – Q1.
If the market were left alone then the market mechanism would raise the price until this excess demand was
eliminated (remember the example of excess demand earlier). However, as the price has been pegged artificially
this process cannot occur.
We are therefore left with the problem of how to allocate Q1 worth of product amongst people who demand Q2?
There are various ways for this allocation to take place, these are:
1) Consumers are served on a “first come first served”, the result is queues and waiting lists.
2) An informal rationing system may be set up by suppliers. This system can take the form of limiting the amount
of goods sold to each customer or only selling goods to regular customers.
3) Government itself may introduce an official rationing system. This can be done by issuing tickets or coupons,
which have to be submitted when purchasing the product.
To summarise, should the government set a maximum price below the equilibrium price of a product it would:
1) Cause excess demand in the market
2) Prevent the market from allocating the quantity of product available among consumers
3) Result in black market activity occurring in the market. A black market is an illegal market that occurs when
goods are sold at prices which are above the maximum price set by government.
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Economics 1A
If we refer to figure 5-4 we can see that at a quantity of Q1 (the quantity which will be supplied), the price which a
consumer is willing and able to pay for the product is P1 and this price is clearly greater than Pm. Therefore, those
who have the product can charge prices in excess of Pm to those who are looking to purchase.
What should also be mentioned is the fact that setting the maximum price below the equilibrium price level results
in welfare costs to society.
Consider the case below, figure 5-4. In this case the government has set a price of Pm which is below the equilibrium
price of P1. The result is similar to that outlined earlier, there is excess demand in the market with the quantity sold
falling from Q1 to Qm.
In figure 5-4, at the equilibrium price of P1 consumer surplus is represented by the area DP1E and producer surplus
is represented by the area 0P1E. However, when the government implements the maximum price on the market
these areas change. Consumer surplus is now represented by the area DRUPm and producer surplus is now
represented by the area 0PmU. Consumer surplus is the area below the demand curve, above the price line and
with the quantity supplied. Likewise, producer surplus is the area above the supply curve, below the price line and
within the quantity supplied). With the price maximum imposed, consumers have now lost the area indicated by
triangle A but have gained the area B. The loss of triangle A occurs because of the decrease in the quantity
supplied from Q1 to Qm, whereas the gain of the rectangle B occurs from the fact that the those who obtain the
product now pay less for it.
56 MANCOSA
Economics 1A
In the case of the new producer surplus, we have shown that the new producer surplus is now represented by the
area 0PmU as opposed to the area 0P1E. Producers have therefore lost the area represented by triangle C as a
result of the loss of production and the rectangular area B as a result of it being transferred to consumers. The end
result is that the total welfare loss to society is represented by both triangles A and C, and this is referred to as a
deadweight loss. Worth noting is the fact that this area was not transferred, unlike the area represented by
rectangle B which was transferred from producers to consumers.
The area made up of triangles A and C has been lost to society and this comes about due to the fact that less is
being produced in society, and society itself is made up of both producers and consumers.
We now turn our attention to the case of minimum prices (price floors). In the case where a minimum price is set
by government, the minimum price will not impact on the outcome of the market if the price is set below the market
equilibrium price. However, should the minimum price be set above the equilibrium price then there will be excess
supply of products in the market. To illustrate the case of a minimum price set above the equilibrium price, your
attention should now be on figure 5-5 below.
In Figure 5-5 above, the market is at equilibrium at a price of R30 per kilogram and at this price a quantity of 7
million kilograms is being sold. The government sets a minimum price (price floor) of R40 per kilogram on the
product. At a price of R40 per kilogram consumers demand a quantity of 4 million kilograms, however producers
are producing 9 million kilograms of beef. Therefore, there is a surplus of 5 million kilograms of beef in the market
MANCOSA 57
Economics 1A
(the difference between point a and point b). By setting a minimum price above the equilibrium market price (market
clearing price) the government creates an excess supply in the market. This excess supply will usually require
further government intervention and the result may be one of the following:
The surplus product may be purchased by government and exported
The surplus product may be purchased by government and stored (provided it can be stored)
Production quotas are introduced by government to limit the quantity supplied to the quantity demanded
(at the minimum price). In our example government would try to limit production of beef to 4 million
kilograms. In doing so the surplus is illuminated
The surplus is purchased and destroyed by government
Producers destroy the surplus
The setting of minimum prices is often a characteristic of agricultural markets as these markets are characterised
by large fluctuations in supply. Although demand for agricultural products is stable, the large fluctuations in supply
result in the incomes of farmers being unstable as the prices received for the product fluctuate as well.
Governments therefore tend to set minimum prices to stabilise the incomes of farmers. However, this is not an
efficient way of assisting small or poorer farmers. Minimum prices are inefficient due to the following facts:
All the consumers in the market have to pay artificially high prices (this includes the poor)
.Large farmers receive the bulk of the benefits which are forthcoming
Firms that are inefficient are now protected by the minimum price and manage to survive
Disposal of the surplus which is generated from the minimum price usually imposes a further cost to tax
payers and results in welfare losses
The case of the welfare costs to society which occur as a result of the minimum price is similar to that of the costs
of the maximum price which was discussed earlier. Consider the case below, figure 5-6. In this case the
government has set a minimum price of Pm which is above the equilibrium price of P1. We will assume that
producers respond by supplying the market with the amount which is actually demanded (Qm).
In figure 5-6, at the equilibrium price of P1 consumer surplus is represented by the area DP1E and producer surplus
is represented by the area 0P1E. However, when the government implements the minimum price on the market
these areas change. Consumer surplus is now represented by the area DRPm and producer surplus is now
represented by the area 0PmRT. (Remember, consumer surplus is the area below the demand curve, above the
price line and within the quantity supplied. Likewise producer surplus is the area above the supply curve, below
the price line and within the quantity supplied). With the minimum price imposed, consumers have now lost the
area indicated by the rectangle A and triangle B. The loss of triangle B occurs as a result of the decrease in the
quantity supplied from Q1 to Qm, and the loss of the rectangle A occurs as a result of the fact that the those who
used to obtain the product at a price of P1 now pay a price of Pm.
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Economics 1A
In the case of the new producer surplus, we have shown that the new producer surplus is now represented by the
area 0PmRT as opposed to the area 0P1E. Producers have therefore lost the area represented by triangle C as a
result of the loss of production, but gained the rectangular area A at the expense of the consumers.
The end result is that the total welfare loss to society is represented by both triangles B and C, this is referred to
as the deadweight loss. The area made up of triangles B and C has been lost to society and this comes about due
to the fact that less is being produced in society, and society itself is made up of both producers and consumers.
Activity 5.1
Explain the difference between market surplus and market shortage
Draw a diagram to illustrate a market surplus and a market shortage
YOU ARE NOW READY TO ANSWER THE QUESTIONS FOUND IN THE WORKBOOK RELATING TO THIS
STUDY UNIT
MANCOSA 59
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Unit
6: Elasticity
60 MANCOSA
Economics 1A
6.2 Price elasticity of demand and Understand the link between price elasticity and total revenue
total revenue from sales
6.3 Different categories of price Explain the meaning of specific elasticity (say ep=1.5)
elasticity of demand
6.4 Determinants of price elasticity of Explain the determinants of price elasticity of demand
demand
Prescribed Textbook:
Prescribed Reading/Textbook
Mohr, P. and Fourie, L. (2020) Economics for South African Students.
Sixth Edition. Pretoria: Van Schaik. This is the latest edition of the textbook
that is available.
Recommend Reading(s)
Berg, D. and Ward, D. (2016) Economics for Business. Fifth Edition. United
Kingdom: Mcgraw-Hill Education. This is the latest edition of the textbook
that is available.
Schiller, B.R., (2013) Essentials of Economics. Thirteenth Edition. New
York: Irwin Mcgraw–Hill. This is the latest edition of the textbook that is
available.
MANCOSA 61
Economics 1A
6.1 Introduction
When we speak about elasticity, we are in fact referring to the responsiveness or sensitivity of a dependent variable
to changes in an independent variable.
The best known elasticity concept is price elasticity of demand, which is a measure of the responsiveness of the
quantity demanded to changes in price of the product. The measured price elasticity has a negative sign, since the
change in the price of a product and the change in the quantity demanded move in opposite direction. According
to Mohr and Fourie (2015: 106) we ignore the negative sign and simply concentrate on the absolute value of price
elasticity of demand. Price elasticity of demand is calculated as follows:
ep = % change in the quantity demanded of a product
% change in the price of a product
Where ep = price elasticity of demand
Example 2
When the price of DVD increased from R20 to R22, the quantity of DVDs demanded decreased from 100 to 87.
What is the price elasticity of demand for DVDs?
Calculating a Percentage
The price increases from R20 to R22. Therefore % change = (2/20) x 100 = 10%
Quantity fell by 100- 87 = 13. Therefore % change = 13/100 = 0.13 (13%)
Elastic demand occurs when % change in quantity is greater than % change in price; when PED >1
62 MANCOSA
Economics 1A
Activity 6.1
The demand schedule for coffee beans is shown in Table 1
Price of beans (p) Quantity demanded (kg)
20 10
22 9
The value of price elasticity of demand (ep) is infinity where the demand curve intersects (meets) the price axis and
zero where the demand curve intersects the quantity axis.
If we move down the demand curve, from left to right, the price elasticity of demand falls from infinity (∞) to zero.
It is worth noting that this will be the case for any demand curve which intersects both the price and quantity axis
(regardless of slope: this can be seen in figure 6.1).
In the case of any demand curve which intersects both axis, the value of the ep will be infinity (∞) where the graph
intersects the price axis, one in the middle of the curve (midpoint) and zero where the curve intersects the quantity
axis.
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Figure 6.16 Price elasticity of demand at different points along a linear demand curve
Mohr and Fourie (2015
For a numerical example on how to obtain the different values of price elasticity of demand (e p), the reader is
referred to Mohr and Fourie (2015: 106).
We will focus on the usefulness of price elasticity of demand with respect to total revenue. The total revenue (TR)
that suppliers obtain from the sales of a good or service is calculated by multiplying the price of the product (P) by
the quantity of the product sold (Q).
Total revenue (TR) is therefore P x Q or PQ. Should a producer decide to change the price of the product then the
effect on total revenue will depend on the relative sizes of the change in price and the change in quantity
demanded, i.e. the size of the price change with respect to the size of the change in quantity supplied. Remember,
price and quantity demanded move in the opposite direction. How exactly do changes in the relative sizes of price
(P) and quantity supplied (Q) affect total revenue (TR)?
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In the case where a change in the price of a product leads to a proportionately larger change in the quantity
demanded (i.e., if we change the price of the product by 10% and the result is that quantity demanded
changes by 20%, in the opposite direction of course), then the price elasticity of demand is greater than one
or ep>1 and as such the total revenue will change in the opposite direction to the price change (i.e., decrease
price = increase total revenue). Remember, total revenue is calculated as TR = PQ. So long as the price
elasticity of demand is greater than 1 (ep>1), total revenue will increase as the quantity sold (Q) increases
In the case where the change in price leads to an equi-proportional change in the quantity demanded (i.e. if
we change the price of the product by 10% and the result is that quantity demanded changes by 10% as well,
in the opposite direction of course), then the ep = 1 and total revenue will remain unchanged. In the case
where the price elasticity of demand is equal to one (ep = 1) the total revenue (TR) of the firm has reached its
maximum
In the case where a change in the price of the product leads to a proportionately smaller change in the quantity
demanded (i.e. if we change the price of the product by 10% and the result is that quantity demanded
changes by 5%, in the opposite direction of course), then ep < 1 and total revenue will change in the same
direction as the price (i.e. , raise the price = raise the total revenue). If the price elasticity of demand is less
than one (ep < 1) then total revenue (TR) will fall as the quantity sold (Q) increases. (Mohr and Fourie, 2015:
108-109)
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Figure 6-2 illustrates the relationship between total revenue (TR), price (P), quantity sold (Q) and price
elasticity of demand (ep).
17Figure 6.2 The relationship between price elasticity of demand and total revenue
(Mohr and Fourie, 2015: 109)
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In the case of perfectly inelastic demand (ep = 0), consumers will plan to purchase a fixed amount of the product
regardless of the price which is charged. This can be shown graphically by drawing the demand curve as a vertical
line, as illustrated in figure 6-3 (a). In this case, producers can raise their revenue by increasing the price charged
for the product. As the quantity demanded does not change, raising price results in an increase in total revenue.
Remember TR = PQ.
In the case of inelastic demand (0 < ep < 1), the percentage change in quantity demanded is smaller than the
percentage change in price (remember, in the opposite direction!). The demand curve which illustrates this case
is that of a steeply sloped demand curve (figure 6-3 b). The steep slope of the demand curve serves to illustrate
the fact that the percentage change in quantity is smaller than that of the price change. As a result of the fact that
the quantity demanded changes proportionately less than the change in price, producers have an incentive to raise
their prices in order to increase their revenue (remember what was said earlier). Likewise, there is no reason why
producers would decrease the price of their product as the revenue received from the increase in quantity
demanded will not offset the revenue lost due to the decrease in price.
In the case of unitary elasticity (ep = 1), the demand curve used to illustrate the properties of unitary elasticity is
a rectangular hyperbola, as illustrated in figure 6-3 (c). What this graph illustrates is that the percentage change in
quantity demand is equal to percentage change in the price of the product. In this case, as the proportional (ie
percentage) changes in quantity demanded and price are the same, producers would not gain anything by
increasing or decreasing the price of the product.
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Elastic demand (1 < ep < ∞), is illustrated by a relatively flat demand curve (Figure 6-3 d). The demand curve
graphically illustrates the property of elastic demand, this being the fact that the percentage change is quantity
demanded is greater than the percentage change in price. When producers are faced with elastic demand,
decreasing the price of the product will raise the total revenue received by producers (this is as a result of the
property of elastic demand, also remember TR = PQ). There is no incentive to raise the price charges for the
product as this would decrease total revue (the opposite of decreasing the price will occur).
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Perfectly elastic demand (ep = ∞) is the case where consumers are willing to purchase any quantity of goods at
a certain price, raising the price of the good will result in the quantity demanded falling to zero (even if the price is
only raised slightly). Perfectly elastic demand is shown graphically as a horizontal line, as in figure 6-3 (e).
Note: It should be kept in mind that an increase in total revenue (TR) is not the same as an increase in total profit.
Total revenue is simply the income received from selling a certain amount of product (Q) at a price of (P), that is
why TR = PQ. Total profit however, is not only a function of these two variables, but also a function of cost, which
can change with output.
Therefore, the larger the amount of substitutes available, and the closer these substitutes are to the product (or
the better they are), the greater will be the price elasticity of demand, ceteris paribus. The end result is that if a
product has close substitutes, and the price of the product is increased, then consumers will tend to switch to the
substitutes available (this occurs as the substitutes have now become cheaper in relation to the product, ie when
compared to the product). The product will therefore have an elastic demand.
Examples of goods which tend to be close substitutes for each other include: mutton and beef, hamburgers and
hot dogs, Nike – Adidas and Reebok shoes, and bus and taxi services. In the same way that goods with close
substitutes tend to have elastic price elasticity of demand, goods with no close substitutes will tend to have demand
which is inelastic.
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Take salt for example, salt is used jointly with food, you do not purchase salt only for the purpose of consuming
salt on its own. As a result your demand for salt will not only depend on the fact that you want to consume salt, but
it will depend on other factors as well (it will also depend on your desire to consume other goods). As such, you
will not simply reduce your consumption of salt if the price of salt increases as there are a host of factors which go
hand in hand with its consumption (i.e. complements). The result is that your demand will be inelastic.
There are no set rules for whether a goods or service is a necessity or a luxury good, however what can be stated
is that if a good or service has a relatively inelastic demand it is considered a necessity and if it has a relatively
elastic demand it is considered a luxury good. Examples of necessities include basic foods, electricity, petrol and
medical care.
Examples of luxury goods include swimming pools, recreational activities and motor vehicles.
6.4.4 Time
In the long run the price elasticity of demand for a product tends to be more price elastic. We therefore have to be
mindful of the time period under consideration. Price changes may take a while before their effects are fully felt by
the market.
Take petrol for example, when the price of petrol changes people will not immediately cut back on their
consumption of petrol, rather they will stick to their current usage of petrol. As time passes however, the full effects
of the price rise will be felt (people now realise the effect of the increase on their spending money), and then people
will start to adjust their habits to lessen their petrol consumption. The price elasticity of demand will therefore be
more elastic in the long run. A good example of why elasticity is low (demand is unresponsive) in the short run is
the case of airline tickets.
If you had to fly out on short notice (maybe it is an emergency), you will be desperate to obtain a ticket for travel
as shopping around may not be an option or the matter may be very urgent. In this case you will not be choosy on
what the price may be as you will want to secure a ticket, i.e. your demand for the ticket will be price inelastic. In
the long run however you can consider other options to flying (bus, taxi, car) or spend more time looking for a
better deal, therefore your demand will be price elastic.
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Take matches for example, even if you are a smoker, matches contribute such a small portion of the budget (at 50
cents, even if 10 boxes are bought every month it is still only R5) that should the price of matches change (say by
10%), your consumption (usage) of matches is unlikely to change (you are now spending R5.50, still a small
amount).
Suppose consumer incomes were to increase. How would hamburger consumption be affected? Figure 6.4
provides an answer.
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D2 (after increase in
income)
Before change in income, consumers demanded 6 000 hamburgers at R14 per hamburger. With more income to
spend, they could increase their eating capacity. The new demand curve (D2) suggests that consumers will now
purchase a greater quantity of hamburgers at every price. The increase in income has caused a rightward shift
in demand.
If hamburgers continue to sell at R14 each, consumers will now buy 10 000 hamburgers (point B) rather than 6
000 hamburgers (point A). The income elasticity of demand measures this response of demand to a change in
income.
𝟏 𝟐
= ÷
𝟐 𝟏𝟏
= 0,50
0,18
= 2,78
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Hamburger purchases are very sensitive to changes in income. When incomes rise by 18,2 percent (R200 ÷
R1100), hamburger sales increase by a whopping 50,6 percent (that is 18,2 % X 2,78). The computed elasticity of
2,78 summarises this relationship.
A negative income elasticity of demand means that an increase in income leads to a decrease in the quantity
demanded of the good concerned (or that a decrease in income leads to an increase in the quantity demanded).
Goods with a negative income elasticity of demand are called inferior goods.
Activity 6.2
An example of a product with positive income elasticity could be Ferraris. Let's
say the economy is booming and everyone's income rises by 60%. Because
people have extra money, the quantity of Ferraris demanded increases by
15%. Calculate the income elasticity of Ferrari car
Activity 6.3
An example of a good with negative income elasticity could be cheap shoes.
Let's again assume the economy is doing well and everyone's income rises by
30%. Because people have extra money and can afford nicer shoes, the
quantity of cheap shoes demanded decreases by 10%
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Suppose the price of these other goods were to fall. Imagine that toasted sandwiches were put on sale for R5,
rather than the usual R8. Would this price reduction on toasted sandwiches affect the consumption of hamburgers?
Figure 6.5 provides an answer.
According to Figure 6.5, the demand for hamburgers might decrease if the price of toasted sandwiches fell. The
leftward shift of the demand curve from D1 to D2 indicates that consumers now demand fewer hamburgers at
every price. At R14 per hamburger, consumers now demand only 8 000 hamburgers (point R) rather than the
previous 12 000 (point F). In other words, a decrease in the price of toasted sandwiches has caused a reduction
in the demand for hamburgers. Hence, sandwiches and hamburgers are substitute goods - when the price of one
decreases, the demand for the other decreases.
In the case of complementary goods, the reduction in the price of one good (e.g. Coco-Cola) leads to an increase
in the demand for hamburgers. Hamburger demand shifts to the right (to D3) when the price of a complementary
good falls. The concept of complementary goods also explains why the demand for cars decreases when the price
of petrol increases.
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In the case of complements, the cross elasticity of demand is negative. A change in the price of the one product
(e.g. motorcars) will lead to a change in the opposite direction in the quantity demanded of the complementary
product (e.g. motorcar tyres). For example, if the price of motorcars falls, the quantity of motorcars demanded will
increase and as a result more motorcar tyres will be demanded
The cross-price elasticity of demand makes it easy to distinguish substitute and complementary goods. If cross-
price elasticity is positive, the two goods are substitutes; if the cross-price elasticity is negative, the two goods are
complements.
Activity 6.4
Are DVD players and VCRs substitute goods or complementary goods?
Give a reason for your answer
Activity 6.5
As an economic consultant of the SAFA (South African Football Association) you have been
requested to draw an analysis of demand for soccer tickets for the Soweto derby.
1. Explain, using appropriate graphs/illustrations, how the up-coming match will affect
the demand curve for soccer tickets, hence, the market price if supply remains
constant.
2. If the price elasticity of demand for the Soweto derby tickets is 2.5; would a 30%
increase in price raise revenue or reduce revenue? Justify your answer.
3. Suppose in a given year the income of the population increases by 20%, and demand
for the Soweto derby tickets increases by 15%:
3.1 What is the value of the population’s income elasticity?
3.2 Would you regard soccer tickets as a normal or inferior good? Justify your answer.
YOU ARE NOW READY TO ANSWER THE QUESTIONS FOUND IN THE WORKBOOK RELATING TO THIS
STUDY UNIT
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Unit
7: The Theory of Production
and Cost (Background To Supply)
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7.2 Types of Firms Understand the different types of firms and the goals of the
firm
7.3 Goal of the firm Distinguish between short run and long run
7.4 The concept of Revenue Distinguish between fixed and variable inputs
7.6 Production Draw the total average and marginal product cost curves
7.7 Production and costs in the long Explain the relationship between production and cost in the
run long run
7.8 Cost
Prescribed Textbook:
Prescribed Reading/Textbook
Mohr, P. and Fourie, L. (2020) Economics for South African Students.
Sixth Edition. Pretoria: Van Schaik. This is the latest edition of the textbook
that is available.
Recommend Reading(s)
Berg, D. and Ward, D. (2016) Economics for Business. Fifth Edition.
United Kingdom: Mcgraw-Hill Education. This is the latest edition of the
textbook that is available.
Schiller, B.R., (2013) Essentials of Economics. Thirteenth Edition. New
York: Irwin Mcgraw–Hill. This is the latest edition of the textbook that is
available.
MANCOSA 77
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7.1 Introduction
This study unit deals with the fundamental income, cost and production concepts required to analyse the
decisions of firms about the quantities to supply at various prices. This is an important study unit which lays
the foundation for the analysis of the equilibrium position of firms under perfect and imperfect competition for
study units 8 and 9.
AR = TR = PQ (=P)
Q Q
Marginal revenue (MR) is the additional revenue earned by selling an additional unit of the product.
Q Q
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The difference between accounting costs and economic costs can be clarified by distinguishing between
explicit costs and implicit costs. Accountants consider explicit costs only. Explicit costs are the monetary
payments for the factors of production and other inputs bought or hired by the firm. These costs are also
opportunity costs, since the payments for the inputs reflect opportunities that are sacrificed.
For example, if a firm pays R2 million for a certain machine, it means that it has decided not to do something else
with the money (like purchasing a different machine, purchasing a building or depositing the money with a financial
institution).
Economists, however, use a broader concept of opportunity cost and consider implicit costs as well as explicit
costs. Implicit costs are those opportunity costs which are not reflected in monetary payments. They include
the costs of self-owned or self-employed resources. For example, the owner of a one person business must
consider what he/she would have earned if he/she had not been running the firm (i.e. the opportunity cost of the
owner's time must be included in the cost of production). The true economic cost of using the resources in a
particular way is the value of the best alternative uses (or opportunities) sacrificed.
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7.6 Production
Production is the physical transformation of inputs into output.
7.6.1 Fixed and variable inputs
Firms use fixed inputs and variable inputs.
A fixed input is defined as an input of which the quantity cannot be altered in the short-run. By contrast, a variable
input is one of which the quantity can be changed in the short-run.
In the long-run there are no fixed inputs - all the inputs are variable. In other words, the long-run is a period that is
long enough to change the quantity of all the inputs into the relevant production process.
In the short-run, a firm can expand output only by increasing the quantity of its variable inputs. The relationship
between inputs and output is called a production function.
1Table 7.1 Production schedule of a maize farmer with one variable input
The production function (or schedule) shows that if no labour is applied to the 20 units of land, no maize will be
produced. The production function further illustrates that if one unit of labour is employed, 16 tons of maize can
be produced.
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The production schedule can also be represented in the form of a graph. The total product of labour in Table 7.1
is presented graphically in Figure 7.1 (a). To facilitate reference, Figures 7.1(a) and 7.1(b) are presented together.
The table and graph show that as the quantity of labour is increased, total product (TP) increases from zero at an
increasing rate, then starts increasing at a decreasing rate until a maximum point is reached, after which TP
declines. This S-shape of the total product curve reflects the law of diminishing returns, or the law of diminishing
marginal returns.
To formulate the law of diminishing returns, we need to first explain average product and marginal product.
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2Table 7.2: Production schedule of a maize farmer with one variable input
The highest average product (29 tons) is reached when 5 units of labour are employed. The figures in
column 4 clearly show that AP increases until the fifth labourer is employed and then declines to only
18,70 tons when 10 labourers are employed.
The marginal product (MP) of the variable input is the number of additional units of output produced by adding
one additional unit (the marginal unit) of the variable input.
The highest marginal product shown in Table 7.2, namely 35 tons, occurs when the fourth unit of labour is
employed. The marginal product of the fifth unit of labour is less than 35 tons. Once the maximum marginal
product is reached, it keeps on declining. The marginal product of 9 units is equal to zero. The marginal products
of additional units of labour are negative, which means that their employment causes total product to decline. Once
a limit is achieved, the workers get in each other's way, are given jobs too specialised to keep them occupied each
day, or get on each other's nerves.
The information in columns 4 and 5 of Table 7.2 are depicted in Figure 7.1(b). From Figure 7.1 and Table 7.1 it is
clear that:
The law of diminishing returns states that as more of a variable input is combined with one or more fixed
inputs in a production process, points will eventually be reached where first the marginal product, then
the average product and finally the total product start to decline.
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In production theory the long run is defined as a period that is long enough for the firm to change the quantities of
all the inputs in the production process as well as the process itself. That would mean, for example, that there is
enough time for the firm to build a new factory, to install new machines and to use new techniques of production.
The actual time period required to vary all the inputs or to adopt new production techniques depends on the
characteristics of the firm, the production processes and the institutional environment, and it may differ quite
significantly from case to case. A street hawker, for example, might be able to vary all inputs (e.g. the stock for
sale, the location and the hours worked) on a daily basis. A clothing manufacturer will take longer, while a cement
producer or an aluminum producer might require several years to expand production by extending an existing
factory or building an additional one.
In the long run, a firm has to take decisions about the scale of its operations, the location of its operations and the
techniques of production it will use. All these decisions will affect the cost of production
Constant returns to scale. This is where a given percentage increase in inputs will give rise to the same
percentage increase in output (e.g. a doubling of the inputs leads to a doubling in output).
Increasing returns to scale. This is where a given percentage increase in inputs will lead to a larger percentage
increase in output (e.g. a doubling of the inputs leads to a trebling of output).
Decreasing returns to scale. This is where a given percentage increase in inputs will give rise to a smaller
percentage increase in output (e.g., a 100% increase in the inputs leads to a 50% increase in output).
Returns to scale refer to a situation in which all inputs increase by the same proportion. Decreasing returns
to scale (a long-run concept) should therefore not be confused with diminishing marginal returns (a short-run
concept). Remember that in the case of diminishing marginal returns only the variable input increases. The concept
of increasing returns to scale is closely linked to that of economies of scale, a related but different
concept
Economies of scale
A firm experiences economies of scale if costs per unit of output fall as the scale of production increases. If a firm
experiences increasing returns to scale from its inputs, it means that the firm will be using smaller and smaller
amounts of inputs per unit of output as it expands. Ceteris paribus, this means that unit cost will decrease as output
increases. In other words, economies of scale will be experienced.
A firm might also experience diseconomies of scale. This occurs when unit costs rise as output increases.
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7.8 Cost
A firm's costs consist of fixed and variable costs.
The quantity of the variable input can be varied in the short-run. In the case of the maize farmer, labour is the
variable input. The cost of labour to the firm for the relevant period can, therefore, be calculated by multiplying the
number of units of labour employed, by the price per unit of labour. Variable cost is defined as cost that changes
when total product changes - it represents the cost of the variable input(s).
Table 7.3 illustrates the relationship between the short-run production function and the short-run total cost
function of the maize farmer.
3Table 7.3: Total, fixed and variable cost schedules of a maize farmer
Assume that the cost of a unit of the fixed input (land) for the growth season is R450. Therefore, the cost of twenty
units is 20 x R450 = R9 000, irrespective of the quantity of maize produced during the growth season or the quantity
of the variable input (labour) used. This represents the total fixed cost (TFC) of producing the various quantities
of output indicated in Table 7.3.
Suppose the price of a unit of labour for the full growth season is R2 400. To obtain the cost of labour, we have to
multiply the units of labour (e.g. 3) by the price per unit of labour (e.g. 3 x R2 400 = R7 200).
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The total cost (TC) is the sum of the total fixed cost (TFC) and the total variable cost (TVC) associated with each
level of production.
The three cost schedules can be represented in graphical form (Figure 7.3) as cost functions or cost curves.
Total Product
21 Figure 7.3: Three total cost curves
The total fixed cost function or curve (TFC) is a horizontal line with an intercept of
R9 000 irrespective of total product.
The total variable cost function or curve (TVC) has a reversed S-shape. It starts at the origin and increases at a
decreasing rate up to a point. Thereafter TVC increases at an increasing rate.
The total cost function or curve (TC) has the same shape as the variable cost function, but does not start at the
origin. It starts above the origin at the point on the vertical axis which represents the total fixed cost. Total cost
equals total fixed cost plus total variable cost.
YOU ARE REQUIRED TO UNDERSTAND HOW TO CALCULATE THE FIGURES ON PAGE 155 OF THE
PRESCRIBED TEXT
86 MANCOSA
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Activity 7.1
SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITY 7.1
Dividing total costs by the quantity of output yields the ______4_______ ATC =
_____5______ which also equals the sum of _______6_______ and
_______7_______ATC = _____8______
MC = _____10____.
YOU ARE NOW READY TO ANSWER THE QUESTIONS FOUND IN THE WORKBOOK RELATING TO THIS
STUDY UNIT
MANCOSA 87
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Unit
8: Perfect Competition
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8.3 Conditions necessary for perfect Understand the conditions necessary for perfect competition
competition to exist to exist
8.4 The demand for the product of the Explain the demand curve of a perfect competitor
firm
8.5 The short run equilibrium of the Determine the short run equilibrium of a firm under perfect
firm under perfect competition competition
8.6 Equilibrium in terms of marginal Understand why profits are only maximised along the rising
revenue and marginal cost part of the marginal cost curve
Distinguish and graphically illustrate whether a firm is
making an economic profit, normal profit or an economic
loss
8.7 The Supply curve of the firm and Explain the supply curve of the firm and market supply
the market supply curve curve
8.8 The equilibrium of the industry Understand the long run equilibrium position of the firm
under perfect competition under perfect competition
Prescribed Textbook:
Prescribed Reading/Textbook
Mohr, P. and Fourie, L. (2020) Economics for South African Students.
Sixth Edition. Pretoria: Van Schaik. This is the latest edition of the textbook
that is available.
Recommend Reading(s)
Berg, D. and Ward, D. (2016) Economics for Business. Fifth Edition.
United Kingdom: Mcgraw-Hill Education. This is the latest edition of the
textbook that is available.
Schiller, B.R., (2013) Essentials of Economics. Thirteenth Edition. New
York: Irwin Mcgraw–Hill. This is the latest edition of the textbook that is
available.
MANCOSA 89
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8.1 Introduction
Since perfect competition is the benchmark against which all other market structures or types of competition
are measured, this is an important study unit.
This study unit explains what perfect competition means, and analyses the decisions of an individual firm
operating under conditions of perfect competition as well as the equilibrium position of a perfectly competitive
firm.
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22Figure 8.1: The demand curve for the product of the firm under perfect competition
The graph on the left shows that the price of the product is determined in the market by demand and supply. The
firm can sell its whole output at that price. This is indicated by the horizontal line on the right. This line is the
demand curve for the product of the firm.
It is also called the firm's sales curve, the firm's demand curve, or the total demand curve facing the firm. The
firm's average revenue (AR) and marginal revenue (MR) are equal to the price of the product (MR = AR = P). The
firm's total revenue can be represented graphically by a straight line which starts at the origin and which has a
slope equal to the price of the product, as shown in Figure 8.2.
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8.5 The Short Run Equilibrium of the Firm Under Perfect Competition
We now examine the short run equilibrium (or profit-maximising) position of the firm under conditions of perfect
competition.
Since the firm under perfect competition does not have to make any pricing decisions (price-taker) - it can only
choose the output at which it will maximise its profits, i.e. where MR = MC or where the positive difference between
TR and TC is at its maximum.
Total revenue of the firm under perfect competition was illustrated in Figure 8.2 as a straight line with a positive
slope which starts at the origin and has a slope equal to the price of the product. In Figure 8.4, we combine such
a total revenue (TR) curve with the total cost (TC) curve.
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25Figure 8.4: Total revenue, total cost and total economic profit
Economic profit is the difference between TR and TC. Graphically, it is measured by the vertical distance
between the TR curve and the TC curve. At levels of output below Q1 in Figure 8.4, TC is greater than TR and the
firm, therefore, incurs economic losses (indicated by the shaded area). At Q1, the firm's total economic profit is
zero (since TR = TC). Between Q1 and Q2, the firm makes an economic profit at each level of output (indicated by
the shaded area), since TR > TC.
At Q2, total economic profit is zero once more and at higher levels of output the firm again incurs economic losses.
The firm's profit will be maximised where the positive vertical distance between TR and TC is the greatest (i.e.
somewhere between Q1 and Q2).
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26Figure 8.5: Marginal revenue and marginal cost of a firm operating in a perfectly competitive market
Marginal revenue (MR) is equal to the price (P) of the product. Marginal cost (MC) increases as more units of the
product are produced. Profit is maximised where MR (or P) = MC, i.e. at an output level of 4 units. At lower levels
of production, profit can be increased by expanding production. If more than 4 units of the product are produced,
profits start falling.
The firm's profit position can be illustrated clearly by adding average cost (AC) to the diagram showing average
revenue (AR), marginal revenue (MR) and marginal cost (MC). A firm's profit per unit of output (or average profit)
is equal to the difference between average revenue (AR) and average cost (AC).
As long as AR is greater than AC, the firm is earning an economic profit. When AR is equal to AC, the firm only
earns a normal profit. The normal profit is the opportunity cost of self-employed resources (such as the owner's
time and capital) and that normal profit is included in the firm's cost.
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In Figure 8-6, there are three different possibilities. The same set of unit cost curves is used throughout, but
there are three different market prices, and, therefore, three different AR and MR curves.
Figure 8-6: Different possible short run equilibrium positions of the firm under perfect competition
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In Figure 8-6 (a), the market price is P1 which is equal to the firm's AR and MR. Profit is maximised where MR (=
P1) is equal to MC. This occurs at a quantity of Q1. At Q1, the firm's average revenue AR (=P1) is greater than its
average total cost AC (C1). The firm thus makes an economic profit per unit of production of P1 - C1.
The firm's total profit is given by the shaded area C1P1E1M which is equal to the profit per unit of output (P1- C1)
multiplied by the quantity produced (Q1). Alternatively, the area representing total profit can be obtained by
subtracting the firm's total cost from its total revenue.
The firm's total revenue is equal to the price of the product P1 multiplied by the quantity produced (and sold) Q1.
This is equal to the area OP1E1Q1. Similarly, the firm's total cost is obtained by multiplying its average cost C 1 by
the quantity produced Q1. This is equal to the area OC1MQ1. The difference between these two areas is the
shaded area C1P1E1M, which represents the firm's total economic profit.
In Figure 8-6 (b), the market price is P2. It is equal to MC at the point where MC intersects AC. The corresponding
level of output is Q2. At that level of output AR is equal to AC and the firm does not earn an economic profit. It
does, however, earn a normal profit since all its costs, including the opportunity cost of self-owned, self-employed
resources are fully covered. Point E2 in Figure 8-6 (b) is called the break-even point.
In Figure 8-6 (c) the market price (firm's AR and MR) is equal to P3. MR or price is equal to MC at a quantity of
Q3. At Q3, the firm's average revenue AR is lower than its average cost AC. It, therefore, makes an economic
loss per unit of output, equal to the difference between C3 and P3. If the price P (=AR) lies above the minimum
AVC (not shown in diagram), the firm will continue production in the short-run. If it lies below the minimum AVC,
the firm will close down.
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The equilibrium condition of the firm under perfect competition may be summarised as follows:
Profit is maximised when a firm produces an output where marginal revenue equals marginal cost,
provided that marginal cost is rising and lies above the minimum average variable cost.
8.7 The Supply Curve of the Firm and the Market Supply Curve
The rising part of the firm's MC curve above the minimum of AVC is the firm's supply curve. In Figure 8-
7, this is illustrated by the part of the MC curve above point b.
YOU ARE NOW READY TO ANSWER THE QUESTIONS FOUND IN THE WORKBOOK RELATING TO THIS
STUDY UNIT
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Economics 1A
Unit
9: Imperfect Competition
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9.2 The different market Understand the differences and similarities between the different
structures market structures
9.3 Monopolistic competition Explain the equilibrium position of each market under imperfect
competition i.e. monopoly, monopolistic competition, and oligopoly
Prescribed Textbook:
Prescribed Reading/Textbook
Mohr, P. and Fourie, L. (2020) Economics for South African Students.
Sixth Edition. Pretoria: Van Schaik. This is the latest edition of the textbook
that is available.
Recommend Reading(s)
Berg, D. and Ward, D. (2016) Economics for Business. Fifth Edition. United
Kingdom: Mcgraw-Hill Education. This is the latest edition of the textbook
that is available.
Schiller, B.R., (2013) Essentials of Economics. Thirteenth Edition. New
York: Irwin Mcgraw–Hill. This is the latest edition of the textbook that is
available.
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9.1 Introduction
In the previous study unit, we examined the behaviour of a firm in a perfectly competitive market.
Perfect competition is a theoretical construct, which serves as a standard, or norm against which we can compare
other types of markets. In the real world, there are many different types of markets.
Economists distinguish between four broad sets of markets (or different types of competition): perfect competition,
monopoly, monopolistic competition and oligopoly.
In this section, we examine the last three types, which are usually collectively referred to as imperfect
competition.
The theory of the behaviour of firms (i.e. the theory of the supply side of the goods market) is called the theory of
the firm. This theory is usually based on the assumption that all firms seek to maximise their profits.
In this section, we examine the behaviour of firms under conditions of imperfect competition.
Imperfect competition refers to a situation in which at least one of the conditions of perfect competition listed in
8.3 is not satisfied.
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9.2.1 Monopoly
In its pure form, monopoly is a market structure in which there is only one seller of a good or service that has
no close substitutes. Another requirement is that entry to the market should be completely blocked. The
single seller is called a monopolist and the firm is called a monopoly.
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5Table 9.2: Average, total and marginal revenue when the demand curve for a firm's product slopes
downward
Figure 9.1 demonstrates that under monopoly, a firm faces a downward-sloping demand curve which is also its
average revenue curve AR, as shown in (a).
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Figure 9.1: Marginal, average and total revenue under monopoly (or any other form of imperfect
competition)
The marginal revenue curve MR is also downward-sloping and lies halfway between the AR curve and the price
axis. The corresponding total revenue curve TR is shown in (b). When MR is positive, TR increases; when MR is
zero, TR remains unchanged; and when MR is negative, TR falls. These relationships apply to all forms of imperfect
competition.
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The figure shows the average revenue AR, marginal revenue MR, average cost AC and marginal cost MC of a
monopoly. The monopolist's profit is maximised by producing a quantity Q1 at a price P1. The economic profit per
unit is the difference between M1 and K1 (or between P1 and C1). The firm's total economic profit is the shaded
area C1P1M1K1.
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AR is the demand curve for the product of the industry and MR is the monopoly's marginal revenue curve. Marginal
cost MC is also the supply curve S for the perfectly competitive industry. Under perfect competition, long-run
equilibrium Ec is established by the interaction of demand AR and supply S at a price Pc and a quantity Qc.
Equilibrium for the monopolist Em is at a price Pm and a quantity Qm.
Under monopoly, the equilibrium price is higher, and the equilibrium quantity lower, than under perfect
competition, ceteris paribus.
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The first type of market in the spectrum between the extremes of perfect competition and monopoly is
monopolistic competition. The conditions for monopolistic competition can be summarised as follows:
Each firm produces a distinctive, differentiated product
Each firm, therefore, faces a downward-sloping demand curve for its particular product
There is a large number of firms in the industry
There are no barriers to entry (or exit)
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Short-run and long-run equilibrium positions of a monopolistically competitive firm are illustrated in (a) and (b),
respectively. In both cases, D is the demand curve for the product of the firm (or average revenue AR), MR is
marginal revenue, MC is marginal cost and AC is average cost. The firm is in equilibrium where MR = MC. In the
short-run conditions illustrated in (a), the firm is in equilibrium at output Q1 and price P1. The firm's total profit is
illustrated by the shaded rectangle.
In the long-run, however, the firm only makes a normal profit at an output of Qe and a price of Pe. At that price-
output combination, AR is tangent to AC, MR = MC and AR = AC.
However, in long-run equilibrium, illustrated in Figure 9.4 (b), the monopolistically competitive firm produces where
price is higher than marginal cost and where average cost is not at a minimum. Therefore, monopolistic competition
is neither allocatively nor productively efficient. Although the monopolistically competitive firms do not make
economic profits in the long-run (as monopolists do), monopolistic competition is also characterised by an
inefficient use of resources. Consumers pay a higher price and less output is produced than under perfect
competition.
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9.4 Oligopoly
Under oligopoly, a few large firms dominate the market. A duopoly exists when there are only two firms in the
industry. The product may be homogeneous (e.g. steel, cement, petrol) but it is mostly heterogeneous (e.g.
motorcars, cigarettes, household appliances, electronic equipment, household detergents). When the product is
homogeneous, the market is described as a pure oligopoly, and when the product is heterogeneous (or
differentiated) the market is called a differentiated oligopoly.
Oligopoly is the most common market form in modern economies. When people talk about "big business" and
"market power", they are usually referring to oligopolists.
The main feature of oligopoly is the high degree of interdependence between the firms. Each oligopolist,
therefore, always has to consider how its rivals will react to any action that it takes. The other important feature of
oligopoly is uncertainty. To reduce this uncertainty, oligopolistic firms often collude (enter into agreements) about
prices and output.
Like a monopolist and a monopolistic competitor, the oligopolist faces a downward-sloping demand curve.
However, the slope of the curve is uncertain, since this depends on how its competitors will react to price changes
- they may decide to follow or not to follow any price change. Since oligopoly is dominated by a small number of
powerful firms, the entry of new firms is more difficult than under perfect competition or monopolistic competition.
However, in contrast to monopoly, entry is possible. Competition is often intense, although it tends to be non-price
competition, rather than price competition. The more intensely oligopolists compete, the closer they are likely to
come to perfectly competitive output.
The kinked demand curve, as illustrated in Figure 9.5, does not explain how price and output are determined under
oligopoly, but it does illustrate the importance of interdependence and uncertainty in oligopolistic markets. It is
one of the possible explanations for the observed degree of relative price stability under oligopoly.
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The kink in the demand curve is at the market price P1 with the amount which the firm produces at Q1; this is the
point of profit maximisation. The significance of P1 is that oligopolists will be wary of moving away from it
individually because they cannot be certain of the reactions of their rivals. The curve is relatively elastic above P1
and inelastic below it. Hence, if firms raise prices and their rivals do not follow, they will lose market share; if they
cut prices, their rivals will follow to protect their own position, which means that all firms will end up with lower
prices and profits on unchanged market shares. Consequently, prices will be inflexible at P1.
There are three inferences that can be made:
There is unlikely to be permanent price competition under oligopoly
Firms will compete through non-price methods such as advertising, promotions and product development
Firms may engage in collusive agreements and form cartels or consent to price leadership arrangements
9.4.2 The shortcomings of the kinked demand curve model are as follows:
The theory is difficult to test effectively because it does not actually explain how the price is initially
determined
The model takes no account of non-price competition which is an important feature of the market
There are other reasons for infrequency of price adjustments such as their cost and lost customer goodwill
which may be as equally important as the more specific market pressures
YOU ARE NOW READY TO ANSWER THE QUESTIONS FOUND IN THE WORKBOOK RELATING TO THIS
STUDY UNIT
MANCOSA 109
Economics 1A
Bibliography
Berg, D. and Ward, D. (2016) Economics for Business. Fifth Edition. United Kingdom: Mcgraw-Hill Education.
This is the latest edition of the textbook that is available.
Mohr, P. and Fourie, L. (2020) Economics for South African Students. Sixth Edition. Pretoria: Van Schaik. This
is the latest edition of the textbook that is available.
Schiller, B.R., (2013) Essentials of Economics. Thirteenth Edition. New York: Irwin Mcgraw–Hill. This is the
latest edition of the textbook that is available.
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