Optical Properties Summary
ESPRELA ROVIC, Student, IEEE
September 2023
Abstract- This paper presents a compre-
hensive summary and analysis of Chapter 21,
”Optical Properties,” from the authoritative
textbook ”Materials Science and Engineer-
ing: An Introduction” authored by William
D. Callister. This chapter delves into the in-
tricate and critical field of optical properties of
materials, a domain with wide-ranging appli-
cations across scientific and technological dis-
ciplines. Our summary covers the nuanced as-
pects of this chapter, including the nature of
light, its interactions with materials, refrac-
tive indices, dispersion phenomena, optical
materials, light absorption mechanisms, the
behavior of dielectric materials, optical prop-
erties of metals, practical applications, and a
brief exploration of advanced topics like non-
linear optical materials.
Index Terms- Optical properties, refractive
index, dispersion, absorption, dielectric mate-
rials, metals, materials science, .
I. Introduction
Optical property refers to a material’s response to
exposure to electromagnetic radiation and, in par-
ticular, to visible light. This chapter first discusses
some of the basic principles and concepts relating to
the nature of electromagnetic radiation and its pos-
sible interactions with solid materials. Next to be
explored are the optical behaviors of metallic and
nonmetallic materials in terms of their absorption,
reflection, and transmission characteristics. The fi-
nal sections outline luminescence, photo conductiv-
ity, and light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation (laser), the practical use of these phenom-
1
ena, and optical fibers in communications.
II.Electromagnetic Radiation
Electromagnetic radiation, such as light, heat, radar,
radio waves, and x-rays, is wave-like, consisting of
perpendicular electric and magnetic field components
in relation to its propagation direction. It spans a
wide spectrum from gamma rays (10−12 m) emitted
by radioactive materials, through x-rays, ultraviolet,
visible, infrared, to radio waves (105 m).
Visible light, with wavelengths from 0.4 µm (vio-
let) to 0.7 µm (red), is the only range perceptible to
the human eye. All electromagnetic radiation travels
through a vacuum at the speed of light (3 × 108 m/s),
denoted as c, linked to vacuum’s electric permittivity
(ε0 ) and magnetic permeability (µ0 ):
1
c= √
ε0 µ0
The frequency (v) and wavelength (λ) of radiation
relate to its velocity by:
c = λv
Quantum mechanics views radiation as photons,
each with energy (E) quantized by Planck’s constant
(h ≈ 6.63 × 10−34 J·s):
E = hν
In optical discussions, both wave and photon per-
spectives are used interchangeably.
III.Light Interactions with Solids
When light transitions between media (e.g., from air
to a solid), it undergoes several phenomena: some
light is transmitted through the medium, some is ab- 2. **Velocity Retardation:** Light waves slow
sorbed, and some is reflected at the interface. This down in the medium, causing refraction.
can be described by the equation:
IV.2. Electron Transitions: Electromagnetic radia-
I0 = IT + IA + IR tion can cause electron transitions between energy
states. In an isolated atom, this involves an electron
Here, I0 is the incident beam intensity, and IT , moving from an occupied state at energy E to a va-
2
IA , and IR are the intensities of the transmitted, ab- cant, higher-lying state E through the absorption of
4
sorbed, and reflected beams, respectively. These in- a photon with energy E:
tensities are typically measured in watts per square
meter, representing the energy transmitted per unit E = hν
area per unit time, perpendicular to the propagation
direction. Here, h is Planck’s constant. Key concepts include:
An alternative form of this equation is: - **Discrete Energy States:** Atoms have discrete
energy levels, and only specific energy values (Es )
T +A+R=1 between these levels can be absorbed by electrons.
- **Energy Conservation:** Energy is conserved in
where T , A, and R represent the transmissivity, absorption and emission electron transitions. Elec-
absorptivity, and reflectivity, respectively. They in- trons eventually return to their ground state, emit-
dicate the fractions of incident light that are trans- ting electromagnetic radiation.
mitted, absorbed, and reflected, and their sum equals These principles explain the optical behavior of
unity. solid materials regarding the absorption and emission
Materials that transmit light with minimal absorp- of electromagnetic radiation.
tion and reflection are transparent, while translucent
materials scatter light within, making objects less dis- Optical Properties of Metals:
tinct. Opaque materials block visible light. Metals Metals have unique optical properties attributed
are typically opaque in the visible spectrum, absorb- to their electron energy band structures, where
ing or reflecting all incident light, whereas some semi- high-energy bands are partially filled with electrons.
conductors and insulators can be transparent. These characteristics result in metals being opaque
These interactions govern how materials respond to visible light, as incident radiation in this range
to incident light. excites electrons to higher energy states, causing
absorption. This absorption mainly occurs within an
IV.Atomic and Electronic Interactions extremely thin surface layer, typically less than 0.1
In solid materials, optical phenomena arise from µm, making only very thin metallic films (thinner
interactions between electromagnetic radiation and than 0.1 µm) capable of transmitting visible light.
atoms, ions, and electrons, primarily involving elec- Metals absorb all frequencies of visible light due to
tronic polarization and electron energy transitions. the presence of available empty electron states that
facilitate electron transitions. They remain opaque
IV.1. Electronic Polarization: Electromagnetic to lower-frequency electromagnetic radiation like ra-
waves consist of rapidly fluctuating electric fields. In dio waves, infrared, and visible light, up to a por-
the visible frequency range, these fields interact with tion of the ultraviolet spectrum. Conversely, metals
the electron clouds surrounding atoms, inducing are transparent to high-frequency radiation such as
electronic polarization. This leads to two main x-rays and gamma rays.
effects: When metals absorb radiation, they re-emit most
1. **Energy Absorption:** Some radiation energy of it as visible light with the same wavelength, ap-
is absorbed due to electronic polarization. pearing as reflected light. This re-radiation is a re-

2
sult of electron transitions. Metals typically have a light. The electronic component of the dielectric con-
reflectivity ranging from 0.90 to 0.95, with some en- stant can be determined from the index of refraction
ergy being dissipated as heat during electron decay measurements.
processes. The size of constituent atoms or ions in a material
Due to their opaqueness and high reflectivity, the influences the magnitude of electronic polarization.
perceived color of metals is determined by the wave- Larger atoms or ions lead to greater electronic polar-
length distribution of the reflected and unabsorbed ization, slower velocity, and a higher index of refrac-
radiation. Metals like aluminum and silver exhibit tion. For example, the index of refraction for soda-
a bright silvery appearance under white light be- lime glass is approximately 1.5, while glasses with
cause the re-emitted photons closely match the inci- large ions like lead can have significantly higher val-
dent beam. In contrast, metals like copper and gold ues, around 2.1.
appear red-orange and yellow, respectively, as some In crystalline ceramics and glasses with cubic crys-
energy from shorter-wavelength light photons is not tal structures, the index of refraction is isotropic,
re-emitted as visible light. meaning it is independent of crystallographic direc-
tion. Noncubic crystals exhibit anisotropic refractive
Optical Properties of Nonmetals: indices, with the highest values along directions with
Nonmetallic materials, owing to their electron energy the highest ion density.
band structures, have the potential to be transparent
to visible light. Consequently, beyond reflection and VI.Reflection
absorption, optical phenomena like refraction and When light passes from one medium to another with
transmission become significant factors to consider.” a different index of refraction, some of it is scattered
at the interface. This scattering results in reflectivity
V.Refraction (R), which represents the fraction of incident light
Refraction occurs when light transitions from one that is reflected.
medium to another, causing it to bend due to a For normal incidence (perpendicular to the inter-
change in velocity. The index of refraction (n) is de- face), the reflectivity (R) is given by:
fined as the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum
(n1 − n2 )2
 
(c) to the speed of light in the medium: R=
(n1 + n2 )2
c
n=
v where n1 and n2 are the indices of refraction of the
The magnitude of n varies with the wavelength of two media. When light is incident at an angle, R
light, leading to dispersion, where a prism separates depends on the angle of incidence.
white light into its constituent colors due to varying For light transitioning from air or vacuum into a
degrees of bending. solid (s), the reflectivity is expressed as:
The velocity of light in a medium is given by:
(1 − n)2
 
c R=
v=√ (1 + n)2
εµ
Here, n is the index of refraction of the solid. Mate-
For transparent materials, there’s a relationship
rials with higher indices of refraction exhibit greater
between n and the dielectric constant (ε):
reflectivity.
√ To reduce reflection losses in optical instruments,
n= ε
thin layers of dielectric materials like magnesium flu-
Refraction is related to electronic polarization, par- oride (MgF2) are often applied to the reflecting sur-
ticularly at the relatively high frequencies of visible face.

3
 VII.Absorption α, the transmitted intensity (IT ) at the back face can
Nonmetallic materials can be opaque or transparent be determined as:
to visible light, often displaying colors when trans-
parent. Two main mechanisms contribute to light IT = I0 · e−αl
absorption in these materials:
1. **Electronic Polarization:** Absorption occurs This equation incorporates the effect of reflectance
near the relaxation frequency of constituent atoms (R), assuming the same medium exists outside both
when the electron cloud shifts due to electronic po- front and back faces.
larization. The fraction of incident light transmitted through
2. **Valence Band–Conduction Band Transi- a transparent material depends on the losses incurred
tions:** Absorption results from electron transitions due to absorption and reflection. This relationship is
between the nearly filled valence band and the con- consistent with the sum of reflectivity (R), absorptiv-
duction band, forming a free electron and a hole. ity (A), and transmissivity (T ), which equals unity.
- Absorption is possible if the photon’s energy ex- Additionally, each of these variables (R, A, and T)
ceeds the material’s band gap energy (Eg ), where is wavelength-dependent, for a green glass over the
E = hν. visible spectrum.
- Materials with Eg greater than about 3.1 eV are For instance, at a wavelength of 0.4 µm, the ap-
transparent to visible light, appearing colorless. proximate fractions transmitted, absorbed, and re-
- Materials with Eg less than about 1.8 eV are flected are 0.90, 0.05, and 0.05, respectively. How-
opaque as they absorb all visible light. ever, at 0.55 µm, these fractions shift to approxi-
- Materials with E between 1.8 and 3.1 eV ap- mately 0.50, 0.48, and 0.02.
g
pear colored since they absorb a portion of the visible
spectrum. IX.Color
Each nonmetallic material becomes opaque at a Transparent materials appear colored when they se-
specific wavelength determined by its band gap (Eg . lectively absorb certain wavelengths of light, result-
For example, diamond with a 5.6 eV band gap is ing in a combination of transmitted colors. For in-
opaque to wavelengths less than about 0.22 µm. stance, semiconductors with specific band gaps ab-
In dielectric solids with wide band gaps, impurities sorb higher-energy light, giving them distinct colors.
or defects introduce electron levels within the band Impurities can also introduce color variations, as seen
gap. Light radiation can cause electron transitions in ruby, which is red sapphire with added chromium
involving these levels, leading to emitted radiation or oxide. Inorganic glasses can be colored by incorpo-
heat dissipation. The intensity of absorbed radiation rating various ions during the melting process.
depends on the material’s absorption coefficient (α)
and path length (x) within the material. X.Opacity and Translucency in Insulators
The degree of translucency or opacity in inher-
I(x) = I0 · e−αx ently transparent dielectric materials depends on
their internal reflectance and transmittance proper-
Materials with high α values are highly absorptive. ties. Translucent or opaque appearances arise due to
internal reflection, refraction, and multiple scattering
VIII.Transmission events, which deflect transmitted light beams.
In the context of the passage of light through a trans- Internal scattering can result from factors such as
parent solid, the phenomena of absorption, reflection, polycrystalline structures with anisotropic refractive
and transmission play crucial roles. When an incident indices, two-phase materials with phase boundaries
beam with intensity I0 strikes the front surface of a causing dispersion, and residual porosity within ce-
specimen with thickness l and absorption coefficient ramic pieces. The extent of scattering is influenced

4
by factors like grain boundaries, refractive index dif-
ferences, and pore size.
In essence, while single crystals are fully trans-
parent, polycrystalline and porous materials appear
translucent and opaque, respectively.
Applications of Optical Phenomena:
XI.Luminescence
Luminescence is a phenomenon in which certain ma-
terials absorb energy and then reemit visible light.
It occurs through electron transitions within the ma-
terial, with energy absorption promoting electrons to
excited states and subsequent emission of visible light
when they return to lower energy states (between 1.8
eV and 3.1 eV).
Materials can be induced to luminesce by supply-
ing energy from various sources, including higher-
energy electromagnetic radiation (e.g., ultraviolet
light), high-energy electrons, heat, mechanical, or
chemical energy. Luminescence is categorized based
on the delay time between absorption and reemis-
sion: fluorescence for rapid reemission and phospho-
rescence for longer delays.
Some materials, including certain sulfides, oxides,
tungstates, and organic substances, can exhibit lu-
minescence when impurities are added in controlled
concentrations. This phenomenon has practical ap-
plications in technologies like fluorescent lamps, cath-
ode ray tube screens, and detecting otherwise invisi-
ble radiation such as x-rays and gamma rays.
XII.Photoconductivity
Photoconductivity is a phenomenon observed in
semiconducting materials where the conductivity in-
creases as a result of photon-induced electron transi-
tions, causing light absorption. When illuminated, a
photoconductive material experiences an increase in
conductivity due to the creation of additional charge
carriers.
This effect is commonly utilized in photographic
light meters, where the magnitude of a photoinduced
current directly correlates with the intensity of in-
cident light. Cadmium sulfide is a frequently em-
ployed material in such light meters. Solar cells,
5
which convert sunlight into electrical energy, also rely
on semiconductors and photoconductivity. In solar
cells, photoexcited electrons and holes are separated
at a p–n junction, generating an external current.
XIII.Lasers
Lasers, or Light Amplification by Stimulated Emis-
sion of Radiation, generate coherent light through
electron transitions initiated by an external stimu-
lus. The operation principles are illustrated using
the solid-state ruby laser, which consists of a ruby rod
doped with Cr³ ions. When illuminated with a xenon
flash lamp, electrons are excited, leading to photon
emissions. Some electrons enter a metastable state
and stimulate photon emissions from others, creating
a coherent laser beam.
Semiconductor lasers, like those using gallium ar-
senide, operate based on electron-hole recombination.
When a voltage is applied, electrons transition from
the valence band to the conduction band, creating
holes and emitting photons that stimulate further
emissions. Semiconductor lasers are widely used in
technologies like compact disc players and telecom-
munications.
Various substances, including gases and glasses,
can serve as laser mediums. Lasers have diverse appli-
cations, from surgical procedures and materials pro-
cessing to optical communication and precise distance
measurements.
XIV.Optical Fibers in Communications
The advent of optical fiber technology has revolu-
tionized the field of communications, replacing tradi-
tional copper wires. Optical fibers enable photonic
signal transmission using light, offering significant
advantages such as high speed, information density,
extended transmission distances, and reduced error
rates. Unlike electronic transmission through metal-
lic conductors, optical fibers are immune to electro-
magnetic interference.
The transmission system involves encoding elec-
tronic information into optical signals using semicon-
ductor lasers. These lasers emit monochromatic and
coherent light pulses, where high-power represents bi-
nary 1, and low-power or the absence of a pulse rep-
resents binary 0. These photonic pulses are transmit- 5. Rogers, A., Essentials of Photonics, 2nd edition,
ted through optical fiber cables to the receiving end, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2008.
where they are converted back into electronic signals
and decoded. 6. Saleh, B. E. A., and M. C. Teich, Fundamentals
of Photonics, 2nd Edition, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ,
The core, cladding, and coating make up the cross-
section profile of optical fibers. The core guides light 2007.
pulses, while the cladding confines light to the core by 7. Svelto, O., Principles of Lasers, 4th edition,
employing total internal reflection. High-purity silica Springer, New York, 1998.
glass is the fiber material, typically with diameters
ranging from 5 to 100 µm. Sophisticated fabrication
techniques ensure minimal impurities, defects, and
attenuation, resulting in exceptional optical perfor-
mance.
Optical fibers play a pivotal role in modern
telecommunications, offering unparalleled speed and
reliability while transmitting information over vast
distances with minimal signal loss.

Conclusion
In conclusion, this paper presents a thorough and
well-organized summary of Chapter 21, titled ”Op-
tical Properties,” extracted from ”Materials Science
and Engineering: An Introduction” by William D.
Callister. The insights provided in this chapter serve
as a fundamental basis for a wide range of technologi-
cal applications in the fields of materials science, engi-
neering, optics, and photonics. This underscores the
interdisciplinary nature and profound implications of
studying the optical properties of materials.

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3. Hecht, J., Understanding Lasers: An Entry-

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4. Kingery, W. D., H. K. Bowen, and D. R.

Uhlmann, Introduction to Ceramics, 2nd edition,
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