ASSINGMENT:1

The effect of the structure on non-metallic materials on their mechanical properties and
applications

Non-metal:

Nonmetals are a group of elements on the periodic table that have certain characteristic properties
distinguishing them from metals. These elements tend to have low electrical conductivity, low melting
and boiling points, and are generally brittle in solid form. They also typically have a lower density than
metals and tend to gain electrons in chemical reactions to form negatively charged ions. Typically,
nonmetals exhibit poor conductivity for both heat and electricity. For instance, materials such as
plastics, rubber, leather, and asbestos fall into this category due to their notably high electrical
resistivity. This characteristic renders them well-suited for insulation purposes in electrical machinery.

There are three types of non-metal. Name of these non-metals are-

 Plastics
 Ceramics
 Composite

Plastics:

Plastics are a group of synthetic materials known for their versatility and wide range of applications.
They are made from polymers, which are large molecules composed of repeating units called
monomers. Plastics are valued for their lightweight nature, durability, and resistance to corrosion,
making them integral in modern manufacturing and everyday life. [1]

FIGURE:1
Plastics can be classified into two main categories: thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics.

Thermoplastics:

These plastics can be melted and reshaped multiple times without undergoing a chemical change.
Common thermoplastics include polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and polystyrene.

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They are used in various applications, such as packaging, automotive components, and consumer goods.

FIGURE:2

Microstructure view of Polyvinyl chloride:

Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC): Polyvinyl chloride is a widely used thermoplastic polymer composed of
repeating vinyl chloride monomer units. It is a versatile material employed in various applications,
including pipes, cables, clothing, inflatable structures, and more. PVC's microstructure begins with its
polymer chain. Each vinyl chloride monomer (CH2=CHCl) consists of two carbon atoms, two hydrogen
atoms, and one chlorine atom. These monomers polymerize through a process called vinyl
polymerization, forming long chains of PVC molecules. The polymerization reaction removes the double
bond in each monomer and links the carbon atoms together, creating a linear polymer structure. PVC
can exhibit different forms of tacticity, which refers to the spatial arrangement of side groups along the
polymer chain. PVC can have atactic, isotactic, or syndiotactic forms. In atactic PVC, the side groups
(chlorine atoms) are randomly distributed along the polymer chain, resulting in an amorphous structure.
In isotactic and syndiotactic forms, the chlorine atoms have a more ordered arrangement, leading to
greater crystallinity. PVC can exist in both amorphous and crystalline forms. In the amorphous regions,
the polymer chains are disordered and have no regular structure, making this part of the material
transparent and flexible. In contrast, the crystalline regions feature ordered chains and offer increased
stiffness and dimensional stability. In addition to its polymer chains, PVC often contains various additives
to enhance its properties. Common additives include plasticizers (to increase flexibility), stabilizers (to
prevent degradation), pigments (for color), and fillers (to improve strength). These additives are
dispersed within the PVC matrix and can affect its microstructure and overall performance. PVC can also
be cross-linked through a chemical process, which results in the formation of a three-dimensional
network. Cross-linked PVC, often referred to as CPVC (chlorinated polyvinyl chloride), exhibits enhanced
heat resistance and chemical resistance. [2]

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 FIGURE:3

Properties of Polyvinyl chloride:

 It contain about 56.8% chlorine content.

 It is insoluble in all hydrocarbon solvent.
 PVC possesses inherent fire resistance properties.
 It provides substantial tensile strength and is inherently rigid.
 It is cost-effective and represents an economical solution.
 PVC requires minimal maintenance and demonstrates resilience to grease and oil.
 It has melting point 212 degree celcius. [2]

Microstructure view of Polystyrene:

Polystyrene (PS): Polystyrene is a thermoplastic polymer composed of repeating styrene monomer

units. It can exist in various forms, including crystal-like regions and amorphous regions, which
contribute to its overall microstructure. At a microscopic level, polystyrene appears as a network of
polymer chains, with both crystalline and amorphous regions intertwined. This network structure
influences the material's mechanical, thermal, and optical properties. Polystyrene is formed by the
polymerization of styrene monomers. Each styrene monomer consists of a benzene ring (also called a
phenyl group) and an ethylene group. During polymerization, these monomers link together to form
long chains of polystyrene molecules. The polymer chains have a linear structure, with the phenyl
groups along the chain. Polystyrene exhibits both crystalline and amorphous regions within its
microstructure. In the crystalline regions, the polymer chains are more ordered and closely packed.
These regions contribute to the material's stiffness and transparency. In contrast, the amorphous
regions lack long-range order and are responsible for the material's transparency and flexibility.
Polystyrene has a glass transition temperature (Tg) around room temperature. Below this temperature,
it is in a glassy state, which is rigid and brittle. Above the Tg, it becomes rubbery and flexible. The Tg is
an important factor in determining the material's behavior under different temperature conditions. [3]

FIGURE:4

Polystyrene Properties and Mechanical Specifications:

 Ultimate tensile strength: 28 MPa.

 Elongation at break: 55%

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  Flexural modulus: 1930 MPa.
 Impact strength (notched): 107 J/m.
 Heat deflection temperature: 92°C.
 It is also known as crystal polystyrene.
 Crystal forms of the polystyrene have low impact strength.

Thermosetting Plastics: Thermosetting plastics, also known as thermosets, are a category of synthetic
polymers that exhibit distinct properties and behavior compared to thermoplastic materials. These
polymers undergo a chemical transformation when subjected to heat and pressure, resulting in a
permanent and irreversible change in their structure. These plastics, once cured become rigid and
cannot be re-melted or reshaped. When they are heated in the temperature of 127 degree centigrade to
177 degree centigrade, they set permanently and further application of heat does not alter their form of
soften them. But at temperature of about 343 degree centigrade the charring occurs. Thermosetting
plastics typically exhibit excellent heat resistance. The cross-linked network structure created during
curing imparts stability at elevated temperatures, preventing softening or melting even under high
thermal stress. Many thermosetting plastics are resistant to chemicals and solvents, which makes them
suitable for use in environments where exposure to corrosive substances is a consideration. Examples
include epoxy resins and phenolic resins. Thermosetting plastics are used in the aerospace industry,
construction, and electrical insulation. [4]

FIGURE:5

Microstructure view of Melamine formaldehyde:

The microstructure of melamine-formaldehyde (MF) resin provides valuable insights into the
composition and properties of this versatile synthetic polymer. Melamine-formaldehyde resins are a
type of thermosetting plastic that is created by the polymerization of melamine and formaldehyde
monomers. The microstructure of melamine-formaldehyde resin is characterized by the formation of a
three-dimensional, cross-linked network of polymer chains. This occurs through the reaction between
melamine and formaldehyde under heat and pressure, leading to the creation of methylene bridges (-
CH₂-) between the melamine molecules. The chemical formula for melamine formaldehyde is C4H6N6O.
It is white, tasteless, odorless and exhibits great chemical and heat resistance. These bridges link the
polymer chains together, resulting in a highly interconnected network. Melamine-formaldehyde resins
can exhibit a combination of amorphous and crystalline regions within their microstructure. The
amorphous regions are disordered and lack a regular atomic or molecular structure, contributing to the

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material's transparency and flexibility. In contrast, crystalline regions feature more ordered and densely
packed structures, providing stiffness and dimensional stability.

FIGURE:6

Properties of Melamine formaldehyde:

 high tensile strength

 flexural modulus
 high heat-distortion temperature
 low water absorption
 high surface hardness
 volume resistance

Microstructure view of Polyester:

Polyester, a synthetic polymer widely used in textiles, plastics, and various applications, exhibits an
interesting microstructure when examined at the molecular level. The fundamental microstructure of
polyester consists of long polymer chains made up of repeating units known as ester groups. These ester
groups are formed by the reaction of diols (like ethylene glycol) and dicarboxylic acids (such as
terephthalic acid). This polymer chain arrangement imparts polyester with its characteristic properties,
including its strength, durability, and resistance to wrinkles and shrinking. The microstructure of
polyester fibers in textiles, for instance, is responsible for their smooth surface, moisture-wicking
capabilities, and resistance to staining. Understanding the microstructure of polyester is vital for
optimizing its properties and tailoring it to diverse applications, from clothing to packaging materials.

FIGURE:7

Properties of Polyester:
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  Crisp, soft hand
 Resistant to stretching and shrinkage
 Washable or dry-cleanable
 Resilient, wrinkle resistant, excellent pleat retention (if heat set)
 Abrasion resistant
 Resistant to most chemicals
 Because of its low absorbency, stain removal can be a problem
 Static and pilling problems

Ceramics:

Ceramics represent a diverse class of inorganic, non-metallic materials with a remarkable array of
properties and applications. Composed primarily of inorganic compounds, ceramics exhibit exceptional
hardness, ranking high on the Mohs scale, which makes them resistant to wear and abrasion—a
valuable characteristic in applications such as cutting tools and grinding materials. However, their
inherent brittleness means they are prone to fracture under tensile stresses. Ceramics are renowned for
their high melting points, enabling them to maintain structural integrity at elevated temperatures, thus
finding use in furnaces, kilns, and aerospace components. Moreover, most ceramics are excellent
electrical insulators, preventing the conduction of electricity and rendering them vital for insulating
materials in electrical and electronic devices. Their chemical stability and resistance to corrosion make
ceramics ideal for chemical processing equipment and reactors. Additionally, some ceramics exhibit low
thermal conductivity, making them valuable for thermal insulation. Beyond these practical applications,
ceramics have artistic and decorative uses, dating back centuries in the form of pottery, sculpture, and
architectural ornamentation. With common types like alumina, silicon carbide, and porcelain, as well as
advanced ceramics such as zirconia and silicon nitride, these materials continue to play pivotal roles in
numerous industries, including aerospace, automotive engineering, electronics, medicine, and
architecture. Examples of ceramic materials are- Aluminum oxide, Aluminum Nitride, Silicon dioxide,

Silicon, carbide, Silicon Nitride.

FIGURE:8

Microstructure view of Silicon dioxide:

Silicon dioxide, commonly known as silica, is a compound composed of silicon and oxygen, characterized
by the chemical formula SiO2. It occurs naturally in various forms, with quartz being one of the most
well-known. This compound is not only found in geological formations but also plays a crucial role in
living organisms. Examining the microstructure of the Si-SiO2 system and understanding the chemical

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physics of its defects have yielded valuable insights. The SiO2 content dependence of various properties,
such as velocities, attenuation, elastic moduli, and others, has revealed intriguing behavior, particularly
around the 45 wt% SiO2 composition, where anomalies are observed. In many regions around the
world, silica is the primary constituent of sand. Additionally, research has led to the development of a

linear relationship for the glass transition temperature (Tg), shedding light on how Na2O influences
SiO2-Na2O-CaO-P2O5 bioactive glasses. The properties of hardness, fracture toughness, and fracture
surface energy have also been found to exhibit linear relationships with Young's modulus, indicating the
interconnectedness of these characteristics within SiO2-based systems. This multifaceted compound,
with its intricate microstructure, finds applications across a diverse range of industries and scientific
disciplines.

FIGURE:9

Properties of Silicon dioxide:

 SiO2 has a very high melting point, making it heat-resistant.

 It is chemically stable and resistant to corrosion.
 SiO2 is an excellent electrical insulator.
 Depending on its form, SiO2 can be transparent or translucent.

Microstructure view of Alumina:

The study delves into microstructural transformations in polycrystalline alumina subjected to

compressive deformation at elevated temperatures, as observed through transmission electron
microscopy. These investigations have unveiled the intricate mechanical behavior of alumina bodies,
influenced by grain boundary shear activation and mechanical twinning processes. This highlights the
multifaceted nature of elevated-temperature deformation in polycrystalline ceramics like alumina,
where outcomes depend on interrelated chemical and structural factors. At temperatures around
1200°C and 1700°C, the deformation process prominently involves the glide and climb of dislocations.
While previous transmission electron microscopy research on single-crystal CX-Al2O3 has shed light on
substructural processes during deformation, discrepancies among independent studies assessing
deformation mechanisms through kinetic analysis can be attributed to this intricate dependence.
However, applying chemical thinning techniques, commonly used in single-crystal studies, to
polycrystalline materials presents substantial challenges.

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 FIGURE:10

Properties of Alumina:

 Studying microstructural changes in polycrystalline alumina with electron microscopy.

 Mechanical behavior influenced by grain boundary shear and twinning processes.
 Deformation at 1200°C and 1700°C involves dislocation glide and climb.
 Challenges in applying single-crystal techniques to polycrystalline materials.

Composite:

Non-metal composites are integral to the aviation industry, where their unique amalgamation of
properties serves a crucial role in aerospace applications. These composites typically feature a non-
metallic matrix, often epoxy resin, reinforced with materials such as carbon fibers. A standout advantage
lies in their exceptional strength-to-weight ratio, significantly reducing the weight of aircraft
components while preserving structural integrity. In aviation, weight savings equate to enhanced fuel
efficiency and overall performance, a critical factor. Furthermore, non-metal composites exhibit
exceptional resistance to corrosion and fatigue, making them ideal for parts enduring harsh conditions
and frequent stress cycles. These materials find application in aircraft structures, interior components,
engine parts, and even entire airframes. Their adoption has ushered in aerodynamic designs, which
minimize drag and improve fuel efficiency. Non-metal composites have become indispensable in
modern aviation, propelling technological advancements and facilitating the development of more
efficient and environmentally sustainable air travel. The CFRP composites are used in some aircraft and
aerospace applications, as well as high-tech sporting equipment bicycles, golf clubs, tennis rackets, and
skis/snowboards. Examples of composite materials are- Wood, Mud Bricks, Carbon Fiber etc.

FIGURE:11

Microstructure view of Metal Matrix Composites:

The microstructure of Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) is a critical aspect of their design and
performance. These advanced materials consist of a metal matrix with dispersed ceramic or metallic
reinforcements. The arrangement and bonding of these components at the microscale greatly influence
the material's mechanical and thermal properties. Achieving strong interfacial bonding is essential for
effective load transfer. Additionally, controlled secondary phases may be introduced to further enhance
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properties. Understanding and optimizing the microstructure through advanced microscopy techniques
is crucial for tailoring MMCs to specific applications in industries such as aerospace and automotive,
where their exceptional strength and thermal characteristics provide distinct advantages.

FIGURE:12

Properties of Metal Matrix Composites:

 High Strength
 Lightweight
 High Stiffness
 Good Thermal Conductivity
 Fatigue Resistance
 Dimensional Stability

Microstructure view of Ceramic Matrix Composites:

The microstructure of Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs) is a crucial aspect of these advanced
materials. CMCs consist of a ceramic matrix reinforced with ceramic fibers or particles. At the
microscale, they exhibit a complex arrangement. The ceramic matrix forms the continuous phase, while
the reinforcing components are distributed within it. The distribution and bonding of these components
significantly influence mechanical and thermal properties, such as fracture toughness and thermal shock
resistance. In view of these the effects of Al-6%Si alloy particles on the as-cast microstructure and
properties of Tin Tailings ceramics matrix composites produced by powder metallurgy method have
been studied. 5-30 weight percent Al-6%Si alloy particles were added. The results revealed that,
addition of Al-6%Si alloy reinforcement increased the linear shrinkage, strength and impact energy with
a decreased in density, porosity and hardness value. Microscopy techniques like SEM and TEM are
employed to analyze and optimize this microstructure. By fine-tuning the microstructure, CMCs are
tailored for demanding applications, particularly in aerospace and automotive industries, where
lightweight and high-temperature resistance are paramount.

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 FIGURE:13

Properties of Ceramic Matrix Composites:

 High Temperature Resistance

 Excellent Thermal Shock Resistance
 Low Thermal Expansion
 Corrosion Resistance
 Tailor able Properties
 Electrical Insulation
 Chemical Stability

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