Schaum's Outline of Theory and Problems of Reinforced - Everard, Noel J., 1933 - 1993 - New York - McGraw-Hill - 9780070197725 - Anna's Archive

SCHAUM’S
oullines4
REINFORGED CONCRETE
DESIGN Third Edition
NOEL J. EVERARD
The perfect aid for better grades
Covers all course fundamentals and

supplements any Class text
Teaches effective problem-solving
Features fully worked problems
Ideal for independent study
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SCHAUM’S OUTLINE OF
THEORY AND PROBLEMS

OF
REINFORCED CONCRETE
DESIGN
Third Edition
NOEL J. EVERARD, MSCE, Ph.D.

Professor Emeritus of Civil Engineering
The University of Texas at Arlington
WITHDRAWN
and Consulting Engineer
Library
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200 Maritime Academy Dr.
Vallejo, CA 94590
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“To the love of my life for more than four decades.”
NOEL J. EVERARD, Ph.D., is Professional Engineer; Professor/Chair-

man Emeritus, Civil Engineering, University of Texas at Arlington; and
Consulting Structural Engineer. He received his B.S. (1948) and M.S.
(1957) in Civil Engineering at Louisiana State University and the Ph.D.
in Civil Engineering at Texas A&M University (1962). He is an editor for
the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) Committee on “High Rise Buildings and Urban Habitat”
and is a Fellow and Life Member of the American Society of Civil
Engineers, a Fellow and Honorary Member of the American Concrete
Institute, and a Founding Member of the Structural Engineers Associa-
tion of Texas (SEAOT).
Dr. Everard’s biography is listed in many publications, including
’ Who’s Who in Engineering, American Men and Women of Science,
Engineers of Distinction, Outstanding Educators of America, and Who’s
Who in American Education.
Schaum’s Outline of Theory and Problems of

REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
Copyright © 1993, 1987, 1966 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the Copyright Act of
1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any
means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system, without the prior written Pecrussion
of the publisher. . :
10 11 12 13 14 15 CUS CUS 98765
ISBN 0-07-01977?2-5
Sponsoring Editor, David Beckwith

Production Manager, Leroy Young
Editing Supervisor, Maureen Walker
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Everard, Noel J., date . im

i a Schaum’s outline of theory and problems of reinforced concrete . aw ao
s design / Noel J. Everard. -- 3rd ed. f-
: 2 p-. cm. -- (Schaum’s outline series) cs
Includes index.
ISBN 0-07-019772-5
_1.Reinforced concrete construction--Outlines, syllabi, ete.
eae Die ethene
lems ofreinforced «
Preface
Since the publication of the Second Edition in 1987, many changes have
developed concerning the analysis and design of reinforced concrete structures.
The strength design method has become firmly implanted in the structural
engineering profession as the primary procedure for proportioning reinforced
concrete structural elements and selecting the steel reinforcement. The alternate
design method, formerly known as the elastic design method, has become a tool
for use in investigating the serviceability of structures. In the sense used here,
serviceability refers to the control of cracking and limiting deflections of structural
elements. For high rise structures, it includes limiting lateral drift because
building sway causes motion sickness for the occupants.
This book is based on the 1989 version (with the 1992 revisions included) of
“Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete”’ of the American Con-
crete Institute (ACI). That Code is also a standard of the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI). It has been adopted into the laws of most
municipalities in the United States. Since ACI is truly an international organiza-
tion, the Code has been either adopted or used as a model in the development of
building codes in many countries throughout the world.
The material contained in this book reflects the most up-to-date state of the
art concerning the analysis and design of reinforced concrete structures. Every
chapter in the book has been revised to conform with modern practice. Chapter 1
has been completely rewritten to present currently used procedures for designing
concrete mixes to provide quality control of the consistency of concrete strength.
The chapters concerning the empirical methods of slab design have been elimi-
nated, and the material related to the equivalent frame method has been
expanded to reflect the most up-to-date procedures for computerized design of
slabs. Hand calculation methods have been retained. New material has been
added concerning column design, and the design of drilled piers and caissons as
columns has been added.
The book will continue to serve as a simplified supplement where other
textbooks are used in the classroom. It will also continue to provide a primary
textbook for use in classes in architecture, architectural engineering, and en-
gineering technology. As it has in the past, it will continue to serve as a reference
book for practicing architects and engineers.
The author is indebted to David Beckwith, Editor, and Maureen Walker,
Editing Supervisor, of McGraw-Hill, Inc. for doing their respective jobs in a
superior manner. Their patience and dedication simplified the author’s task
immensely.
The author wishes to again express appreciation to his wife of 42 years,
Courtney, for her love, encouragement, and understanding during the prepara-
tion of all three editions of this book.
Noe J. EVERARD
Arlington, Texas
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Contents
Chapter 1 MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS FOR REINFORCED CONCRETE

CONSTRUCTIONS. .ceyecsctsececcccetesecess Rathenae “Sere ieee eecusandaccceees 1
1STRL Ale jerene dente ser duegse ae liahdctie Aah r ace) lae-t Hera ARR Re: DeSean See ene een pi ae :!
We MIENCH ema caer sete etnies mtn ae ha sas oho oniy anal as da du cae depp iaid sbceesvcesess 1
Pa tee rater Ota COM ECUC so. deren meme Ren erat Men cee ce can aascccapa sail oheenceees tee 3
ENO ONE LAleSmencee eee ete ce nce coe ctieess ateCee MEMt nA Meee acct Ar sae ecitemiioasnapaelnatedonseudns 4
(SeDR
CTD MAYS gant 8 aciorcy Rela OP GEOR OE conc GRC eet ene AOR nee te ee oe 6
BRAT tU UNECS eee Rare Ee ce ees solos, Sc tsrs RPRICMRN «Sack wets-Diedive dante pareve sea esaves snanaaeke 6
Waterm@ementitiouss Materials (Wi C)-Rathoonenceit.2usrits wes i ti itecats site sarees 7]
Re STISISLG FUCA BALICE RSNLITARP atoe caren taninada sic « ears tetas MECN cates obrse LNT a yAE ce sane sped 8
EnivironiirentalaGonditionserecseciacnic.nccceee
cette tect och cuts eataeiidrecioeigew Sricitiene Senotennis 10
Pitter et MOM NONE CALC Suet yi tasty aon dae cns feos Cet ea earn «snide coms cee deieenieasuetence veces seca 10
Poa tyne emsipveOl MeorcT ete) ODtaINEd nv parsedeve radar encores ova vnigeessdgcnsavve eave 11
ECHO SEO Me OMCECLe IO ES ON parery-cr..1sont eanuiabsier ender + ngettincede wie roasgmenciinen es oni 11
Making, Curing, and Testing Specimens ......... seas enc atee, Sransqaeaty 15
SE CME mesOke ONS CE AMOS cae cetcri ads agen PER Rae rh ott ow aclenseals ce sctinngdeadieniactdat 16
IMOGUIUSTOEE lasticityeotaCOnChetemasanac'. «sa cseeree er encase or--ateonchacenaeeneasnectwe dec 18
ensue strenceiro! Concrete: tatiee cay: ein ic eerstassrecueasoomonal 19
RCUMIOL CHRP AShCCMM rn ate WU iur tao Raa ome danse tea ttneeR loans Rive nG casa deswaredeervensaberes 20
MRC AML MOTOTI(S OL SITUCLULES cs capasnitees anceete Sets vos cs eeneecerei coswseredase docs srs 22
Bipipier 2 GRAVITY LOADS: Forces, Shear, Moments, and Reactions ..............++++ 25

SHO CaCIC ries ete ee eS chat aid dees s ssGno's ghegtiem tM aampienn van pesdeaevnpigoenewrene ean 25,
SAITO OLENA GLYSIS nAtINled DE SLOMLS te te tinal cattle Pica chew duenesccwenrarcrstieiere nes 25
Exact and Approximate Methods of Analysis. Be aahtcate nee esiacen Shp oaylacenerece seebciaadaogs 26
GgntinuOus beats and, ONe-Way. SlaDS o.cciec ance. Seqaet eaten Car decee dadevs deur ovurooor basse 26
—_ Two-Way Slabs .............0004. Daa
aI Ie heen tig Sed lb LMT
"ih Bena eee Ae et Ree tele gn eed tp ooo io Sa ose AANA Rts ee aacos a snp hese 32
' SPOR ENRICH
IIISie On ME RIES ooo aed het crdssina Sd fared cl cp aw dvs tcaphgaeedwets vee ease 34
‘git: '
i" e Chapter 3 LATERAL LOADS: Forces, Shear, Moments, and Reactions .................. 48 ‘
. : » Notation’ tacts ihe oer reee tOOARORE. | Foy eT TREE ne te eRe a RO Pee Oe)
(CPR INVER Se ORD ay be ee ip ae Rae te a ee eer eee 48
BNE Edy AC MIRC eerste na ee NE am rode. Seid nis oe amet op ae Pu obeted nag ve sae ach th askobeds 48
Saye VC ame VEL) WIGIEME DISEIDU LION tajanccencs uonuriggdategier
daisies aeSblaspansaedesleqeousees 50
Sete MIMI ALY sano NAP AD
Al VOSA coasee ted sass ervéns ea sr eos dearasin covinc) suttwads eta oe Ghd osiadiind 50
(SE Cc ON iG) ESN ASI aeeas peice eeeercee epee rest merece enn adoend
eas anes peed teorscewca | Mol
seer rrseroes
Vi CONTENTS
Allowable Stresses cc ccciscccaccecsdectete torent ey snare cundnssentauienigeewossconedsste fenpaeras “neaeey 59

Effect of Reinforcement in Concrete .............c:ceceeeeeeeeseeeeeeenenenereeeereneeseencnaens 60
Rectangular Beams ............:ssscscccccnnessserceceeesnseccessaenescecananseeeceeanssccorcansesensee 61
Transformed SectiOn di.i:<.csscsgsadeceus cae rncicyencms acetates + eAdaeges spindi sjeqotasteirrian sags «+ soo siralene 62
T-Beas .o2idssscnsaseadvionues de sine 0Gaseess¥eedvnndnsndsh savas tiee tase mors Oxegen ON a eAs era 62
Balanced Design :....s0scssesssccsseceoosscatssseneqsuestonpestawatssecanessensuautevoesarear ssdsaWal 64
Compression Reinforcement ...........:.cccccssseeeeeecenenseseseceneneeseesasaneseseuaneeeeceneess 64
Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete ............cceccecseeseeereeneeeeneenecsesereeeneenecneaeeaeees 66
Design Aids and Tables ..............cccsesccsesccnsecersserscseaesseereaecesereeasccuecesessaenees 67
Computerized Alternate Design..............c:sececeeeeeeeeeeeeceeeeee sessesseeseneeeneeeeeesoes tif
SolvedtProblems i, fees eet a coke corer tte at era deduct tesaee ese) case aes eee mn cose cn amen 80
csscr
cheuieass
Chapter “5 STRENGTH DESIGN ®....c::sccssstisssbeostodlaseststeteostesottc aan
INOCATION ccs S605 oie vic sacs ba oacs carne tn eee cach oes «npeerias ane rater ¢ see ee ee 95
TttOG UCN oy cic) ood ce vv onic hk colnet ame aleeJosh eer eencaaarete hata takas cea ee ra 96
Load Factors and Resistance: FactOrs. ...0.01<se0sups2es -sssesb erases toeniens uaceteder esses aaa 97
Flexural Computations Using Strength Design ,..................cecscscseresceseeeseesseerees 99
Compression Reinforcement vices ott vewsapwrakeayccn ses ecddirnsaagyncgcre <xciarheannuiaeea asian 100
Tecarid, TsSe Cons s3.<<canace seiebeeeeaeer o>sain puebAecoh pretdeed a ale donas ene er 101
Solutionof Equations and Tabular Design Aids...........:¢:s.sssssesescrsaeronnenesceneeusn 102
Computer-Generated Design Aids..5.5.<..0.s0s00202++++00+0nstasans
ondsonink Senza eee
Solved *ProbBlemss 5 <i. ssecccsssseee ees coh wisode es wie AES ation Ma aitton ibis hee aa He)
Chapter 6 SHEAR AND TORSION<ficssssssssccssessesesssscstcesviyacesoseacssseseeceyeotee saan

INGtatlOniy cava. aneonsacecceBee nee tener he sche sheds oatiaae ase ae nen ess Rie een Tt eee emp}
Shear Stress. in Homogeneous Beams... cscs. cruienesrasgsmsses cps aanae ap <a enitgsie deep seaemme 129
Shear with Flexure and) Vorsioniin..ccsae-.cahees carter tae se ee slept
‘Lorsional Moment Strengths .5. hw tonne, voters sas ere adel val@anusacitesbee a ee 133
Web Reinforcement for Shear without Torsion BA SOE ETP COON, sce ntoouie: ne BES
Other Provisions for Sheatweesce ts cccner ate eae eke or ee 135 :
Torsional Reinforcement 5,132 2..5.0es<asannasensstonsinasneeey
r95043yystisnns ngiensieles =n eye 15/7: > .
Slabs: atic POotings ; 54, concreteness ee Oo aa vs die ds ede is onan doy eee 136
SolvedsProblemsacvsucee eerie
Onna mart eres e ee 139
7
Chapter fi DETAILS OF REINFORCEMENT sssssssssssentststeseeststnetseneenet Zi 148 . w
INGESTION oso ahex ans ateeeeees OF ic OCI

Oe Ae a eT ae 148 2a
Ens
e
2 Piste 5, < s+. Sasser ene ete tages SE ae PREY Case an
*
mde ee
ee Spacing, Limits for. Reinforcement or..<ssx<«shaespa, (saahisgevs:4<sarhtnincdheaassam-+:-0tcetaO nan
nee Reinforcement Dey for Columns............ see .
testes tee ween tenet
eeee ey :
CONTENTS Vil
Chapter 8 SERVICEABILITY AND DEFLECTIONS .............cccccccescseccsccceceecceceecs 162

INOLATION mmte mere ree alr ete Mean cy eicie teenth tuiee ache accce sens sedoceesé soteiuloateaustess 162
CGETICTA eMeee eat nee sce aoe POA ER TORENT om os Set aisle Acids seacbadesesssegosseceemessiaae 163
GTACKACONLLO Mee nen en ae ON Re aRC NE Sena SEC EA AR cSetine sh.aciismsnesehGisn casspsineep ae siinddiieasehe 163
Minimum Thicknesses, Maximtim Defllections ..................0.0scsceccscscccsceccsecescsces 164
Won Way © ONSELUCHOR (INONDIESLPOSSEG )\..A0ih. o0. coe. on cco fscamedaecamaneragsnencts deodesees 166
SCOMIPULALICE One DCHCCIIONS oniensen tarot tursetien sks cineen sn ecusnasv nes siobinavsreces ssn des snes 167
Pongoenme CuecuOnSsees. stotentccateee een teenie recut eitiniaceeociaiecsvintc ees mssnet tiertecaseses 171
SONVEGEELODICMS eereteten: en Conet enn eine een e neon toant adres ets taal .adtcloeeceaeaehondan tt ones 171
Chapter 9 GENERAL PROVISIONS FOR COLUMNG...........c:ccsecssccsccsecsececeeceees 179

INOtations and sDehimitions saoniaereene neta: econ Cee eras vee eatelab SRE chlaresfelehe oi aetaeieis oofiaBiee Cos 179
Generalebrovisionsion Gast-in-biaCes COlUMms erent ascents auecnceeeas eres orsccete 179
RACIE Net COLUMNS peers ete Md r ces «cee cctqne merce tae cen k es aaticiniie's suveweeies eigieieivnee saicies 181
FANSIMUSSIONLOMCOlUIRNElCOAGS ersten caena ace mee meatone se tion cs acdioehecaitnenesteswnssteasene 181
SSIGH aun ONES ete ne EME aac hes does snccta he seb Ep olden asceasmeouivey'snsswision sineemseeadss vee 182
ARIA se
eOaAdseandalvlOmentSissmencnens srathe scccoeCtere eset nas ates casei co shussawacmesaeeeseiestes 182
SOLVECELLODICMSP reenter meee eet aac oath tare RAMA cicrcsae aac hsetidaae soneionn sBoedeeoles 182
Chapter 10 SHORT COLUMNS: STRENGTH DESIGN ...............- siuiaseeesaetenccsescieetaes 187

ING aati Tera arcee sears ere as eittsceimentie a sds eenae saa eae aaa sas seer eee aweaeweonews 187
SPNal ACI MESH Getler te cau gc be atic votes to ne onk oR cRUNacm oalhyiSS Adee os cnlgwtg ap alia Shianisee 188
PA SSHEA LIC CMCEE SSCCH
GLD EOCSEN totus.) cists. ccvedoadencedeesise soeest tvcescognecascpshes'es 189
Balanced Conditions; Column Interaction Diagrams.....................ceeeeeeneeeeeee ences 189
MIe<ULeaWItHMeNSIONBALXIa lelcOAG seaaneee ypacee en ine. ca aee er Gchomens «irene caicass cos asowes 190
ANLETACtiOn ma DlEStrensaa PeMEEr Mtoe atte ae tee ioe meats cearsae hee mac as@unaseeousets 190
ALE VERE CIVAGIONG oo catnip eames mm O NE See aie ash etek. Nahe Reet Pitas Sees Asis cm soe ns sanvaas 206
IBTAVCEANTOIES s.condadabnedsnosbncebcddoneebonetenoees
JBCURaCRBRE Sen ance GaBECHC colseme Nanae Ieee amen aee 207
Generale @ascpmecerce te tr. emcee nai aac cc reee arses ee saat siaicentsdveslaepeoasseearses 207
Biaxial SBengin Oeereecee emcee eee eck eke ee sea sade eek erecaaeine pecs clncaee raiasst ouivmsddeedeas tae ns 207
DrilledaPiers abiles wands alSSON Samra sc ac cc cane ee ene seem ntact sas cae acacle Soeseecoseeeieeees 209
SOlVeCEEOUlEMISm peer ee ree aene eee ren hae ce erro ete te cabal oiacedd nates aaawaumamtevines 209
Chapter TPASLONG COLUMNS

35 Sris Tic aaa. coccsdesecoss scene Raeccsssvessccsccsevesecsaeseee 220
INOTAUON See ere coe ane eee eR OR ee Rte chen cee aM ccd se MORO awoadi ac rnstacdaceaoenateeas 220
Frame~A nalysis cvssasstsvaiateectarsstimiacccons tities acewstttns steateeseeecascecesosweatereeses 221
Moment-Magnifier (Method ic35-8 .ii5ils- ts sethas.cundgavnnd cane aaceascboainibapgeen sens gescsdees 224
VG LIS eeeeer mete eaeter eee one Senn HOMER PRA MC OME acct CnClis cee taawad emcee sod hemseaccemmeeatawae. 230
Solved» Problems verstarecteshecher sett tierewen terres Pate hes ceatiad saw eas eesiaeenavisaeeeteTiTee 232
Chapter 12 MADER MEIN See ccos esas dstscctecetersocaterieseccussonsdsteceresescedeevesavedses ceskeaseoreiesa OSU

INOLAUIONe starr cn eaenceMare ere at cet mat nena SNE E. ma teMcnn. oA Nio hor ackan sad qcmmasainee eleslont rok tioeecee 240
CFTONETAlE NOLES upec tent esee eee kt matter Roscte siecles cece cnemtrinen fia patcee ance ean men ee omer enesel em nese 242
Ailowable-LoadstonsSoilgor Pilesamanescreter nes acieseah stiee otiet ne oe naaee eve de cereeere menaece 242
PAStHIDUNONGOL LOAGS tO. SOL terete ee teen aha ntact sth canaineincs das sie elctemack saeaiaa wares ncaa 243
BOLCOSLONEETCS onic eo ere mes een enacts koruna tuk mace eee deal ee ema Rees Coton nk 244
Vili CONTENTS
Multiple Column Footings i.» 201: fst. /cmaueh decay Pamhpente tab ea tee de disks ob bygh eh von epnnstupieg 246
Critical Sections for Bending and Development Length .................cseeeeeeeeeeeneeees 249
Critical Sections for Shear and Diagonal Tension ................:ssesecsenscertcreeeesereces 252,
Additional Requirements........2.0.scsd engorieadecaxsnesesseawecran s
spaces MERnmaas atgsa >eneoernee 253
Transfer of Force at the Base af aj Column erage erases saamn enw sxvudeoranagoces< saree 254
Allowable Bearing Stresses on the Top Surfaces of Reinforced Concrete Pedestals
and: Footings snaandiiecsae Ase snn ts dps enammnnnah otc came ceataaieren simamee Amadis stk Seek ae 254
Bearing for Sloped or Stepped Reinforced Concrete Footings............:+.ssesseseeees 255
Structural Design of Footings:.::..s cscs categete nn 0sece sn iasan wraiae cee inraeid sek atss> <x seen 295
Flexsiral Desiony 2 vc 2eis isch venice nia eek betes opcasen = AV se aci yn ddy ieee enoraais 0 ee 256
Solved: Problems casvediseinssweene cea uenereien tenn ee ened soar evel tecmr aansdwaeniienss eres 256
Chapter 13 THE EQUIVALENT FRAME METHOD ................csccscssccocceccsccseees eexsp aie

Notation 4i.c eee tesraaa con ssee Meera tne ce ape Fu iscincaeen matt ase ee ena 793 Zo
he-diquivalent Prams <.<.sccccusas weteeeane anes dives sancrme began sak cams aees sexe 274
Slab-BeamsrandiGolumns ieee ete ce cn cecasaw clos<srocuoe eck te senso aesee nanan ets ae 276
Torsional Resistance; The Equivalent. Column, 9... <sy.0s2000s00404 son a0sesenccasve eae 278
Boating Oemaations ct Gee ston eras eae s..45v's,eca 080508 aeoap Sansesindn say egne Sa saheceenaeen 280
Hactore dAMOments.;.9:sassmaaaeeeee teeta av eaten niger aa aicianeins ttswlecise oereosseu at eee aes 284
Computer Program. ListinSS:cigentein. a neapanc ee ceaseriweemnnrt ean nis dwar teer errr eee 284
Solved: Problems .;.... .<iotdeg neler. Spee enarabarts «a ene dieie ds uaeevk. gs kp cenpeiicnss a ee 290
Chapter 14> “RETAINING "WALUS cccgetese riescaitecetecsecnescccodaceteesassnvenceeetcr

eae .-. 308
PVOCALIOND « 66. 5n.o.g0> sx donna dg eMac ce aces ands Live vue LOS catia RS: Sat, etd «a 308
Uses ok Retaining Walls tose terete: sordicapnes & asa cand icapdacaven ox dbant ecto e 309
ForcesionpRe taming a all sine seeeceestieo-2 77s ore she ceckee estes asec neeee anes eee eee 310
Anipléstomintermial! Bricton ed beeen taonen a. ast ccaeotuled> enmeneliee at a akeeucse cen. fen cas ne ar eee 314
Friction’ on: the Footings Biase. ai a -s ssn ackescyt used: eee teee es ace’ caciiean ae ee 314
OMEr turnin Oy, Vad Reema tee eee eee atin as omer eed ooh oa ia. cas ae 314
mibrcharge Pressures Gece ai: presse evs ens spinon octets taps dns Seo 345
Basel Pressure on Footing Gere o6sts vaxcuteree aust Guleuseeasecesiausnieias aaa cee ee 317
Uesign Procedure: ceusenonakecesey cam shn oma te pitas heroes ke Ok oo acuaak cama cae a cat 317
Momntéerfort Retaining: Walls 5 ccocuccemecosmesnr ral ae at nies pusin96, «deus med ondeb ta, Som 321
Miaimum- Wall. Reinfortementeincangindtiaerencrererentiriny recoosrnenimaneertpenmal 323
Basement and Other Beating Walls. ...c¢cavainsersoctccetgeman. ¢.tack Pesoadeee ac ee 323
BOWEd PTODICIIS 5. dc2uhs eae Gem teks ti mocieciede Se nna Rice icsodoie eocmalaalaarea eas al ae 324
APPENDIKXES .........02. guahineeh+et¥austrePanpeesckee

txtoinov sett evertdandeuesstssa ondeawe eee
Chapter 1
Materials and Components

for Reinforced Concrete Construction*
NOTATION
f | =specified compressive strength of concrete, psi (MPa)
f., = average splitting tensile strength of concrete, psi (MPa)
f |, =average compressive strength of concrete required for selection of proportions, psi
(MPa)
DEFINITIONS
Concrete is a nonhomogeneous manufactured stone composed of graded, granular inert materials
which are held together by the action of cementitious materials and water. The inert materials
usually consist of gravel or large particles of crushed stone, and sand or pulverized stone.
Manufactured lightweight materials are also used. Lightweight (low-density) aggregate is produced by
burning clay or shale in a kiln until it becomes porous clinkers. After cooling, the clinkers are
crushed to provide expanded aggregates of various sizes, coarse and fine.
Concrete behaves very well when subjected to compressive forces, but ruptures suddenly when
small tension forces are applied. Therefore, to utilize this material effectively, steel reinforcement is
placed in the areas subjected to tension.
Reinforced concrete is a composite material which utilizes the concrete in resisting compression
forces, and some other material, usually steel bars or wires, to resist the tension forces. Steel is also
often used to assist the concrete in resisting compression forces. Concrete is usually assumed to be
incapable of resisting tension, even though it actually can resist a reasonable amount of tension.
A number of definitions are presented in the following list adapted from the Building Code
Requirements for Reinforced Concrete, ACI 318-89, of the American Concrete Institute. (This code
is usually referred to as the ACI Code.) Note: In this book the word “density” shall be understood
as weight density (unit weight) in the context of inch-pound, or IP, units and as mass density in the
context of SI units. Appendix A-1 gives conversion factors between the two systems of units.
Admixture—A substance other than cementitious materials, aggregate, or water added to
concrete to modify its properties or color.
Aggregate—Inert material which is mixed with cementitious materials and water to produce
concrete.
Aggregate, lightweight—Aggregate having a dry, loose density of 70 Ib/ft* (1100 kg/m’) or less.
Building official—City Engineer, Plan Examiner, etc.
Cementitious materials—Materials that have cementing value when used in concrete, either by
themselves, such as portland cement or blended hydraulic cements, or in combination with
aggregate.
Column—An upright compression member whose length exceeds three times its least lateral
dimension.
* The tables contained in this chapter have been reproduced or adapted from committee reports of the American Concrete
Institute and related publications of the Portland Cement Association, with permission from both organizations.
i
MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS [CHAP. 1
Combination column—A column in which a structural steel member, designed to carry the
principal part of the load, is encased in concrete of such quality and in such a manner that an
additional load may be placed thereon.
Composite column—A column in which a steel or cast-iron structural member is completely
encased in concrete containing spiral and other longitudinal reinforcement.
Composite concrete flexural construction—A precast concrete member and cast-in-place rein-
forced concrete so interconnected that the component elements act together as a flexural unit.
Compressive strength of concrete (f')—Specified compressive strength of concrete in pounds per
square inch, psi (megapascals, MPa). Compressive strength is determined by tests of standard
cylinders made and tested in accordance with ASTM (American Society for Testing and
Materials) specifications at 28 days or such earlier age as the concrete is to receive its full service
load or maximum stress. The height of a standard cylinder is required to be twice the diameter;
4x8 in. (100x200 mm) and 6x 12 in. (150 x 300 mm) are common dimensions. In many
European countries, cubes are used instead of cylinders. In the case of modern, very strong
concrete—up to 12,000 psi (83 MPa)—the structural engineer or architect may specify that the
45-day strength of the cylinders or cubes be tested. The assumption is that live load will not be
introduced onto the structure before 45 days after the concrete has been emplaced. If materials
for outside walls and studs, dry wall materials, or door frames are piled on slabs that were cast
only a few days before, then these factors must be taken into account in determining strength
and serviceability.
Concrete—A mixture of cementitious materials, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, and water,
with or without admixtures. (The generic term cement includes portland cement and other
cementitious materials.)
Concrete, structural lightweight (low-density)—A concrete containing lightweight (low-density)
aggregate. The concrete weighs not more than 115 Ib/ft* (1900 kg/m’).
Deformed bar—A reinforcing bar conforming to “Specifications for Minimum Requirements for
the Deformations of Deformed Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement” (ASTM A-305) or
“Specifications for Special Large Size Deformed Billet-Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement”
(ASTM A-408). Welded wire fabric with welded intersections not farther apart than 12”
(305 mm) in the direction of the principal reinforcement and with cross wires not more than six
gage numbers smaller in size than the principal reinforcement may be considered equivalent to a
deformed bar when used in slabs. Deformed-bar mats are also used.
Effective area of concrete—The area of a section which lies between the centroid of the tension
reinforcement and the compression face of the flexural member.
Effective area of reinforcement—The area obtained by multiplying the right cross-sectional area
of the reinforcement by the cosine of the angle between the axis of the reinforcement and the
direction for which the effectiveness is to be determined.
Pedestal—An upright compression member whose height does not exceed three times its average
least lateral dimension.
Plain bar—Nondeformed bar.
Plain concrete—Unreinforced concrete.
Precast concrete—A plain or reinforced concrete element cast in other than its final position in
the structure.
Prestressed concrete—Reinforced concrete in which there have been introduced internal com-
pressive stresses of such magnitude and distribution that the tension stresses resulting from
service loads are counteracted to a desired degree.
Reinforced concrete—Concrete containing reinforcement, designed on the assumption that the
two materials act in combination to resist forces.
Reinforcement—Steel bars used in concrete to resist tension or compression forces. Steel ties, -
spirals, or stirrups confine the main reinforcement. :
;
Nae ae
CHAP. 1] MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS 3
Service dead load—The calculated dead weight supported by a member.

Service live load—The live (intermittent) load, as specified by the general building code, for
which a member must be designed.
Splitting tensile strength—The results of splitting tests of cylinders—a measure of the tensile
strength of concrete.
Stress—Force per unit area.
Surface water—Water carried by an aggregate, excluding that water held by absorption within
the aggregate particles themselves.
Water-cementitious materials ratio (w/c)—Ratio of the weight of the mixing water to the weight
of the cementitious materials in a batch of concrete.
Yield strength or yield point of steel (f,)—Specified minimum yield strength or yield point of
reinforcement in pounds per square inch (megapascals). Yield strength or yield point shall be
determined in tension according to applicable ASTM specifications.
MATERIALS FOR CONCRETE

Cement as used in plain or reinforced concrete has the ability to form a paste when mixed with
water. The paste hardens with passage of time, holding all the larger inert particles together in a
common bond. Cement may be obtained from nature, but it is usually manufactured. When
manufactured, cement must conform to certain specifications of the ASTM. When the material is so
manufactured, it is classified as portland cement, and concrete made using this material is called
portland cement concrete, or simply, concrete.
In general, portland cement is manufactured using definite proportions of various calcareous
materials, which are burned to form clinkers. The clinkers are pulverized to a powderlike form,
which then becomes cement.
General-Purpose Portland Cements
Type I: Normal—used in the vast majority of cases.
Type II: Moderate-sulfate-resistant—used when the structure will be exposed to soil or water
having a moderate alkali content.
Type III: High-early-strength—for use when very high strength is desired at an early age.
Type IV: Low-heat-of-hydration—for use in large masses such as dams. Low heat of hydration is
desirable to reduce cracking and shrinkage.
Type V: High-sulfate-resistant—for use when the structure will be exposed to soil or water
having a high alkali content.
Types E-1 and K: Shrinkage-compensating (expansive)—which exands as the concrete cures,
thus compensating for some shrinkage.
Table 1.1 compares strengths of identical mixtures using different types of portland cement.
Table 1.1 Approximate Relative Strengths of Concrete

Compressive strength—percent of strength
eal normal portland cement concrete
I
II ri
Ill 115
IV 90
Vv 8)
4 MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS [CHAP. 1
Special-Purpose Portland Cements

White or buff-colored—for architectural concrete.
Type IS: Portland blast-furnace cement.
Types P and IP: Portland-pozzolan cements—blends of manufactured and natural varieties.
Type S: Slag cement.
Type I(PM): Pozzolan-modified portland cement.
Type I(SM): Slag-modified portland cement.
Masonry, oil-well, and waterproofed cements.
Plastic cements—for plaster and stucco.
Regulated-set portland cements—the concrete sets in a few minutes to an hour, depending on the
chemistry, with rapid strength gain. Used in road repair.
Air-Entrained Cements
These cements have air-entraining agents added during manufacture; thus, Types I, II, and III of
portland cement are turned into IA, IIA, and IIIA. Air entrainment is recommended for nearly all
concrete work, primarily to improve resistance to freezing (and thawing) when the concrete is
exposed to deicing chemicals. In addition, the captured air reduces bleeding of cement and water
from the mix, reduces scaling of hardened concrete, increases the slump (thus increasing the
workability of the wet concrete), and increases watertightness. However, as a disadvantage,
entrained air reduces the strength of the concrete and thus its modulus of elasticity.
AGGREGATES
Fine aggregates consist of sand or other fine-grained inert material usually less than 4” (6.4 mm)
maximum size. Coarse aggregates consist of gravel or crushed rock usually larger than iy (6.4 mm)
size and usually less than 3” (76 mm) size.
The bulk of the solid volume of concrete is composed of the aggregates, coarse and fine. The
water-cementitious materials matrix binds the aggregates together, and through the hydration of the
cement, the mass becomes a solid. Because the concrete mass can be no stronger than the
aggregates, it is desirable that the aggregates be at least as strong as the hardened cementitious
material paste. If the aggregates have planes of weakness or are soft, the matrix cannot provide full |
strength to the hardened concrete.
Gradation; Fineness Modulus
Next to strength, the gradation of the aggregates is of primary importance. The sizes of the
fine-aggregate particles should vary in such fashion that these particles fill the voids between the
coarse-aggregate particles in the mix. If there is insufficient fine aggregate or its gradation is not
_ proper, the voids will not be completely filled, and a portion of the cement paste will be wasted in
‘6 filling the voids. Such a mix is said to be undersanded; it will look rather lumpy with coarse
_ aggregate. On the other hand, if there is too much sand, a portion of the cement paste will be wasted
in coating the excess sand. The mix will be oversanded and will resemble sandpaper. In general, the
_ best gradation is that which will provide the maximum weight (density) of a dry-rodded cae
se neepetes by combining the coarse and fine aggregates in a container of own volume’ an,tar
: andspain with a steel rod to beaoe by cis oe
_
CHAP. 1) MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS 5
Table 1.2 Acceptable Ranges of Particle Size in Fine

Aggregate
Percent passing by weight

= in. (9.5 mm) 100
No. 4 (4.75 mm) 95 to 100
. 8 (2.36 mm) 80 to 100
_ 16 (1.18 mm) 50 to 85
. 30 (600 ~m) 25 to 60
. 50 (300 pm) 10 to 30
. 100 (150 wm) 2 to 10
obtained. The fine aggregate is sieved using the standard screens, and the weight of all the particles
larger than a given size is tabulated. The percentage retained on sieves No. 4, 8, 16, 30, 50, and 100
is tabulated, as well as that passing through the No. 100 sieve into the “‘pan.’”’ The sum of the weights
retained on all the sieves larger than a given sieve is accumulated and then added together and
divided by 100. The result, always larger than 1.0, is the fineness modulus. Table 1.3 illustrates the
calculation for a hypothetical sample.
Table 1.3 Determination of the Fineness Modulus
Percentage of
individual Cumulative Cumulative
fraction percentage percentage
| retained, by passing, by retained, by
Sieve size weight* weight weight
283 at
P Fineness modulus ~n
; = 283 + 100 = |
ik: . | 2.83 | ie
- * Percentage of material retained between consecutive sieves. For example, 13
. percent of the sample is retained between the No. 4 and No. 8sieves.
if
MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS [CHAP. 1
6
Table 1.4 Volume of Coarse Aggregate per Unit of Volume of Concrete

Volume of dry-rodded coarse aggregate per
unit volume of concrete for different fineness
Maximum size moduli of fine aggregate
of aggregate,
in.
3
8
1
Zz
3
4
MIXING WATER
Water is an important ingredient in the concrete mixture. The water must be clean and free from
salts, alkalis, or other minerals which react in an undesirable manner with the cementitious material.
Thus seawater is not recommended for use.
The temperature of the mixing water should be controlled, because it does have some effect on
concrete strength. For cold weather concreting, it may be necessary to heat the water to keep it from
freezing in the concrete mix. In hot weather, the hydration of the concrete may produce sufficient
heat to magnify the effect of the high air temperature and cause the concrete to set so rapidly that it
becomes difficult to place and finish. In such an event, the water is often pumped through pipes that
are surrounded by liquid nitrogen; alternatively, shaved ice may be substituted for liquid water.
Municipal chlorination of the water supply may cause an excess of chloride ion in the mixing
water; the chloride ion corrodes the reinforcing steel. Table 1.5 lists the ceilings for this contaminant
given in the 1989 ACI Code.
Table 1.5 Maximum Chloride Ion for Corrosion Protection
Maximum water-soluble
chloride ion (Cl) in
concrete, percent by
Type of member weight of cement
Prestressed concrete
Reinforced concrete exposed to
chloride in service
Reinforced concrete that will be dry
or protected from moisture in
service
_ Other reinforced concrete
CHAP. 1] MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS a
may be introduced into the mixture of dry materials (cementitious materials and aggregates), or they
may be introduced in liquid form in the mixing water. Their purpose is to effect certain desirable
changes in the fresh concrete or the hardened concrete, or both.
Among the most commonly used admixtures are plasticizers or superplasticizers, which are
high-range water-reducing agents. Through these additives, concrete with a very low water-cementiti-
ous materials ratio (and therefore of very high strength) can be made extremely workable for
placement. A concrete mixture that without superplasticizers would have a 3-in. (76-mm) slump
could easily have as much as a 9-in. (230-mm) slump. (Slump, the measure of consistency and
workability, will be discussed in subsequent paragraphs.) The added cost of using superplasticizers is
more than offset by the time and labor cost reduction due to the added workability of the concrete.
Further, because of the workability increase, honeycomb in the concrete is virtually eliminated.
Pozzolans compose another group of admixtures. A pozzolan is a siliceous or aluminosiliceous
material that in itself is not cementitious. However, in a finely pulverized state and in the presence of
water, it reacts with the calcium hydroxide that is released by the hydration of portland cement to
form a cementitious material. The natural pozzolans—diatomaceous earth, opaline cherts, clays,
shales, volcanic tuffs—are far less important than the manufactured substances fly ash and silica
fume.
Fly ash is, in fact, the most widely used mineral admixture. Produced as the residue of pulverized
coal burned in electric power plants, the fly ash is collected from the exhaust gases in the stack by
electrostatic precipitators or bag filters. Silica fume is obtained as a by-product in the manufacture of
silicon steel and similar alloys. The reduction of high-purity quartz with coal in an electric arc furnace
generates the vapor, which is cooled and condensed into huge cloth bags. The retrieval of these two
materials benefits not only concrete but our lungs.
In conclusion we give a brief functional classification; two international sources of all listed
varieties are the W. R. Grace Company and the Sika Corporation.
(1) Water-reducing (plasticizing) admixtures

(2) Set retarders
(3) Set accelerators
(4) Pozzolans
(5) Finely divided mineral admixtures
(6) Workability admixtures
(7) Bonding agents (to bond new concrete to old)
(8) Dampproofing agents
(9) Permeability-reducing agents
(10) Grouting admixtures
(11) Gas-forming admixtures
(12) Coloring admixtures
(13) Corrosion-inhibiting agents
(14) Pumping admixtures (for pumping concrete through pipes or hoses)
WATER-CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS (W/C) RATIO

The strength (compressive and tensile), and most of the other desirable properties of portland
cement concrete, is inversely related to the w/c ratio: the lower the ratio, the higher the strength (see
Tables 1.6 and 1.7). Also, low w/c ratios increase freeze-thaw resistance and decrease shrinkage
cracking.
Table 1.6 Typical Relationship between W/C Ratio and Compressive

Strength of Concrete
W/C ratio by weight
Compressive strength* Non-air-entrained Air-entrained
at 28 days, psi (MPa) concrete concrete
6000 (41)
5000 (34)
4000 (28)
3000 (21)
2000 (14)
* Values are estimated average strengths for concrete containing not more than
the percentage of air shown in Table 1.9. For a constant w/c ratio, the strength
of concrete is reduced as the air content is increased.
Strength is based on 6 x 12 in. (152 x 303 mm) cylinders moist-cured 28
days at 73.4+3 °F (23+2 °C) in accordance with Section 9b of ASTM C31.
Relationship assumes maximum size of aggregate about j to 1 in. (19 to
25 mm).
Table 1.7 Maximum W/C Ratios When Strength Data Are Not Available
Absolute w/c ratio by weight
Specified
compressive Non-air-entrained Air-entrained
strength* f’,; psi (MPa) concrete concrete
2500 (17)
3000 (21)
3500 (24)
4000 (28)
4500 (31)
5000 (34)
*28-day strength. With most materials, w/c ratios shown will provide average
strengths greater than indicated in ACI Code Section 5.3.2 as being required.
"For strengths above 4500 psi (31 MPa) for non-air-entrained concrete, and 4000 psi s
(28 MPa) for air-entrained concrete, concrete proportions shall be established by
7 methods of ACI Code Section 5.3.
While low w/c ratios are desirable, there is a minimal amount of water that is required to
completely hydrate the cement; this minimum water content can be determined experimentally.
_ However, it is not always prudent to mix concrete as dry as possible. Table 1.8 deals with
_ considerations that enter into the selection of a w/c ratio.
2 ofconcreteis important since it is“necessary have the co

reinforcing bars. The stan eth terr
Table 1.8 Maximum W/C Ratios for Various Exposure Conditions
Maximum w/c ratio

by weight for normal-weight
Exposure condition concrete
Concrete protected from expo- Select w/c ratio on basis

sure to freezing and thawing, and of strength, workability,
free from deicing chemicals and finishing needs
Concrete intended to be
watertight:
(a) Concrete exposed to fresh
water
(b) Concrete exposed to brack-
ish water or seawater
Air-entrained concrete exposed to
freezing and thawing in a moist
condition:
(a) Curbs, gutters, guardrails,
or thin sections
(b) Other elements
(c) In presence of deicing
chemicals
For corrosion protection for
reinforced concrete exposed to
deicing salts, brackish water,
seawater, or spray from these
sources
* If minimum concrete cover required by ACI 318 Section 7.7 is increased by 0.5 in.
(13 mm), ratio may be increased to 0.45 for normal-weight concrete.
Besides the general recommendations of Table 1.9, certain economic factors must influence the
design of a concrete mix. High-slump concrete is more easily placed than is low-slump concrete.
Therefore, high-slump concrete saves time in placement and labor costs. However, high-slump
concrete cannot be finished as soon after placement as can low-slump concrete. Thus, there may be
Table 1.9 Recommended Slumps for Various Types of Construction

Slump, in. (mm)
Concrete construction
Reinforced foundation walls and

footings
Plain footings, caissons, and
substructure walls
Beams and reinforced walls
Building columns
Pavements and slabs
Mass concrete
* May be increased 1 in. (25 mm) for consolidation by hand methods such as
rodding and spading.
time lost while waiting for the concrete to be trowled and finished. To achieve an optimal slump, for
a given (coarse) aggregate size, the designer may apply Table 1.10. An SI version of the table is
obtained through the conversions
1 in. = 25.4 mm 1 Ib/yd* = 0.5933 kg/m°
Table 1.10 Approximate Mixing-Water and Target Air-Content Requirements for Different Slumps and
Maximum Sizes of Aggregate
Maximum water, pounds per cubic yard of concrete, for indicated
maximum sizes of aggregate
Slump, in. o [tim] tin [tin [zine |3in* |6in* |

Non-air-entrained concrete
1 to2 aac 315 300 275 260 220 190

Stor 365 340 2h) 300 285 245 2.
6 to7 385 360 340 BAS 300 270
Approximate amount of
entrapped air in non-air-
entrained concrete,
percent 2 Ds 1.5 1 0.5 0.3 0.
Air-entrained concrete
sco
3 to 4
6 to 7
Recommended average
total air content,
percent, for indicated
degree of exposure:
Mild
Moderate’
Severe’
*The slump values for concrete containing aggregate larger than 1} in. are based on slump tests made after seminval of
oe
_ Particles larger than 1} in. by wet screening. ;
‘Tabulated values to be achieved within’ —1 to +2 percent.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
i These conditions dictate the measures that must be taken to protect the concrete (and the: 4
-
S _Teinforcing steel) from deterioration. The attacking elements may be present in the air, in the water,
az mesain the soil. Special peda Sipe aise must be gen to concrete that will go into cher plants,
| marinepiers. ieee oe alee Ga Srckesten an may vs to be fined with pr

h as special plaster coatings or wivifed clay tile ;
| we athering vera be guarde
Since the free water varies from time to time in a given stockpile of aggregates, it is necessary to
determine the free water content several times each day, with the added water adjusted accordingly.
A definite procedure is available for determining the free water in the aggregates.
A representative sample of aggregates is weighed. The surfaces of the particles are then dried to
a saturated-surface dry state in an oven or pan, or by pouring alcohol on the aggregates and setting
afire. The dried aggregates are then weighed. The percentage moisture (by weight or density of the
aggregate) is obtained using the equation
Die ie
100(w,, ay Wa)
eeoe ee (LP)
Wa
in which p = percentage of moisture by dry weight or density, w,, = wet weight or density of the
material, and w, = dry weight or density of the material. The percentage of surface water is deducted
from the total water required to obtain the desired w/c ratio.
QUANTITY AND DENSITY OF CONCRETE OBTAINED

The quantity of concrete or yield of a trial batch is used to predict the quantity of concrete to be
obtained from the job mix. For each of the component materials (i.e., gravel, sand, cement, and
water) an absolute volume is defined by
V,a =
ul
(SG)w,
(£2)
in which V, = absolute volume, ft* (m*); W,, = weight of loose material, Ib (kg); SG = specific gravity
of material; w, = unit weight (density) of water (62.4 lb/ft® or 1000 kg/m*). The sum of the four
component materials absolute volumes, or merely the total absolute volume, may be taken as the
yield.
When it comes to the design of the formwork and its bracing, knowing “how heavy” is as
important as knowing “how much.” Table 1.11 provides guidance here; note that normal-weight
aggregates are presumed. To convert the table to SI, use
1 in. = 25.4 mm 1 lb/ft? = 27 Ib/yd° = 16.01846 kg/m*
Table 1.11 Unit Weights of Fresh, Air-Entrained Concretes
Maximum . Unit weight,* lb/ft’, for indicated

size of Air Cementitious specific gravity of aggregate’
aggregate, content, Water, materials,
in. percent Ib/yd* of mix Ib/yd° of mix
139 141 143
143 146 148
147 149 152
149 152 154
*Tabulated values are experimental averages.
* On saturated-surface-dry basis.
METHODS OF CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

Scientific, or Absolute-Volume-Trial-Batch, Method
This method will be explained by an example which has been adapted from Design and Control
of Concrete Mixes, 13th edition, with permission of the publisher, the Portland Cement Association
of the United States.
Design task
Required is a concrete mix for casting a slab that will be exposed to moisture in a severe freeze-thaw
environment where deicing chemicals will not be used on the hardened slab. The concrete is to attain a
compressive strength of 3500 psi (24 MPa) at 28 days, using Type I portland cement (ASTM C-150). The slab
will be 12 in. (305 mm) thick, with 3 in. (76 mm) clear cover over the reinforcing steel. The minimum clear
distance between reinforcing bars will be 4 in. (102 mm). A liquid air-entraining agent will be added to the
mixing water, using the manufacturer’s recommendations concerning the quantity of the admixture to be used
per cubic yard (cubic meter) of concrete.
Characteristics of the ingredients
(a) Coarse aggregate. 3/4-in.- (19-mm-) max. river-run gravel containing some crushed particles (ASTM
C-33), with an oven dry specific gravity (SG) of 2.68 and 0.5 percent absorption [the moisture content
under the saturated-surface-dry (SSD) condition]. The oven dry-rodded unit weight (density) is
100 Ib/ft* (1602 kg/m*). The laboratory sample for the trial batch has a moisture content of 2 percent.
Note that a 3/4-in. (19-mm) aggregate should be suitable to the task, since it satisfies the 1989 ACI
Code criteria, being less than 1/3 of the slab thickness and less than 3/4 of the clear distance between
reinforcing bars. (These criteria ensure even flow of the concrete around the reinforcing bars.)
(b) Fine aggregate. Natural sand (ASTM C-33) with an oven dry specific gravity (SG) of 2.64 and
absorption of 0.7 percent. The fineness modulus is 2.80 and the moisture content is 6.0 percent.
(c) Air-entraining admixture. Wood resin type (ASTM C-260).
Cement content experience
From previous flatwork (slab) designs employing normal-weight concrete, the data of Table 1.12 have been
compiled.
Table 1.12 Minimum Cementitious Content Table 1.13 Required Average Compressive Strength
Maximum size of Cementitious material,* When Past Data Are Not Available _
aggregate, in. (mm) Ib/yd° (kg/m*) Specified compressive Required average
470 (280) strength compressive strength —
540 (320) Less than 3000 (20) fi+1000 (7.0)

590 (350) 3000 (20) to 5000 (35) fi +1200 (8.5)
610 (360) Over 5000 (35) f+ 1400 (10.0)
* Quantities may need to be greater-for severe exposure.
Design calculations
(a) Target compressive strength. Since no statistical data pertaining to previous use of this mix are
available, Table 1.13 mustbe utilized to determine the target compressive strength. For f’ = 3500 psi
(24 MPa) the table yields f’, = 4700 psi (32.5 MPa).
(b) Water-cementitious materials ratio. Table 1.8 allows a maximum of 0.5. The recommended w/c for
¢, = 4700 psi (32.5 MPa) is interpolated from Table 1.6 to be 0.42.
(c) Air content. Severe freeze-thaw conditions are expected. Table 1.10 recommends an air content of 6
percent; so the mix will be designed for 6 + 1 percent air, and the maximum allowable, 7 percent, will
be used for the trial-batch proportions. (The trial-batch air content must be within +0.5 percent of
_ the maximum allowable air content.) ad
(d) Slump. Table 1.9 recommends aslump of 1 to 3 in. (25 to 76 mm) the larger val riots on sath
order to have good workability.
ue will b e Us
’ a oo — 4 padi
content. Table 1.10 recommends that

A
7
(f) Cementitious content. The required quantity of portland cement or other cementitious material is set
by the w/c ratio. Thus, 270 Ib/yd* (160 kg/m”) of water requires 270/0.42 = 643 lb/yd° (382 kg/m’)
of cement. [Specifications commonly call for a minimum of 564 Ib/yd’ (335 kg/m*) for severe
freeze-thaw climates.] The quantity selected also meets the minimum requirements for flatwork
(slabs) in Table 1.12, which calls for a minimum of 540 Ib/yd* (320 kg/m*) for 3/4-in. (19-mm)
aggregate.
(g) Coarse-aggregate content. The bulk volume of 3/4-in. (19-mm) coarse aggregate recommended in
Table 1.4 when using fine aggregates with a fineness modulus of 2.80 is 0.62. The coarse aggregate
weighs 100 lb/ft’ (1602 kg/m”), so the oven dry weight of the coarse aggregate is 100 x 27 x 0.62 =
1674 lb/yd* (993 kg/m’).
(h) Admixture content. For 7 percent air, the manufacturer’s literature for the air-entraining agent
recommends a dosage rate of 0.9 fl. oz./100 lb of cement (27 mL/45 kg of cement). Thus, the bulk
volume of air-entraining admixture is 0.9 x 643/100 = 5.8 fl. oz./yd* (224.5 mL/m’).
(i) Fine-aggregate content. This is calculated last, as follows: Convert the amounts of all other
ingredients present in a standard volume of the concrete (1 yd’, or 27 ft’, in the IP system; 1 m° in the
SI) to volume units, and subtract the sum of these absolute volumes from the standard volume. This
gives the absolute volume of fine aggregate, which may then be reconverted to weight (mass) units.
Using 62.4 lb/ft for the density of water and 3.15 for the specific gravity of Type I portland
cement, one finds, per 27 ft? concrete:
' 210s :
Water: 64> 4.33 ft
643 ii! :
Cement: (3.15)(62.4) ~ Beit
Air: (0.07)(27) = 1.89 ft*

1674
Coarse aggregate: : == 10:01 ft
(2.68)(62.4)
Sum = 19.50 ft*
The absolute volume of the fine aggregate is therefore 27.0—19.5=7.5 ft*, for a weight of
(7.5)(2.64)(62.4) = 1236 lb.
The corresponding SI calculation, using 1000 kg/m’ for the density of water, yields, per 1 m*
concrete:
Water: ia = 0.160 m*
i 382 rr 5
Cement: (3.15)(1000) ~ 0.121 m
Air: (0.07)(1.0) = 0.070 m?
Coarse aggregate: sen = 0.371 m°

Sum = 0.722 m°*
Thus the absolute volume of the fine aggregate is 1.000—0.722=0.278 m*, for a weight of
(0.278)(2.64)(1000) = 734 kg. [Check: 1236 Ib/yd* = 733 kg/m*.]
Adjusted composition of trial batch

The following pretrial proportions have been determined:
Water: 270 Ib/yd*® (160 kg/m”)
Cement: 643 Ib/yd*? (382 kg/m’)
Coarse aggregate (dry): 1674 Ib/yd* (993 kg/m’)
Fine aggregate (dry): 1236 Ib/yd* (734 kg/m*)
Total 3823 Ib/yd* (2269 kg/m*)
»
sLuMP: 3+3/4 in. (76+19 mm) for trial batch
AIR CONTENT: 7+0.5 percent for trial batch
ESTIMATED UNIT WEIGHT (DENSITY):
270 + 643 + (1674 x 1.005)

=
+ (1236 x 1.007) = 142 Ib/ft* (2278 kg/m”)
In the above estimate, the factors 1.005 and 1.007 are inserted to account for absorption in the coarse and
fine aggregates, respectively. Further, corrections are required to compensate for the moisture taken in by the
aggregates while in outdoor stockpiles; such corrections must be made periodically throughout the day. With the
present aggregate moisture contents (MC), the modified trial-batch proportions become
Coarse aggregate (2% MC): 1674 x 1.02 = 1707 Ib/yd° (1013 kg/m”)
Fine aggregate (6% MC): 1236 x 1.06 = 1310 Ib/yd* (777 kg/m*)
Since absorbed water does not become part of the mixing water, it must be excluded from the water adjustment.
Surface moisture contributed by the coarse aggregate is 2.0% — 0.5% = 1.5%, and that contributed by the fine
aggregate is 6.0% — 0.7% =5.3%. Therefore, the estimated requirement for added water is
270 — (1674 x 0.015) — (1236 x 0.053) = 179 Ib/yd* (106 kg/m”)
In summary, the corrected proportions are
Water (to be added): 179 Ib/yd*? (106 kg/m’)

Cement: 643 Ib/yd* (382 kg/m”)
Coarse aggregate (2% MC): 1707 lb/yd* (1013 kg/m’)
Fine aggregate (6% MC): 1310 Ib/yd® (777 kg/m”)
Total 3839 lb/yd* (2278 kg/m*)
Air-entraining admixture: 5.8 fl. oz/yd* (224.5 mL/m’*)
The trial batch must have sufficient volume to make three cylinders for 28-day strength tests, plus additional
volume for air-content and slump tests. For the laboratory tests, 2 ft® (0.057 m*) will suffice; to prepare the
sample, scale down the above-given quantities by 2/27 (0.057/1).
Suppose that the trial batch exhibits a slump of 4 in. (102 mm), which exceeds the 0.75-in. (19-mm)
maximum tolerance above 3 in. (76 mm); moreover, the measured air content is 0.5 percent above the 7 percent
maximum. Then the mix can be readjusted as follows:
Water: © 262 Ib/yd? (155 kg/m’)

Cement: 624 Ib/yd* (370 kg/m*)
Coarse aggregate (dry): 1674 Ib/yd*> (993 kg/m*)
Fine aggregate (dry): 1273 lb/yd* (755 kg/m’)
Total 3833 Ib/yd° (2273 kg/m’)
Air-entraining admixture: 5.0 fl. oz/yd* (147.9 mL/ m°)
__ Now the estimated concrete unit weight (aggregates SSD) is 143 Ib/ft® (85 kg/m*). The slump, air content,
1 volumetric yield are within permissible tolerances. The average compressive strength f ’ of laboratory-cured
fi
Sat 28 days turns out to be 4900 psi (33.8 MPa), which exceeds the target f’, of 4700 psi (32.4 MPa
Cement Water Air Fine agg. Coarse agg.

w.
Bees tetiete
ee eee!
scot ier eo
einwse: Air
15% 18% 8% 28% 31% entrained
concrete
°
7% 14% 4% 24% 51%
Stpragiostansiehey ogre Non-air-

15% 21%" 39% 30% 31% entrained
concrete
a
neers?
eget
71% 16% 4% 254%

Fig. 1-)_ Range in proportions of materials used in concrete by absolute volume. Bars 1 and 3 represent rich
mixes with small aggregates. Bars 2 and 4 represent lean mixes with large aggregates.
Table 1.14 Concrete Mixes for Small Jobs
Aggregate, lb per 1-bag batch’

Approximate
size of cementitious Gravel or | Iron blast-

aggregate, Mix material per cu. | Air-entrained Concrete crushed furnace
in. (mm) designation | yd of concrete* concrete without air stone slag
(@)
ee
te)
We)
aoe
ee)
te
Tey
ies
les)
alech
eel
* 1 sack/yd° = 56 kg/m°
"1 Ib agg. /sack cem. = 1.06 kg agg./100 kg cem.
MAKING, CURING, AND TESTING SPECIMENS

Making Cylinders
Test cylinders are made to obtain the true strength of the manufactured material. The cylinders
are also used during construction to ensure that the strength of the concrete is maintained at the
desired level.
The fresh concrete is placed in a cylindrical mold in three layers. Each layer is rodded 25 times.
The concrete is troweled smooth at the top surface and the cylinder allowed to air cure: for 24 hours,
after which it is placed in a damp room under controlled humidity and temperature to age for 28
days. After the curing period has elapsed, the cylinders are tested in a testing machine to determine
the compressive strength f’, the modulus of elasticity E., and often the complete stress-strain
diagram.
Dimensions of test cylinders (and cubes) are discussed under Compressive strength of concrete,
page 2. It should be mentioned here that the Canadian Standards recognize a method that predicts
the 28-day strength after the concrete is only one day in place. The cylinders are boiled in water and
then tested for compressive strength. Empirical equations predict the 28-day strength within about 10
percent, plus or minus.
Curing Cylinders
Proper curing of specimens is vitally important to the strength of the concrete. Moist curing is the
most desirable method, as shown in Fig. 1-2.
Temperature of curing also affects concrete strength, as seen from Fig. 1-3, since strength and
other desirable properties of concrete improve more rapidly at normal temperature than at low
temperatures.
es)
—
ae
eee tamed
ga
Moist cured after
1 year in air
strength,
Compressive
of
28-day
cured
moist
percent
concrete
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Age at test, days
Fig. 1-2 Effects of moist curing on the strength of concrete. (By courtesy of the Portland Cement Association,
Skokie, Illinois.)
STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

The compression stress-strain diagram provides a most important factor for use in deriving
equations for designing structural elements of reinforced concrete. The stress-strain diagrams are
plotted using data obtained from the 28-day tests of concrete cylinders. During the loading process
loads in pounds (kilograms) and the corresponding strains in inches per inch (mm/mm) are recorded.
The loads are transformed into direct stresses (P/A), and the stress-strain diagram is then plotted.
Age at test, days
73°F
28-day
cured
(22°C)
strength,
of
Compressive
percent
concrete
Fig. 1-3 Effects of temperature on the strength of concrete.
' Figure 1-4 shows a series of typical stress-strain diagrams obtained using different strengths of
concrete.
The stress-strain diagrams for concrete indicate three distinct ranges:
(1) The initial range, which is very nearly linear.

(2) The intermediate range, in which there is increasing curvature, ultimately reaching a point
of maximum stress f’.
(3) The final range, in which strain continues to increase while the load-carrying capacity
decreases.
f,=6000 (41)
a a
ODE eee a
f.,
(MPa)
psi
Stress,
YA
Strain, ¢,, in./in. (mm/mm)
Fig. 1-4. Typical stress-strain diagrams for concrete.

Figure 1-5 is a statistically derived stress-strain diagram for concrete subjected to flexure, with or
without axial load. Certain properties of the curve must be described:
(1) The tangent to the curve at the origin is called the initial tangent modulus of elasticity E.,,
psi (MPa).
(2) A line drawn from the origin to a point on the curve at which f, = 0.45f7 is called the secant
modulus of elasticity E.,, psi (MPa).
(3) For low-strength concrete E,, and E,, differ widely. For high-strength concrete there is
practically no difference between the two values.
(4) For lightweight-aggregate concrete the initial slope is somewhat less than that for normal-
weight concrete. The maximum stress occurs for larger strain values for lightweight
concrete when f! is the same for both types of concrete.
(5) Definitions: €, = strain in concrete for given stress f.
€, = strain corresponding to maximum stress f?
€, = ultimate strain at rupture
f.,
Stress,
(MPa)
psi
Strain, €,, in./in. (mm/mm)
Fig. 1-5 Stress-strain diagram.
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY OF CONCRETE

In general practice the secant modulus of elasticity is usually used and is simply referred to as E..
Numerous experimental equations have been proposed for obtaining the value of E.. One of the
most recent empirical (statistical) equations, due to Pauw, was adopted in modified form by the ACI
Code Committee; it reads
E,=33wi°V fi (0.043
w) */ f?) (1.3)
For normal-weight al concrete, it is permissible to simplify (1.3) to
=57,000Vf’ (4700f") f. helooag
oy Ast either equation, E. = modulus ofmee Ib/in? (MPa); w.= density of the eueaia! Ib/ft? af
‘ (kg/m’); and f’ = ultimate strength of the concrete, Ib/in. ? (MPa).
_ Throughout this book, equations are given in meee Saisla Baars by the metric SI
”eccivalonedin parentheses, as shown above. . -¥
_ Figure 1-6 shows the modulus of etn
f elasticity E, is usedextensively inth
©
° 3
Density of concrete, w,, kg/m
1280 1440 1600 1760 1920 2080 2240 2320
10°
psi
E,,
elasticity,
of
Modulus
x 10°
MPa
E.,
elasticity,
of
Modulus
x
Density of concrete, w,, lb/ft®
Fig. 1-6 Modulus of elasticity of concrete.
TENSILE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

The tensile strength of plain concrete is rather small compared to the compressive strength, and
tension in the concrete is usually neglected in design practice. It is important, however, to give some
consideration to the tensile strength with regard to combined stresses which cause diagonal tension
failure, flexural cracking, and deflection.
Beam tests have been utilized for obtaining the tensile strength of concrete in past years. A
method has been developed for obtaining a measure of the tensile strength, called the split-cylinder
test. Standard concrete cylinders are loaded along the sides until the cylinder splits. The average stress
at which splitting occurs is designated as the split-cylinder strength f.,.
It has been well established experimentally that the tensile strength of normal-weight (normal-
density) concrete can be taken as
Jo J.0N (pal, kUnd yt MPa) (1.4)
For lightweight-aggregate concrete such that /f’ exceeds f.,/6.7 (1.8f.,), replace Vf/ in (1.4) by the
smaller quantity.
When f., has not been specified (because values of f., are well known from experience in the
locality of construction), formula (1.4) may be multiplied by 0.75 when all aggregate is lightweight
(low-density), and by 0.85 when sand is used as the fine aggregate along with lightweight
(low-density) coarse aggregate. When partial replacement of the sand with lightweight (low-density)
fine aggregate is used, linear interpolation between 0.75 and 0.85 is permitted.
The tensile strength of concrete f, is used in calculating the cracking moment M.,. The cracking
moment is in turn used to predict incipient cracking of the concrete due to flexure, and to calculate
the effective moment of inertia J, for use in determining deflections.
The approximations of Vf/, involving the values f,,, 0.75, and 0.85, may be used in all cases
except in the determination of E..
REINFORCING STEEL
Steel reinforcing for concrete consists of bars, wires, and welded wire fabric, all of which are
manufactured in accord with ASTM specifications. The most important properties of reinforcing steel
are:
(1) Modulus of elasticity E,, psi (MPa)
(2) Tensile strength, psi (MPa)
(3) Yield point stress f,, psi (MPa)
(4) Steel grade designation (yield strength)
(5) Size or diameter of the bar or wire.
Figure 1-7 illustrates properties (1), (2), and (3). Tables 1.15 and 1.16 provide information
pertaining to properties (4) and (5).
Ciideatived
Stress,
5
(MPa)
psi
Be
Strain, ¢,, in./in. (mm/mm)

Fig. 1-7 Stress-strain diagram for reinforcing steel.
~~,
ay stress-strain diagram is idealized by assuming that stress is constant in the eat region and
oe tof,
eh yield point is established by drawing a line parallel to the elastic region at some offset
os apse usually about 0.002 in./in. (mm/mm). Or, when the steel stress-strain diagram has
Cp otiee curvature and no definite yield point and no true relatively flat plastic region, theyield
P t is defined Bs sn
intersection ofthe
Bees pier iei
to the initial
agangent ithe « ie
S I n vo - 0.003 strain. a
Table 1.15 ASTM Standard Reinforcing Bars
Nominal dimensions—round sections

Bar size, ight,
designation Diameter, in. Cross-sectional area, in.” Perimeter, in.
Nominal dimensions*
Bar Mass weight, | Diameter, Cross-sectional Perimeter,

designation kg/m area, mm”
*The nominal dimensions of a deformed bar are equivalent to those of a plain round bar
having the same mass per meter as the deformed bar.
Formerly, bars were manufactured in both round and square shapes. In modern practice,
however, square bars are not used. In place of the square bars, equivalent round bars are
manufactured.
Bars are no longer designated by diameter or side dimension as in the past. Bar numbers are
used in modern practice. For bars up to No. 8, relative to IP units, the number coincides with the
number of eighths of an inch in the bar diameter; for larger bars the numbers are used merely for
designation purposes. For metric (SI) reinforcing bars, there is no correspondence between size
number and diameter.
Tables 1.15 and 1.16 indicate the sizes, numbers, and various properties of currently used
reinforcing bars; Tables 1.15 and 1.16 have been provided by the Reinforcing Steel Institute of
Canada. For convenience, the tables are reproduced in Appendix A-2.
The bars listed in Tables 1.15 and 1.16 are used primarily for main reinforcement in beams,
slabs, columns, footings, walls, and other structural elements. Bar sizes Nos. 3, 4, and 5 (10M, 15M)
are often used for spirals and lateral ties in columns and as stirrups in beams. Spiral bars are usually
plain, without deformations.
~
Reinforcing steel rods having diameters less than +” (6 mm) are referred to as wires, and the sizes
are designated by the AW & S gage number (the smaller the gage number, the larger the diameter of
the wire).
The minimum allowed steel ratio is p,,;,, = 200/f, (1.4/f,).
IMPORTANT COMPONENTS OF STRUCTURES
To fully understand the Building Code provisions and to design structural elements, it is
necessary to have a thorough understanding of the types of structures used and their component
parts.
Column
Spandrel
Beam
Pedestal
Footing
Fig. 1-8 Beam and slab construction.
Figures 1-8 through 1-10 illustrate the various types of elements usually encountered in building
design and construction.
Notes for Fig. 1-8:
(1) The slab shown delivers load primarily to the T-beams and is called a one-way slab.
(2) The girder receives loads primarily from the T-beams as concentrated loads, then delivers
ms the loads to the columns.
i an
(3) Pedestals are used to spread the load over a large area of the footing. The pedestal r a)
4 the column loads.
' Seelhin
; (4) Spread footings bear directly on the earth.
(5). The girderisals
aT-beam
o (inshape, evenifnotconsidered so in structural action).
“ Solid Slab or
Flat Plate
<4
PR eee
J ’
(a) (b) (c)

Note: Columns may be round and
capitals cone-shaped.
Column or Pier
oe Grade Beam
(e) Slab and pan joist

fal oe
fc
(When joists run in two directions, this becomes jo
a waffle slab or a dome slab.)

(f) Footing on piles, caissons, or drilled piers
Fig. 1-9 Structural systems.

Granular
backfill
Slope cut
for
construction i
convenience ny /
Stem /
Footing
me see
Toe
(a) Gravity wall xe Shear Key
(b) Cantilever wall
Counterfort
gs
7.
aras Basement
PE;
Sar
es
Wall aa
(Stem) 7]. + ee
elp?
den
conPF!
°ey
ee
‘3Be
Oye
Or
79,
Wall Footing
(continuous) Toe aeio Bae Footing
Oe.
Heel
(c) Basement wall (d) Counterfort wall
When the earth is placed on the toe side, this is called a

buttressed wall.
Fig. 1-10 Retaining walls.

Chapter 2
Gravity Loads
FORCES, SHEAR, MOMENTS, AND REACTIONS
NOTATION
b = width of a beam or column, in. (mm)
C= moment coefficient of wS* (Table 2.1)
h = total depth of a member, in. (mm)
I= section moment of inertia, in.’ (mm‘*)
K = relative stiffness factor, in.’ (mm°)
L = any span length,* ft (m)
L = long span for two-way slabs, ft (m)
|, = clear span length (average of two adjacent spans for negative M), ft (m)
m= ratio of short span to long span (S/L), two-way slabs
M = bending moment, ft-kip or ft-lb (kKN-m)
P=any concentrated load, kip or lb (KN)
Pp, = dead load concentrated load, kip or Ib (KN)
P,, = live load concentrated load, kip or Ib (KN)
P,, = total load concentrated load, kip or lb (KN)
q = any uniformly distributed load, kip/ft (kKN/m)
R = any reaction, kip or pound (kN)
S = short-span length, two-way slabs, ft (m)
V =shear force, kip or Ib (KN)
w=any uniformly distributed factored load (strength design method) or service load
(alternate design method), kip/ft or kip/ft* (kKN/m or kN/m*)
Wp, = uniformly distributed dead load
w,, = uniformly distributed live load
w,, = uniformly distributed total load
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

The analysis of structures deals with the determination of loads, reactions, shear, and bending
moments. Structural design deals with the proportioning of members to resist the applied forces. The
sequence involved in creating a structure, then, involves analysis first and then design.
The 1989 ACI Code requires that analysis be made using the elastic theory, whereas structural
design may be accomplished using either the alternate design method with service loads or the
strength design method with factored (ultimate) loads.
*For slabs, the span shall be considered as the center-to-center distance between SuPer or the clear span plus twice the
thickness of slab, whichever value is the smaller.
25
26 GRAVITY LOADS [CHAP. 2
EXACT AND APPROXIMATE METHODS OF ANALYSIS

Methods exist which provide for an exact mathematical analysis of structures. Such methods as
slope-deflection and moment distribution may always be used to analyze concrete structures. In some
cases it is absolutely necessary to use the exact methods. In the most common cases, however, it is
sufficiently accurate to use approximate methods.
The 1989 ACI Code contains approximate coefficients for calculating shears and moments, which
can be used when (and only when) specified conditions have been satisfied.
Since exact methods are studied in statically indeterminate structures, a prerequisite to the study
of reinforced concrete, only the approximate methods will be discussed in this chapter. An exception
exists in the case of the cantilever moment distribution method, which is an exact mathematical
method when certain conditions are satisfied.
CONTINUOUS BEAMS AND ONE-WAY SLABS

Approximate coefficients of shear and bending moment may be utilized when the following
conditions are satisfied:
(1) Adjacent clear spans may not differ in length by more than 20 percent of the shorter span.
(2) The ratio of live load to dead load may not exceed 3.
(3) The loads must be uniformly distributed.
(4) Members are prismatic.
(S) There are two or more spans.
Beam and Slab Coefficients
When conditions (1) through (5) are satisfied, the following listed approximate formulas which
are stated in the ACI Code may be used to determine shear forces and bending moments in
continuous beams and one-way slabs. (A one-way slab distributes its load to two end supports only.
A two-way slab distributes its load to four supports, one support existing along each of the ends and
sides.) See Fig. 2-4.
For Positive Moment
End spans:
If discontinuous end is unrestrained:. . 2. Suet Sane ee ee wl?/11 (2.1)
If discontinuous end is integral with the support................. wl>/14 (22)
INCSKIOE SPAHIS™ < uisls 56452 aise 9 ere eine ea ec es ene wl>/16 (2.3)
For Negative Moment
Negative moment at exterior face of first interior support:

TWO Spans... avy 3 4k | he nuee at A ras Lom a teee Ww/Q (2.4) —
eMiore than two PANS bs 4 fou se eee tacit ees vw n sutras wi tian (2.5)
h: Negative moment at other faces of interior supports ............ PPR TEA #8 ha (2.6) >
Negative moment at face of all supports for (a) slabs with es aman i
}spans not exceeding 10ft(3m) and (6) beams and girders — o 49
he ratio”sath‘sum of columi stiffnesses- w hear aie,
CHAP. 2] GRAVITY LOADS ae
Shear Forces
Scar in end members at first’interior support’... 2s. 1.15wl,/2 (2.10)

eM AEC AEC POMS DOLLS faeries cis ss cha bValvie titles hb Gis. 4 noms se ee epee 8 wl /2 (2.11)
End Reactions
Reactions to a supporting beam, column, or wall are obtained as the sum of shear forces acting
on both sides of the support.
Integral and unrestrained supports are illustrated in Fig. 2-1. In (a), the beam or girder is
integral with the support; in (b), it is not integral; in (c), it is integral provided the spandrel beam is
sufficiently stiff.
Exterior and interior supports are shown in Fig. 2-2.
Column (beyond)
ee eae We kee
Slab, Beam or Girder sBy

Beam or
° OD aad BendWe eae
Beam or
Girder Girder
Concrete
Célaran Spandrel
Beam
(a) (5) (c)
Interior
Face
Exterior First Interior Interior

Support Support Support
Fig. 2-2
TWO-WAY SLABS
The 1963 ACI Code provided three separate approximate methods for use in determining shear
and moments in slabs which distribute their loads to four supports. While those methods are not
given in the text of the 1989 ACI Code, the Code permits the use of methods that have proved
satisfactory over a period of many years. Thus (Section 1.4 of the 1989 ACI Code):
Approval of Special Systems of Design or Construction

Sponsors of any system of design or construction within the scope of this
code, the adequacy of which has been shown by successful use or by analysis or
test, but which does not conform to or is not covered by this code, shall have the
right to present the data on which their design is based to the Building Official or
to a board of examiners appointed by the Building Official. This board shall be
composed of competent engineers and shall have authority to investigate the data
so submitted, to require tests, and to formulate rules governing design and
construction of such systems to meet the intent of this code. These rules when
approved by the Building Official and promulgated shall be of the same force and
effect as the provisions of this code.
Further (Section 13.3 of the 1989 ACI Code):
Design Procedures
A slab system may be designed by any procedure satisfying conditions of
equilibrium and geometric compatibility if shown that the design strength at every
section is at least equal to the required strength considering 9.2 and 9.3, and that
all serviceability conditions, including specified limits on deflections, are met.
Finally (Code Commentary for 13.3):
Design Procedures
This section permits a designer to base a design directly on fundamental

principles of structural mechanics, provided he can demonstrate explicitly that all
safety and serviceability criteria are satisfied. The design of the slab may be
achieved through the combined use of classic solutions based on a linearly elastic
continuum, numerical solutions based\on discrete elements, or yield-line analyses,
including, in all cases, evaluation of the stress conditions around the supports in
relation to shear and torsion as well as flexure. The designer must consider that
the design of a slab system involves more than its analysis, and justify any
deviations in physical dimensions of the slab from common practice on the basis
of his knowledge of the expected loads and the reliability of the calculated stresses
and deformations of the structure.
Sections 9.2 and 9.3, as referenced in the above citation of Section 13.3, provide equations for
determining minimum depths of slabs (if deflections are not calculated) and deflection limitations (if
deflections are calculated). The minimum-depth equations are empirical and provide very conserva-
tive results: in most cases, slab thicknesses can be reduced by an inch (25 mm) or more if deflections
are calculated and compared with the maximum allowable values. In one- or two-story buildings the
excess thickness of the slabs may not be of importance. However, in a sixty-story building the height
would be inceased by 5 ft (1.5 m) or more, and concrete quantities would increase by 15 to 20
percent. -
; There is no simple way to calculate deflections in two-way slabs by hand. However, there exist
_ computer programs that calculate slopes and deflections, as well as shear, bending moment, and axial
forces, at many “nodes” in the slab. Use of such computer programs can result in significant savings
in materials, weight, and structure height.
/
CHAP. 2] GRAVITY LOADS 29
Table 2.1 Moment Coefficients (C) for Two-Way Slabs (Method 2 of 1963 Code)
Short span for indicated values of m Long

span,
See Fig. 2-4 for case
all
number identification.
values
Moments : : of m
Case 1. Interior panels

Negative moment at:
Continuous edge
Discontinuous edge
Positive moment at midspan
Case 2. One edge discontinuous
Negative moment at:
Continuous edge
Discontinuous edge
Case 3. Two edges discontinuous
Negative moment at:
Continuous edge
Discontinuous edge
Case 4. Three edges discontinuous
Negative moment at:
Continuous edge
Discontinuous edge 0.029
Positive moment at midspan 0.044
Case 5. Four edges discontinuous
Negative moment at:
Continuous edge —_— —_
Discontinuous edge 0.033 0.038
Positive moment at midspan 0.050 0.057
(By courtesy of the American Concrete Institute, Detroit, Michigan.)
Limitations
Method 2 is intended to apply to slabs (solid or ribbed), isolated or continuous, supported on all
four sides by walls or beams, in either case built monolithically with the slabs.
A two-way slab shall be considered as consisting of strips in each direction as follows: (a) A
middle strip one-half panel in width, symmetrical about the panel centerline and extending through
the panel in the direction in which moments are considered and (b) a column strip one-half panel in
width, occupying the two quarter-panel areas outside the middle strip. (See Fig. 2-5.)
Where the ratio of short to long span is less than 0.5, the middle strip in the short direction shall
be considered as having a width equal to the difference between the long and short span with the
remaining area representing the two column strips.
The critical sections for moment calculations are referred to as the principal design sections and
are located as follows: (a) For negative moment, along the edges of the panel at the faces of the
supporting beams and (b) for positive moment, along the centerlines of the panels.
30 GRAVITY LOADS [CHAP. 2.
Bending Moments
The bending moments for the middle strips (Fig. 2-5) shall be computed using the formula
M = CwS? (2.12)
The average moments per foot (meter) of width in the column strip (Fig. 2-5) shall be two-thirds
of the corresponding moments in the middle strip. In determining the spacing of the reinforcement in
the column strip, the moment may be assumed to vary from a maximum at the edge of the middle
strip to a minimum at the edge of the panel.
Where the negative moment on one side of a support is less than 80 percent of the moment on
the other side, two-thirds of the difference shall be distributed in proportion to the relative stiffnesses
of the slabs.
Shear
The shear stresses in the slab may be computed on the assumption that the load is distributed to
the supports in accordance with equations (2.13) or (2.14) given below.
Supporting Beams
The loads on the supporting beams for a two-way rectangular panel may be assumed as these
loads contained within the tributary areas of the panel bounded by the intersection of 45° lines from
the corners with the median line of the panel parallel to the long side. a Fig. 2-3 and the remarks
on‘“Yield Line Theory” given below.)
The load on element ABEF is supported by beam AB.

The load on element AEC is supported by beam AC. :
— Fig. 2-3
CHAP. 2} GRAVITY LOADS
4 Edges
Discontinuous
Fig. 2-4 Cases related to Table 2.1.
Yl
| 7 .
4
y Middle Strip Y
y) Short Span g
g
g
4
Y
Ly
q
N
Ys
Vu 4
N
Ny |
Column Strip 4
cs
I
|
_ik|
E
|
| L,
|
|
|
|
4
ABCD = Middle strip, short span _

CDEF = Column strip, short span
Fig. 2-5 (By courtesy of the American Concrete Institute, Detroit, Michigan.)
Note that a concentrated load may not be transformed via (2.13) or (2.14); any such load must
appear ‘‘as is” in the loading diagram.
Yield Line Theory
While the 1989 Code does not specifically mention yield line theory, the Commentary to the
Code does. Thus, yield line theory is accepted for use in the analysis of two-way slabs. When a
reinforced concrete slab that is supported on all four sides is tested to failure, large cracks develop
along nearly 45° lines from the corners toward the interior of the slab. This observed mode of
failure—along with predictions of the mathematical theory of elasticity—justify the approximate load
distributions indicated in Figs. 2-3 and 2-17.
It should be noted that yield line theory and other methods of “limit analysis” have been used
successfully in Europe for many years and are included in European building codes for the analysis
and design of reinforced concrete structures.
FRAME ANALYSIS
The approximate methods previously discussed apply to usual conditions of construction, where
loads are uniformly distributed, spans are nearly equal, and the live loads are not excessively high.
When the approximate methods do not apply, mathematically exact methods must be used. The
1989 ACI Code does, however, permit the utilization of simplifications. For example, a complete
analysis of the frame shown in Fig. 2-6 would be time-consuming, unless an electronic computer was
used for the analysis. Thus, in analyzing the beams for level EFGH, the Code permits the use of the
substitute frame shown in Fig. 2-7. The columns may be assumed to be fixed at the floors above and
below the level in question.
Fig. 2-6
‘::
Maximum DesignRobie cp
the i.
CHAP. 2] GRAVITY LOADS o>)o>)
Fig. 2-7
(a) (b)
(d)
Fig. 2-8
Those loading conditions provide the maximum negative and positive moments at the supports
and centers of spans, maximum column moments, maximum column reactions, and maximum shear
forces for the beams.
Methods of complete analysis of such frames are discussed in texts concerning statically
indeterminate structures and will not be discussed in this book.
Statics
In the study of reinforced concrete a thorough knowledge of statics is necessary. Nevertheless, a

number of problems involving statics are provided herein for the purpose of review.
Column Forces and Moments
Axial loads and moments in columns due to gravity loads are properly determined using the
principles of continuity and methods of solving statically indeterminate structures. Under normal
circumstances, column moments on interior columns are relatively small when span lengths are
nearly equal. However, the exterior columns may have reasonably large moments accompanied by
relatively small axial loads. Both interior and exterior columns may be subjected to biaxial bending
(due to moments about both principal axes).
When the approximate methods are used for obtaining beam moments, the column moments are
also determined by approximate methods. The differences in the beam moments are distributed to
the columns above and below the joint in the ratio of the stiffnesses of the columns.
It must be emphasized here, however, that approximate methods usually yield excessively large
structural members. Approximate methods should not be used when an exact mathematical analysis
is available. (The term kip refers to kilopounds. 1.0 kip = 1000 pounds.)
Solved Problems
2.1. A two-span beam (Fig. 2-9) is supported by spandrel beams at the outer edges and by a
column in the center. Dead load (including beam weight) is 1.0 kip/ft and live load is
2.0 kip/ft on both beams. Calculate all critical service-load shear forces and bending moments
for the beams. The torsional resistance of the spandrel beam is not sufficient to cause restraint
of beam ABC at the masonry walis. (Service loads are loads actually applied, and not
increased by use of load factors.)
Masonry
Wall J/,,=20 ft
Fig. 2-9
(a) Loads are uniformly distributed, (b) LL/DL=2<3, (c) (L,-L.)/l., =(2-
0.1<0.2. ACI coefficients apply. > () nz bn) Har =( 20)/20 =
Bending Moments
Map\=~3(20)'124 = ~50 fi-kip Mya = —(3/9)[(20 + 22)/2] = —147 ft-kip = My.

Mc = ~3(22)124 = —60.5 ft-kip M,, = 3(20)'/11= 109 ft-kip M, = 3(22)/11 = 132 ft-kip
Shear Forces
V,, = 3(20)
/2 = 30 kip V,, = 1.15(3)(20)/2 = 34.5 kip
V. = 3(22)/2 = 33 kip V = 1.15(3)(22) /2 = 37.95 kip
Reactions
R,=V,=30kip R,=V,-+V,=72.45 kip Ro=V.=33 kip
2.2. Given, conditions identical to those of Problem 2.1, except that A and B are built integrally
with the columns. Determine the critical service-load moments, shears, and column reactions.
Refer to equations (2.2), (2.3), (2.4), and (2.9).

M 49: = —3(20)7/16 = —75 ft-kip M,, = 3(22)7/14 = 103.7 ft-kip
Mya = —3(21)7/9 =—147 ft-kip M,, = 3(20)7/14 = 85.7 ft-kip
All shear forces and reactions are identical to those for Problem 2.1 for the corresponding sections.
2.3. Given, a five-span beam as shown in Fig. 2-10. Total dead load is 1.5 kip/ft and total live load
is 2.5 kip/ft. Calculate the critical moments, shear forces, and column reactions. The beam is
built into a girder at A and a very stiff column at E. The masonry wall at A does not offer
restraint to beam AB.
Masonry
Wall
Beam built into
column at E
Fig. 2-10
Investigation indicates that the criteria are satisfied for the 1989 ACI Code coefficients. Note that
the average spans are used for negative moments at supports. Total load w,, =1.5+ 2.5 =4.0 kip/ft.
Moments in foot kip are
My = —(4/10)(21.5)? = —184.9 Mey = —(4/11)(22)? = -176.0

Myc = —(4/11)(20)? = —145.4 Mp, = —(4/10)(20)? = —160.0
Mp = —(4/16)(19)? = —90.25 M 45 = —(4/24)(20)° = —66.6
M,-= (4/11)(20)? = 145.4 Mg = (4/16)(23)? = 132.25
M,, =(4/16)(21)? = 110.0 M, = (4/14)(19)? = 103.0
Mep = —(4/11)(22) = -176.0 Myc = ~(4/11)(19)? = —131.27
Shortcuts may be introduced by making use of common quantities in the moment equations. For
example,
M,, = (21/23)*(M,) = 110.0 and Mp, = (11/10)(M,-) = — 160.0

Shear Forces in Kip
V, =4(20/2)=40.0 Vz, =1.15V,=46.0 V,. = 4(23/2) = 46.0 = V,.

Vie = 4(19/2) =38.0 9 Vpr=1.15V,=43.7 9Vex = 4(21/2) = 42.0= V5,
36 GRAVITY LOADS [CHAP. 2. ‘
Reactions in Kip
R,=V,= 40.0 Ro = Ve. + Ven = 88.0 R, =V, = 38.0

+ Ve =92.0
R, =V5- Rp =Vp. +Vp. =85.7
2.4. Figure 2-11 shows the cross section of a 4.5 in.-thick one-way slab. Live load is 100 Ib/ ft’, and
the floor covering weighs 1.5 lb/ft’. Determine the shear forces and the reactions delivered to
the supporting beams. The concrete weighs 150 lb/ft®, or 12.5 lb/ft” per inch of thickness.
12’ 12” 10’ 12” 10’ 12” 12’

Fig. 2-11
A check will show that the 1989 ACI coefficients may be used.
Wrz, = 100 + 1.5 + (4.5)(12.5) = 157.75 (use 158 lb/ft”)
Shear Forces
V, =V_ = 158(12/2) = 948 Ib/ft Vp. = Vg, = 158(12/2)(1.15) = 1090 lb/ft

Vy. = Vp. = 158(10/2) = 790 Ib/ft Vo. = Vow = 158(10/2) = 790 lb/ft
Reactions
Ry = Raz = Vg. + Vg» = 1880 lb/ft Re = Ve. + Ve« = 1580 lb/ft

R,=R,=V, =V_- = 948 Ib/ft
2.5. Determine the moments at A, B’, B", C’, F, and G for the slabs of Problem 2.4.
Beams A and E are spandrel beams, so M = —wl*/24 in the slab at A and E. For negative moments {
at supports use average of adjacent clear spans. For positive moment use clear span. Moments in ft-Ib_
are
M,, = —158(12)7/24 = —948 — M,. = —158(11)7/10 = —1912
M,. = (10/11)(M,.) = —1738 M... = —158(10)7/11 = — 1437
M,= 158(12)7/14 = 1625 M,, = 158(10)°/16 = 988 F
74
If beam B of Fig. 2-11 is 20 ft long and is iecinaae on brick walls, determine theend
reactions and the moment at the center of |the beam. ised load + live |load of -
B = 225 lb/ft.) ; .e
~ moHase es a apr
Fig. 2-12
A check shows that the 1989 ACI coefficients apply. Note symmetry and calculate half the values.
Use moments in ft-lb/ft of supporting beam.
Total load w,, =w,, + Wp, = 100 + 50 = 150 Ib/ft?
For negative moments, note that the slab spans do not exceed 10 ft, and equation (2.7) applies. Use
average of adjacent span lengths.
M4, = —150(9)7/12 = —1013 Me a= Ms. M
My = —150(9.5)/12=-1128 M.,=Me, Mpnc= Mose
Men = —150(10)7/12 = —1250
For positive moments, ends supported on girders, or integral with supports when considering slabs:
M, = M, = 150(9)7/14 = 868 M, = M,, = 150(10)7/16 = 938
Shear forces in lb/ft of supporting beams:
V, =V, = 150(9/2) = 675 Vz. = Vo. = 150(10/2) = 750
V, =V,. =1.15V, =776 Vou= Vp. = 150(10/2) = 750
Reactions in lb/ft of supporting beam:
R,=Rp=Vy 61) Ry = Rp =Vyi t Vg = 1526 - Re = Vo. + Vow = 1500
2.8. Determine the total design loads for beams A, C, and EF of Problem 2.7.
Loads are delivered from the slab in lb/ft of beam. Clear spans were used for slab analysis, so added
loads over the beams must be determined.
Added DL = (4+ 12)(1)(150)/12 = 200 Ib/ft2, Added LL = (100)(1)(1) = 100 Ib/ft?.
Added total load = 200 + 100 = 300 lb/ft’.
Beams A, C, and E: added w,, = 1.5(300) = 450 lb/ft
W, = We = 450 + 675 = 1125 lb/ft w = 450 + 1500 = 1950 lb/ft
2.9. The two-way slab shown in Fig. 2-13 is an interior slab and is 4” thick. The live load is
50 lb/ft”. Determine the slab moments for designing the middle strip in the short direction at
D, C, and E. Assume all adjacent slabs are identical to the one shown. Use Method 2 of the
1963 ACI Code.
L is lesser of (19’ — 4”) + (2)(4”) = (20' — 0") and (19’ — 4”) + (2)(12")/2 = (20' — 4"). S is lesser of
(15’— 4”) + (2)(4")= (16’— 0") and (15’ — 4”) + (2)(12”)/2 = 16'— 4". Then L=20' and S=16’,
m= S/L=0.8
From Table 2.1 and Fig. 2-4, Case 1, m =0.8 obtain: for negative M, continuous edge, C =-0,048;
for positive M, C = 0.036.
GRAVITY LOADS [CHAP. fA
38
4iw)
es
bs
a
|
|
|
|
|
ap
5
Fig. 2-13
Slab weight = w,, = 4(12.5) =50 lb/ft”. w,, = Wp, + w,, = 100 lb/ft”.
At D and E: M=-—Cw,,S* = —0.048(100)(16)? = —1229 ft-lb/ ft.
At C: M=+Cw,,S? =0.036(100)(16)? = 922 ft-lb/ft.
2.10. Determine the moments at A, B, and C for the middle strip, long direction, for the slab of
Fig. 2-13. Use Method 2 of the 1963 ACI Code.
For the long direction, for all values of m, C = 0.033 for negative moment and C = 0.025 for positive ©
moment (Table 2.1 and Fig. 2-4).
At A and B: M=-—Cw,,S? = —0.033(100)(16)* = —845 ft-lb/ft.
At C: M=+Cw,,S* =0.025(100)(16)* = 640 ft-Ib/ft.
Note: The design moments may be reduced to those values which exist at the face of the support, in
accord with the 1963 and 1989 Codes. The reductions in moments are usually small and the calculations
are lengthy. Thus the reduction is usually unwarranted considering the fact that the design coefficients
are somewhat arbitrary.
2.11. Use the solutions obtained in Problem 2.9 to determine the moments in the column strips,
short direction.
The column strip width is (2)(20/4) = 10 ft. The 1963 ACI Code required that the average moments
in the column strip shall be two-thirds of the moments in the adjacent middle strip. That Code permitted
varying the moment from a maximum at the edge of the middle strip to a minimum at the support. Two
solutions are possible:
(a) Using average moment of 2/3 of middle strip moment:
At support (both sides of G or J),M = —0.667(1229)= —819 ft-lb/ft.
At center (both sides of B),M Ee —0.667(922) == —615 ft-lb/ft.
(b) If the average column strip moments are Sy3. of the middle strip moment, “thecolumn stri
‘moments: ma be varied ies (3/3)M to (1/3)M.
2.12. Determine the design moment for point D, middle strip, long span for the slab shown in Fig.
2-14. Total dead load including the slab weight is 75 lb/ft” and live load is 100 lb/ft. The slab
has 6" constant thickness. Beams are 12” wide. Use Method 2 of the 1963 ACI Code.
Interior Panel — Case 1
ie
ontinuous Ed Edge~ 2 |
Conti
cal[age Rapa egal
Discontinuous edge
Fig. 2-14
Center-to-center spans are identical to clear spans plus twice the slab thickness. The values of C (for
M = Cw,,,S’) are independent of m= S/L for the long span. Moments are in ft-lb/ft width of slab.
From Table 2.1 and Fig. 2-4: Slab A, C, =0.033; slab B, C,, = 0.058.
Mj, = —0.033(175)(20)* = —2310 My, = —0.058(175)(20)? = —4060
Ratio M,/M;, = 2310/4060 = 0.0569 < 0.80; distribution necessary
Relative stiffness //L is the same for the two slabs. Thus distribution factors are 0.5 for each side.
Difference in moments = |M/,|—|Mj| = 1750. Distribute 2/3 of the difference to each side.
M", = —4060 + (2/3)(1750)(0.5) = —3477 M!, = —2310 — (2/3)(1750)(0.5) = —2893
2.13. Determine the width of the middle strips (X,, and X,) for slabs A and B in the short direction
and the width of the column strip (Y) between the two middle strips for the slabs shown in
Fig. 2-15. Use Method 2 of the 1963 ACI Code.
10’
2
GRAVITY LOADS [CHAP. 2
For slab A: m=10/18=0.555 >0.5 For slab B: m=10/25=0.4<0.5

X, = 18/2=9' X, = 25 —10=15'
= 18/4 = 4.5’ Z, = (25—15)/2=S'
Y=4.5+5.0=9.5'
2.14. Determine the end shear for design of the middle strip in the long and short directions for slab
B in Fig. 2-14. Use data and solution for Problem 2.12 (along with Method 2 of the 1963 ACI
Code).
m = S/L = 20/24 = 0.833
Short beam: w’, = w,,5/3 = 175(20/3) = 1167 Ib/ft.
Long beam: w/ = (w,,5/3)(3 — m?)/2 = 1167[3 — (0.833)°]/2 = 1346 Ib/ft.
The end shear force for the short slab span = wj since that force is delivered to the long beam. In a
like manner, the end shear force for the long slab span = ws.
2.15. Using the data and solution of Problem 2.14, determine the total uniform load for designing
- beam JH of Fig. 2-14. The total depth of the beam is 24” and the slab is 6” thick.
The load to beam JH = w; + weight of the crosshatched portion of the beam shown in Fig. 2-16.
The area is 2(1) — (0.5)(0.5) = 1.75 ft”.
Wall
24”
Fig. 2-16 ef
Weight of crosshatched portion = 1.75(150) = 263 Ib/ft.

Wr, = 1346 + 263 = 1609 lb/ft ‘
Note that additional live load was not added since the wall rests on the slab and live load cannot be
placed on this 6” width. The weight of the wall would also be added to the load on the beam. =
Note: In this problem and other problems in this chapter the dead load and live load have n
combined. This procedure is normal for use with the alternate design method. When using the s
design method, the dead load ae loadare
e treated iy gesince load oe differ a de
eae hy ae aa Saat ee
ioe oe
CHAP. 2] GRAVITY LOADS 4]
2.17. Using yield line theory, derive equation (2.13) for the equivalent uniform load w; delivered to
the short beam (AC) due to a uniform load w on the slab. Do not include the weight of the
beam. See Fig. 2-18.
L
A B
Long Beam
F
G E F a iS
inn
Q S
S/2 Ts S/2
Fig. 2-18
The load is delivered to beam AC from area AEC. The maximum load is delivered along line EG
and equals wS/2. Figure 2-19(a) shows the actual loading condition; Fig. 2-19(b) shows the equivalent
loading condition. (Load from only one side considered.)
wS/2 wi
(a) Actual load (b) Equivalent load

Fig. 2-19
Using the actual load condition, R , = (wS/2)(S/2)(1/2) = wS7/8.

The moment M, = (wS?/8)(S/2) — (wS?/8)(S/6) = wS3/24.
Using the equivalent load condition, M, = wi(S7/8).
Considering M, identical for both conditions, wS*/24 = w{(S7/8) or wi =wS/3 (valid in any
consistent system of units).
2.18. Using yield line theory, derive equation (2.14) for the equivalent uniform load w, for the long
beam (CD) shown in Fig. 2-18 due to a uniform load w. Do not include the weight of the
beam.
The actual load condition is shown in Fig. 2-20(a), and the equivalent load condition is shown in
Fig. 2-20(b). (Load from only one side considered.)
S/2 Dees: S/2
(6)
Using statics to obtain reactions, the moment M,, can be obtained.

Due to actual load conditions, M, = (wS7/8)(S/3) + (wS/2)[(L — S)/2][(L + S)/4]. Substituting -
m= S/L, obtain M, = (wSL’)(3 — m*)/48.
Due to the equivalent load conditions, M, = w}(L7/8).
Equating the actual moment and the equivalent moment, obtain w) = (wS/3)(3 — m*)/2 (valid in
any consistent system of units).
2.19. Figure 2-21 shows the joints of a frame and the beam end moments.
I/h = 100
“7?
I/h = 150 I/h = 150
Fig. 2-21
M,,= -110ft-kip M,,=—150ft-kip M,, = —100 ft-kip

Relative stiffness (J/h) factors are shown on the figure. Determine the column moments. on
At joint A: For column mie M=qeetaaes 150)] =ie ue o ‘
2.20. Refer to Fig. 2-9 of Problem 2.1. Assume span AB is 7 m long and span BC is 8m long. Dead
load (DL), including the weight of the beam, is 5 kKN/m and live load (LL) is 10 kKN/m.
Calculate the factored-load moments and shears using the approximate coefficients given in
the 1989 ACI Code. All other conditions are identical to those in Fig. 2-9. The loads given
have been factored using 1.4DL and 1.7LL.
The Code criteria for using the approximate coefficients are (a) loads are uniformly distributed; (5)
the ratio of live load to dead load does not exceed 3; (c) the ratio of adjacent clear spans, (long
span — short span)/short span, does not exceed 0.2. (The long span is designated as /,, and the short
span as /,,. For negative moments at exterior ends of exterior spans and for positive moments, the
particular span length is /,.) Thus:
(a) Loads are uniform (O.K.)
(6b) LL/DL=10/5=2<3 (O.K.)
Clete aii (8 780,125.10,2 (O.K.)
The approximate coefficients may be used. With W=LL + DL, the bending moments are
M 2 = —wil?/24 = —(15)(7)7/24 = —30.63 kN-m
Maa = —W(L,1/Ln2)/2)7/9 = —(15/9)[(7 + 8) /2]? = 93.75 kN-m
Mey = —wl?/24 = —(15)(8)7/24 = —40.0 kN-m
M, = +wil?/11 = +(15)(7)7/11 = +66.82 kN-m
M,, = +wl?/11 = +(15)(8)7/11 = +87.27-kKN-m
The shear forces are
V,, = wl,/2 = (15)(7)/2 = 52.5 kN

Vi, = 1.15 wl,/2= (1.15)(15)(7)/2 = 60.38 kN
V "= 1.15 wi,/2= (1.15)(15)(8)/2= 69.0 kN
The reactions are
R,=V, = 52.5 kN
R,=Vi+V%
B
,
= 60.38 + 69.0 = 129.38 kN
R
2.21. Refer to Fig. 2-10. Span lengths are AB=8 m, BC=9m, CD=8m, and DE=7m. The
total factored dead load is 8 kN/m and the factored live load is 12 kKN/m. The other conditions
are identical to those in Fig. 2-10. Determine the factored-load (ultimate) design bending
moments. (Load factors for ultimate moments are 1.4 times dead load and 1.7 times live
load.)
Checking first to determine whether or not the approximate coefficients apply:
(a) Loads are uniformly distributed (O.K.)
(b) LL/DL= 8/7 = 1.143 <3.0 (O.K.)
(c) (1, -1,1)/L.1 = (9 —8)/9 = 0.11 <0.2 for spans CE and DE (O.K.)
Therefore the coefficients apply, and the design bending moments, in kN-m, are:
M,4 = —(1/10)(15)(8)* = —96.0 Mcp = —(1/11)(15)(8.5)? = —98.52
Meg = —(1/11)(15)(8.5)* = —98.52 Mac = —(1/11)(15)(8.5)? = —98.52
Myc = ~(1/11)(15)(7.5)° = —7.67 M,.= +(1/11)(15)(8)° = +87.27
Mp,= —(1/10)(15)(7.5)? = —84.38 M,,= +(1/16)(15)(8)° = +60.0
Mep = —(1/16)(15)(7)? = —45.94 M, = +(1/16)(15)(9)* = +75.94
M 45 = ~(1/24)(15)(8.5)° = 45.16 M, = +(1/14)(15)(7)* = +52.5
2.22. Refer to Fig. 2-14. The span lengths in the long direction are 8 m, and the spans in the short
direction are 7 m. The dead load (not including the weight of the slab) is 2.47 kN/m’ and the
live load is 5.0 kN/m*. The beams are 300 mm wide and the slab thickness is 150 mm. Use
Method 2 of the 1963 ACI Code to determine the service-load moment for point D, middle
strip, long span. Assume that reinforced concrete (with normal-density aggregates) has a
weight density of 23.5 kN/m*.
The criteria for use of Method 2 of the 1963 ACI Code are (a) loads are uniformly distributed; (b)
ratio of live load to dead load (LL/DL) does not exceed 3; (c) adjacent clear spans may not differ in
length by more than 20 percent of the short span; (d) design span lengths are the smaller of the
center-to-center spans and the clear spans plus twice the slab thickness.
Checking the criteria:
(a) Loads are uniformly distributed (O.K.)
(b) The slab weight per unit area is (150/1000)(23.5) = 3.53 kN/m/7, so total dead load = 3.53 + 2.47 =
6.0 KN/m*. Thus, LL/DL = 5.0/6.0 = 0.833 < 3.0 (O.K.)
(c) Adjacent spans are the same length (O.K.)
(d) Design span lengths center-to-center and clear span plus twice the slab thickness are identical
(O.K.)
It should also be noted that when the aspect ratio (ratio of long span to perpendicular short span)
exceeds 2.0, two-way slab action will not occur. In such cases, the slab should be designed as a one-way
slab in the short direction. (Temperature and shrinkage reinforcement must then be provided in the long
direction.)
The bending moments using equation (2.12) are equal to CwS’. For the long span, Table 2.1 shows
that the coefficients C are independent of the inverse of the aspect ratio, m = S/L. So, for slab A, an
interior panel, C, (at point D) = 0.333, and for slab B, with three edges discontinuous, C, = 0.058. The
total load (D + L) is 6.0+ 5.0=11.0 kN/m*. The moments at D are
Mj, = —CwS? = —(0.033)(11.0)(7)? = -17.79 kN-m
M’, = —(0.058)(11.0)(7)? = —31.26 kN-m
The ratio M/,/M/, = 17.79/31.26 = 0.569 < 0.8. Thus, the moments on the two sides of point D must
be distributed in accord with the relative stiffness factors on each side. The stiffness E,J/L is the same
for both sides, so the distribution factors are 0.5. Thus,
|M”,| —|Mj,| = 31.26 — 17.79 = 13.47 kN-m

Distribute 2/3 of the difference to each side in accord with their stiffness, or (2/3)(1/2) = 2/6= 1/3.
Hence,
Mj, = -17.79 — (1/3)(13.47) = —22.28 kN-m

MY, = —31.26 + (1/3)(13.47) = —26.77 kN-m
2.23. Determine the equivalent uniform load superimposed on beam JF of Fig. 2-14 using the data
of Problem 2.22.
For the short span JF, length =7 m, and the load condition shown in Fig. 2-19 applies.
Weight density of slab = (23.5)(150/1000) = 3.53 kKN/m?
Superimposed dead load = 2.47 tr
am Total uniform dead load= 6.0

%) Total uniform live load = 5.0 , :
—— Total uniform load= w S110kNim chem -7
_ Then, by etiuatiott (2.13), ws = wS/3=(11.0)(7)/3 =25 67 N/m . i
- em encod atoning added
tothis. Forex
web e 3 the sla’
2.24. Determine the equivalent uniform load superimposed on long beam JH in Fig. 2-14 using the
data of Problem 2.22. Assume that the web of the beam extends 500 mm below the slab.
For the long span JH, length=8 m, and the load condition shown in Fig. 2-20 applies. From
equation (2.14),
,
lames
lee
3 2
where m= S/L. Note that beam JH receives slab load from one side only.
m= $/L =7/8 =0.875
From Problem 2.23, the total uniform load (L+D) on the slab is 11.0 kN/m*. Thus,
og (11)(7) 3.0 — (0.875)?

= 28.67 kN/m
& 3 2
Since beam weight = (300/1000)(500/1000)(23.5) = 3.53 kKN/m, the equivalent uniform load for design-
ing the beam is
W = 28.67 + 3.53 = 32.2 kKN/m
Supplementary Problems
2.25. Determine slab: shear force at A, B’, B", and C’ in Fig. 2-22. Live load is 0.175 kip/ft’, and the concrete
weighs 0.15 kip/ft®. The spandrel beams at the columns are very stiff, so the slab is integral with the end
supports. Express answers in kip/ft of supporting beam.
Ans. V.=2.29, Vz.=2.59, Van = 2.38, Vas — 2:38
Brick Wall
Fig. 2-22
2.26. Determine the negative moments in the slab of Fig. 2-22 at A and B’. Express answers in ft-kip/ft of
supporting beam. Use coefficients of the 1989 ACI Code. Ans. M,=~—3.38, M,. = —8.56
2.27. Determine the positive moments in the slab of Fig. 2-22 at F and H. Express answers in ft-kip/ft of
supporting beam. Use coefficients of the 1989 ACI Code. Ans. M,=+5.64, M,, = +5.79
2.28. Determine the shear forces and bending moments in the slab of Fig. 2-22 at D” and E. Use coefficients
of the 1989 ACI Code. Ans. Vp.=2.59, Mp. = —8.56, V, = 2.25, M, = —3.38
2.29. Determine the width (X) of the middle strip, short direction for each slab shown in Fig. 2-23. Express
answers in feet. Use Method 2 of the 1963 ACI Code.
Ans. X,= 12.0, X,, = 10.0, X,,, = 10.0, X,,, = 10.0, X,, = 10.0..
46 GRAVITY LOADS [CHAP. 2.
Data for Fig. 2-23:

(1) Slab thickness = 6”
(2) All beams are 12” wide and project 16” below the slab
(3) w,, = 150 Ib/it*
(4) All beams are built into columns |
2.30. Determine the width (Y) of the column strips along DE and HJM for the slabs in Fig. 2-23. Express
answers in feet. Use Method 2 of the 1963 ACI Code. Ans. <Yng = 5.79.16, Yay ee
2.31. Given w,, =0.225 kip/ft’, determine the negative moments for the middle strip, long span at the
intersection of slabs II and IV in Fig. 2-23. Express answers in ft-kip/ft. Use Method 2 of the 1963 ACI
Code. Ans. M,,= —2.08, M,, = —2.48
2.32. Given w,, =0.225 kip/ft’, determine the negative moments for the middle strip, short span at the
intersection of slabs I and II in Fig. 2-23. (Hint: Distribution is necessary.) Express answers in ft-kip/ft.
Use Method 2 of the 1963 ACI Code. Ans. M,=-—2.09, M,, = —2.60
2.33. Given w,, = 0.225 kip/ft’, determine the positive moments for the middle strips (long and short spans)
for slab V in Fig. 2-23. Express answers in ft-kip/ft. Use Method 2 of the 1963 ACI Code.
Ans. Long span M = +2.70, Short span M = +3.13 Ss
x
2,34, Calculate the design dead and live equivalent uniform loads delivered from the slab to beams AD and
DH in Fig. 2-23. ag IS answers in kip/ft. Use Method 2 of the 1963 ACI Code. Me YY
Ans. Beam AD: w},=0.20, w}, =0.40; Beam DH: w},=0.375, w}, =0.75 -! “an
i ' ; : —_ Saale a
oa 43 iT? '
Relative stiffness factors (J/L) are shown in circles on the figure.
Fig. 2-24
P43 Calculate the moments at the column ends for columns HE and EB in Fig. 2-24.
Ans. M,,, = 20 ft-kip, M,,, = 12 ft-kip, M,, = 18 ft-kip
2.38. Calculate the moments at the column ends for columns JF and FC in Fig. 2-24.
Ans. M,,=70 ft-kip, M,, = 33 ft-kip, M,. =55 ft-kip
2.39. Solve Problem 2.20 if span AB is 8 m and span BC is 9 m.

Ans. M,, = —40.0 kN-m M,,4 = —120.4 kN-m Me, = —50.6 kKN-m
M, = +87.3 kN-m M, = +110.4 kN-m
V, = 60.0 kN V, = 69.0 kN V5, =77.6 kN
R, = 60.0 kN R, = 146.6 kN R- = 60.0 KN
2.40. Solve Problem 2.21 if all spans are 10 m long and both dead load and live load are 10 KN/m.
Ans. M,,=~—100.0 kN-m M,, = —100.0 kN-m Me, = —90.0 KN-m Myc = —90.0 kKN-m
Mep = —62.5 kN-m M,, = —41.7 kN-m Mac = —90.0 KN-m Mep = —90.0 KN-m
M,, = +90.0 kN-m M, = +62.5 kN-m M,, = +62.5 kN-m M,=+71.4kN-m
2.41. Determine the middle-strip short-span moments in the slab of Fig. 2-14 if the long and short spans are
10 m and 8 m, respectively. Use other data from Problem 2.22.
Ans. My), =-—39.9 kN-m, Mj), = —46.0 kN-m
2.42. Solve Problem 2.24 for a long span of 10 m, a short span of 8 m, and a web extension below the beam of
700 mm. Ans. w, =39.55 KN/m
Chapter3
Lateral Loads
FORCES, SHEAR, MOMENTS, AND REACTIONS
NOTATION
CK = modified stiffness factor, in.-kip (KN-m)
h=column height, ft (m)
H, = lateral load at any joint i, kip (kN)
J =section moment of inertia, in.’ (mm”*)
K = relative stiffness factor E.J/L, in.-kip (kKN-m)
L=length of beam, ft (m)
M = bending moment, ft-kip (kKN-m)
M‘= fixed-end moment, ft-kip (KN-m)
V =story shear due to lateral loads, kip (KN)
GENERAL NOTES
Forces due to wind, earthquakes, water pressure, and soil pressure must be considered in the
analysis of structures. Methods used for determining the shears, moments, and reactions due to loads
caused by such conditions are studied in courses dealing with statically indeterminate structures. Such
procedures include the slope-deflection method, the matrix stiffness method, and the moment
distribution method, the second of these is particularly well suited to the electronic computer.
Courses pertaining to statically indeterminate structures provide only the basic principles one
must master to analyze reinforced concrete structures for lateral loads. These principles must be
expanded in the study of reinforced concrete analysis and design, particularly with reference to
lateral loads. Therefore several methods for such analysis will be discussed and illustrated in this
chapter.
Use of the modified stiffness factor CK = CE,I/L (not simply J/L) is necessary because (1)
current practice is to use stronger concrete in columns than in beams so that E, becomes variable; (2)
end conditions may vary from member to member, which is reflected in the variability of the
numerical parameter C. In this chapter constant cross-sectional moments of inertia are assumed; see
Chapter 13 for problems involving variable moments of inertia.
PORTAL METHOD
This method is useful in getting started on a design when the dimensions of members are
unknown. One assumes that a point of contraflexure (zero bending moment) exists at the midpoint of
every member. The structure becomes statically determinate, and only the principles of statics are
involved in obtaining the shears, moments, and axial forces.
This method provides excellent results for the intermediate stories of high-rise structures. The
solutions obtained for the upper two stories and the lower two stories are often in error by as much
as 50 percent. However, for the purpose of illustration of the method, simple structural frameworks
will be utilized in this text.
48 :
. pee
CHAP. 3] LATERAL LOADS 49
Assumptions in the Portal Method

(1) A point of contraflexure (zero moment) occurs at the midpoint of all members.
(2) The total horizontal force resisted at any level is the sum of all horizontal forces applied
above that level.
(3) The total horizontal force at any level is distributed so that the interior columns resist twice
as much horizontal force as the exterior columns.
(4) Vertical forces are obtained by statics using assumptions 1, 2, and 3.
The free-body diagram for the analysis of the structure shown in Fig. 3-1(a) is illustrated in Fig.
3-1(b).
———
(6)
Fig. 3-1
The vertical forces are obtained using statics, as shown in Fig. 3-2. Summing moments about E,
we obtain
V, =P,h,/4L, (3.1)
If a section is cut horizontally at E, we obtain from statics

M,=P,h,/8L, (372)
Similar equations are used for the interior columns, with H = P/2 rather than P/4 as for the exterior
columns.
Fig. 3-2
50 LATERAL LOADS [CHAP. 3
Since the applied forces P, and P, are known and the lengths of all members are known, the
horizontal and vertical forces and the joint moments may be obtained using statics.
Inaccuracies in the Portal Method
The portal method provides somewhat inaccurate results due to a number of factors, most of
which are related to the disregard of the stiffness of the members. Regardless of the inaccuracies
involved, the method is important for use in the preliminary stages of a design to obtain approximate
sizes of members for use with more accurate methods.
SWAY (CANTILEVER) MOMENT DISTRIBUTION

When certain requirements are fulfilled, the sway moment distribution method provides an exact
mathematical solution. The requirements for an exact solution are:
(1) In any two-column bay and at any floor level, the column stiffness factors must be identical.
(2) Loads must be applied laterally at the joints.
(3) The relative stiffness factors K for the girders are modified by multiplying by C = 6, that is,
CK = 6E_1/L. The girder carryover factors then become zero.
(4) The stiffness factors for the columns are K = E_I/h.
(5) All column carryover factors are —1.0, and beam carryover factors are zero.
(6) The structure must be symmetrical about a vertical centerline.
(7) When the structure consists of more than one bay, the structure must be separated into
several single-bay structures for which (1) is satisfied. The shear is divided in proportion to
the relative stiffnesses of the columns of the single-bay structures. The final solution
consists of superimposing the separate solutions for the single-bay structures, one upon
another, to obtain the results for the complete original structure.
(8) The fixed-end moment M* on any column is obtained from the equation
M*=-Vh/4 (3.3)
where V= sum of the horizontal forces on the single-bay structure, above the midheight of
the story in question :
h = height of the story in question, center to center of girders
PRELIMINARY AND FINAL ANALYSES

It is always necessary to make a preliminary analysis using assumed dimensions and stiffness
factors when employing the cantilever moment distribution; the same is true for computer or any
other type of solution.
The portal method provides a simple means of determining approximate moments and axial
loads for use in making a preliminary design. Thereafter, the more precise methods should be
employed to obtain an accurate solution for the lateral-load problem.
. Solved Problems | . :
| Vs iil, eos
joe ne Wile,hd
LATERAL LOADS 51
Fig. 3-3
The free-body diagrams for the elements of the upper story are shown in Fig. 3-4. Points of
contraflexure are assumed to exist at the midpoints of all members. The upper-story shear force (12 kip)
; _ is divided so that the exterior columns resist 2 kip each and the interior columns resist 4 kip each.
From (a), £ M about J=0. V, = 2(7.5)/9 = 1.67 kip.
From (b), © M about J =0. 4(7.5) — 1.67(9) — 10V, =0 and V, =1.5 kip.
From (c), 2 M about K =0. 4(7.5) — 1.5(10) — 12V, =0 and V, = 1.25 kip.
From (d), © M about c =0. 2(7.5) — 12V, =0 and V, = 1.25 kip.
“& The moments may now be computed using statics. Moments are in ft-kip. 5
a Fe M,, = 9(1.67) = 15.0 M,,. = 1.25(12) = 15.0 M,, =1.5(10) = 15.0 M,, = —4(7.5) = —30.0
M,, = 9(1.67) =15.0 |. M,, =—2(7.5) =—15.0 Mi 2(Je) 2 15.0
3.2. Given a three-bay, two-story structural frame as shown in Fig. 3-5, with lateral loads of 12 kip
at the second floor and roof joints; encircled numbers are the relative stiffness factors, in
in.-kip, for the members. Determine all moments using the sway moment distribution
moment.
12 kip
15’
20’
Fig. 3-5
(1) Separate the frame into three single-bay frames having symmetrical columns stiffness factors at
any floor level. This is shown in Fig. 3-6.
(2) Calculate the load distribution constants at the roof level:
~ 2653.2)
P,=P,=P, 6(53.2) (12)
“| = 4.0 kip
(3) Calculate load distribution constants at second-floor level:

2(40
P,=P,=P,¢= a (12)= 4.0 kip
(4) Calculate fixed-end moments on columns, M* = —Vh/4: ay : |

Frame 1 Cols. El, FJ: M* = —(4.0)(15.4) = —15.0 ft-kip
Cols. AE, BF: M* = —(4.0 + 4.0)(20/4) = —40.0 ft-kip
Py
CHAP. 3] LATERAL LOADS aS
Frame 2 Cols. FJ, GK: M* =-15.0 ft-kip

Cols. BF, CG: M* = —40.0 ft-kip
Frame 3 Cols. GK, HL: M* =~—15.0 ft-kip
Cols. CG, DH: M* = —40.0 ft-kip
(5) Calculate modified (sway) stiffness factors (CK) and distribution factors (D):
Columns: CK = K=E,I/h
Girders:s CK =6K=6E_1/L
Frame 1: CK,, = 40.0 De, = 40/693.2 =0.0577
CK,, = 53.2 Dp) = 53-2/693.2 = 0.0765
CK-, = (6)(100) = 600.0 D,-, = 600/693.2 = 0.8658
eC, = 693.2 Y = 1.0000
CK), =153.2 Dj, = 53.2/653.2 = 0.0814
CK,, = (6)(100) = 600.0 D,, = 600/653.2 = 0.9186
WCK} = 653.2 E = 1.0000
For corresponding locations on frames 2 and 3, the distribution factors are identical to those on
frame 1. Carryover factors are —1.0 for all columns and 0 for all beams. Therefore, distribute moments
only on the columns; the sum of column moments at a joint gives the beam moment. The moment
distribution is indicated in Fig. 3-7.
A E I
0.0 0.0577 0.0765 0.0814 D.F.
-—40.00 -—40.00 -15.00. -15.00
Sib — Font +4.21>5 -4.21
F.E.M. (M”)
—1.56<_+1.56
=0.09<— +0.09 tO.Z=> —0.12
—43.26 -—36.74 SUM

=~ = b!
The beam moments are obtained as the algebraic sum of the column moments at the joint in
question, as shown in Fig. 3-8. WA
The final moments are obtained by putting the separate bents together (i.e., superposition) and
adding the corresponding moments algebraically.
The final solution is shown in Fig. 3-9.
17.76 17.76 17.76

J K
17.76
12.23
36.24 73.48 73.48 36.74
43.26 86.52 (4% 86.52 43.26
Fig. 3-9
3.3. Refer to Fig. 3-11. Determine the moments at the ends of all columns if the beam span lengths
are 10 m, the column heights are 4 m, and the applied lateral loads at D and G are each
50 KN. The encircled relative stiffness factors are in kN-m. Use the cantilever (or sway)
moment distribution method.
Due to symmetry, only one of the bays needs to be solved. Each bay is subjected to one-half of the
total lateral load, i.e., 25 KN, at each joint. For frame AB-—GH the distribution factors are
pipe See 0
ee i
DA= DG = (aya + (20)(6) + 40d) ~ 200 ~ 9? }
ayy) 40 | 0.4 i
GD=
(@Oy(A)
+(10)(6) =~700
10 “4 TS. fl aes ae
HAP. 3] LATERAL LOADS 55
The fixed-end moments are:
Mt, = Vh/4= —(25)(4)/4= —25.0 kN-m

Mi, = Mi, = —(50)(4/4) = —50.0 kN-m
The carryover factors are all —1.0. The moment distribution is shown in Fig. 3-10.
The final column moments, in kN-m, are
Map = Mcp = —68.5 Maz = (2)(—68.5) = —137.0

Moa = Mee = —31.5 Meg = (2)(—31.5) = —63.0
Moo = Mp; = —23.9 Men = (2)(—23.9) = 47.8
Mop = M;, = —26.0 M,,. = (2)(—26.0) = —52.0
3.4. Use the portal method to find the moments in all the columns and girders of the frame shown in Fig.
3-11. The answers, in ft-kip, are listed in Table spas
3.5. Use the cantilever moment distribution method to find the moments in all the columns and girders of the
frame shown in Fig. 3-11. The answers, in ft-kip, are given in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1
Portal Cantilever moment
Juan Moment method distribution method
f :
LATERAL LOADS [CHAP. =
56
Stiffness factors are shown in circles on each member.
Fig. 3-11
Stiffness factors are shown in circles on each member.
Fig. 3-12
Table 3.2
Chapter 4
Alternate Design Method

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND FLEXURAL COMPUTATIONS
NOTATION
A, = gross area of concrete cross section, in. (mm°)
a3 (mm°)2
A , = area of tension reinforcement, in.
; ! Ae
A| = area of compression reinforcement, in. (mm°)2
s)
. . . . 2 2
A,,= area of tension reinforcement in flanges of flanged beams, in.” (mm°)
A,,, = area of tension reinforcement in webs of flanged beams, in. (mm°)
. . . 7 . 2? 7s
A ,,= total area of web reinforcement for shear, V,, measured in a direction parallel to the
* : 5 Sas 2
longitudinal reinforcement, in. (mm°)
a=angle between inclined stirrups or bent-up bars and longitudinal axis of a member,
degrees (radians)
b = width of compression face of a flexural member, and smaller dimension of a column
cross section, in. (mm)
b, = perimeter of critical section for punching shear in slabs and footings, in. (mm)
b,, = width of web of a T-beam, I-beam, or spandrel beam (inverted L-beam), in. (mm)
B. = aspect ratio of a slab or column cross section, long side/short side
C =a factor modifying the relative stiffness K of a member
C. = compression force in concrete, kip (KN)
C, = compression force in reinforcement, kip (KN)
d= distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of tension steel, in. (mm)
d' = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of compression steel, in. (mm)
E.= modulus of elasticity of concrete, psi (MPa)
E, = modulus of elasticity of steel (29 x 10° psi or 200 000 MPa)
f, = bearing stress, psi (MPa) .
f, =stress in tension reinforcement or web reinforcement, psi (MPa)
f{ =stress in compression reinforcement, psi (MPa)
f, = yield strength of reinforcement, psi (MPa)
h = total thickness or total depth of a slab or beam, and larger dimension of a column cross
section, in. (mm)
h,= flange thickness for T-beams, I-beams, and spandrel beams (inverted L-beam), in.
(mm)
1= moment of inertia of a cross section, in.’ (mm*)
/,,= moment of inertia of cracked concrete section and steel transformed to equivalent
wd 4
concrete, in. (mm_)
7,= moment of inertia of gross concrete section neglecting steel, in.’ (mm*)
k =a factor related to the location of the neutral axis of a cross section
K = relative stiffness factor E.///, in.-kip (KN-m)
/=span length, ft (m)
af
58 ALTERNATE DESIGN METHOD [CHAP. 4
M = bending moment, in.-kip (KN-m)

n= modular ratio E,/E.
N = load normal to a cross section (axial load), to be taken as positive for compression and
negative for tension, kip (KN)
€. = strain in concrete, in./in. (mm/mm)
€,=f/E,, in./in. (mm/mm)
p=steel ratio for tension reinforcement A,/bd
p'=steel ratio for compression reinforcement A{/bd
p,= steel ratio for tension reinforcement required to balance the compression force in
overhanging flanges of T-beams, I-beams, or spandrel beams (inverted L-beams),
A,,/b,,d
p,, = Steel ratio for tension reinforcement required to balance the compression force in the
webs of T-beams, I-beams, or spandrel beams (inverted L-beams), A,,,/b,,d
INTRODUCTION
Appendix A of the 1989 ACI Code includes, under the name alternate design method, an old
straight-line approximate theory whereby structural members were proportioned to sustain antici-
pated working (service) loads without the stresses in the concrete or reinforcing steel exceeding the
proportional limits of the individual materials. This ‘working stress design,” as it was called, has
been largely replaced by strength design techniques, and eventually it will be eliminated from the
Code altogether. No great loss will ensue so far as design for shear, torsion, development length and
splices for steel, and combined flexure and axial loading is concerned. Indeed, for those aspects of
design, the alternate design method is nothing but strength design made more conservative by the
imposition of large (>2) safety factors. However, for pure flexure and midstrength concretes
[ f’<4000 psi (28 MPa)], the alternate design method is still of importance.
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF THE METHOD

(1) Plane sections before bending remain plane after bending.
(2) .Both the concrete and reinforcing steel obey Hooke’s law (stress is proportional to strain) in
the regions considered.
(3) Strain is proportional to the distance from the neutral axis. See (1) above. '
(4) The tensile strength of the concrete is neglected.
(5) Perfect bond or adhesion is developed between the concrete and reinforcing steel so that
there is no slippage between the two materials.
_ (6) The other basic assumptions concerning deformation and flexure of homogeneous members
are valid. a
Ts mee) The modulus of elasticity of concrete is given by, equation (1.3) of pbantey i
(8) fe modulus of
Shree of steel is asNae inGis aes re, fiw
CHAP. 4] ALTERNATE DESIGN METHOD a9
be discussed and derived which will greatly facilitate the solution of the derived formulas. However,
so that there will be a thorough understanding of the principles involved, the fundamentals will be
studied first and then we will consider the proportioning of members by using various design aids.
ALLOWABLE STRESSES
In working stress design all the margin of safety is provided for by the fact that the calculated
stresses in the members are such that they are considerably below the yield stress or ultimate strength
of the various materials when a member is subjected to the anticipated service loads imposed on the
structure.
Paraphrased below are the portions of the 1989 ACI Code pertaining to allowable stresses under
the alternate design method. As usual, expressions in IP units are followed by their SI equivalents in
parentheses or brackets (except when one form holds for both systems). It should be emphasized that
the SI forms were obtained by ‘hard conversion’”—exact, or ‘“‘soft,’”’ conversion followed by
smoothing—of the IP forms. For example, the exact SI equivalent of 1.1\/f’ is, to five decimals,
0.91340\/f’, which is smoothed into
(0.9090: )\VRi= = VF.
Permissible service load stresses
Stresses in concrete shall not exceed the following:

Flexure
Extreme: iber an COMpression ge). y\lon. 2 OT Se en NS. 0.45f7
Shear
Beams and one-way slabs and footings
Shearscarnied rbyrconcrete. Weta owiLis|. Ssvite fat. 3e).4 LiVvfi (Vfi/11)
Maximum shear carried by concrete
plustsheartremforcementieeminancehe
|.aera: vee 4.4Vf. (uv. + 3Vf2/8)
Joists
Shearcarrieds Py: CONCTELEy Us. fathcc5, Wavne e vsensvs wien OV TF (VF 10)
Two-way slabs and footings . 3
Shear carried by concrete, v,........ (1+ VE fe + 5 VFI 12|
but not greater than 2V/f! (V
f//6)
Bearing
Smloacdemitcammnacate .Sivmaeres - barn lie. pigs sfthys stdeey « 0.3f)

Tensile stress in reinforcement f, shall not exceed the following:
Grade 40 or Grade 50 (Grade 300M)
PERMASE CRINGE ocala ee Mts hs) ye oo beg 8 aoa 20,000 psi (140 MPa)
Grade 60 (Grade 400M) reinforcement or greater g
and welded wire fabric (smooth or deformed)... .. 24,000 psi (170 MPa)
For flexural reinforcement, 3/8 in. (10 mm) or
less in diameter, in one-way slabs of not
mete thansi2{t(4:m) Spandgsesr ite Le ei arh SIE RS . I 0.50f,
but not greater than 30,000 psi (200 MPa)
ALTERNATE DESIGN METHOD [CHAP. 4
60
Development and splices of reinforcement
The nominal bending moment M,, shall be taken as computed moment

capacity assuming all positive moment tension reinforcement at the section to be
f,,and V, shall be taken as the unfactored
stressed to the permissible tensile stress
shear force at the section.
Flexure
For investigation of stresses at service loads, straight-line theory (for flexure)

is used with the following assumptions:
(1) Strains vary linearly as the distance from the neutral axis, except, for
deep flexural members with overall depth-span ratios greater than 2/5
for continuous spans and 4/5 for simple spans, a nonlinear distribution
of strain shall be considered. [Refer to “Design of Deep Girders,” a
publication of the Portland Cement Association. ]
(2) The stress-strain relationship of concrete is a straight line under service
loads within permissible service-load stresses.
(3) In reinforced concrete members, concrete resists no tension.
(4) The modular ratio n = E,/E. may be taken as the nearest whole number
(but not less than 6). Except in calculations for deflections, the value of
n for low-density concrete shall be assumed to be the same as for
normal-density concrete of the same strength.
(5) In doubly reinforced (i.e., reinforced in the compression zone) flexural
members, an effective modular ratio 2E,/E. shall be used to transform
compression reinforcement to equivalent concrete for stress computa-
tions. Compressive stress in such reinforcement shall not exceed permis-
sible tensile stress.
Because the effects of winds and earthquakes are intermittent and of short duration, the 1989
Code states that moments, shears, and axial loads may be multiplied by 0.75 when dead load and live
load are accompanied by wind or seismic forces. This is tantamount to permitting members to be
proportioned for stresses one-third greater than those stated above. In the case of a building
subjected to wind load, tensile axial (live) loads develop in the columns of the windward side.
Because the dead-load compressive forces counter this tension, the Code requires that only 85
percent of the dead load be used in design calculations.
EFFECT OF REINFORCEMENT IN CONCRETE

As previously stated, the tensile strength of concrete is small compared to the compressive
strength [normal-density concrete has a tensile strength of 7.5Vf/ (0.7\/f!)]. Hence it is assumed in
structural design that this tensile strength is nil. Therefore it is necessary to strengthen or reinforce
concrete members where they are subjected to tensile stresses. This reinforcement is usually
accomplished by the embedment of steel bars or rods which must then be assumed to resist 100
percent of the tensile forces. In certain cases a material other than steel must be employed for
reinforcement; for example, radar and microwave transmitter housings require the use of a
nonmagnetic material. We mention here that aluminum should never touch concrete (the metal reacts
destructively with the cement).
Figure 4-1 is a schematic elevation of a reinforced concrete beam. As the magnitude of the
vertical loads is increased, the elongation of the bottommost fibers of the beam exceeds the ultimate
tensile strain of the concrete and microscopic cracks develop. Since the strain in the section is
proportional to the distance from the neutral axis, as the magnitude of the loads continues to
increase, the tensile stresses increase and the cracks continue to increase in size and number and
*
CHAP. 4] ALTERNATE DESIGN METHOD 61
ear
kd
Neutral
Axis
Reinforcing Steel
Steel Reinforcement, A,
Fig. 4-1 Fig. 4-2
spread upward toward the neutral axis; they may eventually become visible. These cracks will run
perpendicular to the direction of the maximum principal tensile stress in the concrete. Hence the
inclination of these cracks is a function of the flexural, shear, and axial stresses to which the section is
subjected.
Obviously, when the concrete is cracked it is no longer capable of transmitting or resisting tensile
forces. Then the tensile forces in the bottom of the beam must be resisted by the reinforcement, and
the compressive forces at the top are resisted by the concrete. Thus the effective cross section in
resisting flexure is shown in Fig. 4-2. The crosshatched area above the neutral axis is the com-
pression zone, and the steel reinforcement A, is all that resists the tensile stresses below the neutral
axis.
It is important to remember that because the tensile strength of concrete is so low, these cracks
form at a load level such that the compressive stresses in the concrete and the tensile stresses in the
reinforcement are still well below the ultimate or yield strengths. Also, the strains or deflections
associated with the formation of these cracks are small enough that the appearance and serviceability
of the structure need not be impaired. (Of course, what is a blemish in an auditorium may not be one
in a warehouse.)
RECTANGULAR BEAMS
Figure 4-3 shows the assumed distribution of strain and stress for a rectangular beam.
ia te S
we
=
_ _Neutral t Cc
3 Axis mS
MP
|ee | |
fin |
Fig. 4-3
As a matter of convenience, the principal expressions derived in Problem 4.1 are summarized
below:
guna
tem n(1—k) Saw
np P=)
= (4.2)
k=V2pn+(pn)y —pn (4.3)

j=1-k/3 (4.4)
R= f.jk/2 (4.5)
M = Rbd* (4.6)
d= VM/Rb (4.7)
p= kf,/2f, (4.8)
A,=MI/f.jd (4.9)
With the above equations it is possible to design a rectangular concrete beam with tensile
reinforcement. It will be shown later that design aids can be developed for these equations which will
greatly facilitate their solution.
TRANSFORMED SECTION
The foregoing expressions were developed assuming that the reinforced concrete beam was not
homogeneous but was a composite of concrete and reinforcing steel. Although this method complies
with the laws of mechanics, it can prove to be somewhat tedious when analyzing sections more
complex in makeup than the previous simple example. A method will now be developed which will
replace the composite section by an all-concrete section that is equivalent so far as flexure is
concerned. See Problem 4.2.
To transform the composite section of concrete and steel into an equivalent homogeneous
section, the area of reinforcing steel outside the compression zone is replaced by an area of concrete
n times as great. In the compression zone, 2n is used. (More correctly, 2n — 1 should be used to
account for the concrete displaced by steel.) The transformed section of Fig. 4-2 would then be as
shown in Fig. 4-4, with n= E,/E..
Thus, with the section in Fig. 4-4, the standard formulas for flexure of a homogeneous beam may
be used. And equations (4.1) through (4.9) may be derived beginning with the flexure formula
f=Mc/l. :
T-BEAMS é |
In much ae
1 concrete penta and samedi floor een a b is cas
cams
i> n.
one sa
+4 Fig. 4-5
If the neutral axis of the section falls within the slab or flange of the T-beam, as shown in Fig.
4-6, then the analysis for the section is the same as for a rectangular beam of width b. Because the
effect of the concrete below the neutral axis has been neglected, the value of b,, is irrelevant and
equations (4.1) through (4.9) hold.
Neutral
Axis
Fig. 4-6
If, however, the area of the flange is not capable of resisting the compressive force, then the
neutral axis falls below the slab and the previous expressions are not applicable.
Figure 4-7 is similar to Fig. 4-3 except that the location of the centroid of the compressive force is
not as readily determined. Hence the derivations are somewhat more complex.
ease
kd
Neutral
Axis
| b, | f,/n
The derivations of the formulas for a T-beam are similar to those for the rectangular beam. In
the derivations contained in this chapter, the effect of the flange only is considered and then added to
the rectangular portion or stem. See Problem 4.3.
Again, as a convenience, the principal expressions derived in Problem 4.3 are summarized
below:
f.k (4.10)
Pe 7
a ee (4.11)
_ pnt 3(h,ldy (442)

pn + (h,/d)
6 O(hyld) + 2(h,/dy° + (h,/d)'CG pn) (4.13)
sap 6 — 3(h,/d)
R= f.j(1 — h,/2kd)(h,/d) (4.14)
M = Rbd* (4.15)
= VM/Rb (4.16)
A,=MI/f.jd (4.17)
Later, design charts or tables will be developed which will aid in the solution of equations (4.10)
through (4.17). These same equations are developed using the cracked transformed section.
BALANCED DESIGN
A term frequently used in the alternate design method for flexural members is balanced design.
Sometimes this is referred to as balanced reinforcement. If a member is so proportioned that the
stresses in both the concrete and the reinforcing steel reach their maximum allowable values at the
same time, then the section is said to have balanced design.
Balanced design means that there is exactly enough reinforcement to develop the maximum
allowable compressive stress in the concrete. If there is a lesser amount of steel, then the concrete
compressive strength cannot be developed and the section is said to be underreinforced. If there is
more reinforcement than required to develop the concrete strength, the section is overreinforced.
At first it would appear that balanced design would prove to be the most economical solution to”
a design. This is not always true. In fact the greatest economy is almost always attained using
underreinforced sections. The reinforcing steel is usually the most expensive component in the
section, and in underreinforced members the ratio of steel volume to total volume is made less.
Underreinforced members are deeper and stiffer and are not as subject to deflection problems as are
the shallower members. Moreover, they behave in a ductile manner, giving fair warning of
impending failure. Overreinforced members are brittle; when failure occurs, it is sudden and often
catastrophic.
A COMPRESSION REINFORCEMENT . | Pare,

steel is stressed to its allowable limit, giving rise to a brittle, overreinforced beam. When this
condition exists, the allowable compressive force must be increased. It is increased by the addition of
reinforcing steel in the compression zone. The reinforcing steel is capable of resisting compressive
stresses many times greater than concrete can. Compression steel is always provided at the supports
in continuous members because Section 12.11.1 of the 1989 ACI Code requires that one-fourth of the
midspan tension steel must be extended into the support.
When compressive steel is present, the section is doubly reinforced and can withstand a greater
moment and/or be made shallower. When this is done, the expressions previously derived are no
longer valid because it was assumed that there was tension reinforcement only. Therefore with
compressive reinforcement Fig. 4-2 would now look like Fig. 4-8.
Compressive
Reinforcement, Al ~ | b |
d’
Tle
Fig. 4-9
Figure 4-3 would now appear like Fig. 4-9. €., ef, C., and C{ are the unit strains and compressive
forces in the concrete and steel, respectively.
Again as a summary, the expressions used in the alternate design of doubly reinforced beams, as
derived in Problem 4.4, are:
MAS (4.18)
{= ACL)
f=nf. (4.19)
f, =2nf, see (4.20)
V2n(p + 2p'd'/d)+n°(p+2p') —n(p+2p'),

when compression steel is transformed by 2n ;
k= 5 — (4.21)
nak (2nsh) pile met. (2n-= We diidliccinp + (2n-7 1)p) |.
when compression steel is transformed by 2n — 1
jetrzid (4.22)
M.= Rbd’ ! (4.23)
M,= A'f'(d-d') (4.24)
d= VMI/Rb (4.25)
A,= MI/f,jd (4.26)
M — Rbd?
Aye f(d=d) (4.27)
k?d/3 + 2np'd'(k — d'/d)

k* + 2np'(k — d'/d)
>
when compression steel is transformed by n

z=), (4.28)
k?d/3 + 4np'd'(k — d'/d)
k? + 4np'(k — d'/d)
when compression steel is transformed by 2n.— 1
There also will be design aids developed for the solution of equations (4.18) through (4.28).
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY OF CONCRETE

Equation (1.3) of Chapter 1 gives the empirical formula for E, adopted by the 1989 ACI Code.
The formula is assumed valid for concrete densities (w,) ranging from 90 Ib/ft* (1500 kg/m°) to
155 Ib/ft? (2500 kg/m’).
It is obvious that the modulus of elasticity of concrete varies with the density. The modular ratio
then varies inversely as the modulus of elasticity of the concrete. Hence it would seem that the value
for the modular ratio for lightweight (low-density) structural concrete would be much greater than
that for normal-density concrete of equal test-cylinder strength.
Except in deflection calculations, the 1989 ACI Code specifies that n for low-density concrete be
taken as the same as normal-density concrete of equal strength. This should require an explanation.
Assuming that f’ = 3000 psi, then for 145 Ib/ft® density,
E., = 33(145)'°V3000 = 3,160,000 psi sand = n= = oe 9.2
The Code permits use of the nearest whole number.

For w, = 100 lb/ft® and f’ = 3000 psi, n = 16.
If f,= 20,000 psi, then for n = 9.2, ;
ees Ser ere i Sallam

*~ T+ fing, T-¥20,00019.23000)(0.45)}0 cao ants fad
a If n = 16,
= j=1-0.52/3 = 0.827 Ps: :

I a 1 + 0/{16(3000)(0.45)] — 0.52 | and
20,00
fom Ny ‘ me
a: The balanced steel ratios would be
te eee ors
r
S0.0175
eli
(Chapter 5) will show that the apparent ultimate capacity of the lightweight section would be
approximately 30% greater than that of the normal-density section.
If the same values of n are compared for an underreinforced section, e.g., for p = 0.008, then
2np + (np) — np = V2(9.2)(0.008) + (9.2)°(0.008)* — 9.2(0.008) = 0.318 for n =9.2. And k =
0.393 for n= 16. Then j = 0.894 for n =9.2, and j = 0.869 for n= 16. If M=f,jdA,, the moment
capacity for the normal-density concrete would be approximately 3 percent greater than that for the
lightweight section. The ultimate capacities would be identical.
Although the above comparison is merely an arbitrarily selected example, it does show what the
results are when nv is varied. Other examples would bear out this trend.
With balanced reinforcement in the alternate design method, the lightweight concrete section has
ostensibly a much greater ultimate capacity if the two n values are used. For underreinforced sections
the working stress resisting moments are almost equal and the ultimate resisting moments are
identical regardless of what n is used. Therefore in flexural computations it is logical that the value of
n should be taken as that determined for normal-density concrete regardless of the actual density of
the concrete.
DESIGN AIDS AND TABLES

Two methods have been presented with which the flexural design of reinforced concrete can be
accomplished when the straight-line theory is used: the analysis (1) as a composite nonhomogeneous
section and (2) as a homogeneous transformed section. With either of these two methods the laws of
mechanics may be applied to a free body of the section, or values may be substituted directly into the
derived equations (4.1) through (4.28). It is obvious that these methods are not suitable for rapid
investigation or design and that they do not lend themselves to use as routine techniques for the
design office.
As previously discussed, many design aids have been developed based on the derivations
contained in this chapter. These have been in the form of charts, curves, tables, nomographs, etc.
However, it seems that the solution of these equations by the use of tables has proved to be the most
satisfactory for the design office.
The American Concrete Institute and others have developed a series of tables which are
universally accepted, and these will be the ones used herein.
Table 4.1, which is reproduced with permission of the ACI, is a series of coefficients developed
for use in solving equations (4.1) through (4.9) when IP units are employed. The tables are divided
into sections depending on the allowable steel stress f, which varies from 16,000 to 33,000 psi. (While
the 1989 ACI Code limits steel stress to 30,000 psi, local building codes may allow higher stresses in
high-strength steel. Hence the tabular entries for 33,000 psi.) At the left-hand column of each of the
tables is the concrete-cylinder compressive strength f’ and the modular ratio n. Also at the left is the
allowable compressive stress in the concrete f.. The body of the tables contains the appropriate
values of the coefficient R; the ratio of the distance from the compression face to neutral axis to
the distance from the compression face to centroid of the tension reinforcement k; the ratio of the
distance from the centroid of the compressive force to centroid of the tension reinforcement to
the distance from the compression face to the centroid of the tension reinforcement j; and the
percentage of tension reinforcement p.
Knowing f, and f. [equations (4.1) and (4.2)], Table 4.1 solves directly for k, j, R, and p
[equations (4.3), (4.4), (4.5), and (4.8)]. Knowing R, the value for the resisting moment M may
then be determined by equation (4.6). Or, knowing R and M, the effective depth d of the section is
determined by equation (4.7). With the value of j and d, the area of tension reinforcement Ay is
computed using equation (4. 9).
The procedure outlined in the above paragraph is the one that would be followed when
designing. In an investigation of an established section, this procedure is reversed.
Table 4.1 indicates that for a given steel stress and over wide ranges of concrete stress, the value
ceca
4.1 Coefficients
Smee p) for Rectangular Sections
(R, k,ee
x (av. 7 value)
~ 12,000
for use in
*Balanced steel ratio” applies to problems involving bending only.
ae my
forjvaries a small amount. If a new coefficient a = f,j/12,000 is determined using the average of j for
a given steel stress, then equation (4.9) is rewritten
A, = M/ad (4.29)
where M is in ft-kip, din in. and A, in in.”, values of a are included at the top of each table and based
on the average value of j.
As a matter of comparison, for f, = 20,000 psi, the maximum value of j is 0.898 and the minimum
is 0.828. Then
20,000 ; 20,000
a(max) = 12.000 (0.898) = 1.50 a(min) = 12,000 (0.828)= 1.38
The average value of a is given as 1.44, which is approximately 4 percent different from both the
maximum and minimum values. For a given concrete strength and modular ratio, the variation
between the maximum and minimum values is even less. For f, = 20,000 psi andf; = 5000 psi, the
value ofj varies from 0.872 to 0.828 and a would then vary from 1.45 to 1.38. Hence the assumption
of an average value of a andj is well within the precision required for ordinary design practices.
In the flexural design of a slab, the moment capacity may be expressed in terms of a unit width.
If in equation (4.5), b=12", then a table has been developed for the moment resisted by the
concrete for various depths of slabs.
Knowing f;, f., f,, and d, the body of Table 4.2 contains the resisting moment. If the required
moment capacity is known, then the effective depth is found at the top of the table. Table 4.2 is
reproduced with permission of the ACI.
Equations (4.13) and (4.14) show thatj and R are functions of the ratio h,/d. Hence in the
design of T-sections, the tables previously developed are not valid and a new set is needed which
gives these coefficients for various values of h,/d. Table 4.3 is such a table. The body of the table
contains values for R, with the values for a at the top based on average values forj.
These tables neglect the compressive stress in the stem. If the stress in the stem is included, then
Table 4.1 must be used along with Table 4.3. Problem 4.19 will demonstrate this procedure.
Knowing f7, f., f,, and h,/d, the values for R and a may be determined from Table 4.3. After R
is known, then d may be found by equation (4.16). If the effective flange width b, effective depth d,
and the required moment capacity are known, then R can be determined by equation (4.15) and the
value for h,/d is selected from Table 4.3. Table 4.3 is reproduced with permission of the ACT.
If the expression for f’ given in equation (4.20) is substituted in equation (4.27), the expression
for the area of compression reinforcement is
M — Rbd’
aaah (4.30)
If f{ is equal to or less than f,, then
Nin SUG = a'/d)k= d'/d)
‘| 12,000n(1 — k)
If f{ is restricted to f,, then
ao tfAvea 11-4)d
~~ 12,000
In the above expressions for c, it is assumed that the effective modular ratio in compression is
equal to 2n.
Table 4.4 contains coefficients used in the design of doubly reinforced concrete beams and is
If a doubly reinforced beam is to be designed by the tables, equation (4.26) is solved using Table
4.1 and equation (4.30) is solved using Table 4.4. Table 4.4 gives values of c for various ratios of
d'/d.
If the required resisting moment M is known and if the resistance of the concrete Rbd” is
Table 4.2 Resisting Momentsof Rectangular Sections 1 ft Wide (Slabs)
Rd’
Values of -
1000
Enter table with known M or NE (ft kip)

Select effective depth (d, in.)
& ao i>© ®
mo) OQ.ama<a as) §
Table 4.2 (cont.)
& eSo 5 > ) mc)® Oy~a ow in.

ALTE RNATE DESIGN METHOD [CHAP. 4
Table 4.2 (cont.)
ea}rad 5>® me)® ror~q ao)’ in.
NOOO
C1
ow
Hip
os
Table 4.3 Coefficients (a and R) for T-Sections
a= 12,000 x average value of j
Average values ofj are taken from Table 4.1;

a and R are used in
Ph aise NE — RF
cd . oe cd
f, = 16,000 psi f, = 18,000 psi
id UMMM ahs cry oe

Tao) ae]aa] elaa]20]26]2e[a2]sa]a0]ao] 3 aa]an]a8]20]20]20]ao]a6]a0
f, = 20,000 psi f, = 22,000 psi

h,/d h,/d
io]aa]ad]a6]18]20]24]26]a2]a6]a0]ao]a2] a]a] ate]20]oe]20]ae]26]a0

a rag Seana eG etna catgoet | on oot]
isa]i.57[16 [64]i.50]i.69[sa0]ia7|a.a5|iao
[ian|ivva|ira|i.rafa volioo[a7.0a[ioo [iso]i.se|i.
SMA teet in asorel owe Ro |
Table 4.3 (cont.)
f, = 24,000 psi f, = 27,000 psi

h,/d
aol a2]aa]se]a8]20]2a]2a]a2] 6]a0]a0]a2]aa]a6]ae]20]26]20]se]a6]a
o7[20s]e.oofi oeaspi.se[ia
f.aofpaa[a.i 2v0[e.o0)2]i.ra]ima
a
.,{rso]iss[rss[ies|ie4[i.se)i.to|ir6
psi R
f, = 30,000 psi f, = 33,000 psi

h,/d h,ld
ao] a2]aa]a6]as]20]24]20] 2]ao]a0] a0]aa]aa] 6]ae]20]24]20] 2]ao]a
Petar 6 eee
2s7][2.36]2.s9[282]2.a0[22a[22a[eei[2.i7]paa[eaa [ai[eso|aso]ase|2s0[20i aa0]eaa[aso[a5]e
a
R R
CHAP. 4] ALTERNATE DESIGN METHOD as
Table 4.4 Coefficients (c) for Compressive Reinforcement for Rectangular and T-Sections
For values above heavy lines,

k = 0.833 + 0.667 ©
ane fp(an—1) (1-4 )(k-§ )

i on 12,000n(1 — k)
oF For values below heavy lines,
| 3/n ,
k > 0.833 + 0.667 &
d
Enter table with known values of 5,earey and f E 3: fe (ast a (a= cm)
s
and f,; select value of c. eee fs kd d
pee M — RF 12,000
Compute A, = adie where f, = allowable steel stress in tension, psi
i f, = 16,000 psi f, = 18,000 psi
meeen_|wei[08]
eal f. ade d'/d :
oa] 6]08]a0]22]a] a0]18]20] 02]04]06] 8]a0]a2]
d’/d
91| .82| .73 98 |:.88

2500| 1000 "1911.17 |i.07| .97| 88] . "39 11.37 11.25 |1.14 |1.04
1.1611.1411.1111.03| . 38 11.3611.34 11.31 11.20
10.1 1.15 |1.13 1.11 |1.09 1, 35 |1.33 (1.30 IL. 1.14
1.13 |1.11 1.09 |1.07 |1. 1.33 |1.31 |1.29 |1.
1.10 [1.01 , 78| .
3000 "1511.13 11.08] .98] . 1.26 |1.15|1.05| .95| .
14 |1.12 [1.1011.0811. 1.3011. 1141.
9.2 11 |1.09 |1.07 [1 1.29 411.22 11.15
(09 |1.07 |1.05 |1. 1.27 20 IT.
12 [1.09 06] .96| .
4000 11 [1.0911.07 24111411.
09 06
8.0 ‘08 04
‘05 02
10 [1.08 [1.06
5000 ‘08 |1.06 |1.05
07 1.05 | 1.03
7.1 ‘05 |1.03 |1.02
‘01 |1.00| .98
SEE j=72,000
Miesibaia arte Mas leid |atleilmels eau To on
[oa] oa]oe].95| 8 .8so]
5| .75|
2].65]a4]56]a6].47|a8].39]1.28]1.16|1.04]
20)oo]0a]06].93]oa].82]a0]aa
.72
2500 1.47|1.35
1.55 /1.5
1.54 |1.51/1. -7 / 1.70 |1.
1.52 |1.49 1.03 |1.68 |1.
3000 b4
g 1 75 [1.69 |1.6
9.2 1.49 |1.47 [1.44 11.42 11.35 [1.23 |1.11|1. 89 |1.68 |1.6
1.47 |1.44 |1.42 |1.39 1.17 |1.66 [1.6
92| 81] . 1.11] .99
4000 4911.46 11.44 11.34 |1.22|1.10| .99 1.57|1.44 {1.31 {1.19 |1.
‘47 |1.45 |1.42 [1.40 11.37 11.29 |1.17]1.05| .9411. 1.6011.58 11.51 1.38 | 1.25 |1.
8.0 45 |1.43 |1.4 |1.38 |1.36 esapes "2 |1.10]1. ARO1.59 |1.56 [1.54 [1.51 11.44 /1.
40 |1.38 |1.36 |1.33 |1.31 |1.29 [1.96 [1.54 |1.61 1.56 |1.53 |1.51 |1.48
; 1.40{1.28[1.16]1.05 |94 84| .74 1.61/1.98/1.26[1.18|1.01 ;
SE
Roa
oy)
a
Se
oo ‘41 {1. 25|1.14|1.02| .91]1.64 "5911.56 11.48 |1.34 |1.22 |1.
'35 (1.32 11.30 11.21 |1.09 |1. ‘5711.55 (1.52 11.50 11.42 |1.29 |1. 6 |1.
3 |1.31 |1.28 1.26 11.2411.
* 3 |1.50 |1.48 [1.45 11.4 5 1.2
cw
WON
SRADWSINDOH
hans 0 |1.28 |1.26 |1.23 |1.21
www * OF
Co
£9
60
|
SNOB
00
MNARAAAln 9 |1.47 |1.45 |1.42 |1.40 [1.37 [1.30]
DESIGN METHOD [CHAP. 4
76 ALTERNATE
Table 4.4 (cont.)
7A si |
JA M :oo
i Ee ee EEE 29 |1.26 |1.13
18411.8111.
LOR
1.82 |1"alt
Tes 1.2111.
1.84 170 {1.561 1.42/1.
1.7911.76 11.63] 1.
180 1:78 11.75 11 fare
1.77 175 {1121.69 69/1.
4.7811.6811.49 1.86 1.22 |1
ze(EveEo oe
1.47 |1.32]1.
1.73 |11.59 1.45 |1.31 03/1van 71|1.55
79 (1. 1.67 {1521.38 25 |1. 9 /2.08/2"0011.95 |1791.
"1411.71|1 ‘ea (teett 1.98 [1.9511 : ;
73 |1.70| 1.68 |1.65 |1.62 |1Pa Ie IEGLESI fier a 1.911ea 60] 1.
f, = 30,000 psi f,= 33,000 psi
en eeM TTS a
oe]oofelefsofsa]self sa]a9 a oe]oe]ao a0]salaf0]sal
determined by Table 4.1 and equation (4.23), the area of compressive reinforcement is then
determined by equation (4.30).
The primary use for these tables is for the design of flexural members. However, these tables
may also be used to investigate stresses in beams. Many times in an investigation it is convenient to
use the transformed section technique rather than the tables.
Tables analogous to Tables 4.1-4.4 have not been developed for metric (SI) units because the
alternate design method is not used for design purposes in countries which have adopted the metric
system of units exclusively. Further, as already mentioned, the days of the method are numbered.
For these reasons, problems involving metric (SI) units are not included in this chapter.
COMPUTERIZED ALTERNATE DESIGN

Following are a FORTRAN listing and a run of a computer program that locates the neutral axis
of the cracked transformed section (kd); calculates the cracked transformed section moment of
inertia (/.,); determines the maximum compressive stress in the concrete (f.), the stress in the
compression steel (f/), and the stress in the tension steel (f,). For each individual beam that is
analyzed, the computer program requires two lines of input. The first line contains identification
information in columns 2 through 80. (Column 1 is used in the program for printer carriage control.)
The second line contains the necessary data for the beam in free format (i.e., one or more blanks or
a comma separates individual items of data). In order, the input data are as follows: beam width (b,
in.), effective depth (d, in.), distance from compression face to centroid of compression steel (d’,
in.), tension steel area (A,, in.), compression steel area (A‘, in.”), modular ratio (n), bending
moment (M, ft-kip).
The program can be compiled using any version of PC FORTRAN compiler by designating the
program name with the extension .FOR. Here we will assume that the program is named
PCBMWSD; so, with the required extension, it would be PCBMWSD.FOR. The executable
module, after compilation, will then be named PCBMWSD.EXE by the compiler. To run the
compiled program, type PCBMWSD if the program is on a hard disk; if it is on a floppy disk in drive
A: , type A:PCBMWSD and hit return carriage. The program can be run without a hard disk by
copying COMMAND.COM from DOS onto the floppy disk. To format the floppy disk in drive A: ,
use the DOS command FORMAT A:/S. This will copy COMMAND.COM and also the ‘‘hidden
files” of DOS.
PROGRAM PCBMWSD FOR PC COMPUTER

USE OF DIRECT ACCESS FILES WITH NAME OF FILE INPUT FROM
KEYBOARD AT RUN TIME.
PROGRAMMED IN MICROSOFT FORTRAN 5.0 BY DR. NOEL J. EVERARD

VERSION OCTOBER 19, 1990
APS = AREA OF COMPRESSION STEEL, SQ. IN.

AS = AREA OF TENSION STEEL, SQ. IN.
B = WIDTH OF BEAM, INCHES
D = DISTANCE, COMPRESSION FACE TO TENSION STEEL, INCHES
DPR = DISTANCE, COMPRESSION FACE TO COMPRESSION STEEL, INCHES
EC =* MODULUS OF ELASTICITY OF CONCRETE, PSI
ES = MODULUS OF ELASTICITY OF STEEL, PSI
EC = MAXIMUM COMPRESSIVE STRESS IN CONCRETE, PSI
FPS = STRESS IN COMPRESSION STEEL, PSI
FS = STRESS IN TENSION STEEL, PSI
i = MOMENT OF INERTIA ABOUT NEUTRAL AXIS, IN **4
KD = DISTANCE FROM COMPRESSION FACE TO NEUTRAL AXIS, INCHES
M = BENDING MOMENT, FOOT-KIPS
N = MODULAR RATIO, ES/EC
P = ULENSLON STEEL RATIO; AS/* (BX D)
PPR = COMPRESSION STEEL RATIO, APS/ (B X. D)
EAGT
PUP
wie
eh
ek
ne
Mele
Re
PHONO
NC
(FOP
MNO
ONO
OLSON
SOU
SE
®
Ps ep Spe le Nig, OT
DIMENSION TITLE(20)
2 write. (*,80)
80 format (2x,'if you wish to exit this program, at pause type 1',/,
fae ky Mt you wish to continue, type~Z.")) -
readt(*, Ade 2quit
78 ALTERNATE DESIGN METHOD ) (CHAP. Se
if (iquit sgte a) go tor)

if. biquite, Lie 2 raeltose4
20ewrirte: (7.3)
15 format (2x,'at pause type beam identification, cols. 2/80')
read (*,100) (title (3) 29 = b720)
wreitenG 169
16 format (2x,'at pause type b,d,dpr,as,aps,n,m')
read (*,*) byd,dpr,as,aps;n,m
100 FORMAT (20A4)
Le: LOCATE NEUTRAL AXIS
P = AS / (B*D)
PPR = APS / (B*D)
(N*P) 4002 sOANS=1.. 0) Aare oo

x NS aN*P ot) 62 20*NG—-"1 0) een POP,
Noa eRe e102), OV ANNO ee Es
wouow SORT
ow (X11 t4i0250, Soke) eax
KD. = -Ke* DD
c
Cc OBTAIN MOMENT OF INERTIA ABOUT NEUTRAL AXIS
c
val BA eRe * 2 Sen)eeaor
xs (2.0 *°N = 1,70) “ARS? So (5D0 DPR ime 2
3 No *.AS.* (Ds > KD)
I ow De
nou has AE Ae
DETERMINE STRESSES
Mele!
Cl) se M. 13000. 0. ant
ROUNDOFF ANSWERS
(Ph@Me)
FC CI sKD) ea
FPS Cl. .* (KD = DPR eee 2. Ose ey
FS CT x... Di = EDEN ees Kea
x
OUTPUT RESULTS . ieee te
ea
WRITE (*,111) (TITLE (J), J = 1,20).
111 FORMAT (20A4,/)
WRITE (*,109) . ne |
109 FORMAT (6X,'GIVEN :',/) as ital ai
WRITE (*,115) B oat
115 FORMAT (6X,'B 'P10.3,2X,
2X," INCHES")
a |
2 7 ; * e
2
ee FORMAT (/,6X,'SOLUTION weg)
WRITE. (* 223)
Pee rORMAT. (6x,°M = W ELOD Syed 2 EOOT-KIPS*)
c
Tae
IFP = FPS
IFS = FS
c
WRUTE POs 02) “KD
101 FORMAT -(6X%,,'KD = te Peb-Or Soe x, INCHES)
WRUDEeSGs es0 2) 1
102 FORMAT (6X,'I =U eAEEL 6 tok Ne
WR EDEN, LOS) LEC
103 FORMAT (6X,'FC = yt Oy AES Lee)
WRITE (*,104) IFP
104 FORMAT (6X,'FPS = at) Ok eS Le)
WHRETE G2, Uo) seL ES
105 FORMAT (6xX,'FS = a; Oe PS ley asa)
WRETEW Cs, 130)
130 FORMAT (1H1)
Goato: 12
99 STOP
END
pcbmwsd
if you wish to exit this program, at pause type 1
if you wish to continue, type 2
2
at pause type beam identification, Collin Aye
PROBLEM 4.26 SCHAUM'S OUTLINE
at pause type b,d,dpr,as,aps,n,m
Peeters. O&O. 2. LO A400.
PROBLEM 4.26 SCHAUM'S OUTLINE
GIVEN
B = 12.000 INCHES
D = 20.000 INCHES
DPR = 2.000 INCHES
AS = 5.000 SQ.IN.
APS = 2000 SQ.IN.
N = 10.000
M - 100.000 FOOT -KIPS
SOLUTION
KD = Fe IOS. INCHES
I = 10615.220 IN **@
FC = 897 PSI
FPS = 13418 PSI
FS = 13639 PSI
if you wish to exit this progran, at pause type l

if you wish to continue, type 2
4
Stop - Program terminated.
Solved Problems
4.1. Derive the principal expressions used in the alternate design method for rectangular re-
inforced concrete beams. Refer to Fig. 4-10.
kd/3
2
Neutral Cc
~ “Axis
~ =
t
|és | f,/n
Fig. 4-10
For the section shown to be in equilibrium, the summation of horizontal forces must equal zero and
the summation of moments must equal zero. Then C= T or
5f.kdb = A,f, (a)
And if the distance from the centroid of the compressive stress to the centroid of tensile stress is jd,
M.=Cjd=if.kd*bj and M,=A,f.jd
From Fig. 4-10, jd=d-—kd/3, or j=1-—k/3. Hence to evaluate the expression for the resisting
moment, the value of k must be determined.
If E = modulus of elasticity = f/e, then E, = f,/e, and E. =f./e.. From the strain diagram,
ef eka [iE Wage k
6, Aakde ssf ie. tel ek lk
And if n= E,/E., where n is called the modular ratio,
hi ee (b)
fe toe
ae ast ,- tt)
from which
me ie nfeog. 1
and nf. = f.k + nf.k = k(nf.+ f,)
OT HAO. Tae hing.
This is the usual form of the expression for k.
If the ratio of reinforcing steel is p = A,/bd, then equation (a) becomes 3 f.kdb = pbdf., or
oes (0)
Substituting equation (b) into equation (c), we get
k?+2pnk=2pn and k=\V2pn+(pn)’—pn

Letting R = 5f jk, we obtain
M.=M,=Rbd* and d=VMI/Rb
These derived equations are developed using the straight-line theory and are applicable to the
proportioning of rectangular reinforced concrete beams with tensile reinforcement only.
4.2. Derive the expressions used in the transformed section method of analysis.
Within the elastic range, stress is proportional to strain; hence f. = €.E. and f, = e,F,. If the strain in
concrete and steel are the same, or e, = e,, then
If the modular ratio n = E,/E., then

f.=f,/n or f, = nf.
In Fig. 4-3 the deformations or strains are assumed to be proportional to the distance from the
neutral axis. Therefore at the centroid of the tensile force the strain in the equivalent concrete is the
same as that in the reinforcing steel. (This assumes that the equivalent concrete is capable of resisting
tension.) Consequently the stress in the concrete is f. = f,/n.
If it is desired to substitute a quantity of equivalent concrete to act as the reinforcing steel, and if the
stress in this concrete is less than the stress in the steel that it is replacing, then a larger area of concrete
is required to develop the same total force. Or if the tensile force in the equivalent concrete is equal to
the tensile force in the steel, then T. = T, and f.A.=f,A,. Now since f. =f,/n, we have
f.A./n = f.A, or A,=nA
4.3. Derive the principal expressions used in the alternate design method for reinforced concrete
T-beams. Refer to Fig. 4-11.
a
kd
WATE Stress in Stem
Neglected
Fig. 4-11
If the compressive stress in the stem is neglected, the summation of horizontal forces is C = T. Since
the compressive force is bounded by a trapezoid, 3[ f. + (f./kd)(kd — h,)]bh, = A, f,or
f.(2kd — h,)bh,
i.
GL Le (a)
Rearranging (a),
:
2kd — h,)bh fe __ 2kpd
>
or
eel =A= pbd
i Chie juli,
Substituting for f. in (b),
:
we obtain
1 ah 2pd* 2pd’n + hy, pnt 3(h,/d)°

from which k= (dh, + pd’n)
n(l—k) (2kd —h,)h, pnt h,/d
The distance z may be found by summing moments about the centroid of the compressive forces:
pak )
h,(3kd —2h
3(2kd — h,) (0)
82 ALTERNATE DESIGN METHOD (CHAP. 4
From Fig. 4-11, jd = d— z. Then substituting (c) into j= 1— z/d, we get

6 —6(h,/d) + 2(h,/d)° + (h,/d)"(3 pn)
no 6 — 3(h,/d)
The resisting moment of the concrete would be M, = C.jd or M, = f.(1 — h,/2kd)bh,jd.
If R=f.j(1—A,/2kd)(h,/d), then M, = Rbd* and ae VM./Rb.
These expressions were developed assuming that the compressive stress in the stem portion is
negligible and that the beam has tensile reinforcement only.
4.4, Derive the principal expressions used in the alternate design method for doubly reinforced
concrete beams (having both tension and compression reinforcement). Refer to Fig. 4-9.
The expressions for a doubly reinforced beam will now be derived using the same basic assumptions
as in Problems 4.1—4.3.
; : : , : af 1
As with the section with tensile reinforcement only, k = EWE ATE
, d =
If the compressive stress in the compression steel is f’, then =— =eka and if Ee =f, then
SAE kde: f,(kd— d')

Fig. Ped AO UR ase (a)
é, kd ae fil. kia
ee. e _kd weeks oo
é = <a kd — e)
Letting n= E,/E., flan ( kd
In Fig. 4-9, if horizontal forces are summed, T = C = C! + C,, where C’ is the compressive force in
the steel and C, is the compressive force in the concrete. Then ;
af.kbd + AS fl=f.A, (6)

It will be noted that the compressive force in the concrete should be a trifle less than that resulting from
the above because the area occupied by the compressive steel was not deducted. This discrepancy is
usually disregarded.
If equation (a) is substituted into equation (b), and if A, = pbd and A! = p'bd, then
Lf.kbd + p'bdt Tp“|==fpbd

—d'
or E==2[p- (5)
"ils OR
ie k
As before, ;= n—k) (d)
oiNaat GEE from (c) and (d), we obtain k = V2n(p + p'd'/d)+n*(p+p'y — n(p +p’).
The distance z can be determined by summing moments, z =
k3d/3 + 2np’d'(k
+ 2np'(k
— d'/d)
— d'/d) ; and
jd=d-z.
The resisting moment due to the compressive force is
M,=Cjd=(C.+ Cid or M, =jd(4f,kbd
+fip'bd) tales
Substituting for f/,M.= 4 f.jbd*[k + 2np'(1 — d'/kd)]. “Se : 7
In the derivation of the above expressions for doubly reinforced
re beams, itwas ae that
_ compressive steel was n times as us or e
compression should be used in calculating moments of inertia related to short-term deflections, which are
not affected by creep. Hence, the compression steel is transformed to equivalent concrete using n times
A‘. Over long periods of time the effects of creep in the concrete cause the steel stresses to double; thus,
the compression steel (A/) should be transformed to equivalent concrete using 2n times A’. However,
because the compression steel (A!) occupies space in the compressed zone of the concrete, simply to use
2nA{ would include that concrete area twice. So, it is more accurate to use (2n—1)A‘ when
transforming the compression steel. When this is done, the lower expression (4.21) is obtained for k and
the lower expression (4.28) is obtained for z, the point of application of the total (concrete plus steel)
compression force.
In the design of doubly reinforced beams, it is assumed that the resisting moment is divided into two
parts. One is the resisting moment of the beam section assuming there is no compressive reinforcement.
The second is a couple formed by the additional compressive force in the compression steel and the
tensile force in a like amount of additional tension steel.
If the resisting moment of the singly reinforced section is M, = 3f.kjbd” = Rbd* and the moment
resisted by the compression steel is M, = A‘ f'(d —d’), the total moment is M = Rbd’ + f'A'(d—d’).
4.5. Figure 4-12 shows a reinforced concrete beam that must resist a 50.0 ft-kip moment.
Normal-density (145 Ib/ft*) concrete is used, and the concrete strength is 3000 psi. Determine
the flexural stresses in the concrete and steel by the transformed area method.
| 1A |
16”
9.2(2) = 18.4 sq. in.

2-#9 bars
Fig. 4-12 Fig. 4-13

To determine the transformed section, the value of n must be known. Here n= E,/E., where
E, = 29,000,000 psi and E, =33w:°V fi. If w.=145, then E, = 33(145)'°V3000 = 3,160,000 psi and
n= 29/3.16 = 9.2.
The transformed section is as shown in Fig. 4-13.
Summing moments of the areas about the neutral axis, 12(x)(x/2) = 18.4(16 — x) or x = 5.65 in. The
centroid of the compressive force would be x/3 below the top of the beam. Hence, a = 16 —5.65/3 =
14.12 in.
Then summing moments and equating the internal resisting moment to the external moment,
Ca = Ta = M =S0.0 ft-kip or C = T = (50.0)(12,000) /14.12 = 42,800 Ib.
The steel stress would be f, = T/A, = 42,800/2.0 = 21,400 psi.
The compressive force in the concrete is C =f.(x)(12)/2; then 42,800= f,(5.65)(12)/2 or f, =
1260 psi.
4.6. Solve Problem 4.5 using the classic flexure formula f= Mc/I.
2 @ ;
Moment of inertia [= 2CSY + 18.4(16 — 5.65)? = 269 ins
Mcn — 50.0(12,000)(10.35)(9.2) 11300 ;
cpio ei eee eS
2691 Se ee 9 ae
Me _ 50,0(12,000)(5.65) _ 1260 psi
f.= 7, ao...
4.7. Solve Problem 4.5 using the formulas derived for rectangular beams with tension reinforce-
ment only.
If p = A,/bd =2.0/(12)(16) and n=9.2, using equation (4.3), k= V2pn + (pn) — pn = 0.352.
And from equation (4.4), j= 1 — k/3 = | — 0.352/3= 0.883. If M = 50.0 ft-kip the stress in the steel and
concrete can be determined from equations (4.9) and (4.1), respectively:
M ‘ My
fe
f.= aie = 21,300 psi and f.= Winky
ie= 1260 psi
4.8. Figure 4-14 shows a reinforced concrete T-beam that must resist a 50.0 ft-kip moment. If
f!= 3000 psi, determine the flexural stresses in the concrete and steel by the transformed area
method.
Fig. 4-14
(a) Ifn=E,/E, =9.2 for f’ =3000 psi, the transformed area of steel= 18.4 in.”
If the neutral axis of the section is less than 3” below the compression face, the section acts as a
rectangular beam. If it is more than 3”, the section acts as a T-beam.
To determine whether the neutral axis is above or below the slab, moments of the transformed 3
areas are taken about the bottom of the flange. For the concrete flange, 3(30)(1.5) = 135 in; for
the reinforcement, 18.4(13) = 239 in.” Hence the neutral axis is below the flange. |
(b) The sum of moments about the neutral axis is 8(x)(x/2) + (30— 8)(3)(x — 1.5) = 18. 4(16 — x) or
x = 3.92 in. ae
(c) If the neutral axis is 0.92” mice the flange, the stress at the bottom of the flange is 0.92f./3. 92 =
23857.
The location of the centroid of the compressive force is not as readily determined here as in a
rectangular beam. From Fig. 4-15, summing moments of the compressive forces about the top of
the flange, : y
zC = [30.0(3.92) f./2](3.92/3) — [22.0(0.92)0.235f./2](3.0 + 0.92/3)

= 58.7f.(1.31) — 2.38f.(3.31) = 76.9f. — 7.88f.
Wore 69.07;
a = 1.22"
~ 58.7f. — 2.38f.
(d) The distance from the centroid of the compressive force to the tensile force is
jd = 16.0 — 1.22 = 14.78"

Summing internal resisting moments, M = Cjd= Tjd. Also, Tjd = A, f.jd =50.0(12,000). f, =
20,300 psi and C = 40,600 lb. Then (58.7 — 2.38)f. = 40,600 or f. = 720 psi.
4.9. Solve Problem 4.8 using the classic flexure formula f= Mc/I.
Moment of inertia J = 30(3)*/12 + 3(30)(2.42)° + 8(0.92)°7/3 + 18.4(16 — 3.92)? = 3276 in.”
_ Mcn _ 50.0(12,000)(12.08)(9.2)
<5 = = 20,400 psi
~ Mc _ 50.0(12,000)(3.92)
perigy 3276 ATA
4.10. Solve Problem 4.8 using the formulas derived for T-sections.
If p = A,/bd = 2.0/(30.0)(16) = 0.00417, n = 9.2, h, =3, and d=16, equation (4.12) gives
_ pnt n(nAdy
= 0.250
~ pnt (h,/d)
h,(3kd— 2h,) se z a
Then PASS “3(2kd — h,) = 1.20 and 1 Ko 1 F 0.922
If M =5S0 ft-kip, we can determine the steel and concrete stresses by equations (4.17) and (4.10),
respectively:
M
f= Aud = 20,300 psi and f.= i)
fk = 736 psi
4.11. The beam shown in Fig. 4-16 resists a 50.0 ft-kip moment. If f’ = 3000 psi, determine the
flexural stresses in the concrete and steel by the transformed area method.
ieee r
nN
ABE Se EAS A,
Fig. 4-16 Fig. 4-17

The transformed area of the compression reinforcement is (2n — 1)A‘. This is in accordance with
_ the assumption that the stress in the compression reinforcement is twice that in the concrete, owing to
long-term creep. The expression also takes into account the amount of concrete displaced by the
compression reinforcement.
If n =9.2 for f’ = 3000 psi, the transformed section is shown in Fig. 4-17.
Summing moments of the forces about the neutral axis, 12(x)(x/2) + 17.4(x — 2) = 18.4(12— x) or
x =4.17 in. The centroid of the compressive force is located by taking moments about the top of the
beam.
zC =(f,/2)(12)(4.17/3) + (0.52)( f,)(18.4)(2) = 25.02f,(1.39) + 9.56f.(2)
_ 34.8f. + 19.12f, = 1.56”
25.02f. + 9.56f.
Summing internal resisting moments, M = Cjd = Tjd. Also, Tjd = A,f,jd = 50.0(12,000); and f, =
28,800 psi and C = 57,500 Ib.
Now, (25.02 + 9.56) f, = 57,500 or f. = 1670 psi. Then f’ = 2n(0.52)f. = 16,000 psi.
4.12. Solve Problem 4.11 using the classic flexure formula f = Mc/I.
Moment of inertia / = 12(4.17)*/3 + 17.4(4.17 — 2.0)? + 18.4(12.0 — 4.17)? = 1502 in.*
f. = Mcn/I = 50.0(12,000)(7.83)(9.2) /1502 = 28,700 psi
f. = Mc/I = 50.0(12,000)(4.17) /1502 = 1670 psi
fi =2nMy/I = 2(9.2)(50.0)(12,000)(2.17) /1502 = 16,000 psi
4.13. Solve Problem 4.11 using the formulas derived for doubly reinforced beams.
If p= A,/bd = 2.0/(12)(12) = 0.0139, p’ = A{/bd = 1.0/(12)(12) = 0.00695, and n=9.2, using
equation (4.21),
2n(p +2p'd'/d) + n*(p + 2p’) — n(p + 2p’) = 0.348

_ k’d/3 + 4np'd'(k — d'/d)
and = 1.56"
k* + 4np'(k— d'/d)
It should be noted that 2p’ is substituted for p’ in the above expressions in recognition of the doubled
effectiveness of compression reinforcement. [The area of concrete replaced by the steel has not been
deducted; i.e. the steel has been transformed using 2n instead of (2n — 1). The difference is negligible.]
From equation (4.22), j = 1— z/d=0.87. If M = 50.0 ft-kip, the stress in the steel and concrete can
be determined by use of equations (4.26), (4.18), and (4.20): ;
aiejg = 8,700 psi

Le . Seda = 16,000
f=baie FGheey m = 1670 psi_ f= 2nf, = psi
f=]
4.14. Proportion a one-way continuous slab to support a maximum positive moment at midspan oke
18.5 ft-kip/ft and a maximum negative moment at the support of 55 ft-kip/ft. Assume
f! = 3000 psi, allowable f,=20,000 psi, and a minimum depth permitted with no compressive
reinforcement. [Note that + (—) reinforcement isi for the bending moment at midspan_ a
support). ] o er or vi) a
Assume an allowable concrete stress f.= 0. hele 1350 psi and n=9. 2. From (4.11), 4 Pe)
kK
=k DB350) 2
2000 000 a
ee or k== 0.383 | Er es
sd a AE
_ From equation (4.4), j=1—k/3=0.
ee acai Rien:shee bi
In the determination of the area of reinforcement at midspan, a value of j= 0.872 was used. This
value for j was determined for a balanced section using the larger moment at the support. Hence the
concrete stress at midspan will be less than 0.45f’ and the section is underreinforced. Because j varies as
the concrete stress, the value for + A, is not precise. If
M = Rbd
» _ f.jkbd*
wer and cali
Sumei4 k) e
j=l 3
file ( \ ; k(1—k/3) 2nM

h
then M =~
Ob) 1 - 3 bd : or was
(ik) fod?
And if the values in the problem are substituted into this expression,
k*(1—k/3) _ 2(9.2)(18.5)(12,000)
k = 0.283
Gs) 20,000(12)(16)?
Then j = 1— k/3=1-— 0.094 =0.906. Substituting this value for j into the expression for the area of
reinforcement at midspan,
18.5(12,000)
+A = 0.766 in.”
» ~ 20,000(0.906)(16.0)
Hence with the more precise value of j, a reduction of reinforcement required of approximately 5
percent was obtained. Normally, such a refinement is not justified in the usual design of reinforced
concrete beams. In the design of underreinforced sections the generally accepted practice is to use the
value of j at balanced design conditions.
In underreinforced sections the value of j is greater than in balanced sections. Therefore the use of a
lower value will yield a larger value for A, and will be conservative.
At midspan, f, = f,k/n(1 — k) = 858 psi.
4.15. Solve Problem 4.14 using Tables 4.1 and 4.2.

Table 4.2 forf,= 20,000, f’ = 3000, and f. = 1350 does not contain values as high as 55 ft-kip. Hence
from Table 4.1, R = 226 and substituting into equation (4.7), d= VM/Rb = 15.6". Use d = 16.0".
From Table 4.1, a = 1.44; substituting in equation (4.29),
-A\=Miad=2.39
in? and» +A, =18.5/1.44(16)
=0.80 in?
4.16. Proportion a balanced reinforced rectangular beam with only tension reinforcement to
withstand a 250 ft-kip moment. Assume f/ = 3000 psi and f, = 40,000 psi. The length of the
beam is 30’-0”.
At balanced design f. = 0.45(3000) = 1350 psi; and from equations (4.1) and (4.2),
1 1
heey +f/nf. 1+20,000/9.2(1350) — 385
From equations (4.5) and (4.6),
R=! f jk = §(1350)(1 — 0.383/3)(0.383) = 226 bd? = MIR = 250(12,000)
/226 = 13,300 in.’
Try a ratio of d/b =1.5. Then b(1.5b)° = 13,300 and b = 18.1; use 6 = 18.5”. Thus d = 1.5(18.5) = 27.7;
use d = 28.0". From equation (4.9), A, = M/f,jd = 6.14 in”
Try a Tao of d/b=1.0. Then b° = 13,300 and b=23.7; use b=24.0". Thus d=24.0" and
Ave] 17 in?
Try a ratio of d/b =0.67. Then b(0.67b)°= 13, 300; b*? = 29,600 and b = 30.9; use b = 31.0". Thus
d = 0.67(31.0) = 20.8; use d= 21.0" and A, = 8.20 in”
The 1989 ACI Code requires the following minimum amount of reinforcement in beams. It specifies
that for flexural members, except constant thickness slabs, if positive reinforcement is required, the
minimum ratio p shall not be less than 200/f, unless the area of reinforcement at every section, positive
or negative, is at least one-third greater than that required. If f = 40,000 psi, 200/f, = 200/40,000=
0.005 < 6.14/28.0(18.5).
88 ALTERNATE DESIGN METHOD [CHAP 4
The deflections of beams must be computed in accordance with the 1989 ACI Code if the depth is
less than a specified value. This will be discussed in Chapter 8, which deals with serviceability.
This problem could be solved using Table 4.1 by finding the value of R= 226 and a value of
a= 1.44,
4.17. Determine the area of reinforcing steel required for the section shown in Fig. 4-18. Assume
f= 4000 psi, allowable f, = 24,000 psi, and M = 300 ft-kip.
| AZO
P : : a5 col eee Ee
Pe De eae tie pa on
.
| ge’ |
Fig. 4-18
(a) The stress in the stem will be neglected, which will yield a slightly conservative solution (typical in
design offices). Because f. is not known, the value of k must be determined by substitution into
equations (4.10) through (4.17). This would be quite cumbersome due to the complex’ a i
for j. Hence a trial and error procedure will be used.
A value j = 0.9 will be tried first. Substituting into equation (4.17),
A, = M/f, jd = 300(12,000) /24,000(0.9)(20) = 8.33 in?
Now p = 8.33/48(20) = 0.00866, n = 8.0, and h,/d = 6.0/20.0 = 0.30.
From equation (4.12),
ne(h fa e
BM a
~ pnt (h,/d) y 0310
As previously derived, =
__n(3kd
~2h) . 21 PERE
3(2kd — h,) , a or ie
3k —2h ld tol eliotn
Ls bhke =Pa ete (oi fai
_ This value forj is near enough to the original value assumed that another trial is not meses ary
T-beams of normal proportions with the h,/d ratio varying between 0.10 and 0.
_ will vary from approximately 0.95 to 0.84. ‘Regardless of what value of ji as
er trial, if it is within this range itwillresult i
ina aeaiem that would be close o th
: “exact” Sher : } 7
The area of reinforcement is A, = M/ad = 300/1.75(20) = 8.58 in.

As a check, the resisting moment is M = Rbd’ = 456 ft-kip> 300.
4.19. Determine the area of reinforcement required for the section shown in Fig. 4-19 if the
compressive stress in the stem is included. Assume f/ = 3000 psi, f, = 20,000 psi, and
M = 150 ft-kip. Use Tables 4.1 and 4.3.
Fig. 4-19
(a) Table 4.3 neglects the effect of the stress in the stem. Hence the effect of the web must be
determined using Table 4.1 and then added to the effect of the flange which has a net width equal
to 32” — 12” = 20".
From Table 4.1, for f, = 20,000 psi, f’ = 3000 psi, f. = 1350 psi: R,, = 226 (balanced design)
and a,, = 1.44. Table 4.3, for h,/d =0.15: R, = 150 (balanced design) and a, = 1.54.
(b) The resisting moments are M, =R,,bd* =90.3 ft-kip and M, = R,bd* = 100.0 ft-kip.
M,, + M, = 190 ft-kip > 150. So the section will be underreinforced.
(c) The area of reinforcement required to develop the web is A,, = M,,/a,,d =3.13 in”
The area of reinforcement required to develop the flange is A,, = (M — M,,)/a,d= 1.94 in?
The total area of tension reinforcement is A, = A,,, + A,, =5.07 in?
(d) p= 5.07/20(12) = 0.0211 > 200/f,. Hence the minimum positive reinforcement requirement is met.
4.20. Compare the area of reinforcement required in Problem 4.19 to that required if the
compressive stress in the stem is neglected.
From Table 4.3, for h,/d=0.15: R=150 and a=1.54. The resisting moment is M = Rbd’=
160 ft-kip > 150.
The area of reinforcement is A, = M/ad = 4.87 in.”
Because the stress in the stem (web) is neglected, the centroid of the compressive force is located
higher than in Problem 4.19. Therefore the internal moment arm jd is increased and the required area of
reinforcement is decreased. The resisting moment of the concrete is decreased. The difference in
reinforcement required is (5.07 — 4.87)(100)/5.07 = 3.94 percent on the unconservative side. For reasons
of safety the compressive stress in the web should be taken into account.
f! = 3000 psi, allowable f, = 20,000 psi, and M = 200 ft-kip.
A check should be made to determine if compressive reinforcement is required. If f. = 1350 psi,
f, = 20,000 psi, and n= 9.2, k=1/(1+ f,/nf.) = 0.383; then j = 1 — k/3 = 0.872.
Fig. 4-20
From equation (4.5), R= 3f.jk = 226. The resisting moment is

M = Rbd? = 226(14)(24)7/12,000 = 152 ft-kip < 200
Hence the section requires compressive reinforcement.
The resisting moment of a balanced design is 152 ft-kip. The compressive reinforcement must resist
a moment M’ = 200 — 152 = 48 ft-kip.
From equation (4.27), A! = M'/f'(d—d'). The value of f' is a function of f, and the ratio d’/d. If
d'/d = 0.0833, from (4.20),
f =2nf.(k — d'/d)/k = 19,400 psi < 20,000
Substituting into equation (4.27), A’ = 48(12,000) /(19,400)(22) = 1.35 in.”
From equation (4.26), the total area of tension reinforcement is
A,=Mlf,jd=5.73in2 and —sp = 5.73/14(24) = 0.0170 > 200/f,
Hence the minimum positive reinforcement requirement is met.
4.22. Solve Problem 4.21 using Tables 4.1 and 4.4.

From Table 4.1 for f! = 3000 psi, f. = 1350 psi, andf,= 20,000 psi: R = 226, a = 1.44, j = 0.872, and
k = 0.383. The resisting moment is M = Rbd* = 152 ft-kip < 200. Hence M’ = 200 — 152 = 48 ft-kip.
From Table 4.4 for f/ = 3000 psi, f, = 1350 psi, f, = 20,000 psi, and d’/d = 0.0833: c= 1.41. From
equations (4.30) and (4.29),
A’ = Med =1.41 in and A, = Mlad = 5.79 in”
The other design checks would be the same as in Problem 4.21.
4.23. Determine the area of tension and compression reinforcement required in the section shown
in Fig. 4-21 if M = 167 ft-kip. Assume f’ = 3000 psi and allowable f, = 20,000 psi.
24”
This is the same section as in Problem 4.18. Hence R = 226, a= 1.44, 7=0.872, k = 0.383, and
c= 1.41. Then the resisting moment is M = 152 ft-kip< 167. Hence M’ = 15 ft-kip.
Al =M'/cd=0.444in”? and A,= M/ad = 4.84 in’?
4.24. Determine the area of tension reinforcement required for the section in Problem 4.23 if there
is nO compression reinforcement and f, = 1350 psi.
If the compressive force as shown in Fig. 4-3 is made larger, the section can resist greater moments.
If f,must remain fixed, the only manner in which to accomplish this is by increasing k. By increasing the
area of tension reinforcement, the neutral axis may be lowered. From equations (4.5) and (4.6),
M = Rbd’ = 3 f.jkbd*; and from equation (4.4), j =1—k/3. Hence
M = 3f.(1—k/3)kbd? or (1— k/3)k =2M/f.bd* = 0.368 and k = 0.429
From equations (4.2) and (4.9),
=n
Ss c
beetles 6500
k
si
Pp
and A. =——=5.90
in?
In Problem 4.23 the total area of reinforcing steel is 4.84
+ 0.44 =5.28. Comparing the answers,
(5.90 — 5.28)(100)/5.28 = 12% increase
in reinforcement required when tension steel only is used. This is required for a section that must resist a -
moment that is merely 10 percent greater than the balanced resisting moment.
4.25. Determine the area of reinforcement required for the edge or spandrel beam shown in Fig.
4-22. Assume f’ = 4000 psi and f, = 24,000 psi. The beam has a span of 10’-0" and the 5” slab
has a clear span of 16’-0”. The beam is continuous and must resist a negative moment at the
support of 170 ft-kip and a positive moment at midspan of 55 ft-kip.
5”
Spandrel
Beam
Column
Beyond
A2
Fig. 4-22
(a) The negative moment at the support is the largest absolute bending moment and controls the size
of the member. If the section is to be designed using balanced reinforcement, f. = 1800 Psi,
f,= 24,000 psi, and n = 8.0.
If no compression reinforcement is to be used at the support, then Rbd? == 170 ft-kip. Eom
Table 4.1, for f, =1800 psi and f,=24,000 psi: R = 295 and a = 1.76. Hence bd* = M/R= 6900 in.
Because fhe width of the beam has been set equal to the width of the column, 12”, d ? = 6900/12=
575. Use d = 24".
The area of negative reinforcement at the support is —A, = M/ad = 4.02 in?
(b) At the supports, the beam acts as a rectangular section. However, in the positive moment cece
the beam acts as an unsymmetrical T-section (inverted L-section).
The 1989 ACI Code specifies that in beams having a flange on one side only the effective
flange shall not be greater than 1/12 the beam span length and that the effective overhanging flange
shall not be greater than six times me slab thickness nor greater than one-half the slab span.
Applying these rules,
b = 4(10)(12)+12=22" b=12+6(5)=42" or b6=12+ 4(16)(12) = 108”
Hence the assumed effective flange width is 22”.
(c) From Table 4.3, for f, = 1800 psi, f, =24,000 psi, and h,/d =5/24=0.208: R = 246 and a= 1.82.
Then Rbd* = 260 ft-kip > 55 and the area of positive reinfoneemient is +A, = M/ad= 1.26 in?
Checking for the minimum area of reinforcement, 200/f,= 0.0033 <1. 26 /12(24).
4.26. This problem tests the computer program PCBMWSD. Figure 4-23 shows the beam, for which
b = 12", d=20", d'=2", A, =5.0 in’, A‘ =2.0 in’,and n= E,/E,= 10.0. Find the stresses in
the concrete and steel. (Computer solutions shown in parentheses.)
Neutral Axis
Fig. 4-23 Fig. 4-24 Transformed section.
First locate the neutral axis (Refer to Fig. 4-24): ) fea yt ,

b(kd)(kd/2) + (2n — 1)(A!)(kd ~ d’) = nA,(d - kd)
(12)(kd)?/2 + (19)(2)(kd — 2) = 50(20 — kd) i
(kd)° + 14.67(kd) — 179.33 =0
—14.67+ V/(14.67)*+ (4)(179.33> :
kd= isd OVAE 2 BTR
(079.33) 7.935" ores a
a
Now find the moment of inertia of thecrackedtransformed ecto shown in Fig. 4-24 about the neut
shes ZT ‘s a }
7 ? a 7
Sani, Tee eediS: 4, ae

‘ 7 7. “7
ie M(kd—d') _ (100)(12)(1000)(5.935)
a I a 10,615.77
= 13,418.44 psi (13,418 psi)
f- M(d—kd) _ (100)(12)(1000)(12.065)
a I rr 10,615.77
= 13,638.9 psi (13,639 psi)
To check PCBMWSD, our solution carries more significant figures than are allowed by the input data.
4.27. A 10-in.-wide rectangular concrete beam has an effective depth of 14 in. and is reinforced with 1.32 in.”
of steel. If nm= 15, determine the moment of inertia of the transformed section. Ans. I,, = 1980 in?
4.28. A 12-in.-wide rectangular concrete beam is reinforced with four #8 bars. If n =12, determine the
location of the neutral axis. Ans. kd=8.9"
4.29. If b=12", d=16", f.=1350 psi, and f, = 20,000 psi, determine the required reinforcement for a
rectangular beam to resist a moment of 60 ft-kip. Use the transformed section method.
Ans. 2.59 in,
4.30. Repeat Problem 4.29 using the flexure formula and Table 4.1.
4.31. Given a T-beam with b=50", b, = IO, 2 = 207, A, = 2.50 in., and an applied moment of
65 ft-kip, determine the concrete and steel stresses by the transformed section method if n = 10.
Ans. f.=460 psi, f, = 16,800 psi
4.32. Repeat Problem 4.31 using the flexure formula and Table 4.3.
4.33. Given a rectangular doubly reinforced beam with b = 14", d = 16", f. = 1350 psi, f, = 20,000 psi, and an
applied moment of 140 ft-kip, determine the area of reinforcement required. Assume d’ = 2” and
02. 2) Ans. A-—6,.08 in’,-A! =2.9) in?
4.34, Proportion a one-way slab with simple supports to resist an applied moment of 12.0 ft-kip/ft. Assume
balanced design, f’ = 3000 psi, and f, = 24,000 psi. Use equations (4.1) through (4.9).
Ans. d=8", A, =0.85 in.’/ft
4.35. Repeat Problem 4.34 but use Tables 4.1 and 4.2.
4.36. Proportion by use of equations (4.1) through (4.9) a balanced reinforced rectangular beam to resist a
moment of 300 ft-kip. Assume f’ = 5000 psi and f, = 24,000 psi.
Ans. b= 15", d=25"; A, = 6.82 in?
4.37. Repeat Problem 4.36 but use Table 4.1.
4.38. If 6 =35", b,, =12", d - 20", h, =3", f; = 3000 psi, f, = 20,000 psi, and M =65 ft-kip, determine the
reinforcement required in a T-beam. Use equations (4.10) through (4.17). Assume balanced design.
Ans. A,=2.14 in?
4.39. Using equations (4.18) through (4.27), proportion a doubly reinforced beam if b= 13", d= 26",
d' = 2.5", f' =2500 psi, f, = 20,000 psi, and M = 200 ft-kip. Ans. A, =5.30 in, A) =2.16 in.
4.40. Repeat Problem 4.39 but use Table 4.4.
4.41-4.60. Repeat Problem 4.26 for the input data of Table 4.5. Ans. See Table 4.5.
Table 4.5
ar data Solutions
Prob. d’, ae fe, fis fi,
aao
8,693.2 a Ie 15,049
7,644.7 ; 19,583 9,281
9,890.1 : Ley We?) 15,526
18,249.8 : 16,271 12,937
19,722.8 i 19,734 10,109
3,932.3 : 19,282 10,065
4,819.5 ; 17,895 9,848
9,097.8 18,568 8,259
9,957.0 ; 20,566 16,617
9,088.0 ; 17,170 16,033
4,132.6 ; 18,723 17,678
6,965.3 ; 19,548 14,973
5,641.4 - 19,440 12,000
5,807.4 ; 195153 10,570
14,297.7 : 19,725 10,375
235,392.99 14,280 10,565
8,880.4 : 18,762 14,647
7,453.5 : 19,377 8,569
6,736.4 : 19,110 14,622
16,146.0 : 21,940 10,513
Chapter 5
Strength Design
NOTATION
A, = area of tension reinforcement
A,, = balanced steel area
A! = area of compression reinforcement
A,,= area of reinforcement to develop compressive strength of overhanging flanges in I-
and T-sections
a= depth of equivalent rectangular stress block = B,c
a, = value of a at balanced conditions
b = width of compression face of flexural member
b,, = width of web in I- and T-sections
c=distance from extreme compression fiber to neutral axis at ultimate strength
c, = value of c at balanced conditions
D = dead load
d= distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of tension reinforcement
d' = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of compression reinforcement
E = earthquake load
F = fluid pressure load
ff) =compressive strength of concrete
f, = yield strength of reinforcement
H = earth pressure load
h,= flange thickness in I- and T-sections
I= impact forces load
L = specified live load
M,, = nominal (or design) resisting moment of a cross section = M,/¢
M_,= ultimate resisting moment of a cross section, from frame analysis
T = load factor for differential settlement, creep, shrinkage, or temperature
U = required ultimate load capacity of section
W = wind load
a = dead-load factor
B = live-load factor
6 = wind-load factor
€, = ultimate strain in concrete = 0.003 (1989 ACI Code)
p=A,/bd
p' = Al/bd
p, = reinforcement ratio producing balanced conditions at ultimate strength
pp= A,/b,d
p, = A,/b,d
95
96 STRENGTH DESIGN [CHAP. 5
Pmax = Maximum permissible steel ratio = 0.75p,

¢ = capacity reduction factor (resistance factor)
w=A,f,/bdf.= pf,/f.
(The notation used here is the same as in the 1989 ACI Building Code.)
INTRODUCTION
Strength design procedures differ from the alternate design procedures of Chapter 4. In the
former it is recognized that at high stress levels in concrete, stress is not proportional to strain;
moreover, design loads are multiples of anticipated service loads. In the alternate design method,
stress is assumed to be proportional to strain and design loads are equal to service loads.
Advantages of the Method
(1) Strength design better predicts the strength of a section because of the recognition of the
nonlinearity of the stress-strain diagram at high stress levels.
(2) Because the dead loads to which a structure is subjected are more certainly determined
than the live loads, it is unreasonable to apply the same factor of safety to both.
(3) Elastic column design is a modification of strength design and therefore is not compatible
with the alternate design method for flexural members. Hence a consistent design technique
is desirable.
(4) A more certain evaluation of the critical moment-thrust ratio for columns is possible with
strength design rather than the alternate design method. |
(5) Strength design must be used when determining the ultimate capacity of prestressed
concrete.
Basic Assumptions of the Method
(1) Plane sections before bending remain plane after bending.

(2) At ultimate capacity, strain and stress are not proportional.
(3) Strain in the concrete is proportional to the distance from the neutral axis (Fig. 5-1).
(4) Tensile strength of concrete is neglected in flexural computations.
(5) The ultimate concrete strain (€,) is 0.003.
(6) The modulus of elasticity (E,) of the reinforcing steel is 29,000,000 psi (200 000 MPa).
(7) The average compressive stress in the concrete is 0.85f7.
(8) The average tensile stress in the reinforcement does not exceed f,.
Concrete
Neutral a
Axis Concrete Stress
Distribution
Fig. 5-1
Many compressive-stress distributions have been proposed for concrete, the three most common
being the parabola, trapezoid, and rectangle, Fig. 5-2. All yield reasonable results. Under the
CHAP. 5] STRENGTH DESIGN oy
Fig. 5-2
rectangular stress distribution, as assumed in the 1989 ACI Code, it is further assumed that a = B,c
and that B, be taken as 0.85 for concrete strengths of 4000 psi (30 MPa) or less; whereas, for greater
strength, B, shall be reduced at the rate of 0.05 for each 1000 psi of strength in excess of 4000 psi (at
the rate of 0.008 for each 1.0 MPa of strength in excess of 30 MPa), provided B, does not fall below
0.65.
LOAD FACTORS AND RESISTANCE FACTORS

Strength design incorporates two kinds of safety factors, called load factors (a, B, 5) and
resistance or understrength factors (¢). The former are the coefficients in a linear combination of
dead load, live load, wind forces, etc., into an ideal cross-sectional capacity:
U=aD+BL+6W+:::
The latter convert U into the ultimate design capacity U/(@). If the actual service-level loads cause
shears, bending moments, and/or reactions that in sum are equal to S, then the ultimate safety factor
will be equal to U/(dS).
The numerical values of a, B, and 5, which will be given shortly, have been assigned in the 1989
ACI Code on a statistical basis, considering the degrees of certainty with which the dead load, live
load, and wind forces (and forces due to other phenomena) can be determined. Obviously there is
room for judgmental and statistical errors in any such assignment.
The resistance factors have been based on the relative catastrophic effects of the failure of a
given type of member. If an individual beam or slab fails, it would not be expected that other
portions of the structure would follow. However, if a column fails, the beams and slabs that it
supports will more than likely fail also. This could easily lead to the progressive collapse of a large
portion of the structure around, above, and even below the level of the column that failed. Hence,
resistance factor magnitudes depend on the type of member.
Laboratory test data for beams and slabs in flexure are more reliable than those for shear and
torsion and those used for the design of columns. Accordingly, resistance factors are larger
(theoretical strength capacities are reduced less) for beams and slabs in flexure.
The 1989 ACI Code specifies the following ¢ factors: |
¢@ = 0.90 for flexure, axial tension, and axial tension with flexure
= 0.85 for shear and torsion
= 0.75 for spirally reinforced compression members*
= 0.70 for tied compression members*
= 0.70 for bearing on concrete
= 0.65 for flexure in plain concrete (not reinforced)
*For members subjected to axial load and bending moment, these values are increased linearly to 0.90 as the axial load
decreases from 0.1f/A, to zero, or from “balanced P,,” to zero. The lesser of P, and 0.1f(A, is used.
It is noted that for flexural members such as beams and girders, the capacity reduction factor is
the highest (0.90). As will be noted later, the amount of reinforcing steel in flexure is limited so that
the steel will yield in tension before the concrete fails in compression. Therefore the failure in flexure
will normally be due to a gradual yielding of the reinforcing. In columns, however, the mode of
failure could be an explosive compression failure of the concrete. Too, in most structures, the action
of columns is more important than that of beams. Consequently the idealized capacity of columns is
reduced more than that for beams, 0.75 or 0.70 vs. 0.90.*
The 1989 ACI Code provides three basic equations for “factoring” service-level dead loads (D);
service-level live loads (L); service-level wind (W) or earthquake (£) loads; temperature, creep, and
shrinkage loads (7); earth pressure loads (H); and liquid pressure loads (F).
U =1.4D41.7L (5.1)
U=0.75(1.4D +1.7L+1.7W) or . 0.75(1.4D + 1.7L + 1.87E) (5.2)
U=0.9D+13 W or 0.9D+1.43E (5.3)
The dual forms of (5.2) and (5.3) reflect the assumption of zero probability for simultaneous high
winds and earthquake.
All three conditions must be investigated, and the most critical case is used in the design.
Equation (5.1) usually governs the design; however, for tall structures, equation (5.2) or (5.3)
might be critical. The factor 0.75 in equation (5.2) is used because of the probability that full live
load would not be present during high winds or an earthquake. Equation (5.3) applies to tall
structures subjected to lateral loads. For example, on the windward side of a building, column loads
will be tension forces due to the wind; the dead load (weight of the structure) will cause compressive
forces which will counteract these tension forces. The factor 0.9 is applied to the dead load because
of the probability of overestimating the dead loads due to the weights of the materials.
In equations (5.2) and (5.3), full values and zero values of W or E must be considered.
However, for any combination of D, L, W, and E, U shall not be less than that determined by
equation (5.1). When liquid height is not controllable or pressure is not well defined, 1.7 is required.
For liquids that exert well-defined pressures, the forces F are included with a load factor of 1.4
and are added to all cases that include live load L, e.g., tanks that contain water or petroleum
products.
When the effects of impact / are involved, they are added to the live load as L + J. Impact occurs
due to vehicular traffic, acceleration and deceleration of elevators, escalators, motors, and vibrating.
equipment.
When forces T are included, the required strength must be at least equal to
U=0750 4D 14T Ere) (5.4)
but not less than
U=1.4(D + T) 5)
nor less than
U=0.9D + 1.43E or 0.9D +1.3W (5.6)
and never less than that required by equation (5.1).
If forces H (which include pressures exerted by stored wheat, sugar, etc.) are included, the
required strength shall be at least
U=1.4D+1TIL +7 (ey4)
When D or L reduces the effects of H, U shall not be less than
* For members subjected to axial load and bending moment, these values are increased linearly to 0.90 as the axial load
decreases from 0.1f/A, to zero, or from “balanced P,,” to zero. The lesser of P, and 0.1f1A , is used.
2 at i ik s; |\.
CHAP. 5] STRENGTH DESIGN 99
U=0.9D+1.7H (5.8)
However, for any combination of D and L and/or H, the strength shall be at least that required by
equation (5.1).
Much work has been done toward establishing common load factors for all structural materials,
with specific material properties showing up only in the resistance factors. This effort has already
produced changes in the building codes for structural steel, timber, brick masonry, concrete
masonry, and composite uses of those materials with reinforced concrete.
For many years the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) permitted only the use of
elastic design (straight-line stress-strain relationships) for structural steel members. This corresponds
to the alternate design method for reinforced concrete (Chapter 4). In 1986, AISC adopted two
methods of design for structural steel: ‘‘Allowable Stress Design’”’ (ASD) and “Load and Resistance
Factor Design’ (LRFD). The latter corresponds to the strength design method for reinforced
concrete. Under LRFD, the load factors are essentially the same for structural steel and reinforced
concrete. The resistance factors, of course, differ.
FLEXURAL COMPUTATIONS USING STRENGTH DESIGN

In consideration of the rectangular stress block and the linear strain diagram (Fig. 5-2), the
strength of a rectangular concrete beam reinforced for tension only is
M,, = dpf,bd*(1 — 0.59 pf,/f.) = bf 'bd’w(1 — 0.59w)
= bpf,bd*(1 — 0.59pf,/f’) (5.9)
in which w = pf,/f,. See Problem 5.1.
A brittle failure will occur with an overloaded member if the concrete crushes due to ultimate
strain (€,,) before the tension steel yields. To avoid such a sudden and catastrophic failure, the Code
limits the steel ratio (p) to 75 percent of the value p, that would cause balanced conditions, under
which the concrete crushes at the same time that the steel begins to yield. (The quantity 0.75p, is
yyPate yg?
46 oe
notated p,,,,.) Limiting the steel ratio p ensures that, if overloaded, the member will behave in a
ductile manner. When the actual bending moment corresponds to the capacity of the cross section,
the reinforcing steel begins to yield, and the strain in the steel continues to increase without an
increase in the moment. The deflection of the member increases gradually over an extended period
of time. This provides warning of an impending failure, and allows time for repairs.
The criteria for balanced conditions are actually independent of the shape of the member and the
pattern of steel reinforcement. The design of members can be accomplished without resort to specific
equations for the balanced or maximum steel ratio. Figure 5-3 illustrates balanced conditions; by
similar triangles,
€ “us €x ed
u
or C,=
on de, pareSe
For the prescribed values €, = 0.003 and E, = 29,000,000 psi (200 000 MPa) this becomes
_ _87,000d ( 600d ) (5.10)
“> ~ f +87,000 \f, + 600
Despite the universal validity of (5.10), explicit expressions for p, are useful in recurring design
situations. One such expression is obtained in Problem 5.2.
COMPRESSION REINFORCEMENT
Compression reinforcement in flexural members designed by strength design procedures will very
seldom be required. Because of the much increased value given to the concrete in compression due
to the shape and increased depth of the compression zone, it will be practically unsound to place
enough reinforcement in a beam or girder to attain the balanced condition. If f/ = 3000 psi and
f, = 40,000 psi, then p = 0.18f/ /f, for a beam of balanced design using the alternate design method.
For the same conditions in strength design, p, = 0.37f//f,. It is generally impractical, to use twice as
much reinforcement in a beam as that which would be required by balanced conditions in the
alternate design method.
However, in continuous beams, the ACI Code requires that at least one-fourth of the tensile
steel at the center of the span must be continued on to the support, to be anchored in a compression
zone, in the bottom of the beam at the support. Thus, for continuous beams, there will always be
compression steel at the supports. There is tension in the top and compression in the bottom of the
beams at the supports.
Structural engineers usually do not take the compression steel into account in the design, for
simplicity. This is not overly conservative, because the compression steel does not ordinarily
contribute a large amount of additional moment capacity to the member. In computerized solutions,
of course, the compression steel is usually included in the design. When the depth of a beam is
limited (over doors, windows, etc.), it is often necessary to use compression steel to increase M,.
Compression steel is normally included in deflection calculations, because it increases the
moment of inertia considerably. Also, compression steel reduces the long-term additional deflections
due to creep of the concrete.
In strength design of doubly reinforced beams (beams requiring tension and compression
reinforcement) it is assumed that the resisting moment is composed of two separate moments. First,
there is the resisting capacity of the concrete and the maximum tension reinforcement. Second, there
is the resisting capacity of the compression steel and a balancing amount of additional tension steel.
Corresponding to the expression for the nominal resisting moment of a beam with tensile
reinforcement [see (5.9)],
M, = A,f,(d—a/2)
the moment of the additional compression steel would be M’,= A’ f,(d — d') if the compression steel
is stressed to the yielding. Adding these two moments and deducting the effect of the concrete in
compression occupied by the compressive reinforcement,
M,, =(A, — A!)f,(d — a/2) + Alf,(d- d’) (5.11)
The second term on the right of (5.11) is not strictly correct, for it includes the area occupied by the
compression steel twice. A more correct form of the term is A{(f{ — 0.85f/)(d — da’), where f{ =f.
For (5.11) to be valid, it is necessary that the compressive reinforcement reach its yield strength at
the ultimate strength of the member. Problem 5.3 establishes the following criterion:
0.85 f1B,d' ( 87,000 600 ) (5.12)
Pibtd 87,000-f, ° 600-f,
where, as usual, the first alternative refers to IP units and the second to SI units. If the total tensile
reinforcement is greater than the minimum value given by (5.12), there is more than enough tensile
force, A, f,, to develop the concrete and any compression reinforcement. Therefore the tensile steel
is not at yield and the failure is not controlled by tension.
The quantity p — p’ is also limited to 0.75p, in order to protect against brittle or compression
failures of the concrete.
If the compression-side reinforcing steel does not yield [if (5.12) is not satisfied], f, must be
replaced by f{, where f{ = «,E, <f,. The strain in the compression steel is
pateto='d")
hee (5o13))
where e, = 0.003 and ¢, = f,/E,. In a trial-and-error solution, a value of f{ is assumed, the neutral
axis is located, and the resulting e' and f{ are calculated and compared to the values assumed. When
the assumed values and the calculated values coincide within reasonable tolerance, the solution is
accepted.
I- AND T-SECTIONS
In flanged sections such as an I- or T-section in strength design, it is again assumed that the
resisting moment is composed of two separate moments. First, there is the moment capacity of the
rectangular portion of the concrete, b, times d, and a corresponding amount of tensile reinforce-
ment. Second, there is the moment capacity of the overhang portion of the concrete, (b — b,,)h,, and
another amount of tensile reinforcement. The nominal flexural capacity of an I- or T-section is
Mia(A, Aw)
i, (agg 5a)-tA jj (di 0-5h,) (5.14)
This expression assumes that the section acts as an I- or T-section and that the neutral axis of the
sections falls without the flanged section. The neutral axis falls within the flange if
h, =1.180d/B, ? (5.15)
Then the member acts as a rectangular beam, and it can be proportioned according to requirements
of rectangular beams with tension reinforcement.
In an investigation of a member, it is easy to substitute in equation (5.15). However, in a design
it might be more practical to determine if the flange of the section is capable of resisting the applied
moment. If not, then the neutral axis falls outside the flange and the section does not act as a
rectangular member.
If the nominal moment capacity of the flange,
M,, = 0.85f/bh,(d — 0.5h,)
is greater than the nominal applied moment, then the member is proportioned as a rectangular
beam.
In I- and T-sections, the area of tension steel available to develop the concrete of the web in
compression is limitied to 0.75p,, that is,
A,/b,d— A,/b,d =0.75p, or Py > Pp =9.75p,
This, too, is to guard against possible brittle or compressive failures of the concrete.
Similarly, the minimum steel ratio is p,i, = 200/f,(1.4/f,).
Design specifications require that in reinforced concrete structures proportioned by strength
design techniques the analysis of the frame to determine shears, moments, and thrusts be based on
elastic behavior. The 1989 ACI Code contains provisions for moment redistribution so that limit
design may be considered to some extent.
SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS AND TABULAR DESIGN AIDS

The solution and application of the expressions derived in this chapter will be demonstrated in
the solved problems. However, it is appropriate to discuss the solution of the expression for the
nominal moment capacity of a rectangular beam with tension reinforcement only. In the solution of
the expression M, = bd’f'w(1—0.59w) = A, f,(d — a/2), there are the variables b, d, and A, which
are not known before the design is completed. It is obvious that there are an infinite number of
solutions to the equations that would yield the same value of M,. Hence the designer must assume
the value of one or more of these variables before he can determine the unique solution he is
seeking.
The designer may assume the overall dimensions of the member; or may assume a value of p; or
may assume that the member shall have minimum depth or maximum p permitted by specifications.
As previously shown, the last assumption will seldom be used because of the extremely high quantity
of reinforcing steel required, which is not an economical solution. Often the overall width or depth,
or both, of a beam are established by some other structural or architectural consideration.
If the minimum depth of the overall member size is not determined or assumed, then the
designer must assume a value for p or w.
There are three basic techniques for the solution of singly reinforced beams:
(1) Direct substitution into formulas
(2) Use of tables for the formulas and constants
(3) Use of curves or charts for the formulas and constants
All three methods will be used in the solved problems.
Table 5.1 is a solution of a dimensionless form of equation (5.9),
m,/bf.bd’ = M,/f'bd> = w(1—0.59w)
with the first column being the first two decimal places and the first row being the third decimal place
for the value of w; the body of the table gives the corresponding values for M,,/f'bd*. With Table
5.1, the design may be accomplished by assuming a value of w or p and solving for M,/f’bd* and
subsequently for b and d; or, a value for bd? may be assumed and the value of w determined.
Figure 5-4 is a series of curves that accomplish the solution similar to Table 5.1. This is the same
chart contained in the ASCE-ACI Joint Committee Report on Ultimate Strength Design and is
The chart may be entered with a value of M,/bd’; then traverse horizontally to the concrete
strength, then vertically to the yield strength of the steel, then horizontally to the value of p. If p is
assumed, this procedure is reversed. (Note that nominal M, = M,/¢ is used.)
In Chapter 4 it was shown that the basic equations using the transformed section method could
be reduced to simpler forms, and with the help of design aid tables or charts the flexural
computations could be made much easier. A method similar to this can be employed in strength
design procedures.
» oe ah
Table 5.1 Nominal Resisting Moment of Rectangular Sections (Tension Reinforcement)
M, /fibd? = M,ofibd?
o = ®nax = Posedelicc
STRENGTH DESIGN [CHAP. 5
104
M,/bd’,
psi
=
M,/bd?
Fig. 5-4 Nominal bending moment for rectangular beams (tension reinforcement).
If a= A, f,/0.85f/b or a/d= py, where pw =f,/0.85f,, the distance from the centroid of the
compression force ini the concrete to the tensile reinforcement j,d=d-—a/2 or j, =1—a/2d. The
resisting moment M,/¢ = Tj,d= A, f,j,d. In the alternate design method, R = M/bd?= f,/2kj. In
strength design if the member is underreinforced, then the analogous R is R,, = f/w(1 —0.59w)=
pf, — 0.59pf,/f{) and M,= R,,bd’. In the alternate design method, for a given steel stress, the
values of j were averaged “and a value was computed so that a = f,j/12,000 and hence A, = M/ad.
In the alternate design method, for a given steel stress, typical values of j would not vary more
than 5 to 10 percent regardless of the concrete stress. However, in strength design, because of the
wider range of possible reinforcing steel percentages, there obviously would be a greater variation in
the values of j as the concrete stress varies. Therefore, if it is considered that a, (this is not the depth
of the stress block)= f,j,,, the area of steel must be A, = M,/@f, jd.
Table 5.2 (in IP units) and Table 5.3 (in SI units) list the various constants for atenae design
aa
Table 5.2 Strength Design Factors* (IP units)
ff! = 3000.0 psi f, = 40,000.0 psi Pmin = 200/f, = 0.0050 ¢ =0.9
0. 00200 0.0369
0. 00250 0.0461
0. 00300 0. O554
0. 00350 0. 0646
0.00400 0.8717 0.0738
0. 00450 O. 8681 0. 0830
0. 00500 0. 8646 0. 0923
0. 00550 O. 8611 0.1015
0. 00600 0. 8575 0. 1107
0. 00650 0. 8540 0.1200 0. 0867
0.00700 0. 8504 0.1292 0.0933

0.00750 0. 8469 1384 0. 1000
0. 00800 0. 8434 1476 0. 1067
0. 00850 0. 8398 1569 0.1133
0. 00900 0. 8363 1661 0.1200
0. 00950 0. 8327 1753 0.1267
0.01000 0. 8292 1845 0.1333
0.01050 0. 8257
0.01100 QO. 8221
0.01150 O. 8186 0. 1804
0.01200 0. 8150 O. 1882

0.01250 0.8115 0.1961
0.01300 0. 8080 0. 2039
0.01350 0. 8044 0.2118
0.01400 0. 8009 0.2196
0.01450 0.7973 0.2275
0.01500 0. 7938 0. 2353
0.01550 0. 7903 0.2431
0.01600 0. 7867 0.2510
0.01650 0. 7832 0. 2588 0. 2200
0.01700 0.7796 0. 2667 0. 2267

0.01750 0.7761 0.2745 0.2333
0.01800 0. 7726 0. 2824 0. 2400
0.01850 0. 7690 0. 2902 0.2467
0.01900 0. 7655 0.2980 0.2533
0.01950 0. 7619 0. 3059 0. 2600
0. 02000 0. 7584 0. 3137 0. 2667
0. 02050 0. 7549 O. 3216 0.2733
0.02100 0. 7513 0. 3294 QO. 2800
0.02150 0. 7478 0. 3373 0. 2867
0. 02200 0. 7442 0. 3451 0.2933

0. 02250 0. 7407 0. 3529 0. 3000
0. 02300 0. 7372 0. 3608 QO. 3067
0. 02350 0. 7336 0. 3686 0.3133
0. 02400 0. 7301 0. 3765 QO. 3200
0. 02450 0. 7265 O. 3843 0. 3267
0. 02500 0. 7230 QO. 3922 0. 3333
0. 02550 0.7195 0. 4000 0. 3400
0. 02600 0.7159 0. 4078 0. 3467
0. 02650 0.7124 0. 4157 0. 3533
0.02700 0. 7088 0. 4235 0. 3600

0.02750 0. 7053 0.5075 0.4314 0. 3667
3 x balanced steel ratio
0. 02784 2.343 0. 7029 783° | 0.5138 0. 4367 0.3712
*Factors are related to ultimate M, = #M,,. Tabular values include @ factor.
Table 5.2 (cont.)
f! = 3000.0 psi f, =50,000.0 psi Pein = 200/f, = 0.0040 ¢ =0.9
0. 00200 0. 8823 0.0461 0.0392 0.0333

0. 00250 0.8779 0.0577 0.0490 0.0417
0. 00300 0. 8734 0. 0588 0. 0500
0.00350 0. 8690 0. 0686 0. 0583
0. 00400 0. 8646 0.0784 0. 0667
0. 00450 0. 8602 0. 0882 0.0750
0. OOS00 0. 8557 0.0980 0.0833
0. OOSS0 0. 8513 0.1078 0.0917
0. 00600 0. 8469 0.1176 0. 1000
0. 00650 0. 8425 0.1275 0. 1083
0. 00700 0. 8381 0. 1373 0.1167

0.00750 0. 8336 0.1471 0. 1250
0. 00800 GF 8292 0. 1569 0.1333
0. 00850 0. 8248 0. 1667 1417
0. 00900 0. 8203 0.1765 1500
0.00950 0. 8159 0. 1863 1583
0.01000 0.8115 0.1961 1667
0.01050 0. 8071 0. 2059
0.01100 0. 8027 0.2157
0.01150 0. 7382 0. 2255
Q.01200 0.7938 0.2353

0.01250 0. 7894 0.2451
0.01300 0. 7850 0. 2549
0.01350 0. 7805 O. 2647
0.01400 0. 7761 0.2745
0.01450 0.7717 0. 2843
0.01500 0. 7673 0.2941
0.01550 0. 7628 0. 3039
0.01600 0. 7584 O. 3137
0.01650 0.7540 0. $235
0.01700 0. 7496 0. 3333

0.01750 0.7451 0. 4037 0. 3431 0.2917
0.01800 0. 7407 0. 4152 0. 3529 0. 3000
0.01850 0. 7363 0. 4268 0. 3627 QO. 3083
0.01900 G.i7S19 0. 4383 0. 3725 0. 3167
0.01950 0.7274 0. 4498 0. 3824 0. 3250
0. 02000 0. 7230 0. 4614 0. 3922 0. 3333
0. 02050 0. 7186 0.4729 0. 4020 0. 3417
0. 02065 2.989 Gs ive 0.4763 0. 4048 0. 3441

Table 5.2 (cont.)
f! = 3000.0 psi f, = 60,000.0 psi Pmin = 200/f, = 0.0033 ob =0.9
0. 00200 0. 8788 0.0554 0.0471 0. 0400

0. 00250 0. 8734 0.0692 0. 0588 O. 0500
0. 00300 O. 8681 0.0830 0.0706 0. 0600
0. 00350 0. 8628 0.0969 0. 0824 O. 0700
0. 00400 0. 8575 0. 1107 0.0941 OQ. 0800
0.00450 QO. 8522 O. 1246 0.1059 0. 0300
0. 00500 0. 8469 0. 1384 0.1176 O. 1000
0. 00550 0. 8416 0. 1522 0. 1294 O. 1100
0. 00600 0. 8363 O. 1661 0.1412 QO. 1200
0. 00650 0. 8310 0.1799 0. 1529 0. 1300
0.00700 0. 8257 0.1938 0. 1647 QO. 1400

0.00750 0. 8204 0. 2076 0.1765 O. 1500
0. 00800 QO. 8150 0.2215 0. 1882 QO. 1600
0. 00850 0. 8097 0. 2353 0. 2000 O. i700
0. 00900 0. 8044 0.2491 0.2118 QO. 1800
0. 00950 0.7991 0. 2630 0. 2235 O. 1900
0.01000 Orr 3S8 0.2768 0.2353 O. 2000
0.01050 0. 7885 0.2907 0.2471 QO. 2100
0.01100 0. 7832 0. 3045 0. 2588 0. 2200
0.01150 0.7779 0. 3183 0. 2706 O. 2300
0.01200 0.7726 0. 3322 0. 2824 0. 2400

0.01250 0. 7673 0. 3460 0.2941 O. 2500
0.01300 O.7619 0. 3599 0. 3059 0. 2600
0.01350 0. 7566 0. 3737 O. 3176 O. 2700
0.01400 0.7513 0. 3875 0. 3294 O. 2800
0.01450 0. 7460 0. 4014 0. 3412 O. 2900
0.01500 0. 7407 0.4152 0. 3529 QO. 3000
0.01550 0. 7354 0.4291 0. 3647 O. 3100
0.01600 0. 7301 0. 4429 0. 3765 O. 3200

0.01604 3.649 0. 7297 0. 4439 0. 3773 0. 3207
Table 5.3 Strength Design Factors* (SI units)
f!=20.0 MPa f, = 280.0 MPa Pmin = 1.4/f, = 0.0050 ¢ =0.9
O. 0388
0. 0484
Oo. 0581
0. 0678
O. 0775 0. 0659 0.0560
oO. 0872 0. O741 0. 0630
QO. 0969 QO. 0824 0.0700
0. 00550 O. 1066 O. 0906 0.0770
0. 00600 O. 1163 QO. 0988 0.0840
0. 00650 0. 8517 1.5501 QO. 1260 O. 1071 0.0910
0.00700 0. 8480 1.6620 oO. 1356 QO. 1153 0.0980

0.00750 0. 8442 1.7730 O. 1453 O. 1235 0. 1050
0. 00800 0. 8405 1. 8828 O. 1550 O. 1318 0.1120
0. 00850 0. 8368 1.9917 O. 1647 O. 1400 0.1190
0.00900 0. 8331 2.0994 QO. 1744 QO. 1482 0. 1260
0.00950 0. 8294 2. 2062 O. 1841 oO. 1565 0.1330
0.01000 0. 8257 2.3119 O. 1938 O. 1647 0. 1400
0.01050 0. 8219 2.4166 O. 2035 O. 1729 0.1470
Q.01100 Q. 8182 2. 5202 QO. 2131 QO. 1812 0. 1540
0.01150 0. 8145 2.6228 0. 2228 O. 1894 0.1610
0.01200 0. 8108 2. 7243 0. 2325 O. 1976 0. 1680

0.01250 0. 8071 2. 8248 QO. e422 QO. 2059 0.1750
0.01300 0. 8034 2. 9243 0. 2519 O. 2141 0. 1820
0.01350 0. 7996 3. 0227 oO. 2616 O. e2e4 0.1890
0.01400 0.7959 3.1201 O. 2713 O. 2306 0.1960
0.01450 0. 7922 3.2164 oO. 2810 O. 2388 0. 2030
0. 01500 0. 7885 3.3117 O. 2907 QO. 2471 0.2100
Q. 01550 0. 7848 3. 4060 O. 3003 O. 2553 0.2170
0.01600 QO. 7811 3. 4992 Q. 3100 oO. 2635 0.2240
0.01650 0.7773 3.5913 O. 3197 O. 2718 0.2310
0.01700 0.7736 3.6825 Oo. 3294 O. 2800 0.2380

0.01750 0. 7699 3.7726 0. 3391 O. 2882 0.2450
0.01800 QO. 7662 3.8616 OQ. 3488 0. 2965 0.2520
0.01850 0. 7625 3.9496 QO. 3585 O. 3047 0. 2590
0.01900 0. 7588 4.0366 0. 3682 O. 2 5-3") 0.2660
0.01950 0. 7550 4.1225 OQ. 3779 O. yao ies 0.2730
QO. 02000 0.7513 4.2074 0. 3875 O. 3294 0. 2800
0. 02050 0. 7476 4.2913 0. oo (i 0. 3376 0.2870
0. 02100 0. 7439 4.3741 O. 4069 QO. 3459 0.2940
0. 02150 0. 7402 4.4558 O. 4166 O. 3541 0. 3010
0. 02200 0. 7365 4.5366 Q. 4263 O. 3624 QO. 3080
0. 02250 0. 7327 4.6163 oO. 4360 O. 3706 0. 3150
0. 02300 0. 7290 4.6949 QO. 4457 QO. 3788 0. 3220
0. 02350 0. 7253 4.7725 O. 4554 QO. 3871 0. 3290
0. 02400 0.7216 4.8491 QO. 4650 0. 3953 0. 3360
0.02450 BERTiaeres) 4.9246 oO. 4747 0. 4035 0. 3430
0. 02500 0.7142 4.9991 QO. 4844 QO. 4118 0. 3500
0. 02550 0. 7104 5.0725 O. 4941 QO. 4200 0. 3570
0. 02600 0. 7067 5. 1449 QO. 5038 QO. 4282 0. 3640

0. 02639 0. 197 0.7038] 5.2007 0.5114 0. 4347 | 0.3695 |
“Factors are related to ultimate M, = M,,. Tabular values include @ factors.

Table 5.3 (cont.)
f! =20.0 MPa i = 350.0 MPa Pmin = 1.4/f, = 0.0040 6 =0.9
0. 00200 0.8814 | 0.6170 0.0484 0.0412 0.0350

0. 00250 0.8768 | 0.7672 0. 0606 0.0515 0.0438
QO. 00300 0.8721 | 0.9158 0.0727 0.0618 0. 0525
0. 00350 0. 8675 | 1.0627 0.0848 0.0721 0. 0613
QO. 00400 0.8628 | 1.2080 0. 0969 0. 0824 0.0700
0. 00450 0. 858e | 1.3517 0. 1090 0.0926 0.0787
0. 00500 0.8535 | 1.4937 0. teil 0. 1029 0.0875
0. 0OOSS0 0.8489 | 1.6342 0. 1332 0.1132 0. 0962
0. 00600 0. 8442 | 1.7730 0. 1453 0.1235 QO. 1050
0. 00650 0.8396 | 1.9101 0.1574 0.1338 0.1137
0.00700 0. 8350 0. 1695 0.1441 0.1225

0.00750 0. 8303 0. 1817 0.1544 0.1312
0. 00800 0. 8257 0. 1938 O. 1647 0. 1400
0. 00850 0. 8210 0. 2059 0.1750 O. 1487
0. 00900 0. 8164 0.2180 0.1853 0.1575
0. 00950 0.8117 0.2301 0.1956 O. 1662
0.01000 0. 8071 0. 2422 0. 2059 0.1750
0.01050 0. 8024 0. 2543 0.2162 0. 1837
0.01100 0.7978 0. 2664 0. 2265 0.1925
0.01150 0.7931 0.2785 0. 2368 0.20ie
0.01200 0. 7885 | 3.3117 0. 2907 0.2471 0.2100

0.01250 0. 7838 | 3.4294 0. 3028 0.2574 0.2187
0.01300 0.7792 | 3.5454 0.3149 0. 2676 0.2275
0.01350 0.7746 | 3.6598 0. 3270 0.2779 0. 2362
0.01400 QO. 7699 | 3. 7726 0. 3391 0. 2882 0.2450
0.01450 0. 7653 | 3.8837 0. 3512 0.2985 0.2537
0.01500 0. 7606 | 3.9933 0. 3633 0. 3088 0. 2625
0.01550 0.7560 | 4.1012 0. 3754 0. 3191 0.2712
0.01600 0.7513 | 4.2074 QO. 3875 0. 3294 0. 2800
0.01650 0.7467 | 4.3121 0. 3997 0. 3397 0. 2887
0.01700 0.7420 | 4.4151 0.4118 0. 3500 0.2975

0.01750 0.7374 | 4.5165 0. 4239 0. 3603 0. 3062
0.01800 0.7327 | 4.6163 0. 4360 0. 3706 0. 3150
0.01850 0.7281 | 4.7144 0. 4481 0. 3809 0. 3237
0.01900 0. 7234 | 4.8109 0. 4602 QO. 3912 0. 3325
0.01950 0.7188 |} 4.9058 0.4723 0.4015 0. 3412

0.01956 0.7183 |4.9164 0.4737 | 0.4026 | 0.3422
Table 5.3 (cont.)
f’ =20.0 MPa f,=400.0MPa p,,, =1.4/f, = 0.0035 $=0.9
0. 00200
0. 00250
0. 00300
0.00350 3 i i 0.0969
0. 00400 0.1107 0.0941
0. 00450 ee O. 1246 0.1059
0. 00500 3 0. 1384 0.1176
0. 00550 3 0. 1522 0.1294
0. 00600 ° QO. 1661 0.1412
0.00650 O.83S10 |ic 0.1799 Of1529
0.00700 056257 0. 1938 0. 1647

0.00750 3i 0. 8204 | | 0. 2076 0.1765
0. 00800 O. 8150 | « ‘ OSeeis 0. 1882
0. 00850 © 0. 8097 ba 0. 2353 0. 2000
0. 00900 ei 0. 8044 0.2491 0.2118
0.00950 2 aS TASKER ES 0. 2630 0.2235
0.01000 0. 7938 0.2768 0. 2353
0.01050 0. 7885 0.2907 0.2471
0.01100 OG. 7832 0. 3045 0.2588
0.01150 0.7779" 3.5782 0. 3183 0. 2706 0. 2300
0.01200 0. 7726 | 3. 7083 0. 3322 0. 2824 0.2400

0.01250 0. 7673 | 3.8363 0. 3460 0.2941 0. 2500
0.01300 O. 7619 | 3. 96e1 0. 3599 0. 3059 0. 2600
0.01350 0.7566 | 4.0858 0. 3737 0. 3176 0.2700
0.01400 0.7513 | 4.2074 0. 3875 0. 3294 0.2800
0.01450 0. 7460 | 4. 3269 0.4014 0. 3412 0.2900
0.01500 0. 7407 | 4. 4442 0. 4152 0. 3529 QO. 3000
0.01550 i 0.7354 | 4.5595 0.4291 0. 3647 0. 3100
0.01600 aoe 0.7301 | 4.6725 0. 4429 0.3765 0. 3200

0.01626 0.7274 | 4.7297 0. 4500 0. 38e5 | 0.3251 |
analogous to those developed for the alternate design method. The values of the parameters f/ and f,
in Table 5.3 are the rounded equivalents to those of Table 5.2. Hence, even the nondimensional
columns in the two tables (e.g., w) differ somewhat. In Table 5.2, the values in the second column
have been divided by 12,000 in order that the formula A, = M,,/da,d shall give A, in in. when M, is
in ft-kip (instead of in.-lb). In like manner, the second column of Table 5.3 has been normalized to
put A, in mm’ when M,, is in kKN-m. Note that both tables include the effect of @ (0.90). Before using
any design aid, ascertain whether or not a phi factor is included. Carelessness in this regard could
lead to including ¢ twice, or not at all.
COMPUTER-GENERATED DESIGN AIDS

Tables 5.1, 5.2, and 5.3 provide design parameters for frequently used values of f/ and f,. To
allow the reader to generate similar tables, for any concrete and steel strengths, the author’s
computer program USDBEAMS follows. The input is in free format, with the numerical values
separated by blanks or a comma, or both. The resistance factor ¢ is part of the input. A sample set
of data follows the program listing. The input data are on one line on the data file, which has been
previously named, using twelve characters or less. The computer prompts, asking for the file name.
Any number of separate tables can be generated with one computer run. Each new data set is on a
separate line. The data required are
PORO,” DELP? (fee ry, Fut

where PORQ = 1 for Table 5.1, 0 for Table 5.2
DELP = increment of change in steel ratio (P for p and Q for w), 0.01, 0.001, etc.
FC = concrete strength f’, Ib/in.”
FY = steel yield strength f,, Ib/in.”
PHI = the resistance (understrength) factor
To generate tables in terms of the factored ultimate moment M,, input ¢@ =0.9. For tables in
terms of the nominal moment M, = M_,/d, input ¢ = 1.0.
RRAARARA ARK ARR AAA ALARA AREA AA AR AAA A RRA A KARA RARAARARRAERKS
RAAARAAERARA RARER AAR ARAR ARR RARER AR RRAT AAA RRAARERAR KARATE
PROGRAM USDBEAMS
PACTORS FOR USD, REINFORCED CONCRETE BRAMS, U.S. UNITS
PHI FACTOR IS READ IN
PORO = 0 POR P TABLES, 1 FOR Q TABLES
DELP STANDS FOR DELTA P OR DELTA Q AS REQUIRED
FC AND FY ARE IN PSI
RECTANGULAR SECTIONS REINFORCED FOR TENSION ONLY
RRAKAAKAAARARAARAAARRA
AAA RAR AREER AAR RARER ARR RAAA RARARAAERE
REAAAAAR AR AAR RAA RRA RARER A RAR AA RAR AR AAR RRARARARRRRRA AL
DR. NOEL J. BVBRARD - CONSULTING BNGINEER

PROFESSOR BMBRITUS OF CIVIL ENGINEBRING
UNIVERSITY OF TBXAS AT ARLINGTON
4310 DOWNSVIBW COURT ARLINGTON, TEXAS 76016
RARRARAAAAAARAARAA
ARR AAR ARR AAARA RARER RE ARARA AREA RAR ARERR AR ERE
KRAAAAAA AKER RARER RRA RARER AR ARA AAA AAA A RARER RAR ARAA RARER AER R RE
Cac
ca
Calica
Cd
Co
Cl
C2
Calica
Ca
a
CHARACTER*12 INFILE
INTEGER PORQ
WRITE (*,'(A\)') ' NAME OF INPUT PILB, 12 CHARACTERS OR LESS'
RBAD (*,'(A)') INPILE
OPEN (5,PILB=INPILE)
30 READ (5,*,END=999) PORQ, DBLP, FC, PY, PHI
99 FORMAT(P10.1,F10.1,£8.1,/)
10 PORMAT(F10.5,P10.3,F10.4,18,2X,F10.4,F10.4,F10.4,F10.4)
108 PORMAT(2x,48H BEAM DESIGN FACTORS STRENGTH DBSIGN.ACI-318-89.,
— * 1 0,8. CUSTOMARY UNITS.',/)
105 PORMAT (3x,19H MIN. P = 200/FY = ,P7.4,/)
27 FORMAT (1H1)
12 PORMAT(1H )
C
IBLANK = 0
BPS = 0,003
BS = 29,8+06
BPSES = BPS * BS
DELQ = DELP
PMIN=200,/FY
LINBS=1
IBLANK = 0
17 IP(PC-4000.)4,4,5
4 BBTAL=.85
GO TO 11
- a a :
STRENGTH DESIGN [CHAP.5
5 petal=.85-(.05*(PC-4000.)/1000.)
IF (FC .GB. 8000, ) BETAL = 0.65
2 PORMAT( 208 FC Pi. PHI',/)
11 CONTINUE
16 N=l
CB=BPSBS/(EPSES+FY)
PB=.85*BETAL*FC*CB/FY
WRITE (*,108)
WRITE (*,105) PMIN
PMAX = 0.75 * PB
WRITE (*,2)
WRITE (*,99) PC, FY, PHI
3 PORMAT(F6.4,P6.4,76.4,F6.1,F6.4)
AEPY/PC
81 IF (PORO .LT. 1 ) GO TO 382
381 P= .002
GO TO 600
382 0 = 0.01
600 WRITE (*,1)
WRITB (*,12)
6 CORTINUB
IP (PORO .LT. 1 ) GO TO 406
306Q=P*A
GO TO 500
406 P = Q/A
500 CORTINDE
eee isasat G)
Al=P*PY/(.85*FC)
CU=Al/BETAL
PHIRU=PHI*P*PY*2 + 0.5
NRO = PHIRD
PHIAU=PHI*FY*2/12000,
PHIJD=PHIAU*1 2000. /FY
WRITE (*,10) P,PHIAW,PHIJD,NRU,CO,Al, Q
IBLANK = IBLANK + |
IF (IBLANK «20. 10 ) WRITE (*,12)
IP (IBLANK «20. 10 ) IBLANK = 0
700 P = P + DBLP
CHAP. 5} STRENGTH DESIGN 113
7 P=PMAX
LINBS = 0
IBLANK = 0
N=N+]
WRITE (*,22)
22 PORMAT(/,3x,27H 3/4 X BALANCED STEBL RATIO,/)
GO T0 6
21 WRITE (*,27)
LINBS = 1
IBLANK = 0
GO 70 30
1 PORMAT( 49H P AU JU RU c/D
1194 A/D Q./)
999 stoP
BND
DATA
0 .01 3000. 60000, 0.9
Solved Problems
5.1. Using Fig. 5-5, derive equation (5.9).

Summing horizontal forces, T= C. Then
A, f, =0.85f {ab and a=A,f,/0.85f(b

Summing moments about the centroid of the compressive force, M, = A, f,(d — a/2). Substituting
for a, the nominal moment capacity, M_,/¢ is
M,=A,f,d(1—0.59pf,/f!) or M, =fibd’w(1 — 0.590)
-0.85f¢ ue
C = 0.85f2.ab
5.2. Obtain p, for a beam reinforced for tension only.
€u
Referring to Fig. 5-6, by geometry:

6éc= € (dc) or c= €,di(é, + €,)
But, c = a/B, = A,f,/0.85f/.bB,. Then
e€,d Af,
Ava Dy. bieee

u Pe
us bd f 9 fete, wee
If p is defined as the balanced reinforcement p, and if we let €, = 0.003, then
OISSfEB, 0.003E,
Po f, (0.003 + €,)E,
If E, = 29,000,000 psi (200000 MPa) and f, = €,E,, then
_ 0.85f/B, —87,000 (:85FB: 600 )
Po f, 87,000 +f, f, 600+f, ()
Curves for p,,,, = 9.75 p,, as derived from the IP version of (1), are shown in Fig. 5-7.
30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 70,000 80,000

fy» psi
Fig. 5-7
5.3. Derive equation (5.12).

Referring to Fig. 5-8, by geometry,
elc=e,(c—d’') or c=e,d'/(e, — €/)
But c= a/B, = A,f,/0.85f/bB,. Then
iSbien op Poel
€.—€. 1.0.85), 0B;
A, U85f Rigas
or
ba 41) (fd 7 eee
At ultimate strength e{ = €,, and substituting for f, = E,e,,
_, _ 9-85f- Bid" ( 87,000 A 600 )
inc apieeifydno\ 31,000.=.f) 600 — f,
5.4. Derive equation (5.14).

Referring to Fig. 5-9, it is assumed that the effect of the overhanging portion of the flange is the
same as the effect of compression reinforcement in a double reinforced beam. This ‘“‘additional”’
reinforcement is A,,.
Fig. 5-9
The compressive strength of the overhang would be C’=0.85f/(b — b,,)A,, and transforming to
reinforcing steel, A,, = C'/f, =0.85(b — b,,)h,fi/f,. It is further assumed that this compressive force
»
acts at the centroid of the flange. Therefore, the moment resistance due to the flange would be
M,,, = A,,f,(d — 0.5h,). Substituting these values in the expression for a double reinforced beam,
M,, =(A, — Ag)
f,(4 — 0.5a) + A, f,(d — 0.5h,)
where a =(A, — A,,)f,/0.85f75,,-
5.5. The three-span beam shown in Fig. 5-10 is subjected to a dead load of 1.0 kip/ft and a live
load of 2.0 kip/ft. Determine the ultimate positive and negative moments and shears. Use the
load factors of the 1989 ACI Code.
Oe
OR TT ET ee eee te
RUE SARSOTSS SAT SA WEARS EE SEE
Fig. 5-10
Since the L.L. could be on any number of the spans, it will be necessary to determine the critical
loading pattern. The critical loading condition for maximum shear at A and for maximum positive
moment in span AB would be live load in spans AB and CD only. The critical loading for maximum
positive moment in span BC would be live load in span BC only. The critical loading condition for
maximum shear and maximum negative moment at B would be live load in spans AB and BC only.
An elastic analysis of the structure yields the following shears and moments. For dead load:
Vi, = 0.4wil = 0.4(1.0)(20) = 8.0 kip +M4, = 0.08wl* = 0.08(1.0)(20)* = 32.0 ft-kip
V, 4 = 0.6wl = 0.6(1.0)(20) = 12.0 kip —M, = 0.10wl* = 0.10(1.0)(20)? = 40.0 ft-kip
Vac = 0.5wl = 0.5(1.0)(20) = 10.0 kip + Myc = 0.025wi* = 0.025(1.0)(20)? = 10.0 ft-kip
For live load on spans AB and CD only:
V,_ = 0.45wl = 0.45(2)(20) = 18.0 kip
+M,, = 0.101 wil? = 0.101(2)(20)* = 80.8 ft-kip jdt
For live load on span BC only:

+ Myc = 0.075 wl? = 0.075(2)(20)? = 60.0 ft-kip
For live load on spans AB and BC only:
V4 = 9.617wl = 0.617(2)(20)= 24.7 kip
Vac = 0.583wl = 0.583(2)(20) = 23.3 kip tos
—M, = 0.117wi? = 0.117(2)(20)° = 93.6 ft-kip
STRENGTH DESIGN AIF
The appropriate load-factor equations are

U=1.4D+1.7L and U =0.75(1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7W)
It is apparent that the first equation governs, since there are no wind-load effects. Therefore:
Ult. V5 = 1.4(8.0) + 1.7(18) = 41.8 kip
Ult. V,,, = 1.4(12.0) + 1.7(24.7) = 58.8 kip
Ult. —V,¢ = 1.4(10.0) + 1.7(23.3) = 53.6 kip
Ult. +M,,, = 1.4(32.0) + 1.7(80.8) = 182.2 ft-kip
Ult. —M, = 1.4(40.0) + 1.7(93.6) = 215.1 ft-kip
Ult. +My = 1.4(10.0) + 1.7(60.0) = 116.0 ft-kip
It may also be necessary to investigate the load-factor equation U =0.9D + 1.3W when wind is
involved.
5.6.. Given the beam section in Fig. 5-11 with the concrete-cylinder strength equal to 3500 psi and
the yield strength of the steel equal to 50,000 psi. Determine the nominal flexural capacity of
the beam assuming the rectangular compressive-stress distribution.
20"
= 2 . \ Fig. 5-11
a A,3.0
| . fend 12x00
so @ =pf,/f!=0. fee 5 = 0.1786 and * Ns
M,, = M,/¢ = bd*f'w(1 — 0.59w)

= (12)(20)(20)(3.5)(0.1786) = 2684.3 in.-kip = 223.7 ft-kip
ign 1 one-way continuous slab to support the moments tabulated. Assume f/ = 3000 psi,
( ‘Psi, and scares
aOE eae depth permitted with no compressive reinforcement.
} *
Dek
4
tte
wer
bak :
Pemee at midspan_
U=1.4D+1.7L U =0.75(1.4D +1.7L +1.7W) + 1.3W

U=0.9D
For positive moments,
U = 1.4(9.5) + 1.7(9.0) = 28.6 ft-kip/ft
This will be the ultimate positive moment because wind has no effect at midspan and the last load-
factor equation will be critical only at the supports.
For negative moment,
U = 1.4(—15.0) + 1.7(—10.0) = —38.0 ft-kip/ft
U = 0.75[(1.4)(—15) + (1.7)(—10) + (1.7)(—30)] = —66.75 ft-kip/ft
U =0.9(15.0) + 1.3(30.0) = —25.5 ft-kip/ft or +52.5 ft-kip/ft
(b) The maximum ultimate negative moment of —66.75 ft-kip/ft is the largest absolute value and
governs the thickness of the slab. It is necessary to determine the maximum percentage of
reinforcement permitted. Then
35] Es
Pmax= 0: f, 87,000+ f, 3— e
e
e 40,000 127,000 = 0.0279
(c) With p,,,, determined, the depth of the section is determined by substitution into the expression for
the ultimate moment capacity; assuming the rectangular distribution,
M, = 6[bd’f'w(1 — 0.59w)] (2)
where @=0.90 for flexure and w = p( f/f!) = 0.0279(40,000/3000) = 0.372. Substituting into
equation (2),
BeatyMi = C1 ae 0.59u) =0.372[1 :~(0.59)(0.372)] !=0.2904

(66:95)0000) 0 ree cae
(0.9)(12)(0.2904)(3000) —% ~ 89-13 in.
and d = 9.23". Assuming that No. 4 bars will be used, with the required 3” cover, the total depth of
the slab is 9.23 + 0.25 + 0.75= 10.23”. Use a total depth of 10.5”, so the famsied effective depth is
10.5 — 0.25 — 0.75= 9.5". Use an effective depth of 9.5”.
The reinforcement at all sections can be determined by use of equation (1), where every term
is known but w. But substituting the numerical values, a quadratic equation develops in terms of w.
Once w is known, the steel ratio can be obtained using p = wf//f,. Then, the steel area required
can be obtained as A,=pbd. The negative moment reinforcement and the sie moment
reinforcement can thus ie determined.
hee
5.8. Solve Problem 5.7 by using charts or tables for proportioning the member.
' (a) From Fig. 5-7, p,,,, = 0.028; then 4. = Pmax(f,/f.) = 0.372.
(b) Solving for M,,/bd*f! = M,/¢bd’f’ by Table 5.1 for w = 0.37,
ee > 66.75(12,000) , a
) OFbE pe ee ae OUD Thea}—— Oe
*
é from which d = 9.25". Considering No. 4 bars and 3" cover, the total entiis ie ;
f25+ dass 0.15=10.25" | a

STRENGTH DESIGN 119
(e) Similarly, the positive reinforcement at midspan is determined.

M, Mae 28.6(12,000) =0.117
fibd?— f'bd? —_(0.9)(3000)(12)(9.5)°
From Table 5.1, # = 0.1265. Then A, = 1.075 in.’/ft.
5.9. Solve Problem 5.8 using Fig. 5-4.

After determining maximum p and minimum d as before, enter Fig. 5-4 with values of M,,/ bd* =
M,/bd’:
M,, ios v. g2 202 0" cd
bd~ gbd° (0.9)(12)(9.5)
From Fig. 5-4, p = 0.019. Then + A, = 0.019(12)(9.5) = 2.167 in.’/ft.
M, _ M, _ 28.6(12,000)
n
= 352
. bd? bd? (0.9)(12)(9.5)
and p = 0.010. Then A, = 0.010(12)(9.5) = 1.14 in.’/ft.
0. Solve Problem 5.7 using Table 5.2.

-—— (a)”—s«Using Table 5.2, the maximum resisting moment at three-fourths balanced conditions is M, =
He #R,,bd*. From the table, for f’ = 3000 psi and f,=40,000 psi, R,, = 783. Then
ini : d= “ge = 85.24 and ga 3720
te Use d=9.25". - ;
el (b) From Table 5.2, p,,,, = 0.02784. Then — A, = 0.02784(12)(9.25) = 3.09 in./ft.
~ : (c) Using the average value ¢j, = 0.80 selected from Table 5.2,
iss M,,
2 52.5(12,000) :
a anh esa
and p = 2.13/(9.25)(12) =0.019. This value is very close to the value for p given in the table. If
greater refinement is required, the next trial may be made using p = 0.019 and the corresponding
pa, = 2.552. The value of a, is determined so that the moment is in ft-kip.
; / M 52.5
| _ +4.> Gag = @sso5) 722210. “Uf
In normal design procedures, the first trial yielding an area of 2.13 in.’/ft would be sufficiently
recast This is ap to the aan euupingd in she alternate ohh method.
bE Design a minimum-depth rectangular beam with tension reinforcement only to carry a D.L.
moment of 50 ft-kip and a L.L. moment of 200 ft-kip. Assume f;=3000 psi and f, =
50,000 psi.
(a) The ultimate moment must be determined by use of the load-factor equation (5.1), which gives
U = 410 ft-kip.
(b) A minimum-depth section requires maximum percentage of steel reinforcement. Therefore,
substituting in the expression for p,,
0; _ ES
0.85f/B,
5 87,000 F
ILLES
87,0004 0.0276 and p,,, = =0.75(0.75(0.0276) ) = 0.0207
(c) With p,.,. determined, the value for bd* is found by substitution in the expression for the ultimate
moment capacity.
M,, = $[bd’*f!w(1 — 0.59w)]
where w = p( f,/f;) = 0.0207(50,000/3000) = 0.345. Substituting,
410(12,000) = (0.9)(bd?)(3000)(0.345)(1—0.204) or bd” = 6645 in.”

There would be many combinations of the beam width and depth that would satisfy the above
expression. A width or a depth is often set by some other architectural or structural consideration.
Try a ratio d/b=1.5. Then b(1.5b)’ = 6645, b* =2953, b=14.35, use b=14.5". Thus
d = 1,5(14.5) =21.8; use d = 22”. Then A, = pbd = 0.0207(14.5)(22) = 6.60 in”
(d) Try a ratio of d/b =1.0. Then b° = 6645, b = 18.8; use b = 19.0". Use d = 19.0". Then A, = pbd =
0.0207(19.0)° = 7.47 in
(e) The 1989 ACI Code requires a minimum amount of reinforcement in beams. The specification
states that for flexural members, except constant-thickness slabs, if tension reinforcement is
required, the minimum reinforcement ratio p shall be not less than 200/f, unless the area of
reinforcement at every section, positive or negative, is at least one-third greater than that required.
Of course, in a section of maximum p, this requirement will not control. However, for
f, = 50,000 psi, 200/f, = 0.004.
(f) For a beam such as this, the deflections at service loads must be checked. The 1989 ACI Code
requires that the deflection of a beam must be checked if the depth is less than stated minimum
depths (see Chapter 8).
5.12. Solve Problem 5.11 using Table 5.2.

If f, = 3000 psi, f, = 50,000 psi, M,, = 410 ft-kip, from Table 5.2 the maximum values for #R,, and p
are $R, = 740, p =0.02065. Since in strength design @R, = M,,/bd*, then bd* = 410(12,000)/740=
6649 in.’
Using the same ratios of d/b and selecting ¢a,, from Table 5.2, da, = 2.989.
For d/b ~1.5, use b = 14.5" and d = 22" and A, = 410/(2.989)(22) = 6.23 in?
For d/b ~1.0, use b = d= 19" and A, = 410/(2.989)(19) = 7.22 in?
It will be noted that the area of reinforcement above for d/b=1.0 does not check with that of
ie 5.11. This discrepancy is due to the fact that the values determined for d and b were rounded
off.
In Problem 5.11, if the actual values were used for d/b=1.0, b=d=18.8" and A. =
0.02065(18.8)? = 7.30 in? ;
In this Problem 5.12, if these same values for d and b are used, A, =7.22 in.” Thus when the
“exact” values for d and b are used, both methods yield the same results.
Regardless of which method is used, the rounded-off values result in areas of reinforcement within
1.1 percent of the results determined using the more precise values for b and d. This degree of accuracy
would be normally acceptable in ordinary design procedures provided the results are conservative.
f¢ = 3500 psi, f, = 50,000 psi, and M,, = 150 ft-kip.
4’.0”’
| 1/-0”” |
Fig. 5-12
(a) The first step in the solution is to determine if the neutral axis of the section falls within the stem
and the section acts as a T-beam. If not, it is proportional as a rectangular beam. If the moment
capacity of the flange is greater than 150 ft-kip, then the section acts as a rectangular beam.
The moment capacity of the flange is
M,,, = 0.85f (bh, (d — 0.5h,) = 0.85(3500)(48)(6)(20 — 3)/12,000 = 1215 ft-kip > 150/0.9 = M,,
Hence the section does not act as a T-beam and should be designed as a rectangular section.
(b) Calculate
M,, M, 150(12,000)
ey ee = (),0298
fibd pf ibd (0.90)(3500)(48)(20)
Now using Table 5.1, we find » =0.030. Then p = wf?/f, = 0.030(3500)
/50,000 = 0.00210 and
A, = pbd = 0.00210(48)(20) = 2.02 in.
(c) As discussed in Problem 5.11, the 1989 ACI Code requires that the minimum area of tension
reinforcement shall not be less than 200/f,. Here, 200/f, = 200/50,000
= 0.004 < 2.02/(12)(20).
It should be noted that here p is defined as the ratio of the area of tension reinforcement to the
effective area of concrete in the web of a flanged member.
(d) h, = 6" >1.18d/B, = 1.18(0.030)(20)
/0.85 = 0.83” also establishes that the section is to be pro-
portioned as a rectangular beam.
5.14. Determine the area of reinforcement for a T-section with the following given: h, = 2.0",
b= 30%, b, =14", d=30"", f,.= 3000 psi, f, = 40,000 psi, M,, = 600 ft-kip.
(a) As in Problem 5.13, we must determine if the neutral axis of the section falls within the stem.
The nominal moment capacity of the concrete flange is
Ma 0.85fibh,(d - 0.5h,) = 370 ft-kip < 600/0.90 = M,,
Hence the section acts as a T-beam.

(5) In the design of T-beams, the overhanging portion of the flange is considered the same as an
equivalent amount of compression steel.
Aj, =0:85(b — b,, )h, f If, = 2.04 in.
The nominal moment capacity of the overhanging portion is M/,=A,,f,(d—0.5h,) =
197 ft-kip.
(c) The nominal moment capacity of the rectangular section, b,, times d, must be
M,, = M, — M/,, = 667 — 197 = 470 ft-kip
122 STRENGTH DESIGN [CHAP. oh
And the nominal moment capacity of the web portion is M, = b,,d’f'w(1 —0.59w). Then
Eula ae Bs Calls = 0.149 = w(1 — 0.59)

fib,d°> — 3000(14)(30)
From Table 5.1, w =0.165 or the reinforcement available to develop the web is A,,, = p,,,b,,d.
Then A,,, = 0.165(3000)(14)(30) /40,000 = 5.19 in.”
(d) The nominal moment capacity of the overhanging portion of the section is 197 ft-kip, and the
nominal moment capacity of the web is 470 ft-kip. Thus 197 + 470 = 667 = 600/0.9.
(e) The total area of the tension reinforcement is A, = A,, + A,, = 2.04 +5.19=7.23 in?
(f) Asacheck, substituting in the expression derived for the ultimate moment capacity of a T-section,
M,, = o[(A, — A,,)f,(d — a/2) + A, f,(d — 0.5h,)]
where a= A,,, f,/0.85f/b,, = 5.80. Then M, = 7,200,000 in.-lb = 600 ft-kip.
(g) The 1989 ACI Code requires that in I- and T-sections the area of the tension reinforcement
available to develop the web portion be limited to prevent the possibility of brittle or compression
failures of the concrete. Therefore p,, — p, =0.75p, or
A; Ay Axe
bd = bod =0.75p, or bod =(s7Sp,
Inn this
thi example,
l Av
bod) eee
(Ate 0.0124
< .75p,
0.75p, == 0.75(0.0371)
0.75(0. = 0.0278
)=0.
(h) Checking for minimum reinforcement requirements:

Pmin = 200/40,000 = 0.005 and A, min = 9-005(14)(30) = 2.10 in? <7.23 in?
(i) h,=2.0"<1.18wd/B, = 1.18(0.165)(30)/0.85 = 6.9"
5.15. For the data, determine the area of reinforcement required to resist an ultimate moment of
900 ft-kip: b = 12", d= 30", d'=2’, f, = 3000 psi, f, = 40,000 psi.
(a) It is necessary to determine the area of tension reinforcement. Eee Table 5.2, a value for
ba, =2.4 is selected. Then
M 900 A IZ
é"ta.d WAC P= 79030) —12(30) 9°48
A = — = j in? = —_ = ——— = 0),
This value is greater than the maximum value of p = 0.0278 given in Table 5.2. Hence compression | <*
reinforcement will be required.
Using the maximum value of p = 0.0278, A, = 0.0278(12)(30) = 10.0 in.” Then the nominal
moment capacity of this area of reinforcement is
M, = A,(da,)d/d= 10.0(2. 343)(30) /049 = 782 ft-kip la
(b) The second portion (M/) of the nominal resisting moment is the couple formed by the compression ~
. steel and a proportional amount of tension steel. “Or, assuming f{ = f,, "
M!,=900/d — 782 = 218 ft/kip
is
The resisting moment at inf :
Mie4
Ve ‘
n »
ao i}4
J Lv)
~~ a
=Aif(d-d’) 21
(c) The total area of tension reinforcement is A, = 10.0 + 2.34 = 12.34 in.* The area of compression
reinforcement is A! = 2.34 in”
(d) The minimum steel requirement p = 200/f, is satisfied.
(e) The requirement that p — p' <0.75p, is met.
5.16. Because Table 5.2 is limited to certain combinations of f, and f{, solve Problem 5.15 without
the use of this table. (Use Table 5.1.)
First, to determine the area of reinforcement required,
M M 900(12,000)
fibd? dfibd® — 0,9(3000)(12)(30) 0 °C 9990)
Entering Table 5.1, it is seen that there is no value of M,/f!bd* =0.370. Therefore, it will be
necessary to solve for w:
w(1 —0.59w) = 0.370 or w =0.551
This value exceeds the maximum value for w. Hence p>p, and compression reinforcement is
required.
PM OTS(OBS) FB; ©873000 7" _ 0.0278f, _
Te Ct f, 87,000 + f,= 0.0278 and Wnax = Fee 0.371
Entering Table 5.1 with w = 0.371,
1dted _ 0.2898(3000)(12)(30)? _
fib? 02898 or Mi = 12,000 = 782 ft-kip
This is the value of M, found in Problem 5.15, and so A‘ and A, will be the same as in Problem
5.15. The remainder of this problem is the same as part (b) of Problem 5.15.
5.17. For the basic factored-load equation U=1.4D+1.7L, find the range of composite-load
factors (C,) for various ratios of L/D (live load/dead load), where U=C,(D + L).
Multiply the right-hand side of the load-factor equation by (L + D)/(L + D). Then,
alles a Ca
1.4D + a
=| ——_— |(L +
Divide all terms within the brackets by D, giving
€. | 4
-| Paar (L+ D)=CAL + D)
By substituting various values of L/D, the range of C, can be established, as in Table 5.4.
Table 5.4
In the practical range of values, L/D ranging from 1.0 to 5.0, C, would vary from 1.55 to 1.65. For
practical purposes, using U = 1.65(L + D) would normally be conservative. For L/D = 10.0, C, = 1.65
would be unconservative by (1.672 — 1.65) x 100/1.672 = 1.32 percent. For L/D = 1.0, C, = 1.65 would
be conservative by (1.65 — 1.55) x 100/1.55 = 6.45 percent.
5.18. Design a simply supported rectangular beam supporting a uniform dead load of 15 kN/m and
a uniform live load of 20 kKN/m, using a steel ratio p =0.0186. The concrete strength is
f.=30 MPa and the steel yield strength is f, = 300 MPa. Assume that the beam weight is
8.5 kKN/m. The beam span is 10 m.
The ultimate uniform load is w, = (1.4)(15.0 + 8.5) + (1.7)(20) = 66.9 KN/m, so
M,, = (66.9)(10)7/8 = 836 KN-m = 836 x 10° N-mm
Then, by equation (5.9),
M,, = ¢pf,bd*(1 — 0.59 pf,/f.)

836 x 10° = 0.9(0.0186)(300)(bd”)[1 — 0.59(0.0186)(300/30)
836 x 10° = bd?(4.471)
or bd* = 187 x 10° mm*. Using a width b = 400 mm, then d* = (187)(10°) /400 = 467 500 mm”. So d=
V 467 500 = 684 mm.
The area of steel required is equal to pbd, or A, = (0.0186)(400)(684) = 5089 mm’. This steel area
can be provided by using eight No. 30M bars, A,, = 5600 mm”. It is necessary to determine whether or
not these eight bars will fit in one row or two rows, considering the required bar cover, clear spacing,
and shear stirrup clearances.
B19. Reconsider Problem 5.18 as being the SI translation of a problem in IP units. The given f7, f,,
beam weight, and beam span were obtained by “‘soft conversion” of the IP values; that is,
they are the exact metric equivalents (to within unavoidable truncation errors). However, the
given concrete strength and steel strength were obtained by “hard conversion’’ of f/ = 3000 psi
and f, = 40,000 psi; this means that 30 MPa and 300 MPa are convenient metric approxi-
mations. Rework Problem 5.18, making a totally soft conversion of the data with the aid of
Table 5.5.
“-
Table 5.5
The area of steel required will be (0.0186)(450)(686.6) = 5747 mm”. This steel area can be satisfied by
using six No. 35M bars (A, = 6000 mm’) or four No. 45M bars (A, = 6000 mm’). If the metric bars
are not available, the U.S. standard bars of equivalent area may be used. In this problem, six No. 11
U.S. standard bars may be used to provide 6036 mm’ of steel area. Refer to Tables 1.15 and 1.16
(Chapter 1).
5.20. Using a steel ratio p= A,/bd of 0.0200, concrete strength f} = 30 MPa, and steel yield
strength f, = 400 MPa, determine the required effective depth (d) from the compression face
to the centroid of the tensile reinforcing steel, if the beam width is 300 mm and the nominal
moment is M, = 80.9 kKN-m.
M, = bd?fi(1-0.59@) and ~—w = pf,/f. = (0.02)(400) /30 = 0.267
so 80.9 x 10° = (300)d(30)0.267[1 — 0.59(0.267)]
80.9 x 10° = 2024.5a?
d= V39 960.5 = 200.0 mm
5.21. Derive the balanced steel ratio for a flanged section with tension reinforcement only.
Use the following notation:
p, = balanced reinforcement ratio for a rectangular section with tension reinforcement only
p; = oy = reinforcement ratio for tension steel A,, to develop the compressive strength of the
flanges (b — b,,)h,
Then, from Fig. 5-13,
i ae Ce a lat a ppb, of,
T= Cp = Ash, = 7p
so that
0.003 0.85f/ 0.85f"

C,
c C,,
——-T, !|—_-T
Fig. 5-13
5.22. Derive the balanced steel ratio for a rectangular section reinforced for both tension and
compression.
From Fig. 5-14,
T, = p,bdf, T, = p'bdf',
where p, is as in Problem 5.21 and f{, is the stress in the compression reinforcement at balanced strain
conditions. Thus,
_. Wes ees dan

Po — bdf, =P te é
Here, f’, may be expressed in terms of f, by using similar triangles in Fig. 5-14:
fahe
fin = 0.003E, — 7 (0.003E, + f,) =f,
0.85f"
C, = Atif, = p'bdf,
Fig. 5-14
5.23. Consider that the beam in Problem 5.15 frames into beams of lesser depth on both ends so
that d'=9". Find the required area of compression steel required, recognizing that the
compression steel occupies area in the compressed concrete Zone.
Using A, = 10.0 in.” and other information from Problem 5.15, the depth of the compression block
will be
a=
Fi heey (10)(49) = 13.07"
0.85f'b (0.85)(3.0)(12.0)
So, the depth from the compression face to the neutral axis is
c = a/B, = 13.07/0.85= 15.376"
With d’ = 9", the requirement f’ = f, is not satisfied; hence, the stress in the compression steel must be
calculated.
€, = (0.003)(15.376 — 9.0) /15.376 = 0.00124
f/ = (0.00124)(29,000) = 36.08 ksi
Using M,, = A{(f,—0.85f)(d — 4’),
2616
A!* ~ [36.
(0.0885)
= (3.0)](30—.0
9.0)
= 3,715 ing
If f; had been used rather than f’—0.85f!, the area of compression steel would be 3.45 in.’, or 7
percent less compression steel than before. This illustrates the fact that the space in the concrete
compression zone occupied by the compression steel should be recognized and the solution obtained
accordingly. :
The required additional tension steel area would be A,, = 2616/[(40.0)(21.0)] =3.11 in”, using f’
instead of (f/ — 0.85f/).
Supplementary Problems | ia “3
5.26. A simply supported one-way slab has a span of 12’-0” and must resist service uniform dead and live loads
of 750 Ib/ft* and 1000 lb/ft’, respectively. Design using strength design a minimum-depth slab if
f?. = 3000 psi and f, = 50,000 psi. Ans.-~d =9", A. = 2.05 in, /ft
S46 A simply supported rectangular beam must resist service dead-load and live-load moments of 60.0 ft-kip
and 30.0 ft-kip, respectively. If f{= 4000 psi and f, = 50,000 psi, proportion a minimum-depth beam
with tension reinforcement only. Ans.) iio" d 12.5" A= 3.85 in.
5.28. Repeat Problem 5.27 but assume w = 0.18. Ans. 2b = 12", d= 16", A, =.2.70 in.”
5.29. A concrete T-beam must resist an ultimate moment of 125 ft-kip. If b = 55", b,, = 12", d= 20", h, = 6",
f7. = 4000 psi, and f, = 50,000 psi, determine the required area of tension reinforcement.
Ans. As=1.66in?
5.30. Repeat Problem 5.29 but let h, = 3” and the ultimate moment = 900 ft-kip.
Ans. A,,, = 4.53 in”, A,, = 8.77 in?
§.31. A rectangular beam with a width of 11” and an effective depth of 25” must resist an ultimate moment of
700 ft-kip. If f; = 3000 psi, f, = 40,000 psi, and d' = 2”, determine the reinforcement required.
Als A c= 1130s AC= 3.65 in?
5.32. A fixed-end rectangular beam must support uniform service dead and live loads of 15.0 kip/ft and
10.0 kip/ft. If /= 20.0’, f, = 4000 psi, and f, = 60,000 psi, determine the flexural reinforcement require-
ments and dimensions, using b = 24”, so that w <0.18.
Ans. d=35", +A, =4.15 in”, —A, = 9.60 in?
SESEE For f{ = 20.0 MPa and f, = 350.0 MPa, determine w = pf,/f/ corresponding to the following values of
the steel ratio: (a) 0.006, (6) 0.007, (c) 0.010, (d) 0.012, (e) 0.015, (f) 0.165, (g) 0.0195.
Ans. (a) 0.1050, (b) 0.1225, (c) 0.1750, (d) 0.2100, (e) 0.2625, (f) 0.2887, (g) 0.3412
5.34. For slab sections 300 mm wide and for f! = 30 MPa and f, = 400 MPa, determine the values of M,, (in
kN-m) corresponding to the following steel ratio—effective depth pairs: (a) p = 0.0050, d = 190.0 mm;
(b) 0.0060, 170.0; (c) 0.0110, 160.0; (d) 0.0130, 180.0; (e) 0.0150, 180.0; (f) 0.0200, 200.0; (g) 0.0220,
200.0; (h) 0.0230, 210.0.
Ans. (a) 22.80, (b) 19.83, (c) 29.60, (d) 45.38, (e) 51.44, (f) 80.90, (g) 87.33, (h) 99.70
Chapter 6
Shear and Torsion
NOTATION
A,= area of concrete section resisting shear transfer, in. (mm’°)
A , = gross area of section, in.” (mm’)
A,= total area of longitudinal reinforcement to resist torsion, in.” (mm’)
A je: = net area of a slab contributing to two-way shear, in.” (mm’)
A, = area of nonprestressed tension reinforcement, in.” (mm’)
A,=area of one leg of a closed stirrup resisting torsion within a distance s, in.” (mm’)
A,,= area of shear reinforcement within a distance s, or area of shear reinforcement
perpendicular to flexural tension reinforcement within a distance s, in. > (mm’)
b = shorter dimension of the cross section of a rectangular column, drop panel, column
capital, or pedestal, in. (mm)
b., = perimeter of critical section for slabs and footings, in. (mm)
= width of that part of cross section containing the closed stirrups resisting torsion,
in. (mm)
b,,=web width, or diameter of circular section, in. (mm)
Ca pbediSx-y,.in. (mimes)
d=distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of longitudinal tension
reinforcement, in. (mm)
d,, = diameter of longitudinal reinforcing steel bars to resist tension or torsion, in. (mm)
d, = diameter of stirrup reinforcing steel bar for shear and torsion, in. (mm)
f! =specified compressive strength of concrete, psi (MPa)
f, = specified yield strength of nonprestressed reinforcement, psi (MPa)
h = longer dimension of the cross section of a rectangular column, drop panel, column
capital, or pedestal, in. (mm)
h, = side of a square equivalent to equal area of a nonsquare shape, in. (mm)
h,= thickness of flange of a T-beam, hollow-box girder, or spandrel beam, in. (mm)
h,, = thickness of vertical walls of symmetrical, single-cell, hollow-box girder, in. (mm)
J= moment of inertia of section resisting externally applied factored loads, in.* (mm‘*)
l,4, /,3 = longer dimension of a rectangular slab panel, center to center of columns, ft. (m)
L,4, >, = shorter dimension of a rectangular slab panel, center to center of columns, ft. (m)
M,,,= modified moment, ft-kip (kKN-m)
M,,= factored moment at section $M, ft-kip (kKN-m)
N,,= factored axial load occurring simultaneously with V,, kip (KN)
§= spacing of shear or torsion reinforcement in direction parallel to longitudinal
reinforcement, in. (mm)
T, = nominal torsional moment strength provided by concrete, ft-kip (kKN-m)
T,,= total nominal torsional moment strength, ft-kip (kKN-m)
128 .
CHAP. 6] SHEAR AND TORSION 129
T,=nominal torsional moment strength provided by torsion reinforcement, ft-kip

(kN-m)
T,,= factored torsional moment at section, ft-kip (kKN-m)
V.= nominal shear strength provided by concrete, kip (KN)
V,, = nominal shear strength, kip (kN)
V,=nominal shear strength provided by shear reinforcement, kip (KN)
V,, = factored shear force at section, kip (KN)
W p = service-level uniformly distributed dead load: on beams, kip/ft (KN/m); on slabs,
kip/ft” (kKN/m/’)
w= service-level uniformly distributed live load: on beams, kip/ft (KN/m); on slabs,
kip/ft” (kKN/m’)
w,, = factored uniformly distributed load, 1.4w, + 1.7w,
x = shorter overall dimension of rectangular part of cross section, in. (mm)
x, =shorter center-to-center dimension of closed rectangular stirrup, in. (mm)
y = longer overall dimension of rectangular part of cross section, in. (mm)
y, = longer center-to-center dimension-of closed rectangular stirrup, in. (mm)
a=angle between inclined stirrups and longitudinal axis of member, degrees
B.= ratio of long side to short side of concentrated load or reaction area
p=ratio of tension reinforcement = A,/bd
p, = A,/b,,d
@ = strength reduction factor
SHEAR STRESS IN HOMOGENEOUS BEAMS

In the study of strength of materials it is shown that, for homogeneous elastic materials, the unit
horizontal shear stress at a section of a beam may be calculated using the equation
VAy
pany); (6.1)
where v = unit horizontal shear stress

A =cross-sectional area above element in question
y = distance from the centroid of A to the neutral axis
I= moment of inertia of the beam cross-sectional area
b = thickness of the element
This shear stress develops due to the change in bending moment from one side of the element to the
other.
Concrete is neither truly elastic nor homogeneous, and results of experiments related to shear
stress in concrete cannot be correlated directly with equation (6.1). At the present time, statistical
correlation of test data must be utilized to provide rational equations for use in designing concrete
elements to successfully resist shear forces.
Shear stress does not work alone to cause failure of concrete beams. The complex mechanism of
concrete and reinforcing bars provides for an equally complex resistance to stress. Although no
precise theory has been developed to properly explain shear as related to failure, it is known that
diagonal tension stresses develop and that failure is due to tension in the concrete, rather than shear
stress. [See Chapter 1 for tensile properties of concrete, especially (1.3).]
SHEAR AND TORSION [CHAP. 6
130
as shown in Fig.
To develop a rational method of design, the shear stress distribution is assumed
a constant shear stress distribut ion to be assumed
6-1. Tension is neglected in the concrete, causing
below the neutral axis.
test data obtained for
Since the equations for shear design have been empirically devised using
equations are, of necessity , strength design equations . There is in
first-cracking of the concrete, the
actuality no true working stress method for shear design.
tored ultimate shear force
The total nominal shear force V,, is obtained by dividing the load-fac
(See Chapter 5 for other load factor requirements.) (6.2)
V,=1.4V,+1.7V,
is the
by the understrength factor ¢ = 0.85. Here, Vp is the service dead-load shear force and V,
service live-load shear force. Thus,
V, =V,/¢ (6.3)
force that
The 1989 ACI Code contains empirical equations which are used to calculate the shear
steel web reinforcem ent.
can be resisted by the concrete cross section alone, without the addition of
by its ‘chard conversio n”
These are given below, with each statement in IP units followed
(approximate) SI equivalent.
When the concrete cross section must resist the total shear force V,, without the aid of steel
reinforcement for shear, then
V, <V, (6.4)
and V. is defined in the equations that follow. The nominal shear force V, is determined at an
effective depth d from the face of the support. When torsional moments exist, the nominal torsional
moment T,, is also determined at this same critical section.
This prescription of the critical section is changed in special cases. According to the 1992
Revision of the 1989 ACI code, the critical section for torsion must be taken at the face of the
support whenever a beam frames into only one side of a girder between the support and a distance d
therefrom. When a beam frames into a girder on one or both sides within this distance, the critical
section for shear is considered to be at the face of the support. If the support reaction is tensile due
to uplift created by lateral forces (wind, earthquake, etc.), the critical section for both shear and
torsion shall be taken at the face of the support.
When steel stirrups, ties, spirals, or longitudinal reinforcement are used to increase the shear
capacity of a beam, the additional shear force due to the steel will be V,, and the nominal shear force
V,, applied at the cross section must satisfy
V,<V.+V, (6.5)
Equations for V, will be presented under “Web Reinforcement for Shear without Tension.”
The expressions below that involve the term Vfl are valid for f’=<10,000 psi (69 MPa).
Exceptions are permitted if the minimum web reinforcement for shear (stirrups, ties, etc.) is
increased by the factor f'/5000 (f'/35). However, the increase need not be more than three times
C Shear Stress
Fig. 6-1
the minimum shear reinforcement quantities normally required. This will be discussed in more detail
later, with regard to the minimum stirrup spacing and minimum areas for shear reinforcement.
For members subject to shear and flexure only, the portion of the shear that is resisted by the
concrete cross section is provided by:
V.=2Vfib,d (iV fib.4) (6.6)

When the “‘dowel action” of the longitudinal reinforcement is included,
2500p,,V,d 100p,,V,,d
v.=(1. OV fi + ae oe les (2 Vfi+ MEE yyoi (6.7)*
so long as
V.<3.5Vfib,d (0.29\/ fb, d) (6.8)
Further, in (6.7), V,d/M,, is always the absolute value (positive) and may not be taken to be greater
than 1.0. Here, M, is the factored moment that occurs simultaneously with V,,.
Equation (6.7) may be used to calculate V., with M,, >0 from (6.9) substituted for M,, with
V,,d/M,, not limited to 1.0. However, V. may not exceed the value given by (6.10). If M,, <0 in
(6.9), V. shall be computed from (6.10).
4h—d
M,=M,—N, 8
(6.9)
V. =3.5Vfib,dv1+ 0.002( 2) |0.3VFb,dy|1 m 0.3(*)| (6.10)
For members subject to axial tie forces, the resistance to shear forces is increased to
v,=2(1+ 2000
samA,VFib.d Ae a
4A, VTS. a| | CEE,
The 1989 ACI Code specifies that, when members are subject to “‘significant”’ axial tension (the
Code does not define ‘“‘significant”; the author would substitute ‘‘any’’), shear reinforcement shall be
designed to carry the total shear, unless V, is computed from
Mae 21+ Sue)

500A, VFbnd E (1+ ve\VFb.d| (6.12)
In (6.12), N,, is negative, as a tension force.
SHEAR WITH FLEXURE AND TORSION
The Torsion Factor =x’y

The calculation of shear stress accompanying torsion in a concrete member involves use of the
polar moment of inertia of the cross section. According to the elastic membrane analogy, the polar
moment of inertia of a cross section that is composed of a series of rectangles is calculated as }E.x’y,
where x is the shorter dimension and y is the longer dimension of a component rectangle. In general,
both x and y vary from component to component. In all formulas the numerical constant § will be
lumped together with other numerical constants, leaving 2x’y as the torsion factor.
In the simplest case, that of a rectangular cross section of width b and depth h = 5b, the torsion
factor is b°h. For two-rectangle cross sections such as the symmetrical T-beam of Fig. 6-2, the larger
of the two torsion factors is used in the design. Similar figures can be sketched for unsymmetrical
* Retained in 1989 Code despite criticism.

132 SHEAR AND TORSION [CHAP. 6 —
| } wate
a
hy
h-h,
b w
Fig. 6-2
T-beams, inverted L-beams (spandrel beams), single-cell hollow-box girders, and other flanged
sections. In all such, effective overhanging flange widths may not exceed three times the flange
thickness. Thus, in Fig. 6-2, (b, — b,,)/2 <3h,.
The Code contains special conditions concerning hollow-box beams or girders. Two sorts of
single-cell girder are shown in Fig. 6-3. If, for the vertical walls of a box girder, h, = h/4, the Yx’y
can be calculated using the full, outside dimensions, as though it were a solid rectangular cross
section. For Fig. 6-3, if b =A, then 2x°y = b*h; if b=h, Sx’y =h’b. Further, if h,, is less than h/4
but greater than h/10, the 2x’y is calculated using the full dimensions, but it is then multiplied by
4h,,/h.
The Code does not provide direction as to what to do when h,,= h/10. Presumably, one would
calculate the torsion factors for the individual component rectangles, as for other flanged sections. In
such a case, too, the author would limit the overhanging flanges to 3h,.
Multicell hollow-box girders are frequently used, but the Code ignores them. The reader should ©
be guided by texts on design of aircraft structures and design of box girder bridges.
TORSIONAL MOMENT STRENGTH

Design of cross sections that are required to resist torsion must satisfy the condition
T, = $T,, (6.13)
in which T, is the factored torsional moment at the critical section [see text following (6.4)]and T,, is
the nominal torsional strength of the cross section:
rSTeT (6.14)
In (6.14) T. is the nominal torsional moment strength provided by the concrete and T, is the nominal
torsional moment strength that can be developed by torsional reinforcement in the form of
closed-hoop stirrups and additional longitudinal bars. Strength T, is calculated from
T 0.8VflEx7y sv fldx’y (6 15)
© 1+ (0.4V,/C,T.Y V1 + (0.4V,/C,T,)°
in which C, is as defined under ‘“‘Notation.”
For members subject to “significant” axial tension, torsion reinforcement shall be provided to
resist the total torsional moment, without the assistance of the concrete, unless T. provided by (6.15)
be multiplied by the factor
fh N,/A
u g 0.3N, u )
B,=1+ 500 ( (6.16)
Because N, <0 for tension, B, <1.

The design of steel to resist torsion will be discussed subsequently.
For sections at which the factored torsional moment T,, exceeds the quantity T, ,,,, given by
equation (6.17), the interaction of shear and torsion is determined using equation (6.18). Otherwise,
torsional moments may be neglected.
Ty, max = P0-SVFiXXY — (buV fi2x'y) (6.17)

, habenios IV
Febud (6.18)
may 1 CSC), VITQ5C TI)
The ACI Code distinguishes between primary torsion, required to maintain equilibrium, and
secondary torsion, which exists when cracking occurs and a redistribution of forces and moments
results. For instance, when a slab cracks, the edge-supporting beams (spandrel beams) are subjected
to torsional moments that may be assumed to be distributed uniformly throughout the length of the
span. In a statically indeterminate structure, where continuity exists between members and the
redistribution of moments and forces may occur, sections may be designed for a maximum secondary
torsional moment
Ts mx = O5V FSx'y (b4V F32’y) (6.19)
WEB REINFORCEMENT FOR SHEAR WITHOUT TORSION

When the concrete cross section has insufficient area to maintain shear forces below the
permissible values, additional resistance to shear must be provided. One form of shear reinforcement
consists of hoops or stirrups, which may be placed vertically or at some angle with the horizontal.
The stirrups may be of the closed type, or else U-shaped, with appropriate hooks on the ends.
Another form of web reinforcement may consist of flexural reinforcement which can be bent
diagonally upward (where no longer needed to resist bending) to reinforce the web. (Bent-up, or
134 SHEAR AND TORSION [CHAP. 6 ;
trussed, bars being costly, they are used only in special cases.) Figure 6-4 shows a combination of
various types of web reinforcement.
When stirrups perpendicular to the axis of the member are used to resist shear, the theoretical
stirrup spacing (s) is determined as
SALT aty, (6.20)
where V,=V,-—V, is the excess shear. The spacing of the stirrups may not exceed d/2 or
24 in. (600 mm), providing that V, does not exceed
Vi inax = 4VScBnd aja WaW hecaol) | (6.21)

If that value is exceeded, then the spacing may not exceed d/4 or 12 in. (300 mm).
In no case may s exceed
Ax ty fensjs)
Simax 50b,, b, (6.22)
When stirrups inclined upward at angle a are used as shear reinforcement,

s=A,f,(sina + cos a)d/V, (6.23)
When shear reinforcement consists of a single bar or a group of parallel bars, all bent up at the
same distance from the support,
V-=
A, /, sia (6.24)
so long as this does not exceed
sf max =3Vfib,d €: V fib,d) (6.25)
However, when shear reinforcement consists of parallel bent-up bars or groups of parallel bent-up
bars at different distances from the support, shear strength V, shall be computed using equation
(6.23).
When more than one type of shear reinforcement is used in the same portion of a member, shew
strength shall be computed as the sum of the V, values for the various types.
Shear strength V, shall not be taken aoe than
When this limit is exceeded, the dimensions of the cross section must be increased, or the concrete 4
strength f? must be increased, or both.
Design strength of shear reinforcement may not exceed 60,000 psi (400 MPa).
OTHER PROVISIONS FOR SHEAR

Although web reinforcement in the form of steel stirrups is theoretically not needed when the
shear at a point in a beam is equal to or less than V,, the 1989 ACI Code requires additional shear
reinforcement. Minimum shear reinforcement must be provided up to a point where V, exceeds
one-half the shear strength provided by the concrete section alone, @V.. The maximum spacing may
be used from a point where V, = $V. to where V, = 5V..
Exceptions to the above requirement are (1) slabs and footings, (2) concrete joist construction,
and (3) beams having a total depth not greater than 10 in. (250 mm), 23 times the flange thickness,
or 3 the width of the web, whichever is the greatest.
TORSIONAL REINFORCEMENT
Torsional reinforcement, when required, shall be provided in addition to the reinforcement that
is necessary to resist shear, flexure, and axial forces. The stirrup or tie reinforcement for torsion must
consist of closed ties having appropriate lap splices at the ends of the closed stirrup bars. When
torsional stirrup reinforcement is used in combination with stirrups for shear, all stirrups must consist
of closed ties; U-shaped stirrups may not be used.
Noncircular cross sections warp when subjected to torsion so that additional longitudinal bars
must be provided to resist the strains that develop longitudinally in the member. The longitudinal
bars must be well distributed around the perimeter of the section, within the closed ties. The bars
may not be spaced farther apart than 12 in. (300 mm), and one bar must be provided in every corner
of the closed ties. The design strength of all torsional reinforcement may not exceed 60,000 psi
(400 MPa).
The dimensions s, x,, and y, are illustrated in Fig. 6-5.
Stirrups, ties, and wires used for torsion reinforcement shall extend over the effective depth of
the section, a distance d from the extreme compression face. They shall be properly anchored to
develop the design yield strength of the reinforcement (see Chapter 7). Torsion reinforcement must
be provided for at least a distance b, +d beyond the point at which it might theoretically be
discontinued. The maximum spacing of closed ties along the length of the member shall not exceed
the lesser of (x, + y,)/4 and 12 in. (300 mm).
Fig. 6-5
136 SHEAR AND TORSION [CHAP. 6
However, for shear without torsion, the maximum spacing of U-stirrups or closed stirrups may
not exceed d/2. (This should ensure that every potential shear crack will be crossed by a stirrup
before the crack extends beyond the middepth of the beam.) Also, when
V,>4Vfib,.d (GV ftb,d)
the spacing may not exceed d/4. This is considerably less than (x, + y,)/4, so, in this case, d/4
would have to be investigated when torsion is also involved.
Where the factored torsional moment T,, exceeds T,,,,,, aS given by (6.17), and minimum steel
stirrups are required for shear, the total minimum area of closed-tie reinforcement shall be
50b,,s ceey
A, +2A,= (6.27)
f if
where s is the center-to-center stirrup spacing.
In (6.27) A, is the area of two vertical legs of the closed stirrups provided for shear alone, and
A, is the area of one vertical leg of a two-legged closed stirrup. The differentiation is made because
the shear forces due to torsion are upward on one leg of the stirrup and downward on the other leg,
thus constituting a torsional couple or moment. The two vertical legs of a stirrup for resisting shear
alone will both have shear forces in the same direction.
Longitudinal bars for torsion must be at least of size No. 3 (No. 10M) and must be deformed
bars.
Where the factored torsional moment T,, exceeds the torsional moment strength @7,, torsion
reinforcement must be provided to satisfy equations (6.13), (6.14), and (6.27). The torsional
moment capacity of the closed-stirrup reinforcement shall be computed as
T,=A aX)
gis 4ie (6.28)
in which T. is given by (6.15) and
hee
= 3 (2+ 4 <1.5
aloe (6.29)
If the inequality in (6.28) is not satisfied, the dimensions of the concrete cross section must be
increased.
The required area of longitudinal reinforcement for torsional warping of the cross section shall
be calculated using equations (6.30) and (6.31):
2A,
Arr Oat yO sae (6.30)
A! eee T 2A rT 2A
6 hewic eeF (x, ++y;) (2.8 f,
ee T,+4VJIC a)
: (x, Fy) 1 (Gar)
The area A , calculated using (6.30) need not exceed that obtained by substituting 50b,,/f, (6,,/3f,)
for 2A,/s in (6.31). Note that (6.29), (6.30), and (6.31) differ from their Code counterparts, but
produce the same results.
Stirrups and other bars or welded wire fabric used as shear reinforcement shall extend to a
distance d from the extreme compression fiber and shall be anchored at both ends according to
Chapter 12 of the 1989 ACI Code to develop the design yield strength of the reinforcement. This will
be discussed in detail in Chapter 7.
SLABS AND FOOTINGS

The principles for designing slabs and footings to resist shear are identical. Slabs are supported
on columns, the loads are applied from above, and the columns provide the reactions from below.
Footings are supported on soil, piles, caissons, or drilled piers; the loads that cause shear are applied
from below and are resisted by downward reactions on columns or walls. Footings, then, are inverted
slabs, and are designed in the same manner as slabs. More details concerning slab design are
contained in Chapters 8 and 13. Footing design is covered in more detail in Chapter 12.
Slabs and footings are subjected to two different types of shear, two-way or punching shear and
one-way or beam shear. Usually, the thicknesses of slabs and footings are determined to satisfy
two-way shear. Also, the thickness of slabs is very often governed by deflection control. Chapter 8
provides equations for obtaining minimum slab thickness when deflections are not calculated. The
calculation of slab deflections is very complex, and can only be accomplished accurately by use of
sophisticated computer programs. Hence, designers very often accept the minimum thicknesses that
are required when deflections are not calculated. Of course, this is very uneconomical in the case of
high-rise buildings. Slabs that require minimum thicknesses of about 8 in. (203 mm) when deflections
are not calculated may frequently be satisfactory when only 5 in. (127 mm) deep if the deflections are
calculated and found to be within acceptable limits.
Two-Way Shear
The usual design conditions for two-way shear are shown in Fig. 6-6. However, other special
conditions occasionally occur, such as the corner conditions illustrated in Fig. 6-7. Factors related to
Fig. 6-6 will be discussed first.
_ For two-way action, the critical section exists at a distance d/2 from the face of a column, drop
panel, or column capital. For a footing, the critical perimeter may be around a column or a pedestal
La
See DETAIL “A”
X
Crosshatched
area contributes
Le to punching shear
DETAIL “A”
Fig. 6-6
138 SHEAR AND TORSION [CHAP. 6
(a) (5)
Fig. 6-7
that supports the column. The ACI Code permits a column, drop panel, or column capital that is of
any shape other than rectangular or square to be replaced for design purposes by “an equivalent
square” of equal area and with the same centroid. The equivalent square for a circular column of
diameter h would have side dimensions h, = V 7h*/4, and the perimeter would extend a distance d/2
all around the equivalent square. Whatever is stated concerning columns, drop panels, and column
capitals herein also applies to geometric areas with applied concentrated loads and reactions.
In Fig. 6-6, the area that contributes to two-way shear is shown crosshatched. Detail “A” shows
the perimeter that is involved. The length along the perimeter is
b, =2[(A+ d)+(b+d)]
The shear on the perimeter is equal to the factored uniformly distributed load w, acting over the
crosshatched area; that is,
Lathes, et
Ant Tae EE —(h+d)(b+d) (6.32)
Moreover,
Vi, = W Anger = (1-45 + 1.7W,)Aner (6.33)

when only uniformly distributed loads are involved. When other types of nonconcentrated loads are
involved, the structural engineer must try to determine the intent of the Code.
Turning now to Fig. 6-7, we are shown a rectangular column and a circular column, both at the
corner of a slab or footing. In Fig. 6-7(a), the perimeter 5, is the smallest of ABCD, GBDH, GBF,
and EABF. In Fig. 6-7(b), the minimum of the following lengths governs: (1) the complete circular
perimeter around the column at a distance d/2 from the face of the column, (2) arc CAD plus the
tangents CE and DF, (3) arc ADB plus the tangents GA and DF, and (4) arc AD plus the tangents
GA and DF. Again, the area enclosed by the minimum perimeter should be subtracted from the
total loaded area to obtain A,., and then V,. The total area is that which exists from the edges of the
slab to the centerlines of the slabs between the columns in both directions.
The discussions above apply equally well to areas around applied concentrated loads, and
reactions from piles, caissons, and drilled piers.
The shear resistance of slabs and footings for two-way action shall be given by (6.34), (6.35), or
(6.36), whichever value is smallest.
V,= (2+ 5)VFb.d E (17 5 VF. (6.34)

NY af fira
V.= Ce +2)VFib,d | (ss+2)VFib,a| (6.35)
Vie A\/f'b,d (4V fib,d) (6.36)
In (6.34), B. is the ratio of the long side to the short side for a rectangular column (aspect ratio); in
(6.35), a, is 40 for interior columns, 30 for edge columns, and 20 for corner columns.
When steel reinforcement is used to resist two-way shear in slabs or footings, V, is limited to
V.=2Vflosd~ (GN f.b.d) (6.37)

but
V, <6Vfib.d (0.5Vf'b,d) (6.38)

It is important to emphasize that critical sections for two-way shear must also be investigated at other
locations, if the slab or footing changes in thicknesses in certain places or tapers continuously.
Two-way shear must then be investigated at a distance d/2 from every site of change or at several
locations along the tapered member.
One-Way Shear
Slabs and footings must also be investigated for shear due to one-way action or for the member
acting as a beam spanning in one direction. The equations provided for beam design apply in this
case. The critical section for shear is taken at a distance d from the face of columns or other >
supports. The area that provides shear extends from the centerline of the span to a distance d from
the face of the support in the direction of the span. In the perpendicular direction, the area that
contributes to one-way shear extends between the centerlines of the two slabs, parallel to the
direction of the span.
In investigating one-way shear in slabs, the slab is usually divided into strips of width 12 in.
(300 mm) perpendicular to the direction of the span, and the individual strips are treated as
individual beams. One-way shear must be investigated in both directions.
Solved Problems
6.1. Use Fig. 6-8, with / = 32 ft, d=24 in., b, =14 in., and w, =5.6 kip/ft, to determine whether
or not the beam requires stirrups. If required, find the stirrup spacing. Use f’ = 4000 psi,
f, = 40,000 psi, and No. 4 U-stirrups.
It is best to use w, = w,/¢ from the beginning, and not use @ thereafter. Hence,
w,, = 5.6/0.85 = 6.59 kip/ft
The end reaction at the face of the support is R, = w,//2= (6.59)(32/2) = 105.4 kip. By (6.19), the
maximum shear permitted to be taken by steel is
8\/f'b,,d = 8V4000(14)(24)
/1000 = 170.0 kip
Also, maximum spacings d/2 or 24 in. are multiplied by 1/2 if V, exceeds
4\/f'b,,d = 85.0 kip
The concrete can take V. = 2\/f/b,,d = 42.5 kip. The design shear at the critical section (at d from the
face of the support) is
V, = R,, — w,d/12 = 105.4 — (6.59)(24/12) = 92.2 kip
140 SHEAR AND TORSION
Web
reinforcement
(stirrup)
(a) Simply supported beam (b) Section “A-A” of beam

Fig. 6-8
Because V, = V, — V, = 92.2 — 42.5 = 49.7 kip, which is less than 85.0 kip, maximum stirrup spacings are
d/2 or 24 in., whichever is lesser. Further, s,,,, = A, f,/S0b,,. For two No. 4 stirrup legs, A, = 2(0.2) =
0.4 in.”. Hence,
Simax = (0.4)(40,000) /(50)(16) = 20.0 in.
Since d/2 = 24.0/2 = 12.0 in., this spacing is the maximum.
At the critical section, V, = 49.7 kip and s = A,f,d/V, = (0.4)(40)(24) /49.7 = 7.72 in. This spacing
is used from the critical section back to the face of the support.
The 1989 ACI Code requires stirrups to be used over a distance from the face of the support to a
point where V, = V_/2. From similar triangles in the shear diagram, Fig. 6-9,
x,,/84.15=16/105.4 or x, =(16)(84.15)/105.4 = 12.77 ft
Using the equation s = A,f,d/V,,, spacings are found to be 8.57 in. at x =33 in., and 9.91 in. at
x = 44 in., from the face of the support. Thus, spacings from the face of the support would be one of
3.5 in., five of 7.5 in., two of 8.5 in., one of 11.0 in., and the remaining eight of the maximum at 12.0 in.
105.4 kip
kip
84.15 V./2 = 21.25 kip
a 5 YW
a 4
The nominal uniform load is given by w, = w,/¢ = 90/0.85 = 105.88 kKN/m and R, = w,//2=
(105.88)(10/2) = 529.4 kN. At distance d from the support, V,, = 529.4 — (105.88)(0.600) = 465.9 KN.
V. = Vfib,,d/6 = V20(400)(600) /[6(1000)] = 178.9 kN
So V, = V,, — V, = 465.9 — 178.9 = 287.0 kN.
Maximum stirrup spacings are the lesser of d/2 =600/2 =300 mm and 600 mn, i.e., 300 mm,
unless V, exceeds V/f'b,,d/3 = 357.8 kN. Also, by (6.22), maximum spacing of stirrups may not exceed
3A, f,/b,, = 3(2 x 100)(300) /400 = 450 mm
When V, exceeds 357.8 KN, the maximum spacing of stirrups becomes }(300) = 150 mm. Since the shear
at the critical section is 465.9 KN, these maximum spacings apply. The total shear V, may not exceed
2V
f.b,,d/3 = 2V20(400)(6600) /[3(1000)] = 715.5 kN
which is greater than V, = 465.9 KN. The spacing at the critical section is
s=A, f,d/V, = (2 X 100)(300)(600) /[(287.0)(1000)] = 125.4 mm
By similar triangles in the shear diagram, Fig. 6-10, stirrups are required over a distance
Xm = (439.95)(5.0) /529.4 = 4.155 m
Subsequent calculations show that the theoretical (and maximum) spacings s = A, f,d/V, are as follows,
from the face of the support:
Distance x, m Spacings, mm
0 to 0.6 125
0.66 128
0.99 147
1.324 171
1.655 205
1.986 25
1.986 to 4.155 300
529.4 kN
kN
439.95
V./2 = 89.45 kN
Face of
support
Fig. 6-10
142 SHEAR AND TORSION [CHAP.6
A practical way to space stirrups is to plot s (vertically) vs. x (horizontally) and to select spacings
such as 125, 150, or 175 mm, accordingly.
s
6.3. Refer to Fig. 6-8. Use span length / = 22.3 ft, w, = 2.0 kip/ft, d = 13.75 in., b, = 12 in., anda
compression axial load N, = 10,000 Ib. Determine the required spacing of No. 3 U-stirrups,
and the distance over which stirrups are required. The overall depth of the beam is 16 in.,
f {= 3000 psi, and f, = 40,000 psi.
The nominal uniformly distributed load is w, = w,,/d@ =2.0/0.85
= 2.353 kip/ft, giving the end
reaction
R,, = w,l/2 = 2.353(22.3)/2 = 26.235 kip
At the critical section, d = 13.75 in. from the face of the support,
V,, = 26.235 — (2.353)(13.75/12) = 23.539 kip
For a compressive axial load, with A, = (12)(16) = 192 ine.
Sane VF wd
Il
afi+ 10,000 (pees = 18.546 kip
(2000)(192) 1000
But V, may not exceed
3.5Vfib,dV1+ N,,/500A ,= 3.5V3000(12)(13.75)V 1+ (10,000) /(500)(192) /1000
= 33.238 kip
Thus, V. = 18.546 kip governs.
Stirrups are required to a point where V, = V,/2 = 18.546/2 = 9.273 kip. This distance iis
x m =(R,, — V./2)(1/2)/R,, = (26.235 — 9.273)(22.3/2) /26.235 = 7.209 ft = 86.51 in.
At the critical section, V, = V, — V, = 23.539 — 18.546 = 4.993 kip, so the spacing there is
; s= Alii = (0.22)(40)(13.75) /4.993 = 24.23 in.
If V, exceeds 4\/f7b,,d = 4V3000 (12)(13.75/1000)= 36.15 kip, the spacings in (a) and (b) below are
multiplied by 0.5. But actual V, =4.993 kip, so that maximum spacing is the least of
(a) d/2=13.75/2 = 6.875 in.
(b) 24 in. a = WR
(c) A, f,/50b,, = (0.11)(40,000) /50(12) = 7.33 in. C3
The maximum permissible spacing is therefore 6.875 in. Use one stirrup at 3 in. from the support, and
stirrups at 6.5-in. spacing over the distance x,, = 86.51 in.
%
Consider the beam shown in Fig. 6-8, with /=20 ft, w, =3.32 kip/ft, d=16in., b, =
10.5 in., f{ = 3600 psi, f, = 40,000 psi and with a tension axial load N, = —28,600 Ib and Lo,
total depth 18 in. Determine the spacing for No. 3 U-stirrups and the distance over which
stirrups are required by the 1989 ACI Code.
The end reaction at the face of the support is R, =w,//2, where w,=w w/b = 3.3210.
i 3.906 kip/ft. So, R,, = 3. Ss aie ear Ved“the shear iis cr
- get =
, (10.5,
The maximum stirrup spacing is the smallest of

(a) d/2=16.0/2 =8.0 in.
(b) 24 in. :
(c) A, f,/50b,, = (0.22)(40,000) /50(10.5) = 16.76 in.
Thus, s,,,, = 8.0 in. [V, does not exceed 4\/f’b,,d = 40.32 kip, so limits (a) and (b) are not halved].
The distance over which stirrups are required is
x,, = (R,, — V,/2)(1/2)/R,, = (39.06 — 7.03)(10) /39.06 = 8.20 ft = 98.4 in.
Subsequent calculations show the following theoretical and maximum spacings of No. 3 U-stirrups from
the face of the support:
x, in. S, in.
0 to 16 . 5.632
ON TM
28 to 98.4 8.0
Spacings at practical distances are selected accordingly.

The reader is reminded that, for shear with or without axial load, V, may never exceed 8\/f/b,,d,
which here is (2)(40.32) = 80.64 kip (O2KS).
6.5. A rectangular reinforced concrete beam is 356 mm wide and 559 mm deep. It is subjected to
an ultimate vertical shear V, = 142 KN and an ultimate torsional moment T,, = 49 KN-m, both
being at the critical section. Longitudinal reinforcing bars for tension are No. 25M, having a
diameter of 25.2 mm. If closed stirrups are required for shear and torsion, they are to be No.
10M, which have a bar diameter of 11.3 mm and cross-sectional area 100 mm”. The clear
cover of concrete over the stirrups, if required, is to be 40 mm. Using f’ = 27.6 MPa and
f, = 400 MPa, investigate the member for shear and torsion, and design any required torsional
reinforcement.
The nominal shear force is V, = V,/¢ = 142/0.85 = 167.05 kN and the nominal torsional moment is
T,,/@ = 49/0.85 = 57.65 kN-m. The torsional factor is £x°y = (356)7(559) = 70.85 x 10° mm°. The effec-
tive depth is d = 559 — 40 — 11.3 = 495.1 mm.
Applying (6.17),
T,,, max = 0-85(4;)V27.6(70.85 x 10°) = 1.318 X 10’ Nemm
= 13.18 kN-m <49 kN-m = T,,
Therefore, torsion must be included in the design.
The shear that can be resisted by the concrete alone, without stirrups, in the presence of torsion is
given by (6.18), in which
bd f
C=—-= ee: 5)= 0.002488 mm '
fq Skye 1,FBBs 10°
1\/27.6(356)(495.1)/10°
Thus V.= fe
SLsne ID os 3 65.17 kN
“V1 + [2.5(0.002488)(49 x 10°) /142]?
By (6.26),
V, rox= 3V27.6(356)(495.1) = 617.31 kN
The actual V, =V, —V. = 167.05 — 65.17 = 101.88 kN<V. (O.K.). Minimum A,/s = b,,/3f, =
Ss max
356/(3)(400) = 0.29667 mm’/mm, which is in fact smaller than
: AG V, — 101.88 x 10°
Theoretical a. = f.d os
Ss
Se S
ee FE
(400)(495.1)ES
= 0.515 mm?/mm
SHEAR AND TORSION _ [CHAP.6
144
" By (6.15),
a AV
27.6(70.85 x 10°) /10°
= 22.497 kN-m
Therefore, 7, = T,, — T, = 57.647 — 22.497= 35.151 kN-m, which is in fact smaller than
maximum permissible T, = 4T. = 4(22.497) = 89.99 kN-m
5
The required closed stirrups to resist torsion is given by (6.28) as

z;
Ss aX Sf,
Substitute x, = 356 — 2(40 + 11.3/2) = 264.7 mm, y, = 559 — 2(40 + 11.3/2) = 467.7 mm, and
Bee
eae
lly
264.7
)= 1.2556
to find A,/s = 0.5654 mm’/mm. The required (A, +2A,)/s = 0.515 + 2(0.5654) = 1.6458 mm7/mm; and
this governs, since it exceeds b,,/3f,. Using No. 10M closed stirrups (area per leg = 100 mm7’),
s = 2(100/1.6458) = 121.5 mm. Maximum spacing considerations are:
(i) d/2=495.1/2 = 247.6 mm.
(ii) (x, + y,)/4 = (264.7 + 467.7)/4 = 183.1 mm.
(iii) 300 mm.
Note that
1/Fib,.d = 1V27.6(356)(495.1)/10° = 308.66 KN > V,

so that the spacing is not limited to d/4. As a practical matter, use s = 120 mm.
Longitudinal steel requirements are specified by (6.30),
= (264.7 + 467.7)(1.1308) = 828.198 mm”
and by (6.31), in which 2A,/s = 1.1308 mm*/mm governs:
356 49
A,==|2.8 400
2%49 + 4(142/2. 488)
~ 1.1308 |(732.4) = 486.59 mm? cae ie
Use two No. 10M bars in the upper corners and two at middepth of the stirrups. This will provide
400 mm’ of area of longitudinal bars. The remaining required area is to be added to the A, for flexural
tension in the bottom of the beam, within the stirrup confinement. Vi!
\ .4
ry eda
r Supplementary USES ee
7 e oe : ¢ a io 4 ;
by - oF eu i
_ With reference to Fig. 6-8, a Re

ae of Table 6.1. ae
Table 6.1
Given Solutions
Span /, W.> fos

ft kip/ft psi
(a) 3000
(b) 2000
(c) ; 4000
(d) 3000
(e) 3000
(f) 4000
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(1)
6.7. The situation is as in Problem 6.6, except that no axial load is applied. In all subproblems of Table 6.2,
fi. = 20 MPa, f, = 300 MPa, and No. 10M U-stirrups are assumed.
Table 6.2
(a)
(6)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
6.8. Subproblems (a) through (p) of Table 6.3 concern T-beams (T), rectangular beams (R), and spandrel
beams (S) that are subjected to shear and torsion. Verify the final solutions for s, the required spacing of
No. 4 closed stirrups, and A,, the required area of additional longitudinal reinforcement to resist
torsional warping of the cross section. Longitudinal bars are No. 8, and the clear cover of concrete over
the stirrups is 1.5 in.
6.>. Repeat Problem 6.8 for the data of Table 6.4. Stirrups are No. 10M, with 40 mm clear cover of concrete;
the diameter of the longitudinal bars is 25 mm.
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Chapter 7
Details of Reinforcement
NOTATION
a= depth of equivalent rectangular stress block, in. (mm)
A, = area of an individual bar, in.” (mm’)
A,=area of nonprestressed tension reinforcement, in.” (mm’)
A,, = total cross-sectional area of transverse reinforcement (stirrup or tie) within a spacing s
and perpendicular to plane of bars being spliced or developed, in.” (mm’)
A,,= area of shear reinforcement within a distance s, in.” (mm’)
A,, = area of an individual wire to be developed or spliced, in.” (mm’)
b,,= web width, in. (mm)
d=distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of tension reinforcement, in.
(mm)
d, =nominal diameter of bar or wire, in. (mm)
f! =specified compressive strength of concrete, psi (MPa)
f., = average splitting tensile strength of lightweight-aggregate concrete, psi (MPa)
h = overall thickness of member, in. (mm)
|, = additional embedment length at support or point of inflection, in. (mm)
|, = development length, in. (mm) =/,, X applicable modification factors
1» = basic development length, in. (mm)
l,, = development length of standard hook in tension (straight embedment length between
critical section and start of hook, plus radius of bend and one bar diameter), in.
(mm) = /,,, X applicable modification factors uw ;
l,,, = basic development length of standard hook in tension, in. (mm)
1, = splice length, in. (mm)
M,,= nominal moment strength at section, in.-lb (kN-m) = A,f,(d — a/2)
N=number of bars in a layer being spliced or developed at a critical section
§ = spacing of stirrups or ties, in. (mm)
S,, = spacing of wire to be developed or spliced, in. (mm)
V,,= factored shear force at section, kip (KN)
8, = ratio of area of reinforcement cut off to total area of tension reinforcement at section
# = modification factor for development length
Note: For areas, diameters, and other properties of reinforcing bars, see Tables A-2 and A-3 on page
343 in the Appendixes.
INTRODUCTION
Such details of reinforcement as concrete cover, development lengths, anchorage, and splices are
intended to prevent bar pullout and splitting or spalling of the concrete due to stresses and strains in
148
1 CHAP. 7] DETAILS OF REINFORCEMENT 149
Maximum
Average bond stress
bond stress
Development length /,
(a)
ethene oe eel
Splice length /,
=e
(b) (c)
Fig, 7-1
the reinforcing steel bars. Thus they depend critically on the strength of bonding of the concrete to
the steel.
Figure 7-1(a) illustrates the assumed (for simplicity) /inear variation of bond stress between the
steel and concrete as the tension (or compression) force in the steel bars varies from A, f, to zero
over a development length /,. Figure 7-1(b) shows a lapped splice, wherein two bars make contact
along a length /,.. Figure 7-1(c) illustrates a simple butt splice, such as is made with a commercial
device. Development lengths, anchorage lengths, embedment lengths, and splice lengths are
determined for various conditions as a basic development length |, multiplied by a product of
Table 7.1
Tolerance on minimum
Effective depth d, Tolerance on d, cover on reinforcements,
in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm)
<8 (200) + 3*(10)
>8 (200) 5. (12)
Table 7.2 Protection for Reinforcement of Cast-in-Place Concrete
Minimum cover,
in. (mm)
Concrete cast against and permanently exposed to earth 3.91(70)
Concrete exposed to earth or weather
Wall panels:
No. 6 through No. 18 (20M through 55M) bars 2 (50)
No. 5 (15M) bars, W31 or D31 wire, and smaller 14 (40)
Concrete exposed to neither earth nor weather
Slabs, walls, and joists:
No. 14 and No. 18 (45M and 55M) bars
No. 11 (35M) and smaller bars
Beams and columns:
Primary reinforcement, ties, stirrups, and spirals
Shells and folded-plate members:
No. 6 (20M) bars and larger
No. 5 (15M) bars, W31 or D31 or smaller
150 DETAILS OF REINFORCEMENT [CHAP. 7
Table 7.3 Protection for Reinforcement of Precast Concrete (Manufactured under

plant control conditions)
Minimum cover,
in. (mm)
Concrete exposed to earth or weather

Wall panels:
No. 14 and No. 18 (45M and 55M) bars 13 (40)
No. 11 (35M) bar and smaller ? (20)
Other members:
No. 14 and No. 18 (45M _ and 55M) bars 2 (50)
No. 6 through No. 11 (20M through 35M) 13 (40)
No. 5 (15M), W31 or D31 wire, and smaller 1; (30)
Concrete not exposed to weather nor in contact

with ground:
Slabs, walls, joists:
No. 14 and No. 18 (45M and 55M) bars 14 (30)
No. 11 (35M) bar and smaller 5 (15)
Beams, columns:
Primary reinforcement d,, but not less than
= (15) and need not
exceed 15 (40)
Ties, stirrups, spirals : (10)
Shells, folded-plate members
No. 6 (20M) bars and larger 2 (15)
No. 5 (15M) bar, W31 or D31 wire, and smaller 3 (10)
modification factors that estimate the tendency of the reinforcing bars to break bond with the
concrete. We emphasize that /,, already includes an allowance for understrength: the strength
reduction factor ¢ is not to be used along with the factors pw.
Development lengths and anchorage lengths can reflect the beneficial effects of hooks on the free
ends of the bars. Details concerning standard hooks will be found under “Basic Development
Lengths and Modification Factors,” in the subsection ‘Standard Hooks in Tensions.”
Table 7.1 provides permissible tolerances of error in placing the bars in the formwork. Following
are exceptions to Table 7.1: (1) Clear distance to formed soffits (beam bottoms) shall be — 4 in.
(—6 mm), and tolerance for concrete cover over the bars shall not exceed —1/3 the cover required by
_ the structural drawings and specifications. (2) Tolerance for longitudinal location of bends and ends
of reinforcement shall be +2 in. (+50 mm), except at discontinuous ends of members, where it shall
be +4 in. (+12-mm).
Tables 7.2 and 7.3 give minimum thicknesses of concrete cover for adequate protection against
splitting and spalling. It should be noted that as the cover increases over tension bars, so does the
width of tension cracks.
SPACING LIMITS FOR REINFORCEMENT

Spacing of confinement reinforcement (spirals and ties) and main reinforcement in columns and
walls is provided in Chapter 9. Stirrup spacing for shear and torsion is detailed in Chapter 6. Spacing
CHAP.7] DETAILS OF REINFORCEMENT 151
of reinforcement in slabs is included in Chapter 13. Additional requirements concerning reinforcing

bar spacing are as follows.
(1) Minimum clear spacing between parallel bars in a layer shall be the largest of (a) d,, (b)
1 in. (25 mm), and (c) 1} times the maximum aggregate size.
(2) When parallel bars are placed in two or more layers, bars in the upper layers shall be
placed directly above the bars in the bottom layer. The clear distance between layers must
be at least 1 in. (25 mm).
(3) In spirally reinforced compression members, the clear distance between longitudinal bars
shall be the greatest of (a) 1.5d,, (b) 13 in. (40 mm), and (c) 14 times the maximum
aggregate size.
(4) The clear-distance requirements between bars also apply between lap splices and adjacent
splices or bars.
(5) In walls and slabs (except in concrete joist construction) the primary reinforcement shall
not be spaced farther apart than three times the wall or slab thickness, and no more than
18 in. (500 mm).
(6) Groups of parallel bars that are bundled in contact may not exceed four bars per bundle.
(7) Bundled bars shall be enclosed between spirals or ties.
(8) Bars larger than No. 11 (35M) shall not be bundled in beams.
(9) Individual bars in a bundle that terminate within the span of flexural members shall
terminate at different locations with at least a 40d, stagger.
(10) For bundled bars, where spacing and cover are based on d,, a unit of bundled bars, of
total cross-sectional area A,, shall be treated as a single bar having an equivalent diameter
d, =(2/a)VA,. For cover, d, in this case need not exceed 2 in. (50 mm) except for
concrete cast against earth, for which the cover shall be 3 in. (70 mm).
SPECIAL REINFORCEMENT DETAILS FOR COLUMNS

Offset, bent, longitudinal bars for splicing shall conform with the following.
(1) A bar may be offset from the (vertical) axis of a column by at most one horizontal unit per
six vertical units.
(2) The portions of a bar above and below the sloped part shall be parallel to the axis of the
column.
(3) Lateral ties, spirals, or parts of the floor construction shall provide horizontal support or
offset bars. The supporting elements shall be designed to resist 15 times the horizontal
component of force in the inclined portion of an offset bar. Lateral ties or spirals, if used,
shall be placed not more than 6 in. (150 mm) from the points of bend.
(4) Offset bars shall be bent before being placed in the forms.
(5) Where a column face is offset 3 in. (80 mm) or more, the longitudinal bars shall not be
offset bent. Separate dowels, lap-spliced with the longitudinal bars adjacent to the offset
faces, shall be provided.
General requirements concerning the design of confinement reinforcement (spirals and ties) for
columns and other compression members are provided in Chapter 9. Specific requirements concern-
ing anchorage of confinement reinforcement follow.
Anchorage of spirals shall be provided by 15 extra turns of spiral bar or wire at each end of a
spiral unit. Splices in spiral reinforcement shall be lap splices of 48d, but not less than 12 in.
(300 mm), or else welded. Spirals shall extend from the top of a footing or slab in any story to at
least the level of horizontal reinforcement in the members suported above. Where beams or brackets
do not frame into all sides of a column, ties shall extend above the termination of the spiral to the
bottom of the supported slab or drop panel. In columns with capitals, the spirals shall extend to at
least a level at which the diameter or width of the capital is twice that of the column. Spirals shall be
held firmly in place and true to line.
Ties shall be located vertically not more than one-half a tie spacing above the top of a footing or
slab in any story, and shall be spaced to not more than one-half a tie spacing below the lowest
horizontal reinforcement in the slab or drop panel above. Where beams or brackets frame from four
directions into a column, ties may be terminated not more than 3 in. (80 mm) below the lowest
reinforcement in the most shallow of such beams or brackets.
Anchorage of reinforcement that terminates in connections of principal reinforcement (such as
beams and columns) must be provided with enclosure in the form of external concrete or internal
ties, spirals, or stirrups.
SHRINKAGE AND TEMPERATURE REINFORCEMENT

Here, deformed reinforcement is generally used. The critical parameter is p = A,/A,, the ratio
of steel area to gross concrete area; in no case may p be smaller than 0.0014. The following are
specific requirements:
(1) For slabs with deformed-bar reinforcement having f, <50 ksi (300 MPa), p = 0.0020.
(2) For slabs with deformed-bar reinforcement or (plain or deformed) welded wire fabric
having f, = 60 ksi (400 MPa), p = 0.0018.
(3) When f,, measured at a strain of 0.0035 for the reinforcement, exceeds 60 ksi (400 MPa),
= 0.0018 © (0.0018 | (7.1)

f, f,
STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY
Reinforcement connections, when properly detailed, in effect tie together (give integrity to) a
structure. For cast-in-place concrete construction, the following represent minimum requirements:
(1) For joist construction, at least one bottom bar shall be spliced over the support with a Class
A (/, = 1.0/,) tension splice. At noncontinuous supports, the bar shall be terminated in a
standard hook (Fig. 7-2).
(2) Spandrel (edge) beams around the perimeter of the structure shall have at least one-sixth of
the required negative-tension reinforcement for bending moment at the supports and at
least one-fourth of the positive-moment reinforcement required at midspan made continu-
ous around the perimeter and tied with closed stirrups. The closed stirrups need not be
extended through any joints. The required continuity may be provided by top re-
inforcement spliced at midspan and bottom reinforcement spliced at or near the support;
Class A splices shall be used.
(3) For beams other than spandrel beams, when closed stirrups are not provided, at least
one-fourth of the positive-moment steel required at midspan shall be continuous or shall be
spliced over the support with a Class A tension splice. Free ends of reinforcing bars shall be
terminated with a standard hook.
BASIC DEVELOPMENT LENGTHS AND MODIFICATION FACTORS

Deformed Bars in Tension
Basic development lengths for deformed reinforcing bars and wires are determined as follows.
(i) For No. 11 (35M) and smaller bars and deformed wire,
_ 0.04A,f, (ee)
lay a UE Vfl (7-7)
CHAP. 7] DETAILS OF REINFORCEMENT 153
(ii) For No. 14 (45M) bars,

0.085f 25f
bere
=
(7)= oeral
(iii) For No. 18 (55M) bars,
_ 0.125f, 40f,
li = VF A) (7.4)
For bars in tension, development length /, = basic development length /,, multiplied by appropriate
modification factors w. First, either w,, “4, Or uw, is applied, and the resulting /, may not be less than
12in. (300mm). When further multiplied by «, and/or u,, /, must satisfy the inequality
ne 0.034, f, (eee
(7.5)
SR ON
Additional appropriate multipliers u,, u,, and py are applied thereafter.
For bars in any of the categories (a) through (d) below, the first modification factor is u, = 1.0
(i.e., no modification).
(a) Bars in beams or columns with (i) cover not less than that previously stated as minimum;
(ii) transverse reinforcement that satisfies tie requirements for columns or minimum
stirrups, as provided in Chapter 6; and (iii) clear spacing between bars not less than 3d,.
(6) Bars in beams or columns (i) with minimum cover as previously stated; and (ii) enclosed
along the development length within transverse reinforcement of cross-sectional area
N
AL = d)S 40 where d, is the diameter of the bar being developed.
(c) Bars in the inner layer of slab or wall reinforcement, having clear spacing not less than 3d,.
(d) Any bars with cover not less than 2d, and with clear spacing between bars not less than
3d,
For bars with cover of d, or less, or with clear spacing between bars of 2d, or less, w, = 2.0.
If neither uw, nor pw, applies to a bar, uw, = 1.4 shall apply.
For No. 11 (35M) tension bars or smaller, with clear spacing less than 5d, and with at least 2.5d,
cover from the face of the member to the edge of the bar (measured in the plane of the bar),
pe, = 0.8.
The factor 4, =0.75 shall apply to tension reinforcement confined within (i) continuous spirals
not less than } in. (6 mm) in diameter, with not more than a 4-in. (100-mm) pitch; or (ii) No. 4
(15M) or larger circular ties, spaced not more than 4 in. (100 mm); or (iii) No. 4 (15M) ties or
stirrups, spaced not more than 4 in. (100 mm) on centers and arranged such that alternate bars are
supported by the corner of a tie or hoop with an included angle of at most 135°.
For top reinforcement, so placed that more than 12 in. (300 mm) of fresh concrete is cast in the
member below the region of development length or splice length, u, = 1.3.
For bars or wire reinforcement contained in lightweight concrete, with or without sand
replacement for fine aggregate, uw, = 1.3, unless the tensile splitting factor f,, is specified. When f,, is
specified, u, is taken as the greater of 1.0 and
Bape Weep a
esa
For epoxy-coated bars with cover less than 3d, or with clear spacing between bars less than 6d,,,
Mg = 1.5. For all other cases involving epoxy-coated bars, wu, = 1.2. For top, epoxy-coated bars, the
product uu, may be replaced by 1.7 (when the product exceeds 1.7).
In the event that the area of reinforcing steel A, exceeds the required area A,,, the final
development length may be scaled down by the factor uw, = A,,/A,. This privilege is revoked when
the full value of f, is required for development or anchorage or when the structure is required to
resist earthquake forces.
154 ; DETAILS OF REINFORCEMENT [CHAP. 7
Deformed Bars in Compression

The development length /, is obtained as the product of the basic development length /,, and
appropriate modification factors. Basic development length /,, is given by the larger of
0.024, f, d, f, )
——-
Vf and 0.0003d ay —~—===
4\/fi and» 0.04d ad) (7.6 )
which may be reduced by multiplying by u, and/or «,, but then, may not be less than 8 in. (200 mm).
The resulting /, is then multiplied by appropriate values of u,, w,, and w,. Multiplier ~, = 0.75 for
bars in compression when the bars are enclosed within spiral reinforcement, not less than jin.
(6mm) in diameter and not more than 4in. (100 mm) pitch, or within No. 4 (15M) ties as required
for compression members and columns, but spaced not more than 4 in. (100 mm) center to center of
ties.
| a,
| Bend diameter
90° (same as for 180° bend)
Bend | \ “1S yy,
Q
critical Pa
section |
\
| d, |
= | Bend
180 ' diameter
Bend
larger of
4d, and ae d,
24 in. (60 mm) ' | Bar Sizes —
critical Ma > | #3 through #8 (10M through 25M)
section
| aT #9, #10, and #11 (30M and 35M) , i
| :
oe Ps#14 and #18 Soa and 55M)
‘S
. [h- 2 \* he
(a) Main bars “huey

Bend ye ~ Bend #5 (15M) and
at © fi
diameter; i ' ; | diameter easierape ir
Bundled Bars
The development length /, of individual bars within a bundle, in either tension or compression,
shall be that for each bar, increased by 20 percent for three-bar bundles and 33 percent for four-bar
bundles. When determining modification factors, a bundled unit shall be treated as in requirement
(10) under ‘“‘Spacing Limits for Reinforcement.”
Standard Hooks in Tension
Standard hooks for main bars are dimensioned in Fig. 7-2(a); for stirrups and ties, in Fig. 7-2(b).
Development of bars at supports is illustrated in Fig. 7-3. Figure 7-4 illustrates use of stirrups or ties
with a standard hook when the main bars have cover less than 25 in. (60 mm).
(a) Anchorage into exterior column

della ord 16:
whichever is greatest,
for at least one-third A,
to satisfy span on right

(Note: P.I. is point of inflection on the
bending moment diagram.)
(b) Anchorage into adjacent beam
cover
less than Lan lies or stirrup-lies
i required
cover
tote be
oe less than
ee! -° toe o .
4 pirateee 44048, 24 in.
Patate we Phe Ss
OL Py str «2 24
Section A-A
The development length /,, for deformed bars in tension terminating in a hook shall be
computed as the product of the basic development length /,, and the applicable modification factors,
subject to the constraint that /,, shall not be less than 8d, or 6 in. (150 mm).
For a hooked bar in tension, having f, = 60,000 psi (400 MPa),
_ 1200d, (dasa
(7.7)
ol
When f, # 60,000 psi (400 MPa), multiply the right-hand side of (7.7) by f,/60,000 (f, /400).
The modification factors for /,, are mw, through mw, as previously given for unhooked bars in
tension, plus the following:
(1) For No. 11 (35M) bars and smaller, having side cover normal to the plane of the hook not
less than 24 in. (60 mm), and for a 90° hook with cover on the bar extension beyond hook
not less than 2 in. (50 mm), p, = 0.7.
(2) For No. 11 (35M) bars and smaller, having the hook enclosed vertically or horizontally .
within ties or stirrups spaced along the full development length /,,, not greater than 3d, of
the hooked bar, pw, = 0.8.
(3) When anchorage or development for full f, is not specifically required, the factor w,, as
defined for unhooked bars in tension, may be applied.
(4) For lightweight-aggregate concrete, uw, = 1.3.
(5) For hooked bars with epoxy coating, “, = 1.2.
The lightweight modification factor 1.3 and the excess steel factor w,, given previously, apply
here too. However, the final development length /, shall not be less than 6 in. (150 mm), except in
the calculations for lapped splices.
Deformed Welded Wire Fabric in Tension
The basic development length of deformed welded wire fabric, with at least one cross wire within
the development length, not less than 2 in. (50 mm), shall be the greatest of
f,— 20,000 3d, of, 140
ly =9.03d,Soe Ge z) (7.8)
%
lap =0.20A,, fy
VF fy
(2. sere) . (7.9) :
Lay =8 in. (200 mm) (7.10)
If there are no cross wires within the development length, /,, shall be determined as for a single,
individual deformed wire.
Plain Welded Wire Fabric in Tension
The yield strength of plain welded wire fabric shall be considered to be developed by embedment
of two cross wires, with the closer cross wire not less than 2 in. (50 mm) from the critical section.
The basic development length, measured from the critical section to the outermost cross wire, must —
Satisfy
‘
Moment strength
of bars a
'
Moment curve
=d, 12d,, |,/16
1, when bottom Diameter

bars used as of bars a
compression limited by =1, +
E ae
reinforcement section a Kinbedmeatior
Pe
bars a= 1,
Fig. 7-5 -(By courtesy of the American Concrete Institute, Detroit, Michigan.)
Standard 90° or
180° hook (eae
Most of /, must
be near end
Tension reinforcement may be developed by bending the bars, as trussed bars, across the web to
be anchored or made continuous with the reinforcement on the opposite face of the member. Critical
sections for reinforcement development in flexural members occur at points of maximum stress and
at locations within the span where the reinforcement is terminated or where it is trussed.
Reinforcement must extend beyond locations where it is theoretically no longer needed to resist
flexure for a distance equal to the greater of the effective depth and 12d,, except at the supports of
simple spans and at the free ends of cantilevers. Continuing reinforcement shall have an embedment
length at least equal to the development length /, beyond the point where the terminated or bent
reinforcement is theoretically no longer needed to resist flexure.
Flexural reinforcement may not be terminated in a tension zone, unless one of the following
three conditions is satisfied. (See Chapter 6 for shear requirements.)
(1) The shear at the cutoff point does not exceed two-thirds of the shear that is permitted ator
location, including the effects of shear reinforcement that is provided.
(2) Stirrup area is provided in excess of that required to resist the applied shear and torsion
along each terminated bar or wire, over a distance from the point of termination equal to
three-fourths of the effective depth of the member. The excess stirrup area A,, shall satisfy
605,,8 Gees
(7.12)
fy f
A vey,
The spacing s may not exceed d/(88,).

(3) For No. 11 (35M) and smaller bars or wires, the continuing reinforcement provides at least
twice the area required for flexure at the cutoff point and the shear does not exceed
three-fourths of the shear permitted at that location.
Adequate anchorage shall be provided for tension reinforcement in flexural members for which
the stress in the reinforcement is not directly proportional to the bending moment. Such conditions
exist in stepped or tapered footings, brackets, haunched or tapered members, and members in which
the tension reinforcement is not parallel to the compression face.
DEVELOPMENT OF REINFORCEMENT FOR POSITIVE MOMENT

The 1989 ACI Code requires that at least one-third of the positive-moment reinforcement in
simple members, and at least one-fourth in continuous spans, shall extend along the same face into
M,, for reinforcement

continuing into support
(Use the 1.3 factor only if the reaction

confines the ends of the reinforcement.)
(a) Maximum size of bar at simple support
1, at P.I. is greater
of d and 12d,
the support. For beams, the distance of extension must be at least 6 in. (150 mm). This automatically
provides for compression reinforcement at the support and assists in anchoring the tension bars.
When lateral loads are involved, the extended positive-moment reinforcement must be able to
develop f, in tension, because of stress reversal.
The diameters of the positive-moment tension reinforcing bars must be limited to ensure that
ines M,,
y aa! (7.13)
u
(refer to ‘‘Notation”’ and Fig. 7-7).
DEVELOPMENT OF NEGATIVE-MOMENT REINFORCEMENT

Negative-bending-moment reinforcement in any continuous, restrained, or cantilever member or
in any member of a rigid frame must be anchored in or through the supporting member by
embedment length, hooks, or mechanical anchorage (Fig. 7-6). It must extend beyond the point at
which it is no longer theoretically needed to resist flexure, for a distance equal to the greater of the
effective depth d and 12d,. (This does not apply at simple supports and at free ends of cantilevers.)
The embedment length is required on both sides of the section, in the direction of the span. For
tension, at least one-third of the reinforcement at a support shall have an embedment length beyond
the point-of inflectionat least equal to the greatest of d, 12d,, and /,,/16 (as in Fig. 7-5).
DEVELOPMENT OF WEB REINFORCEMENT

Web reinforcement must be carried as close to the compression and tension surfaces of members
aS cover requirements and location of other reinforcement permit.
Ends of single-leg stirrups, or simple or multiple U-stirrups, shall be anchored by at least one of
the following means:
(a) For No. 5 (15M) bars and D31 wire, and smaller, with f, = 40,000 psi (300 MPa), a
standard hook around the main reinforcement.
(b) For No. 6, No. 7, and No. 8 (20M and 25M) stirrups, with f, > 40,000 psi (300 MPa), a
standard stirrup hook around a longitudinal bar, plus an embedment between midheight of
the member and the outside end of the hook. The embedment distance shall be equal to or
greater than
0.014d ‘S (0.174, __ (7.14)

Each leg of plain welded wire fabric that forms simple U-stirrups must have either:
(c) Two longitudinal wires spaced at 2 in. (50 mm) along the member at the top of the U.
(d) One longitudinal wire located not more than d/4 from the compression face, and a second
wire closer to the compression face and spaced not less than 2 in. (50 mm) from the first
wire. The second wire may be located on a stirrup leg beyond a bend, or on a bend, with an
inside diameter of bend not less than 8d,.
Between anchored ends, each bend in the continuous portion of a simple or multiple U-stirrup
shall enclose a bar. Longitudinal bars trussed or bent to resist shear, if extended into a tension
region, shall be continuous with the longitudinal reinforcement. If a bar is extended into a
compression region, it shall be anchored beyond middepth (d/2) of the member as specified for
development, for that fraction of f, that is required to satisfy shear according to Chapter 6.
Pairs of U-stirrups that are placed to form a closed stirrup shall be considered to be satisfactorily
spliced when the ends of the U-stirrups are lapped at least 1.3/,. In members of depth at least 18 in.
s
(500 mm), such splices shall be considered to be satisfactory when A,f, does not exceed 9000 Ib
(40 KN) per leg, provided that the stirrup legs extend for the full available depth of the member (d
minus the cover).
SPLICES OF REINFORCEMENT
These are to be made only as permitted or required on the design drawings or specifications
and/or as authorized by the designing engineer.
Bars in Tension or Compression
Lap splices shall not be used for bars larger than No. 11 (35M), except as provided below for
bars of different sizes that are lap-spliced in compression. Lap splices for bundled bars shall be based
on the requirements for lap splicing of the individual bar sizes in the bundle, increased by 20 percent
for three-bar bundles and 33 percent for four-bar bundles. Entire bundles shall not be lap-spliced at
the same location, and the individual splices of bars in a bundle shall not overlap. Bars connected by
noncontact splices in flexural members shall be transversely spaced no farther apart than the smaller
of the one-fifth required lap splice length and 6 in. (150 mm).
Minimum length of lap for a tension lap splice shall be as required for a Class A (/, = 1.0/,) or
Class B (/, =1.3/,) splice, but not less than 12 in. (300 mm). Here, /, is the tensile development
length for the specified yield strength f,, without the modification factor pw, for excess A, being
applied.
Lap splices of deformed bars and deformed wire in tension shall be Class B splices, except that
Class A splices will be permitted when (i) the area of reinforcement provided is at least twice that
required by the structural analysis, over the entire length of the splice; and (ii) only one-half or less
of the total reinforcement is spliced within the lap length.
Welded splices and mechanical splices may be used if they prove to provide the required
strength. Except as specified otherwise in the ACI Code, all welding shall conform to the Structural
Welding Code—Reinforcing Steel (AWS D1.4) of the American Welding Society. A full-welded splice
shall have bars butted and welded to develop at least 125 percent of the yield strengthf, of the bar in
tension. A full mechanical connection shall develop at least 125 percent of the yield strength f, of the
bar in tension or compression.
Welded splices and mechanical connections that do not satisfy the requirements provided above
are allowed if they satisfy either (1) or (2) below.
Mechanical connections and welded splices shall be designed for 125 percent of f, whenever the
area of steel A, provided is less than twice the area required by the analysis. Mechanical connectors
and welded splices that are used at locations at which the area of steel is at least twice the area
required by the analysis, shall meet the following requirements:
(1) Splices shall be staggered at least 24 in. (600 mm) and shall be so detailed as to produce
twice the actual calculated tensile force at the section, but not less than a force correspond-
ing to f, = 20,000 psi (140 MPa) for the total area of steel provided.
(2) When calculating the total tension force that is developed at each section, the specified
splice strength may be used. Reinforcement that is not spliced shall be rated at that fraction
of f, defined by the ratio of the shorter actual development length to the /, required for the
full strength f,.
Splices in tension tie members using a full-welded splice or a full mechanical connection shall be
designed for 125 percent of f,. Splices shall be staggered for a distance of at least 30 in. (800 mm).
For splices of bars in compression, splice length /, shall be calculated as

ei beer (0.07f,d,) for f, = 60,000 psi (400 MPa) Spi
»~1(0.13f,-24)d, (0.13f,-24)d, for f, > 60,000 psi (400 MPa) (7.15)
or 12 in. (300 mm), whichever is greater. For f’ < 3000 psi (20 MPa) the lap length shall be increased
by one-third.
When bars of different sizes are in compression and are lap-spliced, /, shall be the larger of (1)
the development length of the larger bar and (ii) the splice length of the smaller bar. Bar sizes No.
14 and No. 18 (45M and 55M) may only be lap-spliced to No. 11 (35M) and smaller bars.
Welded splices and mechanical connections shall be designed for 125 percent of f, when
subjected to compression. Bars that will always be subjected to compression may transmit compres-
sive stresses by direct bearing of square-cut ends, one on the other, if they are securely held center to
center by an appropriate mechanical device. Such end-bearing surfaces shall be flat within 1.5° of a
right angle to the axes of the bars and shall be installed to have full bearing within 3° after assembly.
End-bearing splices shall always be confined within closed ties, closed stirrups, or spirals.
Special Requirements for Columns
Splices in columns shall be designed to resist all load combinations. In cases in which the
factored-load bar stress is compressive, lap splices shall conform to the provisions stated above for
compression bars. Wherever appropriate, either (1) or (2) below shall apply:
(1) When the confining reinforcement in compression members consists of ties having an
effective area 0.0015hs throughout a lap splice length, the calculated /, may be multiplied
by 0.83, but the lap length may not be less than 12 in. (300 mm). The effective tie area shall
be based upon the cross-sectional area of the legs of ties that are perpendicular to the
dimension h.
(2) When the confining reinforcement in compression members consists of closely spaced
spirals, designed according to Chapter 9, the calculated /, may be multiplied by 0.75, but
the lap length may not be less than 12 in. (300 mm).
Where the factored-load bar stress is tensile and at most 0.5f,, lap splices shall be Class B if more
than one-half of the bars are spliced at any cross section in the member. If one-half or fewer of the
bars are spliced at any cross section in the member and if alternate lap splices are staggered by at
least /,, Class A tension splices may be used. When the tensile stress due to factored loads exceeds
0.5f,, Class B tension splices shall always be used.
Welded splices and splices made with mechanical devices shall be designed for 125 percent of f,.
End-bearing splices may be used in columns when the bars will be subjected only to compressive
forces; then these splices shall be staggered or additional bars shall be provided at splice locations.
The continuing bars in each face of the column shall be capable of resisting unanticipated tensile
forces of not less than 0.25f, times the area of the vertical bars contained along that face.
Deformed Welded Wire Fabric in Tension
The minimum length of lap for lap splices shall be at least the greater of 1.3/, and 8 in.
(200 mm), measured between the ends of the two fabric sheets. The overlap, measured between the
outermost cross wires of each sheet, shall not be less than 2 in. (50 mm). Here, the development
length shall be the /, described previously for the specified yield strength f,. Lap splices for deformed
welded wire fabric that do not conform with the requirements stated above, shall be determined as
for individual deformed wires.
Plain Welded Wire Fabric in Tension
When the area of reinforcement at the splice location is less than twice that required by the
analysis, the length of overlap measured between the outermost cross wires of each sheet of fabric
shall not be less than any of (i) one spacing of cross wires plus 2 in. (50 mm), (ii) 1.5/,, (ili) 6 in.
(150 mm). The /, shall be that previously described for the yield strength f,. When the area of
reinforcement provided at the splice location is at least twice that required by the analysis, the length
of overlap of each fabric sheet, measured between their outermost cross wires, shall be at least the
greater of 1.5/, and 2 in. (50 mm). The development length shall be /, as previously described for the
yield strength f,.
Chapter 8
Serviceability and Deflections
NOTATION
A = effective area of concrete per reinforcing bar, distribution of reinforcement, in. (mm’)
A, =area of largest reinforcing bar in a group of mixed sizes
A , = gross area of section, in. (mm*)
A,=area of nonprestressed tension reinforcement, in.” (mm’)
A! =area of compression reinforcement, in.” (mm’)
A, = skin reinforcement for each side of webs of beams exceeding 3 ft (1 m) in depth, in. /ft
depth (mm’/m depth)
A,=total area of concrete for distribution of reinforcement, in.” (mm’)
b,, = width of a rectangular beam or web of a beam with flanges, in. (mm)
d= effective depth from compression face to centroid of tension steel, in. (mm)
d' = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of compression reinforcement, in.
(mm)
d.=distance from tension face of a beam to the centroid of the outer layer of tension
reinforcing bars when one or more layers are used, in. (mm)
d,= distance from extreme tension fiber to centroid of tension reinforcement, in. (mm)
E.= modulus of elasticity of concrete, psi (MPa)
E.,, = modulus of elasticity of beam concrete, ksi (MPa)
E.. = modulus of elasticity of slab concrete, ksi (MPa)
f! = specified compressive strength of concrete, psi (MPa)
f,= modulus of rupture of concrete, psi (MPa)
h = overall thickness of member, in. (mm)
I.,= moment of inertia of cracked section transformed to concrete, in (mm’*)
I, = effective moment of inertia for computation of deflection, in.’ (mm*)
7, = moment of inertia of gross concrete section about centroidal axis, neglecting reinforce-
ment, in.’ (mm‘*)
!=span length of beam or one-way slab
= length of clear span in long direction of two-way construction, measured face to face
of supports in slabs without beams and face to face of beams or other supports in other
cases
M,= maximum moment in member at stage deflection is computed, in.-kip (kN-m)
M., = cracking moment, in.-kip (kN-m)
w.= density of concrete, lb/ft” (kg/m’*)
y, =distance from centroidal axis of gross section, neglecting reinforcement, to extreme
fiber in tension, in. (mm)
y=distance from tension face of a beam to the centroid of the tension steel, in. (mm)
a=ratio of flexural stiffness of beam section to flexural stiffness of a width of slab
162,
CHAP. 8] SERVICEABILITY AND DEFLECTIONS 163
bounded laterally by centerline of adjacent panel (if any) on each side of beam
= holtcs’ Ss
@,, = average value of a for all beams on edges of a panel
8 =ratio of clear spans in long to short direction of two-way slabs
B, = ratio of length of continuous edges to total perimeter of a slab panel
A= multiplier for additional long-time deflection
€= time-dependent factor for sustained load
p=reinforcement ratio for tension reinforcement = A ,/bd
p’ =reinforcement ratio for nonprestressed compression reinforcement = A‘/bd
¢ = strength reduction factor
GENERAL
Serviceability deals primarily with aesthetics and human comfort and is only indirectly related to
the strength of a structure. While a structure might be perfectly safe from the point of view of
strength, it might be unsatisfactory insofar as serviceability is concerned. Two extreme examples may
be cited. Visible cracks in members, or vibration-producing deflections, in a storage warehouse might
be perfectly acceptable, as long as the strength of the structure is not impaired. But neither cracks
nor vibrations would be acceptable in an art museum.
In Chapter 11 building drift (horizontal deflections of a structure due to lateral loads) is discussed
in detail. Back-and-forth drift of a building from wind gusts could cause motion sickness to the
inhabitants. Thus, it is important to be able to establish the desired degree of serviceability and to be
able to control cracking, vertical deflection, vibration, and horizontal drift by appropriate means.
CRACK CONTROL
The 1989 ACI Code contains empirical equations for establishing control of cracks in the
concrete. After the bending moment has exceeded the cracking moment, the concrete will crack due
to tension stresses. Instead of visible cracks, it is desirable to have numerous hairline cracks, or
microcracks, so-called because they are visible only under a high-powered microscope.
For normal-density concrete, the cracking moment is given by
Mop Fh hy (8.1)
where the tensile strength f. is given by (1.4). (For other than normal density, refer to Chapter 1,
“Tensile Strength of Concrete,” for modification of f,.]
The 1989 ACI Code gives the following empirical formula for crack control, assuming that f, for
the steel exceeds 40,000 psi (300 MPa):
Z=f,VdA (8.2)
in which Z = index of crack width, kip/in. (MN/m)
f, =stress in tension steel at service loads, as calculated according to the alternate design
method (Chapter 4) or else as 0.6f,, kip/ in.” (MPa)
d.=the distance of the centers of the /ower layer of tension reinforcement (when one or
more layers are used) to the tension face of the member, in. (mm)
A =the effective area per bar, calculated relative to Fig: 8-1, in. (mm’)
The value of Z is limited to 175 kip/in. (30 MN/m) for interior exposure (member not exposed to
weather) and 145 kip/in. (25 MN/m) for exterior exposure (member exposed to weather). If the
member is exposed to chemicals that could corrode the reinforcing steel, more restrictive limits on Z
are necessary.
164 SERVICEABILITY AND DEFLECTIONS [CHAP. 8
c.g. of steel
Fig. 8-1 Crack control (distribution of reinforcement).
In Fig. 8-1, the distance y is that from the tension face of the member to the centroid of steel.
The total affected area A, equals b,(2y). The area A per bar is equal to A,/N, where N is the total
number of equivalent larger bars. For example, if the three bars in the lower layer each have area A,
and the two bars in the upper layer each have area A,, then N=(3A,+2A,)/A,, where A, refers
to the largest bar.
When the flanges of T-beams (beams flanged on both sides of the web) are in tension, part of the
flexural reinforcement for tension shall be distributed over an effective flange width equal to 1/10 of
the span length / plus eight times the slab thickness or one-half the distance to the next web,
whichever is the lesser distance. For beams with a flange on one side only (spandrel beams), the
distance is 1/10 of the span length / plus six times the flange thickness or one-half the distance to the
next web, whichever is the lesser distance. If the actual effective flange width exceeds 1/10 of the
span length, the ACI Code requires that ‘‘some”’ longitudinal reinforcement shall be provided in the
outer portions of the flange. Logically, the sizes and spacings of the bars that are provided within the
1/10 span length should be continued over the full actual effective flange width. Indeed, this is what
makes the flange width “effective.”
If the depth of a beam exceeds 3 ft (1 m), longitudinal skin reinforcement shall be uniformly
distributed along both side faces of the member for a distance d/2 nearest the flexural tension
reinforcement. The area of skin reinforcement on each side face shall be
A,, =0.012(d—30) (d—750) (8.3)
The maximum spacing of bars shall be the lesser of d/6 and 12 in. (300 mm). Skin reinforcement
may be included in strength computations if a strain compatibility analysis is made to determine the
actual stress in each individual bar or wire. The total area of skin reinforcement in both faces need
not exceed one-half of the total required tensile reinforcement A,.
In general, small bars produce better crack control than larger bars. However, per unit weight or
mass, small bars are more expensive than larger bars (because of the higher labor costs involved in
the placement of the larger number of small bars necessary to provide a given area). Thus, economy
of the structure becomes a factor for consideration.
MINIMUM THICKNESSES, MAXIMUM DEFLECTIONS

The 1989 ACI Code provides tables and equations for determining minimum depths of beams
and slabs. If those minimum depths are used, the Code does not require that deflections be
calculated. Table 8.1 provides such minimum thicknesses for beams and one-way slabs. The values
are very conservative, and, for buildings of many stories, such thicknesses will be extremely
uneconomical. It would therefore be appropriate to use lesser depths that will satisfy strength
requirements, and also to compare calculated deflections with the permissible maximum deflections
provided in Table 8.2. .
Table 8.1 Minimum Thicknesses
Minimum thickness h
Simply One end Both ends

supported continuous continuous Cantilever
Members not supporting or attached to
partitions or other construction likely to be
Member damaged by large deflections
Solid one-way slabs 1/20 1/24 1/28 1/10
Beams or ribbed one-way slabs 1/16 1/18.5 1/21 1/8
Table 8.2 Maximum Permissible Computed Deflections
Deflection
Type of member Deflection to be considered limitation
Flat roofs not supporting or Immediate deflection due to live load 1/180*
attached to nonstructural elements
likely to be damaged by large
deflections
Floors not supporting or Immediate deflection due to live load
attached to nonstructural elements
likely to be damaged by large
deflections
Roof or floor construction That part of the total deflection occurring
supporting or attached to after attachment of nonstructural elements
nonstructural elements likely to be (sum of the long-time deflection due to all
damaged by large deflections sustained loads and the immediate
deflection due to any additional
Roof or floor construction 1 live load)*
supporting or attached to
nonstructural elements not
likely to be damaged by
large deflections
* Limit not intended to safeguard against ponding. Ponding should be checked by suitable calculations of deflection, including
added deflections due to ponded water, and considering long-term effects of all sustained loads, camber, construction
tolerances, and reliability of provisions for drainage.
" Limit may be exceeded if adequate measures are taken to prevent damage to supported or attached elements.
* Long-time deflection shall be determined in accordance with Section 9.5.2.5 or 9.5.4.2 of the 1989 ACI Code but may be
reduced by amount of deflection calculated to occur before attachment of nonstructural elements. This amount shall be
determined on basis of accepted engineering data relating to time-deflection characteristics of members similar to those
being considered.
* But not greater than tolerance provided for nonstructural elements. Limit may be exceeded if camber is provided so that
total deflection minus camber does not exceed limit.
Table 8.1 applies directly to members with normal-density concrete—w, = 145 Ib/ft* (2300
kg/m°)—and Grade 60 (Grade 400M) reinforcement—f, = 60,000 psi (400 MPa). For low-density
concrete—90< w. < 120 Ib/ft® (1500< w, < 2000 kg/ m°)—tabular values are to be multiplied by
the greater of .
1.65 — 0.005w,.. and 1.09
For other values of f,, tabular values are to be multiplied by
is ( fy ) 4
0.4°"700,000
:
ts mete hae
The following material relating to two-way (nonprestressed) slab construction is adapted from
the 1989 ACI Code, by permission.
TWO-WAY CONSTRUCTION (NONPRESTRESSED)

This section deals with the minimum thickness of slabs having an aspect ratio B = 1/1, not greater
than 2. When the aspect ratio exceeds 2, the system is considered as one-way slabs spanning in the
short direction. Skewed slabs, circular slabs, and slabs of shapes other than rectangular shall be
considered as special cases, and more detailed theoretical calculations than those on which the
following requirements were based are required.
The 1992 Revision of the 1989 Code stipulates that two-way slabs without interior beams
spanning between the supports, having 8 = 2.0, shall conform with Table 8.3 and with the following
conditions: (i) h=5 in. (130 mm), for slabs without drop panels; (ii) h =4 in. (100 mm), for slabs
with drop panels.
Drop panels, as considered in Table 8.3, shall: (i) extend in each direction from the centerline of
the support a distance not less than one-sixth of the span length, measured from center to center of
supports in that direction; (ii) project below the slab by at least one-quarter of the slab thickness
beyond the drop.
Table 8.3. Minimum Thicknesses of Slabs without Interior Beams
Without drop panels With drop panels

Yield
strength
fa Without With Without With
psi edge edge Interior edge edge Interior
beamst beamst panels
“For intermediate values of f,, use linear interpolation.

+ Slabs with beams between columns along exterior edges. The value of a for the edge beam shall
be =0.8.
For slabs with beams spanning between supports on four sides, the minimum thickness shall be
determined by the following conditions:
(i) For @,, =0.2, conditions (i) and (ii) for slabs without interior beams shall govern.
(ii) For 0.2<a, =2.0,
: [,,(0.8 + f,/200,000) 1,(0.8 + f,/1500)
~ 36+ 5B(a@,, —0.2) BG hece = 0.2) Ba)
or h=5 in. (120 mm), whichever value is greater.
(iii) For a, >2.0,
1,(0.8 + f,/200,000) [es + sea

36 + 9B 36 + 9B
(8.6)
or h =3.5 in. (90 mm), whichever value is greater.
(iv) At discontinuous edges an edge beam with a = 0.8 shall be provided, or else the minimum
thickness given by (8.5) or (8.6) shall be increased by 10 percent in the panel with the
discontinuous edge.
Slab thicknesses less than the minimum thicknesses specified above may be used if computation
shows that the deflection will not exceed the limits stipulated in Table 8.2. In such computation the
concrete modulus used must conform with the empirical relation
Pao t, -L (ONeswoay
ft!) (Si)
[originally stated as (1.3)]. The moment of inertia shall be that of (8.8).
COMPUTATION OF DEFLECTIONS
Hand computation of deflections for two-way systems is close to impossible. Only with the aid of
computer programs using the finite element method can these deflections be calculated and compared
with the permissible deflections listed in Table 8.2 for the appropriate conditions. However,
deflections for one-way slabs and beams are not difficult to calculate, even when the slab or beam is
continuous over many supports (Fig. 8-2).
The final bending moment in the member A-B in Fig. 8-2 can be obtained using superposition of
the cases due to the applied load and the resulting final bending moments M, and M, at the ends of
the member. The span length / is taken as the center-to-center distance between columns A and B.
Figure 8-3 illustrates the procedure for superimposing the deflections due to the various conditions.
The common practice is to determine the deflection at the center of a span as y. = y, + y, + y3, but
in some cases it may be necessary to calculate deflections at some intermediate point.
Applied load
met TN
Effective Moment of Inertia
A crucial parameter in any deflection calculation is the moment of inertia of the member. The
1989 ACI Code requires that J = J,, where the effective moment of inertia of the member is given by
t= (Fe)4 [1 Ge) be a es)

In equation (8.8),
SERVICEABILITY AND DEFLECTIONS [CHAP. 8
168
Applied load
A B
C
ae
€ :
M, c
vl
Cc M,
$ 5 )
Fig. 8-3
M., =cracking moment for the section

M,=the maximum (positive) bending moment on the member, normally taken at the centerline
of the span
I,=the gross moment of inertia of the concrete cross section, disregarding the steel re-
inforcement
I, = the cracked-section (transformed-section) moment of inertia of the member, including the
modular ratio n = E/E,
E, = 29,000 psi (200000 MPa)
If the moment M, is less than the cracking moment M_,, then, theoretically, the member does not
crack. In this case, the effective moment of inertia (/,) is the gross section moment of inertia (/,) of
the uncracked concrete cross section.
The 1989 ACI Code states that: ““For continuous members, /, may be taken as the average of the
values obtained for the critical positive and negative moment sections. For prismatic members, J,
may be taken at midspan for simple spans and continuous spans, and at the support for cantilevers.”
The term may here is important, because it implies that this is not mandatory. In other words, the
designer may use judgment in these cases. (When the 1989 ACI Code mandates a requirement, the
term shall is used.)
The cracked-section moment of inertia /., needed in equation (8.8) is easily calculated once the
neutral axis has been located in the transformed section. This last was accomplished for several types
of members in Chapter 4 via the parameter k. Thus, for a rectangular beam reinforced for tension
only (see Fig. 4-2),
cr
= bea +nA,(d—kdy (8.9)
in which k is given by (4.3) with p = Wi:
For a beam with both tension and compression reinforcement (see Fig. 4-8),
b(kd)°
oes +(2n—-1)A'(kd-d')’ +nA,(d—- kd) (8.10)
in which k is given by the upper equation (4.21) with p = A,/bd and p' = A‘/bd.
For a T-beam (see Fig. 4-6) such that kd >h,,
_ by(kdy | (b= bw hy +(b~b,)hy( kd - =)

hy ;
+nA,(d— kd) 2 (8.11)
fg ———3 12
in which k is given by (4.12) with p = A,/bd. If kd =h,, use (8.9) instead of (8.11), for the reasons
given in Chapter 4.
Uniformly Distributed Loads

Figure 8-4 expresses the deflections arising in two extremely common situations: (1) a simply
supported beam under a uniform load; (2) a continuous beam under a uniform load and end
moments. In the formulas, J = I,, as discussed above, and E = E., as given by (1.3) of Chapter 1, for
normal-density concrete, a close approximation of (1.3) is
E. =57,000Vfi —_(4700V/f) (8.12)
As a particular application of Fig. 8-4, we have for the total deflection at the centerline of a
continuous beam subjected to uniform loading
Dee -D t.D it+.De (8.13)
Concentrated Loads
If beams frame into the beam or girder under consideration, the end reactions from those
intermediate beams will deliver concentrated loads to the beam or girder whose deflection is being
investigated. Usually, the intermediate beams are located symmetrically within the span being
investigated. Thus, the maximum deflection that they would cause would more often than not occur
at the center of the span. Even in cases of asymmetrical location, it is common practice to calculate
the deflection at the center of spans, since it does not differ appreciably from the maximum
deflection.
Figure 8-5 illustrates the situation when n concentrated loads act along a span. The deflections
due to the individual concentrated loads P;, ({=1,2,...,n) are superimposed on one another, and
on those due to uniform loads and end moments if such are present. The total deflection would then
be tested against the permissible deflections listed in Table 8.2. Appendix A-9 contains figures and
equations for end reactions, moments, and deflections of beams under a variety of load conditions;
note that length of span is there symbolized by L.
For each P; in Fig. 8-5, the deflection A,(x) at distance x from the left end and the greatest
deflection A.i max are of interest. For center of beam deflection, x = //2. :
b.x(b? — i OPH O<x<a,

(8.14)
ae - 5(x a)" (°-6)x|/oen (ae
or, for Osx <1,
1/2 1/2
(a) Uniform load w
1/2 1/2
(6) End moment M,
(c) End moment M,
Fig. 8-4
= P; 2 2\3/2
Ai aes 3EIl bl b;)
atx = V(I — b*)/3

Here, as in the case of distributed loads, E = E, and I= I,.
CHAP. 8] SERVICEABILITY AND DEFLECTIONS ibyAl
>
Fig. 8-5
LONG-TERM DEFLECTIONS
The procedures described above concern immediate deflections due to dead-load and live-load
application. Long-term loads, or sustained loads, cause additional deflections due to creep of the
concrete. A sustained load normally consists of only the dead load, but it may include part (or even
all) of the live load if live load remains in place for extended periods of time.
Additional deflections due to creep are obtained by multiplying the instantaneous (immediate)
deflections due to dead load by the creep factor
r Breit) S (8.16)
titepb.
where p’ is evaluated at midspan for simple and continuous spans and at support for cantilevers.
Time-dependent factor & for sustained loads may be taken equal to
5 years or more 2.0
12 months 1.4
6 months 2
3 months 1.0
with interpolation used for intermediate periods. Since p’ is proportional to A‘, the area of
compression steel, (8.16) implies that an effective way to reduce long-term deflections due to creep
is to use compression reinforcement, even though it may not be required for strength.
Solved Problems
8.1. Use Fig. 8-6 to investigate the distribution of reinforcement (crack control), employing IP
units. The lower layer (A,,) consists of four No. 9 bars and the upper layer (A,,) consists of
two No. 8 bars; f, = 60,000 psi. No. 4 stirrups are used, with b = 12 in. One-inch clearance is
required between bars.
b
c.g. of tension
reinforcement
Fig. 8-6 Beam cross section.
From the figure,
= 1.0 + (1.128/2)
+ (1.0/2) = 2.064 in. and d.=1.5+0.5
+ (1.128/2) = 2.564 in.
Total A, = 4.0+ 1.58 = 5.58 in.”. Equivalent number of No. 9 bars is N = 5.58/1.0 = 5.58; thus,
~<
(4)(1.0)(2.564)
+(2)(0.79)(2064 +2.564)_> 10.2565.58+7.3/2
(4)(1.0) + (2)(0.79)
= 3.1484 in.
A = 2(3.1484)(12) /5.58 = 13.695 in2/bar

Take f, = 0.6f, = 0.6(60) = 36.0 kip/in.”, as allowed by the 1989 ACI Code. Then,
Z=f VGA = 36V(2.564)(13.695) = 117.9 kip/in.

This is satisfactory for interior exposure (Z = 175 kip/in.) and for exterior exposure (Z = 145 kip/in).
8.2. Use Fig. 8-6 to investigate the distribution of reinforcement (crack control) using SI units.
Both layers of steel consist of four No. 25M bars. Stirrups are No. 10M bars, ty = 400 MPa, —
and b=250 mm. Use 40.0 mm clear cover over the stirrups and 25 mm clear distance
between the bars. aa
ee
Proceed as in Problem 8.1 to obtain:
x = 25 + 2(25.2/2) = 50.2 mm
d.= 40.0 + 11.3 + (25.2/2) = 63.9 mm : we
_ (4)(500)(63. 9) + (4)(500)(63.9 + 50.2) 127.800 + 228.200 og ae y : .
ih. A
4(500) + 4(500) " 4000 ra Te
i= (2)(89)(250)/8 = 5562.5 mm*/bar | ) ;

, = 0.6(400) = 240 MPa é #
Z=f,Vd.A = 240 (C063. citer (24 (0.07081) = 17.0 MN/m_ ce st

“da7
7 arkiss satisfactory for both interior
and e; tS
Rc.oe,
(305 mm), and total depth h=22 in. (560 yuh Properties of the concrete are: strength
ff. = 4000 psi (27.58 MPa), density w=alas! Ib/ft* (2323 kg/m*). Area of reinforcing .steel in
the bottom of the beam is 3 in. 2 (1935 mm’); for the steel, E, = 29 x 10° psi (2 x 10° MPa).
The uniformly distributed load is 6 kip/ft (87.56 kKN/m), and the frame analysis shows that the
negative moments on the ends of the beam are of magnitude 100 ft-kip (135.6 kN-m). The
effective depth of the beam is 20 in. (508 mm) from the top of the beam. Calculate the
deflection at the center of the span, using (a) IP units, (b) SI units.
(a) The steel ratio is p = A,/bd = 3/(12)(20) = 0.0125, and the modulus of elasticity of the concrete is,
by (1.3),
E, = 33w.°V f. = 33(145)'°V4000 = 3.644 x 10° psi
Thus, the modular ratio is n = E,/E, = 29/3.644 = 7.958.
By equation (4.3), the neutral axis location below the compression face is kd, where
k= \/2pn + (pn)’ — pn = V2(0.0125)(7.958) + [(0,0125)(7.958)]? — (0.0125)(7.958) = 0.3575

so kd = (0.3575)(20) = 7.15 in. Then,
= b(kd)'/3 + nA,(d — kd)’
= (12)(7.15)°/3 + (7.958)(3.0)(20.0 — 7.15)?
= 1462 + 3942 = 5406 in.*
The gross cross-sectional moment of inertia is
I, = bh*/12 = 12(22)*/12 = 10,648 in.*
The maximum bending moment at the center of the span equals the simple beam bending moment
minus the average of the absolute values of the end moments:
a
E {sey of;(100 + 100) = 200 ft-kip
The bending moment that will theoretically cause the concrete section to crack is M., =
I,(h/2), where
f= TNE = 7.5V 4000 = 474.34 psi
is the tensile strength of the concrete, and
Mots bh7/12 = (12)(22)7/12 = 10,648 in.*
is the gross sectional moment of inertia. Then,

M.,, = 474.34(10,648)
/11 = 459,161 in.-lb = 38.26 ft-kip
The “‘effective moment of inertia”’ is
aaa (M.,/M, yr ne {1 ia (M.,/M,) JI.,
= (0.007)(10,648) + (0.993)(5406) = 5443 in?
which is smaller than J,; therefore, EJ, =(3644)(5443)= 19.83 x 10° kip-in.’.
The downward deflection at the center of the span due to the uniformly distributed load is
D, =
Swit __-5(6/12)(20 x 12)* = 1.09 in
~ 384(E1.) (384)(19.83 x10°)
and the upward deflection due to equal negative end bending moments is
MI? __ (100 x 12)(20 x ve
Di = &(E.L) 8(19.83 x 10°)
—0.436 in.
The net deflection at the center of the span is therefore

D. = D,, + Dy, = 1.09 — 0.436 = 0.654 in. downward
It should be noted that the 1989 ACI Code permits use of the average of the effective
moments of inertia at the center of a span and the ends of the span, if the cross sections differ.
(b) Repeating the calculations of (a) in SI units:
p= A,/bd = 1935/(305)(508) = 0.0125
E.=0.043w! *v f/ = 0.043(2314)'°V27.58 = 25 137 MPa
n= E,/E. = 200 000/25 137 = 7.956
k=V2pn+(pn)’ — pn
= V/2(0.0125)(7.956) + [(0.0125)(7.956)]? — (0.0125)(7.956) = 0.3575
kd = (0.3575)(508) = 181.6 mm
I, = b(kd)'/3 + nA,(d — kd)
= (305)(181.6)°/3 + (7.956)(1935)(508 — 181.6)? = 22.49 x 10° mm*
I, = bh*/12 = (305)(560)*/12 = 44.64 x 10° mm* = 44.64 x 10-* m*
= (87.56)(6.1)° 1
M. 5 (135.6 + 135.6) = 271.8 kKN-m
z 8
f. =0.7Vfi = 0.7V27.58 = 3.676 MPa
= f.1,/(h/2) = (3.676 x 10°)(44.64 x 10° *)/(280 x 10-*)
= 58.61 kKN-m
I, = (M,,/M,)'I, + [1-(M.,/M,) lL,
= (0.0094)(44.64 x 10°) + (0.9906)(22.49 x 10°)
= 22.70 x 10° mm* < 44.64 x 10° mm‘
= (25.137 kN/mm7*)(22.70 x 10° mm‘) = 570.61 x 10° kKN-mm?
Swit _ 5(87.56 x 107*)(6.1 x 10°)
D ~~ 384(E.1,.) : 384(570.61 x 10°)
_ =27.
peo
. AMER > (135.6 X10" \(eaieel0
Ma BELL ie 3570161 0"ysnene Mi eae
D.= D,, + Dy = 27.67 — 11.05 = 16.62 mm downward
As determined in (a), D, = (0.654)(25.4) = 16.61 mm.
8.4. Determine the deflection at the center of the beam of Problem 8.3 due to a concentrated load
of 20 kip (88.96 KN), applied 15 ft (4.57 m) from the left end. This is the only load onythe —
beam. pet *
The following
are retrieved from Problem 8.3: ;
E, = 3.644 x 10° psi (25.13 MPa) I, = 10,648 in.* (4432 x 10° mm‘*)
cs ——L,, =5406
ins (2250
10° mm*) —— M,, = 38.26 ft-kip(51.87kN-m)
2 1 = 20 ft (6.1m) : i 45 Bet he er sy oeaisidieeet ae
Here, P = 20 kip (88.96 KN), a=15 ft (4.57m), and
end is R, = Pb/l= eee #5feoe <N) and
8.5. An interior two-way slab has /, = 30 ft, /, = 24 ft, with a, =1.8 and f, = 60,000 psi. De-
termine the minimum thickness allowed for the slab if deflections are not to be calculated. All
requirements for using equations (8.5) through (8.7) without modification have been met.
The aspect ratio is B =/,/1, =30/24=1.25. The numerators in all three expressions are identical
and equal to 30(12)(0.8 + 60/200) = 396.0. In (8.5) the denominator is
36 + 5(1.25)] 1.8 0.12(1+ as) |=

= 45.9
so h, = 396/45.9 = 8.627 in.
In (8.6) the denominator is 36 + 9B = 36 + 9(1.25) = 47.25; so h, = 396/47.25 = 8.381 in.
In (8.7) the denominator is 36; so h, = 396/36 = 11.0 in.
The thickness h need not exceed 11.0 in.; so A = 8.63 in.
8.6. Verify the solutions to subproblems (a)-—(o) as given in Table 8.4. Bars 1 are above and bars 2 are below
(see Fig. 8-6). The two layers of bars are separated by 1 in., clear cover is 1.5 in., and No. 4 stirrups are
used. f, = 60.0 ksi.
Table 8.4
Crack index
a
»
.
mn
©
a
e
a
‘
a
c
in
o
o (By courtesy of the American Concrete Institute, Detroit,
Michigan.)
8.7. Verify the solutions to subproblems (a)—(n) as given in Table 8.5. Bars 1 are above and bars 2 are below
(see Fig. 8-6). The two layers of bars are separated by 25 mm, clear cover is 40 mm, and No. 10M
stirrups are used. f, = 414 MPa.
8.8. Verify the solutions to subproblems (a)-—(m) as given in Table 8.6. The notation is as in Fig. 8-4 and
equation (8.13). Assume that f’ = 4000 psi, concrete density w. = 145 lb/ft’, E, = 29,000,000 psi.
176 SERVICEABILITY AND DEFLECTIONS [CHAP.8
Table 8.5
4 No. 30M 4 No. 25M
4 No. 25M 4 No. 25M
Table 8.6
Given
hinted. Ye w, 8 M,, Mz,

in. | in. in? kip/ft ft-kip ft-kip
3 No. 11
10 16 4.68 0.4638 | —0.1065 | —0.1278
4No.8
(b) 129 2a te? 3.16 0.2140 | —0.0664 | —0. 0498 0.0978
4No. 10
(c) 13 24 B04 5.08 0.1740 —0.0265 —0.0424
‘
4No. 11
(d) 24 6.24 0.3012 —0.0482 —0.0562 0.1968

4No.8
(e) 12 20 18 3.16 3.8 18 0.5176 =i)1614 —0.1816 0. 1745
i8
i23|
a5
Sis
8.9. Verify the solutions to subproblems (a)-(k) as given in Table 8.7. The notation is as in Fig. 8-4 and
equation (8.13). Assume that f’ = 30 MPa, concrete density w, = 2320 kg/m*, E, = 200000 MPa.
Table 8.7
”
D., D., 7
mm mm mm
(a)
(b)
(c)
ic Pats
(d) ae
(e) Ce
(f) ec
(g)
(h)
i
(‘)
(j)
(k)
8.10. Verify the solutions in Table 8.8 for subproblems (a)—(h) for the deflection at the centers of the simply
supported beams due to concentrated loads. Do not include the uniformly distributed load due to the
weight of the beam. There are no end moments. Use f/ = 4000 psi.
Table 8.8
Given Solution
b,,2 Mees IE y A. 1.?
aac eee
z
2
8.11. Verify the solutions to subproblems (a)-(j) in Table 8.9 for an interior panel, two-way slab. All
requirements for use of equations (8.5) through (8.7) without modification have been fulfilled. Use
f, = 60,000 psi.
Table 8.9
Nn
oolo,
BP Lot
a]
xA}
DA]
o SN},
l_
fp
Hl
a
bhVN]
SY}a
Si BIlRIsSlals
Tel
ss
Seta
pea
Soh oo
oO]
wolR|
=
8.12. Verify the solutions to subproblems (a)-(j) in Table 8.10 for an interior panel, two-way slab. All
requirements for use of equations (8.5) through (8.7) without modification have been fulfilled. Use
f, = 400 MPa.
Table 8.10
o
BABE
= ae
mm | mm mm
=
oa =
mm mm
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(A)
(i)
(J)
Chapter 9
General Provisions for Columns
NOTATION AND DEFINITIONS

. . . . y.
A, = cross-sectional area of reinforcing steel bar, in. (mm*)
A .= area of core of spirally reinforced column, measured to the outside diameter of
the spiral,
in.” (mm*)
A, = gross area of section, in.” (mm’)
A,,= total area of longitudinal reinforcement, in.” (mm”)
d, = diameter of a reinforcing bar, in. (mm)
d.= diameter of core or outside diameter of spiral hoop, in. (mm)
d, = diameter of reinforcing steel bar (for spirals), in. (mm)
d'=distance from compression (tension) face of member to centroid of compression
(tension) steel, in. (mm)=A(1—y)/2 in rectangular sections and D(1—y)/2 in
circular sections, in. (mm)
d" = distance from tension face to centroid of tension reinforcement, in. (mm)
D = overall diameter of circular section, in. (mm)
f= compressive strength of concrete, psi (MPa)
f, = yield stress for reinforcing steel, psi (MPa)
y= the ratio D,/h, D,/D, (d—d")/h, or (d—2d')/h
h = larger dimension of column cross section, in. (mm)
h' = effective length of column, in. (mm)
1,=length of spiral bar over a pitch s, in. (mm)
Ss = pitch or center-to-center distance between successive terms of a spiral bar, in. (mm)
V. = volume of concrete in column core over a pitch s, in” (mm’)
V, = volume of steel in spiral bar over a pitch s, in” (mm°)
p, = ratio of volume of spiral reinforcement (per turn) to volume of core (per turn) of a
spirally reinforced concrete or composite column
p,=A,/A,
= capacity reduction factor or resistance factor
GENERAL PROVISIONS FOR CAST-IN-PLACE COLUMNS

A number of general requirements are stipulated in the 1989 ACI Code relative to columns.
Some of the more important factors which should be remembered are listed in the paragraphs which
follow.
Principal columns which support a floor or roof are subject to the following limitations:
(a) For columns having single ties (rectangular or round), the minimum number of bars is 4.
For columns in which continuous spirals are used, at least six vertical bars must be used. In
sections with triangular ties, at least three vertical bars are required. The area of the
vertical bars must be at least 1 percent and not more than 8 percent of the gross area of the
column; that is, (0.01)A, = A,, = (0.08)A,.
179
180 GENERAL PROVISIONS FOR COLUMNS [CHAP. 9
(b) When spirals are used, the minimum ratio ofspiral steel (p,) shall be given by the equation
p, =0.4s( S#~1) 5 (9.1)

in which f, = 60,000 psi (400 MPa).
Spirals may not be made of bars or wire less than g in. (10 mm) in diameter for cast-in-place
construction.
Spirals shall consist of evenly spaced continuous bar or wire of such size and so assembled to
permit handling and placing without distortion from designed dimensions.
Clear spacing between turns of the spiral shall not exceed 3 in. (80 mm) or be less than 1 in.
(25 mm). Clear spacing shall not be less than 15 times the maximum aggregate size.
Clear cover for spirals for cast-in-place concrete shall be at least 13 in. (40 mm) or 1} times the
maximum aggregate size when not exposed to weather or earth, and at least 2 in. (S50 mm) when so
exposed.
Anchorage of spirals shall be at least 13 extra turns of spiral bar or wire at each end of a spiral
unit. Splices shall be lap splices of 48 bar or wire diameters (d, of spiral) but not less than 12 in.
(300 mm), or welded.
Where beams or brackets do not frame into all sides of a column, ties shall extend above the
termination of the spiral to the bottom of the slab or drop panel. In columns with capitals, spirals
shall extend to a level at which the diameter or width of the capital is two times that of the column.
Spirals shall be held firmly in place and true to line.
For columns that do not contain spirals, nonprestressed reinforcing bars shall be confined by
enclosing with lateral ties. The ties shall be at least No. 3 (10M) in size for longitudinal bars No. 10
(30M) and smaller, and at least No. 4 (15M) for Nos. 11, 14, and 18 (35M, 45M, and 55M) and for
bundled bars. Deformed wire or welded wire fabric of equivalent area may be used for ties.
Vertical spacing of ties shall not exceed 16 longitudinal bar diameters, 48 tie bar diameters, or
the least dimension of the column.
Ties shall be so arranged such that every corner and alternate longitudinal bar shall have lateral
support provided by the corner of a tie with an included angle of not more than 135° (37r/4 rad) and
no bar shall be farther than 6 in. (150 mm) clear on each side along the tie from such a laterally
supported bar.
Ties shall be located vertically not more than 1/2 tie spacing above the top of a footing or slab in
any story, and shall be spaced to not more than 1/2 tie spacing below the lowest horizontal
reinforcement in the slab or drop panel above. Where beams or brackets frame from four directions
into a column, ties may be terminated not more than 3 in. (80 mm) below the lowest reinforcement
in the shallowest of such beams or brackets.
For tied columns in cast-in-place concrete the clear cover shall be at least 14 in. (40 mm) or 13
times the maximum aggregate size when not exposed to earth or weather.
When the concrete is exposed to earth or weather, the clear cover shall be:
(a) No. 6 through No. 18 bars, 2 in. (20M through 55M bars, 50 mm).
(b) No. 5 bar, W31 or D31 wire and smaller, 13 in. (15M bar, W31 or D31 wire and smaller,
40 mm).
When column bars are confined laterally by spirals or ties, the specified concrete cover is always
measured to the outer edge of the spirals or ties, never to the main longitudinal reinforcement.
(Note: In earthquake-prone areas, more stringent requirements concerning spirals, ties, and
concrete cover are imposed. Chapter 21 of the 1989 ACI Code, “Special Provisions for Seismic
Design,” addresses resistance to earthquakes.)
Circular ties may be used when the vertical bars are arranged in a circle, but shall conform to the
conditions stated above for ties. (It is usually assumed that tied columns refer to rectangular ties
surrounding the vertical bars. However, round ties are sometimes used.)
CHAP. 9] GENERAL PROVISIONS FOR COLUMNS 181
A column may be designed as a circular section of diameter D and built as a section of any shape
having a least dimension equal to D. The steel ratio shall be based on the assumed circular section
diameter.
For a compression member (column) with a larger cross section than required by conditions of
loading, a reduced effective area A, not less than one-half the total area may be used to determine
the minimum reinforcement and design strength.
In columns, the clear distance between vertical bars shall be the greater of (a) 14 times the bar
diameter, (b) 13 times the maximum size of coarse aggregate, or (c) 15 in. (40 mm). This also
applies to the distance between contact splices and adjacent bars or splices. Because splicing of
reinforcing bars is applicable to all structural elements—columns, beams, slabs, footings, etc.—
splices are discussed in Chapter 7.
In corrosive environments (e.g., seawater) or other severe exposure conditions the amount of
concrete protective cover shall be suitably increased, and the denseness and nonporosity of the
protecting concrete shall be considered, or other protection shall be provided.
In Problem 9.8 the upper limit
Si
A,(d. — 4,)(af,)
~ eweoiaiie,
0.45f(A, — aA
A.) 72)
is derived for the vertical spacing or pitch (s) of spiral bars.
HEIGHT OF COLUMNS
As the height of a column increases, the allowable load decreases because of the tendency of
long columns to buckle. The height of a column is therefore an important factor in the design. Figure
9-1 indicates the height that must be used in the design for different situations.
(a) Flat slab construction (b) Flat slab (or plate) (c) Beam and girder
with column capital construction without construction
column capital
Note: In beam and girder construction, use the height in the plane of bending. When the design is made for minimum
eccentricity, use the particular value of /,, which will provide the largest 1,/r ratio. (Minimum eccentricity and /,/r are
discussed in subsequent paragraphs.)
Fig. 9-1
TRANSMISSION OF COLUMN LOADS

When the specified compressive strength of concrete in a column is greater than 1.4 times that
specified for a floor system, transmission of load through the floor system shall be provided by one of
the following.
Concrete of strength specified for the column shall be placed in the floor about the column for an
area four times the column area. Column concrete shall be well integrated into floor concrete, and
shall be placed in accordance with Sections 6.4.5 and 6.4.6 of the 1989 ACI Code.
Strength of a column through a floor system shall be based on the lower value of concrete
strength with vertical dowels and spirals as required.
For columns laterally supported on four sides by beams of approximately equal depth or by
slabs, strength of the column may be based on an assumed concrete strength in the column joint
equal to 75 percent of column concrete strength plus 35 percent of floor concrete strength.
DESIGN OF COLUMNS
Modern, computer-developed design charts, based on the strength method as required in the
1989 ACI Code, will be presented in Chapter 10.
AXIAL LOADS AND MOMENTS

The 1989 ACI Code requires that the axial loads and moments should be obtained using
acceptable elastic design methods. The axial loads and moments obtained from elastic analysis must
be increased by appropriate load factors in order to obtain the ultimate values for use in strength
design. The understrength (resistance) factors @ must also be applied. (See Chapter 5.)
Solved Problems
9.1. A round, spirally reinforced concrete column has an overall diameter of 24” and a core
diameter of 20”. Determine the required pitch s for a No. 5 spiral bar. Maximum aggregate
size is 1”, f{ = 3000 psi, and f,= 40,000 psi.
The spiral steel ratio p, is defined as
volume of spiral bar
Ps ~ volume of concrete core per turn of spiral :
tf
and must satisfy '
p,=0.45(5# - 1) . ‘i
Here A, = 1(24)*/4 = 452.0 in?, A, = 1(20)%/4 = 314.2 in2, and f'/f, = 3/40=0.075. Hence
, = 0.451(452.0/314.2) —1](0.075)=0.0149
The bar volume per turn pe
is to (7d,/4)A,, “so pa ee
al 5 V, = (20.0 ~ 0.625)(0.31)=18.9 in./turn eat
The concrete volume per turn of spiral will be Vi=A, x tch s)=
hod ae 314.2)
=0.0149, from which
s=4.03". wad ere
9.2. A rectangular tied column measures 10" x 20". The ties will be No. 4 bars and the main
vertical bars will be No. 9 size. Determine the required tie spacing.
The tie spacing may not exceed the least of (a) 16 vertical bar diameters = (16)(1.128) = 18.05", (b)
48 tie bar diameters = (48)(4 ) = 24.0", (c) the least dimension of the column, 10.0”. Thus the tie spacing
may not exceed 10.0”. Use s = 10.0".
Pe P A column is subjected to direct force and flexure. The analysis indicates that a steel ratio
p, = 0.036 will satisfy load requirements. Determine whether or not this design will satisfy the
1989 ACI Code.
Pmin = 9:01, p,,,, = 0.08
0.01 < 0.036 <0.08. Code is satisfied.
9.4. A 20" square column is to be constructed above the ground. The vertical steel consists of No.
9 bars and the maximum aggregate size is 1". Determine the cover required over the tie bars.
The minimum clear cover over the ties must be the largest of (a) 15"; (b) the diameter of the
vertical bars, 1.128”; (c) 13 x the maximum aggregate size = (4/3)(1) =1.33”. Thus a minimum clear
cover of 15”in must be used.
a5. A 23” square column contains twelve No. 9 bars arranged in a circle within a No..5 spiral bar.
The clear cover over the spiral is 15”. Check the clearance between the vertical bars for the
1989 ACI Code requirements. Maximum size of aggregate = 1.0”.
The diameter of the circle through the centers of the vertical bars will be
D, = yD = 23.0 — (2)(1.5 + 0.625) — 1.0 = 17.75"
The circumference of that circle will be wyD = 7(17.75) = 55.76".
For the twelve bars the center-to-center spacing will be 55.76/12 = 4.646". The clear spacing will
then be 4.646 — 1.128 = 3.518”.
The spacing is governed by the largest of (a) 1.5 x vertical bar diameter = 1.692", (b) 1.33x
maximum aggregate size = 1.33”, (c) 13".
Therefore the 3.518” clear spacing provided will be satisfactory.
9.6. Check the clear cover provided for the spiral in Problem 9.5 for compliance with Code
requirements.
The minimum permissible cover will be the greater of (a) 14", (b) 13 X maximum aggregate
size = 1.33".
The 15” clear cover provided is therefore satisfactory.
oi. Determine the spiral pitch s required for the column described in Problem 9.5. Use a No. 5
spiral bar.
The governing relation is
A it. eee
p, = 0.45(eS
3 1 ge
fil Wg
c
where A, = (23)(23) = 529 in, A, = (a/4)(20)? = 314.2 in, and fi/f, = 5/60 = 0.0833. By direct sub-
stituting of these values, obtain p, = 0.0257.
The length of the spiral bar per turn will be /, = 7d, = 7(20.0 — 0.625) = 60.87".
The volume of the spiral bar per turn will be V, = A,/, = (0.31)(60.87) = 18.87 in.
The volume of the concrete core within the outer limits of the spiral will be V, = A, x pitch=
314.2s. Thus calculated s = 2.36".
The pitch must also satisfy requirements (a), (b), and (c) of Problem 9.1. Using s = 24” will be
satisfactory.
9.8. Derive a general expression for determining the spiral pitch s in terms of the appropriate
variables to satisfy the condition
A i}
p, = 0.45(— = 1)fe
An 1;
Let /,=the length of the spiral bar per turn
A, = area of the spiral bar
V, = volume of the spiral bar per turn
V.= volume of the concrete core per turn of the spiral bar
d.=core diameter
d,= mean diameter of the spiral hoop
s = vertical pitch of the spiral bar
d, = diameter of the spiral bar
By definition, and to satisfy the stated condition,
Vera
Paar Ae = 0.45 a
(ae 1
\e
7
from which it follows that

A {cua
zal} = Soe a ¢
s =0.45( 3! 1) wd,
Now, since d, = d. — d,, the final relation is
A ae d,)(wf,)
= (9.2)
0.45, GA AS)
The resulting spiral pitch must also satisfy the clearance requirements and the maximum spacing
previously discussed.
99. Use equation (9.2) to solve for the theoretical minimum spiral pitch s required in Problem
Referring to Problem 9.7 and substituting into equation (9.2), obtain
Ss
(0.31)(20.0 — 0.625)(6077)
(0.45)(5)(529.0 — 314.2) .
from which s = 2.36", as previously determined. (Use s = 21.)
Calculate the tie spacing for a rectangular:section 18” x 24” reinforced with No. 9 vertical bars
and No. 4 circular hoops. ‘” roy ued
Tie tcaraled hoops must satisfy the same : uirements as those for rectangular ties. Thus
=24",esethe | dimensions | th
eed 16".
ae ooni
The spiral steel ratio p, may not be less than 0.45((A,/A..) — 1](f//f,). Here,
A, = 7(600)7/4 = 282 743 mm?

A. = 77(500)*/4 = 196 350 mm?
Fi/f, = 20/270 = 0.074
Hence, p, = 0.45[(282 743/196 350) — 1](0.074) = 0.01465.
The diameter of a No. 10M spiral bar is 11.3 mm and its cross-sectional area is 100 mm7’, so the
volume of spiral bar per turn is
V, = n(d, — d,) A, = 7(500 — 11.3)(100) = 153 529 mm?
The volume of concrete per turn is V, = A, x pitch = (196 350)s mm*. Thus,
c
V, 153529 0.7819 = 53.4 mm

Pe UTOG asses se ae RAEN 1465
[Direct use of (9.2) would give the same limit for s.] The other requirements are:
(a) s=(80 mm) + d, =80+ 11.3=91.3 mm
(b) s=(25 mm) +d, =25+ 11.3 =36.3 mm
(c) s=13 X maximum aggregate size + d, = (1.33)(25) + 11.3 = 44.55 mm
Using s =50 mm will be satisfactory.
9.12. A rectangular tied column measures 250 mm wide and 500 mm deep. The vertical bars are
No. 35M and the ties are No. 10M. Determine the spacing required for the ties.
The 1989 ACI Code requires the least of:
(a) 16 longitudinal bar diameters = (16)(35.7) = 571 mm
(b) 48 tie bar diameters = (48)(11.3) = 542 mm
(c) minimum cross-sectional dimension = 250 mm
The center-to-center spacing of tie bars is therefore 250 mm.
9.13. A 600-mm-diameter column contains fifteen No. 35M longitudinal bars arranged in a circle.
Determine whether or not the clear spacing between bars satisfies the 1989 ACI Code, if the
No. 10M spiral bar has a clear cover of 40 mm. The maximum aggregate size is 25 mm.
The cover to the center of the No. 35M longitudinal bars is equal to
40 mm + diameter of spiral bar + 5 diameter of No. 45M bar
or 40 + 11.3 + 35.7/2 = 69.15 mm. The center-to-center distance of bars along a diameter within the
spiral is then 600— (2)(69.15) =46.17 mm. The perimeter of a circle through the bars is 461.77 or
1450.5 mm. There are 15 spaces between bars, so the center-to-center spacing of No. 35M longitudinal
bars is 1450.5/15 = 96.7 mm. The clear spacing is therefore 96.7 — 35.7 = 61.0 mm.
The clear spacing must satisfy the criteria: |
(a) x2=1.5d, =(1.5)(35.7)

= 53.55 mm
(6) x=40 mm
(c) x21} X maximum aggregate size = (1.33)(25) = 33.25 mm
The spacing provided is therefore satisfactory.
9.14. Investigate whether the steel ratio implied in Problem 9.13 satisfies the 1989 ACI Code.
The gross area of the column is A, = (7/4)(600)° = 282 744 mm/ and the total cross-sectional area
of fifteen No. 35M bars is
A,, = (15)(1000) = 15 000 mm?
The steel ratio is therefore
p, = A,,/A, = 15 000/282 744 = 0.053
Since 0.01 = 0.053

= 0.08, the 1989 ACI Code is satisfied.
In the following problems, consider the maximum aggregate size to be 1” (25 mm).
9.15. Solve Problem 9.1 using a 26” diameter column having a 20" diameter core, all other data remaining the
same. Check all clearances and minimum requirements. Ans. Pitch = 3.0"
9.16. Using No. 4 ties, determine the tie spacing for a 20" square column reinforced with No. 11 vertical bars.
Ans, ~S=22:5'
9.17. Solve Problem 9.4 considering No.'11 vertical bars. Ans. Cover = 1.5"
9.18. Solve Problem 9.7 using f/ = 3000 psi and f, = 50,000 psi. Ans. 5s =3.0"
9.19. Solve Problem 9.10 using No. 11 vertical bars. Ans, s =18.0"
9.20. Solve Problem 9.11 for an overall column diameter of 500 mm and a core diameter of 400 mm.
Ans. s=85 mm
9.21. Solve Problem 9.20 using equation (9.2). Ans. s=85 mm
Library
y
California Maritime Academ .
iti me Academy Dr
200 Mariti
Vallejo, CA 94590
Chapter 10
Short Columns: Strength Design
NOTATION
The notation and definitions of Chapter 9 are augmented by the following.
a= depth of compression stress block from compression face of member, in. (mm)
a, = depth of compression stress block under balanced conditions, in. (mm)
A, = gross cross-section area of concrete, in. (mm’)
A, = area of reinforcing steel in tension, in.” (mm°)
A! = area of reinforcing steel in compression, in. (mm_°)
A,,= total steel area A, + A’, in.” (mm’)
b=width of rectangular cross section, or width of flange in members with flanges,
measured parallel to neutral axis, in. (mm)
c = distance from compression face to neutral axis, in. (mm)
c, = distance from concrete compression face to neutral axis under balanced conditions, in.
(mm)
C,= compression force in concrete, kip (KN)
C,= compression force in steel, kip (KN)
d=effective depth of cross section from compression face to centroid of tension re-
inforcement, measured perpendicular to neutral axis, in. (mm)
e = eccentric distance of an axial load, measured perpendicular to centroidal axis of cross
section = M,/P,,, in. (mm)
é,, = balanced-conditions value of e = M,/P,,, in. (mm)
E,= modulus of elasticity of steel = 29,000 ksi (200 MPa)
f, = stress in tension steel, ksi (MPa)
f{ =stress in compression steel, ksi (MPa)
K = $P,,/(fibh) for rectangular sections or @P,,/( f!D*) for circular sections
K, = balanced-conditions value of K
K,, =maximum permissible value of K=0.8K, for tied columns or 0.85K, for spirally
reinforced columns
K,,= nominal value of K, with ¢ = 1.0
K, = total theoretical value of K, with M, =0
K,= value of K when P, is a tension axial load
K, = value of K when M, =0
K, = value of K when M, =0
M, = balanced-conditions value of bending moment, ft-kip (kKN-m)
M.=moment of C, about centroidal axis, ft-kip (KN-m)
M,, = nominal value of bending moment, with ¢ = 1.0, ft-kip (KN-m) = P,,e
M, = bending moment when P,, = 0, ft-kip (kKN-m)
M,= moment of T, about centroidal axis, ft-kip (KN-m)
187
188 SHORT COLUMNS: STRENGTH DESIGN [CHAP. 10
M'=moment of C’ about centroidal axis, ft-kip (kKN-m)

M,,= ultimate permissible bending moment = P,e = $P,e, ft-kip (KN-m)
M,=component of M, about centroidal x axis, ft-kip (KN-m)
M,=component of M,, about centroidal y axis, ft-kip (kN-m)
P, = balanced-conditions value of axial load, kip (KN)
P,,=nominal value of axial load, kip (KN)
P, = theoretical compressive axial-load capacity of column cross section when M,, = 0, kip
(KN)
P.,=ultimate axial force = ¢P,,, kip (KN)
R= Ke/h for rectangular columns or Ke/D for circular columns
R,, = balanced-conditions value of R
R,,=nominal value of R, with ¢ = 1.0
R,= value of R when K =0
By = bR,,
T, = force in tension steel, kip (KN)

B, = ale
y = factor such that yh or yD is center-to-center distance between reinforcing bars farthest
from centroidal axis on compression side and bars farthest on tension side
€, = strain in tension steel = f,/E,
e' = strain in compression steel= f{/E,
€, = ultimate strain in extreme fiber of compression face of member= 0. 003
w= f,/(0.85f")
p, = Steel ratio at balanced conditions of strain
p,= total steel ratio= A,,/A,
SPECIAL CONDITIONS
The following paragraphs summarize the special conditions imposed by the 1989 ACI Code on
the strength design of (short) columns. A full discussion was given under “Load Factors and
Resistance Factors” in Chapter 5.
(1) The forces and moments due to dead load D, live load L, and other loads, as calculated
using elastic procedures for analysis, shall be increased to an ultimate value U using the
most severe of (5.1) through (5.8).
(2) Designs may not be based on steel yield strength in excess of 80,000 psi (550 MPa).
(3) For flexural members sienfor pees paean to ei apn ae one eeler ed aes
with compression reinforced the portionBe

Pr &C
oe to be reduced by)the 0.2 eee
. ee
CHAP. 10] SHORT COLUMNS: STRENGTH DESIGN 189
$ Pimax) = 0-806[0.85f(A, — Ag.) + fAsil (10.2)

(6) The total longitudinal steel ratio p, = A,,/A, shall not be less than 0.01. When bars must be
spliced within the length of a compression member, p, should not exceed 0.04; otherwise, p,
may be as large as 0.08.
In equations (10.1) and (10.2) above, the resistance factor @ is taken as 0.75 and 0.7,
respectively. Research by Nielson at Cornell University indicated that calculated values of P,,(ax)
should be multiplied by 0.85 when lightweight aggregate is used in the design. Although this is not a
1989 ACI Code requirement, it is considered to be good practice, especially when the concrete
strength f’ exceeds 5000 psi (35 MPa).
ASSUMPTIONS FOR STRENGTH DESIGN

For convenience, the following assumptions are reproduced from earlier chapters.
(1) Strength design of members for bending and axial load shall be based on the assumptions
given herein, and on satisfaction of the applicable conditions of equilibrium and com-
patibility of strains.
(2) Strain in the concrete shall be assumed directly proportional to the distance from the
neutral axis. Except in anchorage regions, strain in reinforcing bars shall be assumed equal
to the strain in the concrete at the same position.
(3) The maximum strain at the extreme compression fiber at ultimate strength shall be assumed
equal to 0.003.
(4) Stress in reinforcing bars below the yield strength f, for the grade of steel used shall be
taken as 29,000,000 psi (200 000 MPa) times the steel strain. For strain greater than that
corresponding to the design yield strength f,, the reinforcement stress shall be considered
independent of strain and equal to the design yield strength ie
(5) Tensile strength of the concrete shall be neglected in flexural calculations.
(6) At ultimate strength, concrete stress is not proportional to strain. The diagram of
compressive concrete stress distribution may be assumed to be a rectangle, trapezoid,
parabola, sine wave, or any other shape which results in predictions of ultimate strength in
reasonable agreement with the results of comprehensive tests.
(7) The requirements of (6) may be considered satisfied by the equivalent rectangular concrete
stress distribution which is defined as follows: At ultimate strength, a concrete stress
intensity of 0.85f/ shall be assumed uniformly distributed over an equivalent compression
zone bounded by the edges of the cross section and a straight line located parallel to the
neutral axis at a distance a= ,c from the fiber of maximum compressive strain. The
distance c from the fiber of maximum strain to the neutral axis is measured in the direction
perpendicular to that axis. The fraction B, shall be taken as 0.85 for strengths f/ up to
4000 psi (30 MPa) and shall be reduced continuously at a rate of 0.05 for each 1000 psi
(0.008 for each 1.0 MPa) of strength in excess of 4000 psi (30 MPa); but £, shall not be
taken less than 0.65.
BALANCED CONDITIONS; COLUMN INTERACTION DIAGRAMS

In Chapter 5, balanced conditions were discussed in detail with regard to beams that are
subjected to flexure (bending moment) without the presence of axial loads. These include beams
reinforced with tension steel only and beams with both tension and compression steel. For such cases
it was shown that balanced conditions are independent of the shape of the cross section.
When axial load is added to a member, the situation becomes considerably more complex, and a
revised definition for balanced conditions—applicable to columns of all shapes and all reinforcement
patterns—becomes essential.
Definition: Balanced conditions for members subjected to flexure and axial load exist when the
concrete strain on the compression face is €, at the same time that the strain in the bar
farthest from the neutral axis on the tension side is 6s Li Ee
This definition was used in the computer program with which the author developed over 100
axial-load—moment charts for columns; these column interaction diagrams were published in ACI
Special Publication SP-7, by Everard and Cohen, in 1964. Selected diagrams from SP-7 are provided
as Figs. 10-1 through 10-12.
The basic problem of short column design—to determine p, and A,, corresponding to given
loading conditions and satisfying all provisions of the 1989 ACI Code—may be solved with a high
degree of accuracy by use of the column interaction diagrams. See Problems 10.6, 10.7, 10.10—10.13,
10.15-10.17.
Several observations concerning the diagrams are appropriate here:
(1) All twelve interaction diagrams apply to the case f/ = 4000 psi (27.58 MPa), f, = 60,000 psi
(413.7 MPa) (soft conversion to SI units).
(2) The value of ¢ given below an interaction diagram is that Pos is included in K via
P= $P,, and $P,e.
(3) Figures 10-1 through 10-8 give p, directly, but Figs. 10-9 through 10-12 give the combination
Be ss Ys
The reasons for this minor inconvenience are historical.

(4) All variables in the interaction diagrams are dimensionless so that the column design can be
carried out in any consistent set of units. It is recommended that a diagram be entered with
values of K and Ke/D (or Ke/h), rather than with values of K and e/D (or e/h). The latter
procedure—unfortunately used in many textbooks—will normally require an angular
interpolation that becomes very inaccurate as the e/D (e/h) rays converge.
'
FLEXURE WITH TENSION AXIAL LOAD
The column interaction diagrams, Figs. 10-1 through 10-12, apply to compression axial load —
only. Computer studies show that the analogous curves for tension axial load are, within a 2 percent —
error, straight lines. The simple linear relations—equations (10.5) and (10.6)—are derived in
Problem 10.14.
INTERACTION TABLES .
Given p,, the values of K, and R, needed in (10.5) or (10.6) may be obtained from Tables 1 ss
Sen: 10.3, theinteraction tables for Bee iNaduicn, ee tablesABR values (d e cf

0.40
0.36
0.32
0.28
0.24
if he
(2
0.20 K==
u
0.16
Fig.
10-1
0.06;
@=0.75.
y=
0.12
0.08
0.04
°
oy
S
LJ
iJ
H ©
HH . =)
8 ee
see
es
nN
oO
S
roe)
N
S
0.24
0.75.
b=
.’
II
0.7
=
0.16
Fig.
10-2
y
0.12
-* 2008 oe
UO eae oo:
wen saan"
a ie
0.08
0.04
CHAP. 10] SHORT COLUMNS : STRENGTH DESIGN 193
0F'0
9¢°
0
G
€
0
8
(6
0
4
SG
0
‘SsLO=9
020
SQO=A
9T0
ee:
SCE
«Cd
€-O1 Pit |
ad
2Y
A=
0ot
194
SHORT
COLUMNS
STRENGTH
DESIGN
s
ae
‘4
A
0 b00 80°0 (aay) 910 02°0 ¥c0 820 0 6€ 9€°0 Or'0 vo
erasrvens
¢ sf en
ney
= M oo = i
° ’ =
ad d,
“y =
‘31a pP-O1 S60=4 ‘SLO=¢%
VI
O Ss < a
S
ZT
OT
YN
[r @) ~ im
O
O
pee@D, =
z“
90 n
cml
x jaa]Za ) =
r'0 : a
: : a
4 ja
H 2
H e
A
Z'0
4 0 ¥0'0 80'0 200 9T'0 02'0 v0 820 ZE'0 9¢°0 0r'0
a a"d
ice_4u
ds 2d
314 S-O1 ‘90=4 LO=P
4 ‘ — Sacn a Cy,
196 SHORT COLUMNS : STRENGTH DESIGN (CHAP. 10
L
0
~
‘6
L
0
“Sy
9-01
A
30
CHAP. 10] SHORT COLUMNS : STRENGTH DESIGN 197
9
€
0
G
€
0
8
(4
0
L
0
~
. 6
8
0
‘81g L-O1 A
9T°0
T
0
198 7) aeAO fad
ote — ee — = oD= S STRENGTH DESIGN [CHAP. 10
LO=%
a7
‘60=4
ee
sh
“Sy 8-01
ae
ee Rte
elQid
02'0
0
910
@e,
seeenee,
60
IT
0
L
rHae
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ssa
ry
auepeaen
ae ae
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at
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sera:
1
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=
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aul
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TTT
sesesedsesgegcesssuca=—
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aa
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ol
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288
tL i48 oun8"a
see ce6 ii
Sie. “B%..\\
LSS
AA
e ttt rH
e2nuse
A EY staal
Oo
LS
ua
ene
0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.24
Fig. 10-9 y 0.6; @ =0.7.

ate
A Hy
:
ras
ONL
wormstmsec Ot)
Vee
NN
0.04 0.08 0.12 16 0.20 0.24
Fig. 10-10 = 0.7; od = 0.7.

CHAP. 10] SHORT COLUMNS: STRENGTH DE S IGN
1.0
sang,W}
/
{|
| (|
|
cn
a
= a
i Ye
(|
| |
o
ma
ATsatets.
SS
o
|
#ERTEEL
SER _SEEE2 EEE
NY
2
*qenanaaat
<
wz
_————
coat rsdn Eases ESE
|
7
AHN
Po pet
4
K
ALL
i a
Lan
i
°
l
val
‘|
BBtbes.
0.04 0.16 0.20 0.24
Fig. 10-11 y 0.8; 6 =0.7.

A_e
;
if) a %
L
Fiat
aeoeais
| a
seeaar
oetteaic sie
“5
se
]
Net
0.4
a
hi, : ned Hd
ie ps
pnts :
cea
is
tipeaddaoad 53ESEP-.6BC
sane
Het ath A 0 +
‘ter
te se - 884
: Serer ape
Fig. 10-12 y =0.9; =0.7.
; < ; eT 7
Table 10.1 Rectangular Columns—Symmetrical Steel along Two End Faces
|ig
ff. =5.0 ksi: (34.48 MPa) b |
f, = 60.0 ksi (413.7 MPa) | |

bee he
Coals
(A) y =0.6
p, 0.010 0.020 0.030 0.040 0.050 0.060 0.070 0.080
K, 0.961 1.073 1.184 1.296 1.407 1.519 1.630 1.742
Ke 0.769 0.858 0.948 1.037 1.126 eS 1.304 1.394
K, 0.478 0.513 0.549 0.585 0.620 0.656 0.692 0.727
Re 0.129 0.152 0.174 0.197 0.220 0.243 0.265 0.288
R, 0.050 0.088 0.125 0.161 0.197 0.232 0.268 0.303
Cy/h 0.144 0.195 0.231 0.260 0.284 0.304 0.322 0.338
K, 0.120 0.240 0.360 0.480 0.600 0.720 0.840 0.960
(B) y=0.7
p, 0.010 0.020 0.030 0.040 0.050 0.060 0.070 0.080
K, 0.961 1.073 1.184 1.296 1.407 1.519 1.630 1.742
K,,, 0.769 0.858 0.948 1.037 1.126 1215 1.304 1.394
K, 0.478 0.342 0.340 0.338 0.336 0.333 0.331 0.329
R, 0.129 0.182 0.222 0.262 0.302 0.342 0.381 0.421
RS 0.050 0.093 0.136 QUV7T: 0.219 0.260 0.302 0.343
Colh 0.123 0.165 0.195 0.218 0.237 0.254 0.268 0.280
K, 0.120 0.240 0.360 0.480 0.600 0.720 0.840 0.960
(C) y=0.8
p, 0.010 0.020 0.030 0.040 0.050 0.060 0.070 0.080
K, 0.961 1.073 1.184 1.296 1.407 1.519 1.630 1.742
Ge 0.769 0.858 0.948 1.037 1.126 1205 1.304 1.394
K, 0.478 0.363 0.360 0.358 0.356 0.354 0.351 0.349
Ry 0.129 0.195 0.241 0.286 0.332 0.377 0.423 0.468
RG 0.052 0.100 0.148 0.196 0.243 0.291 0.339 0.386
Colh 0.098 0.130 0.152 0.169 0.183 0.194 0.204 0.213
Ke 0.120 0.240 0.360 0.480 0.600 0.720 0.840 0.960
(D) y=0.9
P, 0.010 0.020 0.030 0.040 0.050 0.060: 0.070 0.080
K, 0.961 1.073 1.184 1.296 1.407 1.519 1.630 1.742
ke 0.769 0.858 0.948 1.037 1.126 1215 1.304 1.394
K, 0.478 0.383 0.381 0.379 0.376 0.374 0.372 0.370
R, 0.129 0.208 0.259 0.310 0.361 0.413 0.464 0.515
Ry 0.055 0.109 0.163 O217 0.270 0.324 0.378 0.432
Cy/h 0.065 0.085 0.097 0.107 0.114 0.120 031237" 0.129
K, 0.120 0.240 0.360 0.480 0.600 0.720 0.840 0.960
Table 10.2 Rectangular Columns—Steel Equally Distributed along Four Faces
f. =5.0 ksi (34.48 MPa)

f, = 60.0 ksi (413.7 MPa)
¢=1.0
(A) y = 0.6
p, 0.010 0.020 0.030 0.040 0.050 0.060 0.070 0.080
K, 0.961 EO 1.184 1.296 1.407 1.519 1.630 1.742
Ke 0.769 0.858 0.948 103% - 1.126 L2 1.304 1.394
K, 0.405 0.382 0.359 0.343 0.322 0.297 0.290 0.258
R, 0.123 0.140 0.159 0.177 0.196 0.215 0.233 0.252
Jet 0.050 0.087 0.119 0.147 0.172 0.196 0.219 0.241
Colh 0.152 0.225 0.274 0.310 0.336 0.357 0.374 0.388
kK 0.120 0.240 0.360 0.480 0.600 0.720 0.840 0.960
(B) y=0.7
p, 0.010 0.020 0.030 0.040 0.050 0.060 0.070 0.080
Ke 0.961 1.073 1.184 1.296 1.407 1.519 1.630 1.742
K,,, 0.769 0.858 0.948 1.037 1.126 L215 1.304 1.394
K, 0.405 0.345 0.344 0.343 0.342 0.318 0.314 0.311
R, 0.123 0.156 0.182 0.209 0.235 0.264 0.290 0.317
KG 0.051 0.091 O27 0.160 0.191 0.220 0.249 0.276
Co/h 0.137 0.204 0.250 0.284 0.310 0.331 0.348 =:0.363
K, 0.120 0.240 0.360
0.480 0.600 0.720 0.840 0.960
(C) y=0.8
p, 0.010 0.020 0.030 0.040 0.050 0.060 0.070 —-0.080 ee
K, 0.961 1.073 . fee. 1.296=) 1407 Pa51Sh) 1iesdeent 1.742 S
K 0.769 ° 0.858 0.948 “109% < /9.12Gem Siiats. = 1304 1.304
K, 0.405 0.373, 0.376 ~=—0.350 0.335 «0.333 * 0.314 ~—0.292
R, 0.123 0.166 = 0.197 0.229 0.260 0.292 0.324 0,356
Re 0.052 0,096. O4agp O.175t ARO De 0.260e% 0.234
Colh 0.119 0.179 ~—-0.222-~S «0.254 0.279 «0.300.316 ~—s«0.332
K, 0.120 0.240 ~—(0.360-S «0.480» 0.600» 0.720 (0.840 0.960 a.
, 1.073 . 1.184 :
Table 10.3 Circular Columns—Steel Arranged in a Circle
f! =5.0 ksi (34.48 MPa)

f, = 60.0 ksi (413.7 MPa)
$=1.0 ff A
(A) y=0.6
p, 0.010 0.020 0.030 0.040 0.050 0.060 0.070 0.080
K, Obs 5eate 0949, 50N 0930 td 018i 1.054. 11.1938) 1.281. ° 91,368
Ks O6420) W0:71610179191 70:865 * ~ 0.940 4b 1.014 11.089) «1.163
Ke rs 5een 0.52978 07242) 10.239 0,236 0 + 1028404 (0:292 .| 0/296
R, OLOSOe anno 090 al 0.20209 901113. 900.425) 0487101146). 0.157
R, 035mm O:Oo0et in 020800 080.099. 910-1155 «0.131 0.146%+- 0.161
Cate S207, | 0278. S220 0.352." 0.374477 0.391 = 0.405%". 0.416
i 0.120 0.240 0.360 0.480 0.600 0.720 0.840 0.960
(B) y=0.7
p, 0.010 0.020 0.030 0.040 0.050 0.060 0.070 — 0.080
Ki OisommeeOrsAs err .o30 © f-018 6.1105 15193 128% 1.368
Ke 01642 "0716 ©0.791".»)' 0.865 © 01940! 91.014! 1,089 ~~1.163
K, O58 en 0.275 0-276. 780.280 ° 0.236" 0.233" * 0.230%!" 0.294
R, VUsaemONes 0114 160.129 "0.147. 0.163" <0.179"" 0:189
R, 0.035 0.063 0.087 0.109 0.130 0.150 0.169 0.188
c/h 0.207 0.264 0.306 0.336 0.358 0.376 0.390 0.401
K, 0.120 0.240 0.360 0.480 0.600 0.720 0.840 0.960
(C) y=0.8
p, 0.010 0.020 0.030 0.040 0.050 0.060 0.070 0.080
Ke fe esi 24s OSES ulO1S sei. 1105 Me15193 221.28). 1.368
KY 0.642, WOd16sen On Olaaut 0:865~ 07 01940: 4 11:014 4) 1.089: 1,163
K, (ASR 097s 0.27 2e 07S F275. 10,2930 20:230.. 0.227
R, Csi). 106) 90.1260, 00,145 0.164. 085° -0.205, 0.224
R, P0s50NG.0el- 0.005 8 A0101 , 0146. 0469. 0.192 -" 0,215
Cem 207 1 0247) 70.288. 0GIT. .0,340 0.3589. 0.373 0.385
K, 0.120 0.240 0.360 0.480 0.600 0.720 0.840 0.960
(D) y=0.9
p, 0.010 0.020 0.030 0.040 0.050 0.060 0.070 0.080
a (esau VO ese MUO etO18? |, 1105 19s gost” £91368
K,, 0.642 0.716 0.791 0.865 0.940 1.014 1.089 1.163
K, (35s 0.205 eeO08 e270. O.27le 212. 0.229 0,226
i (Oe me Uris cme Optorm (150.0) 0,182 <8cal204) b-0,228 2. 0.252
R, DNase 007? eae 052.) 20,160, vo. 187. ) 0,214. 0,240
Cec A) 0.230) 2740302. 0.325 qa 044) 0.300... 0.373
K, 0.120 0.240 0.360 0.480 0.600 0.720 0.840 0.960
Compression
Tension
Fig. 10-13
SAFETY PROVISIONS
(1) As stated above, the resistance factor ¢ for flexure and axial load is to equal 0.7 for tied
columns and 0.75 for spiral columns. This rule has the folowing exception: For members
subjected to axial load and bending in which f, does not exceed 60,000 psi (400 MPa), with
symmetric reinforcement and with
y=——20.7
¢ may be increased linearly to 0.9 as @P, decreases from 0.10f/A, to zero. For other
reinforced members, ¢ may be increased linearly to 0.9 as #P,, decreases from 0.10f(A, or
oP,, whichever is smaller, to zero. (The increase in the @ factor is permitted because, as
the compressive axial load approaches zero, the member behaves less as a column and
more as a beam, for which ¢ = 0.9 for pure bending moment.)
(2) When a member is subject to axial tension, with or without bending moment, ¢ = 0.9.
(3) The ¢ factor for shear on columns is 0.85, as it is for beams. For bearing of column bases to
transfer loads to a footing or pedestal, ¢ = 0.7.
(4) When gravity load or wind, earthquake, or other lateral forces cause transfer of moments at
framing members (slabs, beams, or girders) to columns, the shear resulting from the
moment transfer shall be included in the design of the lateral reinforcement in the columns.
If connections are not part of primary seismic-load-resisting systems that are restrained on
four sides by beams or slabs of ‘“‘approximately equal depth,” they shall have lateral
reinforcement not less than that required by equation (6.27). When horizontal framing
members are not of ‘‘approximately equal depth,” the lateral reinforcement shall extend
within the column for a depth not less than that of the deepest connection of elements
framing into the column. Because the 1989 ACI Code does not define ‘approximately equal
depth,” the author advances the interpretation “equal to within 6 in. (150 mm).” (Seismic
forces require special attention.)
(5) Horizontal shear forces in columns must be treated in the same manner as vertical shear in
beams. Similarly, torsion in columns must be treated in the same manner as torsion in
beams. Thus, for shear in columns, (6.11) or (6.12) applies according as the axial load is
compressive or tensile. Any longitudinal reinforcement required to resist torsional warping
of a cross section must be provided in addition to that required to resist axial load and
flexure.
LIMITATIONS
(1) All members subjected to a compression load shall be designed for the eccentricity e
corresponding to the maximum moment which can accompany this loading condition, but
not less than
€ nin = 0-6 + 0.03h (15 + 0.03h) (10.3)
about each principal axis.
(2) The maximum load capacities for members subject to axial load as determined by the
requirements of this chapter apply only to short members and shall be reduced for the
effects of length according to the requirements of Chapter 11, when appropriate.
(3) Members subjected to small compressive loads may be designed for the maximum moment
Pe, in accordance with the provisions of Chapter 5 and disregarding the axial load, but the
resulting section shall have a capacity P, greater than the applied compressive load. (The
column interaction diagrams show that disregard of small axial load is on the conservative
side.)
GENERAL CASE
For any shape section, reinforced in any manner, the ultimate load shall be computed using the
equations of equilibrium and strain compatibility with the general assumptions concerning stress
distribution over the section.
BIAXIAL BENDING
The 1989 ACI Code does not contain specific procedures for design of sections subject to
bending about two axes. However, experimental results indicate that a reciprocal type of interaction
equation, such as |
(10.4)
provides conservative results. In (10.4),
Table 10.4 Circular Drilled Piers, Piles, and Caissons
f! =4.0 ksi (27.58 MPa)

f, = 60.0 ksi (413.7 MPa)
d= 1.0 as i
D/2 ae
(A) y=0.7
p, 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.010
Ke /0.690 © 0.701 02712 0:97234) T0734. 9 0.24559) OSG 0. 76cm oa e
K 0.586 0.596 0.605 0.615 0.624 0.634 0.643 0.652 0.662
K, 0.347." 0.350 | 0/352) “0.333 335" S37, PO sIb ee UR ee
Ry 0.073 0.076 0.077 0.079 0.081 0.083 0.085 0.087 0.089
Ro 0.011 0.015 0.020 0.024 0.028 0.032 0.036 0.040 0.043
co/h 0.090 0.114 0.133 01149 0.163 0:176 -- OA88 = 0:198" 0208
K, 0.030 0.045 (0.060 0.075 (0.090 0.105. 0.120 0.135 0.150
| (B) y=0.8
0, 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.010
K, 0.690 0.701 0.712 0.723 0.734 0.745 0.756 0.768 (0.779
K, 0.586 0.596 0.605 0.615 0.624 0.634 0.643 0.652 0.662
K, 0347, 0.349 0.331 0.332 0.334. 0.313 90314 0315) 40.316
R; 0.073 0.077 0.079 0.082 0.084 0.086 0.089 0.091 0.093
Re 0.011 0.015 0.020 0.024 0.029 0.033 0.037 0.041 0.045
co/h 0.090 0.107 0.124 0.139 0.153 0.164 0.175 0.185 0.194
K, 0.030 0.045 0.060 0.075 0.090 0.105 0.120 0.135 0.150
(C) y=0.9
p, 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.010 ;
K, 0.690 0.701. 0.712. 0.723 0.734. 0.745 So t7Shs 20768 Or 72 NN
K,. 0.586 0.596 0.605 0.615 0.624 0.634 0.643 0.652 0.662~
K, 0.347 0.348 ~=0.329-S«-«0.331.=S«:0.332-Ss: 0333'S «0.334—Ss:0.336~—0.313
R; 0.073 0.078 0.081 0.084 0.087 0.089 0.092 0.095 0.098
i. 0.011 0.016 0.021 0.025 0.030 0.034 0.039 0.043 0.048—
cylh 0.090 0.097 0.113 0.127 0.139 «0.150 0.160 (0.170 0.178 ~
K, 0.030 0.045 0.060 0.075 0.090 0.105 0.120 0.135 0.150 es
(D) y=1.0 ; ; 6 eyagaagee
p, 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 G00 mierda i Nheel at aeaee
K, 0.690--0.701_-—«0.712'-—(0.723, 0.734 0.745 0.756 0.768 0.779 fader. 2)
| 0.586 0.596 0.605 0.615 0.63 1.652 0.662
P,, = ultimate load capacity of section with eccentricities e, and e, (see Fig. 10-14)
P' = ultimate load capacity of section with e, only (e, = 0)
P\ = ultimate load capacity of section with e, only (e, = 0)
P, = axial load capacity of section (e, = e, = 0)
Figures 10-5 through 10-12 can be used to evaluate the dimensionless ratio K = P/f/bh, and so P,,
P’, and P, in (10.4) can be computed as P = K( f/bh). (Compare Problem 10.7, which involves a
circular section.)
DRILLED PIERS, PILES, AND CAISSONS

The 1989 ACI Code minimum steel ratio p,=0.01 does not apply to drilled piers, piles, or
caissons. Lesser values may be used when satisfactory load-moment resistance is provided for. These
foundation supports are commonly subjected to a compressive axial load and bending. However,
sometimes the axial loads are tensile. A classic example is the case of guyed towers for microwave
transmission. The guy cables must always be in tension. Hence, the drilled piers, piles, or caissons to
which the guys are anchored are always in tension; they resist ‘“‘pullout’”’ from the soil by skin friction
and dead weight of the concrete and soil above the ‘‘bell bottom.”’
Table 10.4 is the interaction table for such structural elements. It may be used to generate
linearized diagrams, similar to Fig. 10-13, that include both compression and tension axial loads,
along with bending moments.
Heretofore, structural engineers used the SP-7 diagrams or Figs. 10-1 through 10-3, interpolating
between p, = 0.0 and 0.01, when designing drilled piers, piles, or caissons. Because of the difficulty of
making accurate interpolations, their designs were usually excessively conservative. Table 10.4 allows
accurate interpolation, and similar data will not be found in any structural engineering literature. In
the table, the value y=1.0 is appropriate for concrete-filled steel tubes, where the external
reinforcing steel forms the tube. If longitudinal reinforcement is included besides, y is determined by
calculating the circumference around which all the steel may be considered to be distributed, forming
an equivalent steel tube. Note again that nominal values of K and R are involved in Table 10.4,
which is also based on ¢ = 1.0.
Solved Problems
10.1. An analysis was made using elastic procedures. The axial loads and moments obtained
therefrom are listed below. Determine the combinations of P, and M, required for use in
strength design. .
Dead load: P= 150 kip M = 75 ft-kip
Live load: P= 200 kip M= 835 ft-kip
Wind load: P= 80 kip M = 130 ft-kip
The load factors must be applied to the forces and moments calculated using the elastic theory.
Thus:
(a) For U=1.4D+1.7L,
P, = (1.4)(150) + (1.7)(200) = 550.0 kip
M,, = (1.4)(75) + (1.7)(85) = 249.5 ft-kip
-"
.
(b) For U=0.75(1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7W)

P, =0.75{1.4(150) + 1.7(200) + 1.7(80)] = 514.5 kip
M,, =0.75[1.4(75) + 1.7(85) + 1.7(130)] = 352.9 ft-kip
(c) For U=0.9D + 1.3W,
P, = (0.9)(150) + (1.3)(80) = 239.0 kip
= (0.9)(75) + (1.3)(130) = 236.5 ft-kip
All three of the combinations must be investigated to provide a satisfactory design.
10.2. The column cross-section shown in Fig. 10-15 contains steel having a yield stress of 50,000 psi.
Determine the actual stresses in the reinforcement, considering 0.85f; to be deducted from
the steel stress in the compression zone. Use f/ = 3000 psi.
20”
| pO u
ie 0.85f; 0.008
e@ e-
5-#9 bars
h/2=10" , | Neutral Axis

t
T Gravity Axis
=10"
h/2
Strain —
Fig. 10-15
Using similar triangles compute the unit stress in the compression steel based on strain compatibility
and the assumption that the maximum strain in the concrete is 0.003 in./in. Thus
e! = €,(c — d’)/c = (0.003)(6.0)/8.5 = 0.00212 in./in.
and f= €!E, = (0.00212)(29 x 10°) = 61,400 psi
Note that the calculated stress exceeds f,, so limit the stress to f,. The net effective compressive —
stress in the steel will be
}
~ f= 0.85f! = 50,000 — (0.85)(3000) = 47,450 psi
Similarly, the strain in the steel on the tension side will be
€, = €,(d — c)/c = (0.003)(9.0)/8.5 = 0.00318 in./in.
Therefore f, = €,E, = (0.00318)(29 x 10°) = 92,000 psi. oan
Note that the calculated stress exceeds f,, 80 limit f, to fy. Thus, f = Paige psi.
=
:
10.3. Determine the ultimate load P,, that will satisfy statics in Fig. 10-15. Use the ‘results orate,
Problem 10.2.1 Pus Se where aoe: for tied columns.) ‘ ‘ai ine
’ Te | “isin the.
ne ave dre
ate}ey
le areas; thus ——
ss ida 3
CHAP. 10] SHORT COLUMNS: STRENGTH DESIGN oHie
10.4. Determine the eccentricity of P,, required to establish the conditions of equilibrium shown in
Fig. 10-15.
The moment of the forces may be summed about the gravity axis or the neutral axis or any axis
parallel thereto. Using the neutral axis, and transferring to the centroid,
M. = C.(h/2 — a/2) = 368(8.5 — 3.61) = 1800 in.-kip
M! = Ci(c — d') = (237.3)(6.0) = 1424.0 in.-kip
M, = T,(d — d’ — c) = (250.0)(9.0) = 2250.0 in.-kip
The moment about the centroid is
aM cca = 6007.0 in.-kip
Then @M,, = M,, = (6007)(0.7) = 4204.9 in.-kip.
About the centroid, e= M_/P, = 16.9 in.
10.5. Use statics and strain compatibility to determine the ultimate load P, for the spiral column
shown in Fig. 10-16. Pertinent data are as follows: f/ = 3000 psi, f, = 60,000 psi, b = h = 20".
Total steel consists of 12 No. 9 bars, or A, =12.0in.’; thus p,=0.03. Also, y=0.8,
a = B,c = 8.925", and the neutral axis lies 10.5” below the top of the section. The centroid of
the concrete compression force is at 5.537” above the gravity axis (G.A.).
90”
Fig. 10-16
Using strain compatibility and statics, the steel forces may be computed as in Table 10.5.
Table 10.5
Aa eens d0' fs f,—0.85f!, | Force, Moment arm, Moment,
Row in? in./in. kip/in. kip/in. kip in. in.-kip
1.0
2.0
2.0
ZA
2.0
2.0
1.0
2 F, = 26.35 kip 2M, = 2981.0 in.-kip

The compressive force in the concrete and its moment about the gravity axis will be
C. = 0.85 x 3.0 x 8.925 x 20.0 = 455 kip and M, = 455 X 5.537 = 2520 in.-kip
Hence P, = oP, = o(C, + F,) = 0.75(455.00 + 26.35) = 360 kip

M, = $M, = 6(M. + M,) = 0.75(2520 + 2981) = 4125 in.-kip
Thus e=M,/P,=11.55in. and e/h = 11.55/20 = 0.5775
10.6. Figure 10-3 is a typical column interaction diagram. Use the chart to design a column to
withstand an ultimate moment of 2880 in.-kip and an axial load of 720 kip. Take f/ = 3000 psi
and |ies
= 60,000 psi.
Assume that a 20’-diameter column will be used. Calculate

M2880 Ge e 4.0 . , ah ee F See
c= ~ "70° =p Oe f.D°? — (3.0)(20) 8
Enter the chart with K = 0.6 and R, = Ke/D =(0.6)(0.2) = 0.12, and at the point (0.12, 0.6) read
p, = 0.05. Then
A,, = p,A, = 0.05()(20)7/4 = 15.71 in?
Any size bars may be used to provide the required steel area, but the clearances between bars must
be maintained in accord with the detailed requirements of the 1989 ACI Code. If the required amount of
steel cannot be provided because of clearance requirements, it will be necessary to increase the size of
the column and redesign the steel bar sizes.
It should be noted that the minimum number of vertical bars shall be four for bars confined by
circular or rectangular ties, three for bars confined by triangular ties, and six for bars confined by spirals
or circular ties in columns.
10.7. Use the section designed in Problem 10.6 to check the validity of the reciprocal equation
(10.4) for biaxial bending. Consider bending about a line 45° to the x axis, with e = 5.656”.
Since the design charts already contain ¢, the primes are dropped and the equation becomes
L/P = Pet eee
We may divide all denominators by f “De to obtain a dimensionless form
WK =I K O44 / Kook
Since e = 5.656" along a line 45° to the x axis, e, = e, = 5.656/1.414 = 4.0" as in Problem 10.6.
The section is circular, so K, = K, = 0.6 as determined in Problem 10.6. 4 :
The term K, refers to pure axial load and may be obtained as 1.065 at the intersection of the vertical
axis with p,= 0. 05. Thus
1/K =1/0.6 + 1/0.6 — 1/1.065 or K =0.418
Now, using e/D = 5.656/20 = 0.2828 and p, = 0.05, return to the chart to find K = 0.49. This value is
the correct solution, and indicates that the reciprocal formula provides a solution that is incorrect by 14.3
percent on the conservative side.
10.8. For a circular column with closely spaced spiral confinement (lateral reinforcement) de-
termine the maximum permissible value of P, = $P,, raie
oi 4000 ai [ = 60,200 Psi, a ah
_ vertical steel ratio is p, = 0.02. ire ae | 71
Equation (10.1) apples aa sath hin armen E an tL. a oe
. a be -
re Har 10] SHORT COLUMNS: STRENGTH DESIGN 213

:
10.9. For a 20"’-square column, calculate the maximum axial load permitted by the 1989 ACI Code.
Lateral confinement reinforcement is provided by ties; A,,=10.0 in.’, f’ = 3000 psi, i
50,000 psi, and ¢ = 0.7.
A, = (20)(20) = 400.0 in.” and equation (10.2) applies. Therefore,

Pacmax) = (0.8)(0.7)[0.85(3.0)(400.0 — 10.0) + (50.0)(10.0)] = 836.9 kip
10.10. Refer to Fig. 10-3. For a 20"-diameter column with service-level axial compressive forces
P, = 200 kip and P, = 100 kip, accompanied by service-level bending moments M, =75 ft-
kip and M, = 100 ft-kip, determine the required area of vertical steel reinforcement.
The factored design values are
P= $P,, = 1.4(200) + 1.7(100) = 450 kip
M,,= $M, = 1.4(75) + 1.7(100) = 275 ft-kip = Pe
The values required to enter the chart are
P, 450
De | A040) a
tii
P a ab
f'D° — (4.0)(8000)
By intersection of these values on the chart, and by interpolation between curves for p,, find p, = 0.022.
Thus,
A,, = pA, = 0.022(0.7854)(400) = 6.91 in?

Se
a ; :
10.11. Determine the reinforcing steel area required for a rectangular tied column with b = 12 in.,
?. i _ h=20in., f= 4000 psi, f, = 60,000 psi, and y = 0.8. P, = 200 kip and Pe = M,, = 300 ft-kip;
ig steel is to be placed along end faces only.
vate q K= ae = a = 0.2083
a a eo
ete 10-11 applies: at (0.1875, 0.2083) find p,u =0.52. But — b
so p, =0.52/17.647 = 0.0295 and A,, = ao = coaenes = 7.08 in2.

ak ay
ct nlal
10.13. A short rectangular tied column, 12 in. wide and 20 in. deep, is to withstand service-level
axial loads P, =90 kip, P, =130 kip and service-level bending moments M, =70 ft-kip,
M, =70 ft-kip. The reinforcement is distributed equally along the two 12-in. end faces so that
the center-to-center distance between the two layers of bars is 16 in. If f’ = 3000 psi and
f, = 60,000 psi, find how many No. 8 bars are required.
Since yh = 16 in., y = 16/20 =0.8 and Fig. 10-11 is applicable. We have
P, = (1.4)(90) + (1.7)(130) = 347 kip
M, = P,e = (1.4)(70) + (1.7)(70) = 217 ft-kip
Ka td ee ae
fibh - -(310)(42)(@20)
M 2
R,= t=
5 = Se Ee = 0.181
“— fibh* — (3.0)(12)(20)*
and Fig. 10-11 gives p,u = 0.69. Since
f 60.0
HM pgsee) (ORSGO) ma
p, = 0.69/23.53 = 0.029 and A,, = p,bh = (0.029)(12)(20) = 6.96 in.” From Table 1.15, eight No. 8
bars—four along each end face—will provide 7.07 in.”
10.14. Derive the linear equation for designing columns subject to axial tension and bending
moment. Use nominal values, K, and R,,.
Required for the design is K, = P,/f’bh for rectangular members or K, = P,,/f'D* for circular
members. Now, in the (approximate) interaction diagram, Fig. 10-17, the shaded triangle and the large
triangle are similar, yielding K,/K,=(R,—R,,)/R,, or
K,=K(1- a) (10.5)
When K,, is known and R, is sought, (10.5) may be rewritten as
r,=R(1—*) K
(106)
Fig. 10-17
CHAP. 10] SHORT COLUMNS: STRENGTH DESIGN Zko
10.15. Determine the balanced-conditions values P, and M, for the symmetrically reinforced column
cross section shown in Fig. 10-18. Data are f,=5 ksi, f, = 60 ksi, b = 20 in., A = 20 in., and
yh = 16 in. Each end face contains four No. 9 bars, so A,,=8 in.” and p, = 0.02.
aa
Fig. 10-18
Under balanced conditions the strain in the concrete compression face is 0.003 and the strain in the
tension steel is €, = f,/E, = 60/29,000 = 0.002069. The neutral axis, the axis of zero strain, is located
using similar triangles in Fig. 10-18:
0.003 _ 0.002069
Cs a—¢,
Substitute d = h — d' = 20 — (20 — 16)/2 = 18 in., to find c, = 10.653 in. Since f/ =5 ksi,
—4
B, = 0.85 — (0.05) a3 =0.8 and a,=8,c, =(0.8)(10.653) =8.522 in.
The compression force in the concrete is C. = 0.85f'a,b = (0.85)(5)(8.522)(20) = 724.37 kip. Using
similar triangles in the strain diagram in Fig. 10-18,
10.653 — 2.0
e’ = 0.003 = 0.002437 > e,
10.653
so fi =f, =60 ksi. The concrete displaced by the compression steel has been included in C,, so the
effective stress in the compression steel is f, — 0.85f/ = 55.75 ksi, and the force in the compression steel
is C, = 4(55.75) = 223 kip. The force in the tension steel is 7, = 4(60) = 240 kip. Therefore, the balanced
axial force is
Pi Cot Coad = 124,31 +223:— 240 = 707.37 kip
Then, K, = 707.37/[5(20)(20)| = 0.354. The computer solution provided in Table 10.1 indicates that
K, = 0.363, for a difference of
0.363 — 0.354
(100%) = 2.5% (negligible)
0.354
The balanced-conditions moment is obtained by summing moments of the forces about the
centroidal axis:
dug! Onl yh yh
1 a OS mre gcaeace haar
208.522
= (724.37) rd + (223)(8) + (240)(8) = 7861 in.-kip = 655 ft-kip
Then, R, = M,/f'bh? = 7861 /[5(20)(20)(20)] = 0.197. In Table 10.1, R, = 0.195, for a difference of
0: 195 — 0.197 we
ara k(7 ee (100% )= —1.0% (negligible)
The above calculation confirms that Table 10.1, which assumes conditions of maximum R.,,, applies
nevertheless to balanced conditions, with negligible error.
10.16. Find the value of balanced axial load P, for the column cross section shown in Fig. 10-18. Use
f.=3 ksi, f, =75 ksi, b= 18 in., and A = 20 in. There are six No. 18 bars, three along each
end face, with their centers placed 4 in. from the end faces, parallel to the neutral axis.
Since h =20 in. and yh = 20—8=12in., y=12/20=0.6. The steel ratio is p, = 6(4)/[18(20)] =
0.0667, so the 1989 Code requirement 0.01 = p, = 0.08 is satisfied. The balanced-conditions distance from
the compression face to the neutral axis is
87d_ _ 87(16)
C5.= = 8.593 in
87 +f, Aei 475
For f/ = 3000 psi, 8, = 0.85; so the balanced-conditions stress-block depth is a, = B,c, = (0.85)(8.593) =
7.304 in. By similar triangles in Fig. 10-18, with e, = 0.003,
c,-4.0 | 8.593 —4.0 _
€,=€
a
. >g = 0.003 3553 = 0.0016035
Therefore, f’ = (0.0016036)(29,000) = 46.5 ksi, and f’ — 0.85f! = 46.5 — (0.85)(3) = 43.95 ksi. The com-
pression force in the concrete is
C, = 0.85f/a,b = (0.85)(3.0)(7.304)(18.0) = 335.25 kip
From Table 1.15, A’ = A, = 12 in.’; thus the force in the compression steel is C, = A‘( f/ — 0.85f/) =
(12)(43.95) = 527.4 kip and the force in the tension steel is T, = A, f,= (12)(75.0) = 900.0 kip. Then,
P, =C, + C_— T, = 335.25 + 527.4 — 900.0 = —37.35 kip
In this case, the balanced axial load is actually a tension axial load.
10.17. Verify the values of K,, K,, R,, Ry, and K, in Table 10.1(C), with b = 10 in., d= 18 in., and
h = 20 in. Refer to Fig. 10-18, with y =0.8 and p, = 0.02.
The theoretical axial load capacity is
Py = 0.85f(A, — A,,) + A,,f, = 0.85(5)(200 — 4) + 4(60) = 1073 kip
Thus, K, = P,/f'bh = 1073/[5(10)(20)] = 1.073.
Using the definition for balanced conditions, with e,, = 0.003 and e, = f,/E, = 60/29,000 = 0.002069,
0.003 _ _ &
Cn Lc.
Substituting d=20—2=18in. and solving, c,=10.653 in. For f’=5.0 ksi, B,=0.8; so a,=
0.8(10.653) = 8.522 in. Using similar triangles in Fig. 10-18,
_ (10.653— 2.0)(0.003)
10.653
= 0.002437 > e,
so f{=f,=60.0 ksi. The compression force in the concrete is then C.=0.85f!a,b =
0.85(5)(8.522)(10)= 362.2 kip. The compression force in the top steel is C,= Ai( fi —0.85f')=
2.0(60.0 — 4.25)=111.5 kip, and the tension in the bottom steel is T, = A hye? 0(60) = 120.0 kip. The
balanced axial load is then P, = C, + C, — T, = 362.2 + 111.5 — 120. p= 353; i kip. Hence,
1 353.7
= Fina= (5(10)(20) = 0.354 oo conditions)
The tabular, or maximum-curvature, value is K, = 0.363, which is in error by

0.363 — 0.354 2
rc =2.5% (not serious) ;
ofthe forces about the cen idal| axisare

‘The momentsCe i a urn
ae. : : TMD gs.
M, 3930.7
Thus R
>= FBR? ~ 5.0(10)(400) 197
which is very close to the tabular value, 0.195.
The point R, defines the pure moment capacity of the section with K, =0. In Tables 10.1 through
10.4 the value c,/h locates the neutral axis for this case by computer iteration. Here, c,/h = 0.1300, so
Cy = 0.1300(20) = 2.6 in.; and with B, = 0.8, a, = 0.8(2.6) = 2.08 in.
From Fig. 10-18, €! = 0.6(0.003) /2.6 = 0.0006929, whence
f =0.0006929(29,000) = 20.077 ksi. and_~—sf’ — 0.85f! = 20.077 — 4.25 = 15.827 ksi
The forces are then C, = 0.85(5)(2.08)(10) = 88.40 kip, C, = 2(15.827) = 31.65 kip, and 7, = 2(60) =
120.0 kip. The net axial force is
C. + C, — T, = 88.40 + 31.65 — 120.0 ~ 0.0 kip
The moments about the centroidal axis are
M., = 88.4(8.96) = 792.06 in.-kip M! = 31.65(8) = 253.20 in.-kip M, = 120.0(8) = 960.0 in.-kip
So, M, = M, + M! + M, = 792.06 + 253.20 + 960.0 = 2005.26 in.-kip, and
mM, 2005.26 5.
aoe fibh? —5(10)(400) = (01008
Finally the tension capacity for zero bending moment is T, = A,, f, = 4(60) = 240.0 kip, and
poe) 240" 1= 0.240

i fibh —5(10)(20)
Observe that although the dimensions are different here than in Problem 10.15, the values of K, and
R,, are the same in the two problems (because the steel is the same, as are the dimensionless ratios p,
and y).
10.18. Use the general method of statics and strain compatibility to determine P,, and M, for the section shown
in Fig. 10-19. The total steel area is 8.5 in.” and the distance of the neutral axis from the compression
face is c = 14.0 in. Ans. P,, =537 kip, M,, = 3085 in.-kip
u
20”
Fig. 10-19
10.19. Solve Problem 10.18 for c = 8.0 in. Use A,, = 6.8 in”. Ans. P,,=202 kip, M, = 3189 in.-kip
10.20. Solve Problem 10.18 for c = 8.0 in. and A,, =8.5 in. Ans. P,=191 kip, M, = 3583 in.-kip
10.21. Solve Problem 10.18 for A,,=5.1 in.” and c = 16.0 in. Ans. P,,=578 kip, M, = 2274 in.-kip
10.22. Using Fig. 10-20 with No. 9 bars, c = 16.0 in., f; = 3000 psi, and f, = 60,000 psi, calculate the ultimate
load and ultimate moment using statics and strain compatibility.
Ans. P,,=771.0 kip, M, = 2940.0 in.-kip
Fig. 10-20
10.23. For the spirally reinforced columns described in Table 10.6, calculate the maximum axial loads allowed
by the 1989 ACI Code. Be sure to use a consistent set of units in (10.1).
Table 10.6
0.025 196 350 4909 3326
1566
ce
10.24. For the rectangular tied columns described in Table 10.7, calculate the maximum axial loads allowed by
the 1989 ACI Code. Be sure to use a consistent set of units in (10.2).
Table 10.7
hy Width b, Depth A, Ay Avy PE rien?
[20 [0 [900 [soo

bie MPa mm mm mm*
[30 [0 san [20 [os |ionsn

400 300 500 0.025 150 000 3650 2232
a0 [wo 300 [00 [oo [1000

[a0 [00 [350 [50 i250
[30 [00 [00 | 00 |[own [asm [aa [as
10.25. For the rectangular tied columns described in Table 10.8, calculate the maximum axial loads allowed by
the 1989 ACI Code. Be sure to use a consistent set of units in (10.2).
Table 10.8
st? PP Gaexy>
= kip
536
(5)
(d)
Chapter 11
Long Columns
NOTATION
Notation pertinent to this chapter is listed in Chapters 9 and 10. Additional definitions are
provided immediately below or as required with the related material.
C,, = factor relating actual moment diagram to equivalent uniform-load moment diagram
C,,» = C,, for gravity loads or loads that do not cause appreciable sidesway
C,,;= C, for lateral loads or loads that cause appreciable sidesway
D = service-level dead-load forces and moments
e... = minimum eccentricity allowed for axial loads on columns, in. (mm)
E = service-level earthquake forces and moments
E. = modulus of elasticity of concrete per (1.3), kip/in.’ (MPa)
EI = relative flexural stiffness of a compression member, kip-in.” (kN-mm’)
h=dimension of column cross section in direction perpendicular to axis about which
bending occurs, in. (mm)
= total height of building, in. (mm)
h, = height of building story between upper and lower joints, in. (mm)
H,,= total factored lateral load acting within story of building, kip (kN)
I, = gross moment of inertia, neglecting steel, of compression member cross section about
centroidal axis of bending, in.’ (mm‘*)
I,,= moment of inertia of reinforcing bars about centroidal axis of bending, in.’ (mm*)
k = equivalent (effective) length factor for columns
kd = distance from compression face of member to neutral axis, using transformed steel
and concrete cross section, in. (mm)
k, = effective length factor for compression member under gravity loads
k,= effective length factor for compression member under lateral loads (normally,
Ke 02)
/= length of column, measured center to center of slabs above and below level under
consideration, in. (mm)
= length of span of beam or slab, measured center to center of supports, in. (mm)
L = service-level live-load forces and moments
M. = design bending moment, ft-kip (kKN-m)
M,,= value of smaller factored end moment on compression member due to loads that
result in no appreciable sidesway, calculated using conventional first-order elastic
frame analysis, ft-kip (kKN-m)
M.,, = value of larger factored end moment on compression member due to loads that result
in no appreciable sidesway, calculated using conventional first-order elastic frame
analysis, ft-kip (kKN-m)
M,, = value of larger factored end moment on compression member due to loads that result
in appreciable sidesway, calculated using conventional first-order elastic frame
analysis, ft-kip (KN-m)
220
CHAP. 11] LONG COLUMNS 221
M,,in = Moment corresponding to minimum eccentricity permitted by the ACI Code, ft-kip
(kKN:m)
n= modular ratio for transforming steel to equivalent concrete = E,/E.
P= axial load on compression member, kip (KN)
P,, = nominal axial load strength at balanced strain conditions, kip (KN)
P.=critical buckling load for compression member, kip (kN)
P.,= P. for gravity loads, kip (KN)
P.,= P.. for lateral loads, kip (KN)
P,,= nominal axial load on column = P,,/¢, kip (KN)
Py = nominal axial load for walls, kip/ft (kKN/m)
P= ultimate factored axial load on column, kip (KN)
P.,, = ultimate factored axial load on column at balanced strain conditions, kip (KN)
Q = elastic weight for deflection and rotation calculations for a member
= stability index of story per (11.2)
r=radius of gyration of compression member cross section, in. (mm)
U = ultimate factored axial load or ultimate factored bending moment
w.=unit weight (density) of hardened concrete, lb/ft (kg/m’)
W = service-level wind-load forces and moments
B,= ratio of maximum factored axial dead load to maximum total factored axial load,
where the load is due to gravity effects only in the calculation of P., in (11.20), or
ratio of the maximum factored sustained lateral load to the maximum total factored
lateral load in that story in the calculation of P., in (11.22).
5, = moment magnification factor for frames braced against sidesway, to reflect effects of
member curvature between ends of compression members
6, = moment magnification factor for frames not braced against sidesway, to reflect lateral
drift resulting from lateral loads and gravity loads
A = relative horizontal deflection between top and bottom of column, in. (mm)
A,,=A due to H,, neglecting P-A effects, in. (mm)
y = parameter defined in (11.14)
w, = & at top of column
wb, = Ww at bottom of column
FRAME ANALYSIS
Prior to the invention of the electronic computer, frames were commonly analyzed by the
cantilever method or by the portal method. Both methods assumed a point of contraflexure at the
center of each member; both were dangerously inaccurate (cf. Chapter 3), and were ‘‘saved”’ only by
the circumstance that the old straight-line theory prescribed very large safety factors to be used along
with them.
The vast majority of structural reinforced concrete frames in modern practice are analyzed using
electronic computers. In North America, such computer programs as SAP (Structural Analysis
Program) and STRUDL (Structural Design Language) are used to analyze structures. While the
computer programs are rather elaborate, they do not take account of the secondary moments
produced by the axial load P acting at an eccentricity A (due to relative displacement between the
upper and lower ends of the columns). This so-called P-A effect is illustrated in Fig. 11-1. These
222 LONG COLUMNS [CHAP. 11
Equivalent lateral
load, H, = PA/h
Fig. 11-1
secondary moments are added to the primary moments that are determined from the first-order
computer analysis.
The 1989 ACI Code requires that a P-A analysis must take into account the influence of axial
loads and variable moment of inertia on member stiffnesses and fixed-end moments. (Axial loads
may be ignored if the slenderness ratios l/r of the columns do not exceed 45.) Compressive axial loads
decrease stiffness and increase fixed-end moments; tension axial loads increase stiffness and decrease
fixed-end moments. For frames that are subjected to sustained lateral loads (e.g., a horizontal thrust
from an arch or unbalanced earth pressures) or frames in which differential shortening of the two
sides of a building produces deflections, the effects of creep should be included in the analysis.
The results of a second-order P-A analysis include the effects of frame deflections and sidesway.
Usually, the analysis provides the moments at the ends of the members only. For a slender column,
the maximum bending moment may occur between the ends; the possibility of this happening
increases as the bent column approaches single curvature—owing to the circumstance that one of the
double-curvature moments at the ends of the member is considerably larger in magnitude than the
other. Further, if transverse loads are applied between the ends of a compression member, the
maximum moment is likely to occur at locations other than the ends of the member. In such cases,
the largest moment in the member is taken as M,,, and C,,, =1.0 in equation (11.20).
To avoid having to check the moment condition for every individual column in a story, one may
investigate whether
Mi et IPOL
(11.1)
M, ~~ 3EI
for the column for which M,/M, is the largest, and/or P, is the largest, in the story. If (11.1) is
satisfied, the maximum moments will occur at one end of a column and will be very nearly those
given by a second-order elastic frame analysis. If (11.1) is not satisfied, it is necessary to compute the
magnified moment using k=1.0 and C,, as given by (11.21). If sustained loads have not been
included in the analysis, the creep factor 8, should be taken as zero.
There is very rarely a completely braced or completely unbraced member in any structural
frame. However, a compression member may be considered to be braced against sidesway if the
stability index Q. for the story satisfies the inequality:
A ;
O= 74, EP, $0.04 (11.2)
In (11.2),
H,, = total factored lateral load acting within story
x P,,=sum of all factored axial loads in story
A, = elastically computed first-order differential deflection between the tops and bottoms of the
columns produced by H,, neglecting P-A effects (Fig. 11-1)
h, = height of story between upper and lower joints
When (11.2) holds, the P-A moments will not usually exceed 5 percent of the first-order moments.
It is important to note that for frames that are subjected to appreciable sidesway (A > /,,/1500), it
is always more economical to perform an elastic frame analysis that includes the secondary P-A
moments.
The structural analysis requires stiffness and carryover factors based on moment-curvature
relationships. In the absence of more precisely calculated values, the relative stiffnesses of columns
may be reasonably approximated as
EI = E.1,(0.2 tol 29,F fF) (11.3)
and the relative stiffnesses of beams and slabs as
EI=0.5E_1, (11.4)
Those values of EJ may also be used when obtaining the factors ” (Chapter 9) and k, wherewith to
calculate ki,.
The effects of foundation rotations should be considered in the elastic analysis. For columns
hinged at both ends, the factor k in kl, should be taken as 1.0. Moment magnification for column
moments will also increase the first-order moments in the slabs and beams—an increase that is
automatically accounted for in a second-order P-A analysis.
There are two current methods for including the secondary effects in a computerized structural
analysis.
Iterative Method
A first run of the computer program is executed to obtain the axial loads on the columns and the
horizontal deflections of the joints. Then the column axial loads are multiplied by the relative
displacements between the tops and bottoms of the columns to obtain the P-A moments. Those
moments are divided by the column heights to obtain equivalent lateral loads. These fictitious lateral
(horizontal) loads are then applied to the structure along with the actual loads, and the computer
program is executed again. This process of iteration is continued until the difference in horizontal
displacements of the joints for computer run i do not differ appreciably from those obtained in run
i—1. The secondary moments from run i are incorporated in the final solution.
Drift Analysis
The initial assumption is made that the horizontal deflection at the roof level, or drift, lies
between h/500 and h/400, where hA is the total building height. This, plus the assumption that the
building is cantilevered from the foundation, allows the horizontal deflection at any given floor level
to be inferred from a parabolic law. The relative deflections (A) are then obtained by subtraction,
and the axial loads (P) on the columns are hand- or computer-calculated. The corresponding
equivalent lateral loads, computed as in the iterative method, are now applied to the structure along
with the actual loads, and a solution is obtained using the computer. The resulting horizontal
defiections of the joints are then compared to the assumed deflections, and if they do not exceed the
assumed deflections, the solution is considered to be satisfactory, conservative, and inclusive of the
secondary moments.
MOMENT-MAGNIFIER METHOD
When the secondary P-A moments are not included in the analysis, a conservative approximate
method is permitted by the 1989 ACI Code, provided
Me = 100 (11.5)
Here, the dimension /, is defined as in Fig. 11-2, r= VJ/A is the radius of gyration of the column
cross section (see Appendix A-7), and the effective length factor k depends on the bracing conditions
(to be treated below) of the column joints. When kl,/r> 100, a second-order analysis is required.
Before giving the details of this moment-magnifier method, we point out that it is ultraconserva-
tive, and therefore extremely uneconomical, when applied to very-high-rise structures. Such build-
ings require the secondary-moment approach.
(a) Flat slab construction (b) Flat slab (or plate) (c) Beam and girder
with column capital construction without construction
column capital
Fig. 11-2
Column Stiffness
The relative stiffness EJ of a column, in kip-in.? (N-mm’), is computed as
sea ae
ie,
(11.6)
or more accurately as
pee is (11.7)
iB;
In (11.6) and (11.7), E, and E, have the usual values, in kip/in.? (MPa);
g — gross moment of inertia of concrete cross section (reinforcement excluded) about centroidal
axis perpendicular to direction of bending, in.’ (mm‘*);
se = moment of inertia of area of reinforcing bars about centroidal axis of column perpendicular
to direction of bending, in.* (mm‘)
and the creep factor, B,, is as defined under “‘Notation.”
Critical Buckling Load
The stiffness EJ (see above) and the effective length kl, (see below) of a column codetermine, via
CHAP. 11] LONG COLUMNS ape
EI (11.8)
Arges
2x hia?
the initial load at which a pinned-end column equivalent to the given column may be expected to
buckle, Failure by buckling would precede failure due to stresses in the concrete and steel set up by
the factored ultimate load P,=1.4P,+1.7P, and the factored ultimate bending moment M, =
1.4M,+1.7M,.
Equation (11.8) assumes that the column has constant E/ throughout its height and that it is
pinned at both ends. As will be shown in Chapter 13, the 1989 ACI Code requires that columns be
considered to have infinite moment of inertia where the upper end of a column extends through a
slab or a slab and a beam, and where the lower end extends through a slab—this even though it is
more conservative to consider that EJ = constant. For this case, (11.8) is ultraconservative, and use
of a more realistic value of P. is appropriate in the interest of economy.
A relaxation of (11.8) (when EJ = const.) and a substitute for (11.8) (when EI is variable) is
provided by the method of elastic weights. This amounts to a finite-difference “solution” of the
differential equation for the deflection of the loaded column, with a sine curve (the exact solution
when EI is constant) taken as the starting approximation. The first step in the method is to pick an
odd number n of subdivision points (nodes) whereby the column is divided into n —1 (an even
number) equal segments of height Ax. As with any numerical method, the larger that n is chosen, the
more accurate the final solution. The deflection at node i, at a distance x; from the top of the column,
is initially taken as
y; = Dsin (1x,/1) (11.9)
where D is the unknown deflection at midheight, x = //2. The assumed deflection curve is shown in
Fig. 11-3(b).
1/2
Fig. 11-3
The next step is to assume the existence of an undetermined P. and to calculate the quantity
P.y,/E,T, at every node i. Because P_y, is actually a bending moment at node i, the plot of these
quantities, as shown in Fig. 11-3(c), represents an M/EI diagram, as is used in Chapter 8 to calculate
beam deflections and in Chapter 13 to calculate stiffness factors, carryover factors, and fixed-end
moments.
The P.y,/E,I, diagram in Fig. 11-3(c) is divided into a series of triangles, assuming the “‘curve’’ to
consist of a series of chords (straight lines) from one nodal value to the next. This construction
produces a set of larger isosceles triangles, each of base 2 Ax, centered on all interior nodes. (In Fig.
11-3(c) the triangle for i=2 is shown crosshatched.) The area of such a triangle,
—tAy iA#1 i#¥n (11.10)
is, by definition, the elastic weight associated with node i. The moments of the elastic weights about
the base B are summed to obtain the “reaction” R, at A. (The true reaction at A is given by the
slope of the actual deflection curve at A.) With this reaction calculated, the moment of the elastic
weights about any node is determined. For example, the moment about i = 3 is R,(2 Ax) — Q,(Ax).
Now, as is obvious from (11.10), the ‘‘weights’’ Q; are not weights (forces) at all; they are pure
numbers. Therefore, the above-calculated moments are actually lengths—they are, in fact, the
improved values of the deflections y,. Further improvement could be achieved by a second iteration
of the above procedure. In practical cases, however, it is far better to rerun the first iteration at an
increased value of n.
The largest of the final deflections y,; may be used to obtain a lower bound for—and thus a
conservative estimate of—the critical buckling load P.. As a test, the method is applied in Problem
11.6 to a pinned-end column having constant EJ. In such a case (11.8) gives the exact value of P..
The approximate value found in Problem 11.6 turns out to be 2.23 percent lower (conservative).
Effective Length Factor
Figure 11-4 indicates the relationship between the unsupported length /, and the effective length
kl, of a pinned-end column (which can undergo different horizontal displacements at its upper and
lower ends). Due to the lateral loads or unsymmetrical gravity loads or lack of symmetry of the
structure, joint (i — 1) deflects horizontally to point (i — 1)’ and joint (i) deflects horizontally to point
_ (i)’. If a curve is drawn through the deflected points and is continued with the same curvature, it will
\ Extension of
\ deflection
Gi)O ©... Oar

| /
) ile
ga ea
|
|
|
/
(-1)O —Oti-1)
Ax;
Fig. 11-4
intersect a vertical line drawn through point (i — 1)’ (at point “‘A” in Fig. 11-4), thereby defining the
equivalent pinned-end column. This results in an effective length k/,. The magnitude of the k factor
depends on whether the column is part of a braced frame or an unbraced frame. In general, columns
may be considered to be braced (against sidesway) if shear walls are provided such that, at any given
level,
7) eS SF zely , (11.11)
u walls columns lu
In braced frames, the shear walls may be assumed to take all the lateral load, and the columns
themselves none. In all other cases, with one exception, columns are considered to be braced under
gravity loads and unbraced under lateral loads. The exceptional case occurs when the computer
solution for the primary moments gives a value of A (see Fig. 11-4) in excess of /,/1500; the columns
are then considered to be subjected to appreciable sidesway and are treated as unbraced under both
gravity and lateral loads.
The most accurate method for computing k is by computer solution of the trigonometric equation
WW, oh ow awik, 2tan(7/2k,) _
a GeKe lohire5 z aim |ec eet ee |
Ws k, Vp
co [ee]
50.0 1.0 50.0

10.0 10.0
re 5.0
3.0 0.9 3.0

2.0 2.0
0.8
1.0 LO
0.8 0.8
0.7 0.7
0.6 07 0.6
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 we 0.2
0.1 0.1
0 0.5 0
Fig. 11-5 Braced frames (0.5< k, < 1.0).
for braced frames, or
WaW_(a/k,) —36 ark,

6, + v5) tan(w/k,) Pepi
for unbraced frames. In these equations the parameter yw is defined by
j oe
sum of E//1 for columns (at a joint) (11.14)
~ “sum of El/l for beams (at a joint)
and w, and w, are, respectively, the values of y at the upper and lower ends of the column. Figures
11-S and 11-6 are nomographic solutions of (11.12) and (11.13): a straight line connecting the values
of w, and wf, intersects the middle axis in the value of k.
It is the intent of the 1989 ACI Code that the column stiffnesses EJ required in (11.14) be
computed (in rough approximation) from (11.6) or (more refined) from (11.7), with B, set equal to
Us k, Ve
io2)
100.0 10.0 100.0

50.0 50.0
30.0 5.0 30.0
20.0 4.0 20.0
10.0 3.0 10.0

8.0 8.0
7.0 7.0
6.0 6.0
5.0 5.0
40 2.0 4.0
3.0 3.0
2.0 2.0
1.5
1.0 1.0
0 1.0 0
Fig. 11-6 Unbraced frames (k, > 1.0).
CHAP. 11] , LONG COLUMNS 229
zero in either equation. Moreover, in the calculation of the beam stiffnesses, the transformed section
(Chapter 4) is to be employed. All this may be simplified if k/,/r<60, a condition satisfied by the
great majority of practical frames. For then (11.14) may be replaced by
___sum of E/,/I for columns (at a joint) (11.15)
~ (4) sum of EI,/1 for beams (at a joint) i
Note that (11.3) allows an approximate evaluation of the numerator in (11.15), if p, is known
beforehand.
Long versus Short Column Design
With the k values known, and with the quantities M,,, M,,, and M,, given for each column by
the preliminary computer analysis, it can now be decided whether the columns are short or long. If
they turn out to be short, moment magnification will be unnecessary, and the columns may be
designed directly by the methods of Chapter 10. If they are Jong, moments must be magnified;
however, once this is done, they become “‘short,” and the design may be completed by the methods
of Chapter 10.
The length criteria are as follows:
(1) In an unbraced frame, a column is long if
k,l,/r>22 © bbs (.))
(2) Ina braced frame, a column is long if
k,l,,/r
> 34 — 12(M,,/M,,) (11.17)
where M,,/M,, is taken positive or negative according as the curvature of the column is
single (Fig. 11-7) or double (Fig. 11-8). If |M,,| as given by the computer is very small, set
M,,/M., = +1 in the criterion. Likewise, if |M,,| and |M,,| are small and if the axial load
P.,, due to gravity is such that
M
P ~=e<e,,, =0.6+0.03h (15 + 0.03h) (11.18)
ub
(see ‘“‘Limitations,” Chapter 10), then set M,,=M,,=P,,€ni, SO that, once more,
M,,/M,, = +1.
Fig. 11-7
Moment Magnification
For long columns, the largest moments (M,) at a joint must be magnified to obtain the design
moment M_:
M. = 6,M,, + 6,M,, (11.19)

Here, 6, is the magnification factor for gravity loads under a braced condition at the given story level
and 6, is the magnification factor for lateral loads under an unbraced condition. The magnification
factors are computed as follows:
(en
Mae per P_i(@P.)
re ese (11.20)
where
C mb =0.6+0.4(
:
3) ee20.4
M x
(11.21)
.
2b
P.,, = ultimate axial load on individual column under gravity loads = 1.4Pp, + 1.7P,,
P.,,= critical buckling load for individual column under gravity loads, as given by (11.8) with
k=k,
¢ = resistance factor, as specified in Chapter 5 under “Load Factors and Resistance Factors”
A, = gross cross-sectional area of individual column
1
and 6
t= T-(PLIGEP,) (11.22)
The summands in (11.22) are:
P,,, = ultimate axial load on a column due to lateral loads
P= critical buckling load for column under lateral loads, as given by (11.8) with k =k,
and the summations extend over all columns at the considered story level.
For small axial loads, the resistance factor may be modified as follows:
(i) For columns with ties,
x
¢ =0.9-0.2 Pp (11.23)
or 0.7, whichever is greater.

(ii) For columns with closely spaced spirals,
P
$=0.9-0.15 (11.24)
or 0.75, whichever is greater.
In (11.23) and (11.24), P; is the lesser of P, and 0.1f/A,. The value of P, may be calculated using
the axial load that corresponds to the maximum moment factor R,, in Figs. 10-1 through 10-12, or the
axial load corresponding to K, in Tables 10.1 through 10.3. Recall that the figures contain values
¢ =0.7 or 0.75 and that the tables contain @ = 1.0. The value of P; is also dependent on the steel
ratio p,.
If the columns in the story are braced against sidesway by shear walls, the lateral loads are not
considered to be taken by the columns, and 6, is taken to be zero in (11.19). If the columns are
braced by diagonal members or other elements such that lateral displacements of the joints are
insignificant, the columns may still be subject to bending moments due to lateral loads with little or
no P-A effects. In this case, use 5, = 1.0.
WALLS
Walls may be designed as columns, according to the very conservative equation
6p, -0.556f'A,|1.0- (#2) | (11.25)

where ¢ = 0.7 and k is (a) 0.8, when the wall is restrained against rotation at top and/or bottom; (b)
1.0, when the wall is unrestrained against rotation at both ends; (c) 2.0, when the wall is not braced
against lateral translation. In (11.25), both the gross concrete area (A,) and the axial-load capacity
(¢P,,,,) are on a per-unit-width basis. However, use of column charts is recomended, instead.
Unless justified by a detailed analysis, the horizontal length of wall to be considered as effective
for each concentrated load shall not exceed the center-to-center distance between loads or the width
of bearing plus four times the wall thickness. Walls shall: be anchored to intersecting elements such as
floors, roofs, or to columns, pilasters, buttresses and intersecting walls, and footings.
The minimum vertical reinforcement area (per unit width) shall be 0.0012 times the gross
concrete area for deformed bars not larger than No. 5 (15M) with a specified yield strength not less
than 60,000 psi (400 MPa); it shall be 0.0015 times the gross concrete area for other deformed bars,
or 0.0012 times the gross concrete area for smooth or deformed welded wire fabric not larger than
W31 or D31.
The minimum ratio of horizontal reinforcement area (per unit height) to the gross area of
concrete shall be 0.0020 for deformed bars not larger than No. 5 (15M) with a specified yield
strength not less than 60,000 psi (400 MPa); it shall be 0.0025 for other deformed bars, or 0.0020 for
smooth or deformed welded wire fabric not larger than W31 or D31.
However, the quantities of reinforcement and limits of thickness may be waived where the
structural analysis has shown adequate strength and stability.
Walls more than 10 in. (250 mm) thick, except for basement walls, shall have the reinforcement
in both directions placed in two layers parallel with the faces of the wall in accordance with the
following:
(1) One layer consisting of not less than one-half nor more than two-thirds of the total
reinforcement required in each direction shall be placed not less than 2 in. (S50 mm) nor
more than one-third the wall thickness from the exterior surface.
(2) The other layer, consisting of the remainder of the reinforcement in that direction, shall be
placed not less than } in. (20 mm) nor more than one-third the wall thickness from the
interior surface.
Vertical and horizontal reinforcement on any face shall not be spaced farther apart than three
times the wall thickness or 18 in. (500 mm).
Vertical reinforcement need not be enclosed by lateral ties if the area of the vertical re-
inforcement is not greater than 0.01 times the gross area of the concrete cross section, or where the
vertical reinforcement is not required as compression reinforcement.
In addition to the minimum reinforcement specified above, no fewer than two No. 5 (15M) bars
shall be provided around all window and door openings. Such bars shall be extended to develop the
full strength of the bars beyond the corners of the openings, but not less than 24 in. (600 mm).
The minimum thickness of bearing walls shall not be less than 1/25 the supported height or
length, whichever is smaller, nor less than 4 in. (100 mm). Thickness of exterior basement walls and
foundation walls shall not be less than 75 in. (190 mm). The thickness of nonbearing walls shall not
be less than 4 in. (100 mm) or less than 1/30 the distance between members that provide lateral
support. Portions of grade beam walls exposed above grade shall also meet the requirement for
minimum reinforcement.
If structural analysis indicates appropriate strength and stability, the minimum reinforcement and
thickness requirements may be waived.
Compression members built integrally with walls shall be designed as columns. Transfer of forces
at the base of walls shall conform with that required for columns. Shear forces must be resisted by
the walls.
Solved Problems
All problems refer to Figs. 11-9, 11-10, and 11-11.
| | | |
is
dablio
| a ah
-s—a—s-—8-
h [ada ee ia
or tra
-s—S—8-8-
| | I !
Fig. 11-9 Column cross section. Fig. 11-10 Column plan.
b Compression face
Compression face
(a) At supports (b) At centerline of span
Fig. 11-11 Beam cross sections.
11.1. Find the equivalent length factors k, and k,, given f’ = 3000 psi, beam width b = 12 in.,
d'=2in., A,, =4.0 in’, A,, =4.0 in”, A! =2.0 in?, w. = 145 Ib/ft®, column dimensions b =
h=20 in., y, =4in., and y, =8 in. Use the transformed section to compute beam stiffness.
Consider an interior column at an interior floor level. The twelve column bars are No. 9.
Column heights are /, = 12 ft and beam spans are 20 ft.
The modulus of elasticity of the steel is 29,000 kip/in.” and the modulus of elasticity of the concrete
is
E, = 33.0w2’*V/fi = 33.0(145)"’?V3000/
1000 = 3156 kip/in.?
giving the modular ratio as n = E,/E, = 29,000/3156 = 9.189. The 1989 ACI Code recommends using the
nearest whole number for n; son =9.
For twelve No. 9 bars, with A, for each bar 1.0 in., the moment of inertia of the steel is
I,, = (8)(1.0)(8)? + (4)(1.0)(4)? = 512 + 64 = 576 in.

and (11.7) gives, with B, =0, the column stiffness
El=}E,1, + E,1,,
3
= 1(3156) Coy + (29,000)(576) = 25.12 x 10° kip-in?

and stiffness ratio
EI _ 25.12x 10° = 174,440 in.-kip (1)
Ls el2 aie
[Alternatively, (11.3), with p,=12/400=0.03, yields EJ = 22.36 x 10° kip-in.” and EJ/l = 155,110
in.-kip; these are reductions of 12 percent.]
For the beams, the transformed section at the centerline of the span is shown in Fig. 11-12.
Summing moments of area about the neutral axis,
(12kd)(kd/2) = (36)(20 — kd) or (kd) + 6(kd) — 120=0
from which
fg = ~6 SEVEN)
+ V+ = 3 + 11.36 = 8.36 in.
Hence, J, = (12)(8.36)7/3 + (9)(4)(20 — 8.36) = 2337 + 4878 = 7215 in.*, and the stiffness ratio at the
centerline is
EI, _ (3156)(7215)
fe NOU KAD
= 94,880 in.-kip
kd
20-kd
nA, =(9)(4.0) = 36 in”

5 eka Oca ROS
'VLik kh LA kA hd dodo diodi dedi didide
SPATE Wee Se
Fig. 11-12
Figure 11-13 shows the transformed section for the beams at the support. The 1989 ACI Code
requires the use of (2m—1)A‘ to transform compression steel “‘for stress computations’; but no
provisions are given by the Code for stiffness calculations. Here, (2n — 1)A/ will be used. Summing
moments of area about the neutral axis,
(12)(kd)(kd/2) + (34)(kd — 2) = 36(20 — kd)

6(kd) + 70(kd) — 788 = 0
(kd)? + 11.67(kd) — 131.33 =0
~11.67 + (1.67)? + (525.32
kd = eis iceh aac A = —5,835 + 12.86 = 7.025 in.|
Hence,
I, = (12)(7.025)*/3 + (34)(5.025)? + (36)(12.975) = 1386.8 + 858.5 + 6060.6 = 8305.9 in.”
and
E.1,
]
_ (3156)(8305.9)
0 x20 = 109,200 in.-kip
9A, = 36
Neutral axis
VIILLLLL
LLL LLL LL
Compression face
Fig. 11-13
The average stiffness ratio at the center of the span and at the face of the support is
EI _ 94,880 + 109,200
= 102,040 in.-kip
i 2
For two beams (uniaxial bending) at each joint, the sum of E//I is 2(102,040) = 204,080 in.-kip. From
(1), the sum of E/// for two columns is
2(174,440) = 348,880 in.-kip
Equation (11.14) now gives w = 348,880/204,080= 1.71, and Figs. 11-5 and 11-6 give, for f¥,=Y,= —
1.71, k, = 0.84, k, =1.52. [The alternate value of the stiffness ratio, 155,110 in.-kip, leads to k, = 0.82
and k, = 1.48 (insignificant reductions).]
11.2. For Problem 11.1, determine k, and k, using gross moments of inertia.
For the columns, I, = (20)(20)°/12 = 13,333 in.’
For the beams, /, = (12)(22)’/12 = 10,648 in.*.
By (11.15), and the fact that & is a pure number, i
— ZED yp 13333)/12 gli

Ya = Ue = ~ TE. (10,648) /20
4) DOIN
beams i
Figures 11-5 and 11-6 give k, = 0. 92 and k, = 2.1, which are conservative estimatessigethe values (either -
| set) found in Problem 11.1. : a
st . :
11.3. For the interior columns of Fig. 11-10, let the ultim: column moments be M,, = 485 ft
ea= 500 Hee the columns i Ago)in single c
The equivalent number of interior columns is 4 + 8/2 + 4/4 =9. For the gravity-load condition on an
interior column,
P,,, = 0.75(1.4P5, + 1.7P,,) = 400 kip
and the largest bending moments on the columns are M,, =500 ft-kip and M,, = 580 ft-kip. Those
values must be compared with the moment corresponding to minimum eccentricity,
Monin = P.,(0.6 + 0.03/)
where A, the cross-sectional dimension of the column in the direction of bending, is in this case 20 in.
Thus,
M in = 400[0.6 + (0.03)(20)] = 480 in.-kip = 40 ft-kip
Since all bending moments in the columns exceed this minimum value, the actual moments are to be
used in the design. Then,
C,,» = 0.6 + (0.4)(M,,/M,,) = 0.6 + (0.4)(485 /500) = 0.988
The columns may be designed as short columns if
Lae aK eal 0.92)(126 12)
= 22.08
7 03h 0.3(20)
does not exceed 34 — 12(M,,/M,,,) = 22.36, and if
Rte) (12 % 12)
= 50.4
r 0.3(20)
does not exceed 22. In this case, the unbraced lateral load condition requires design as long columns.
Since neither k,/,/r nor k,l,,/r exceeds 100, the moment-magnifier method may be used.
As in Problem 11.1, E. = 3156 kip/in? and I, = 13,333 in.’; but now
I,, = 8(1.0)(7.5)? + 4(1.0)(3.75)* = 506.25 in.*

Hence, for lateral loads (8, =0), (11.7) gives
CER) = AM Soins
3156)(13,3339) + (29,000)(506.25) = 23.096 x 10° kip-in2
Z CEeis
while, for gravity loads (8B, = 0.4),
6
(EI), = eee = 16.497 x 10° kip-in.”
The corresponding critical buckling loads are, from (11.8),

> (EN), 23.096x 10° ;
= = (9.87) ———_—_—.,, = 2493 k
no ane 1G Dao E
mee es 16.497x 10°
= = (9.87
= ™ ey 987) 6 onaes
xia Dy ak
ep
Then, for lateral loads, (11.22) gives
6, = coc
setaSeccn eg OANA
SSsMenlo Fo 1.2974
ee THE WGISiP 2) RES 00 es
0.7 x 9 x 2493
and, for gravity loads, (11.20) gives
Cr _ 0.988 nf:
Or a Paid (iB, oY = 7 400 = 1.0529
(0.7)(9277)
Finally, by (11.19), the design column moment is
M.,, = (1.0529)(500) + (1.2974)(580) = 1279 ft-kip
4
11.4. Rework Problem 11.3 (in hard translation), given b=510 mm, A=510 mm, Lge 4m, fl=
20 MPa, y,=2y,=200 mm, A, = 700 mm’ per bar, M,,=660 kN-m, = 680 kN-m,
M,,
M,, = M,, = 800 kKN-m, w, = 2320 kg/m*, P,,, = P,,, = 1800 kN for interior columns.
Proceeding as in Problem 11.3, calculate
M.),,,. = P,,,(15 + 0.03h) = 1800[15 + 0.03(510)]/10° = 54.54 kN-m
Actual moment values are to be used. Then,
C,,» = 0.6 + (0.4)(M,,,/M,,) = 0.6 + (0.4)(660/680) = 0.988
Long-column design is required and permitted because
kl, _ (2.1)(4x10°)
Is (0.3)(510) = 54.9< 100
Calculate stiffnesses as follows:
E. = 0.043 wiv fl= 0.043(2320)'°Vv 20 = 21 488 MPa
(510)(510)°
L= = 5636 x 10° mm*
&
12
I, = 8(700)(200)* + 4(700)(100)* = 252 x 10° mm*
(21 488)(5636 x 10°)
(El) = 5 + (200 000)(252 x 10°) = 74.63 x 10'* N-mm?
.63 x 10'*
(El), = neo = 53.307 x 10’? N-mm?
From (11.8),
ate ey 74.63 x 10" x
F Chali remy = 87 (2.11410) (10°*) ==10 439 kN
(EI), 53.307 « 10”

Pie
om ae OT = 9. 9.87 ———___|
i. o\(4x 10 |(107°) = 38 852 kN
and from (11.22) and (11.20), .
ri 1 . 1 9
* = (Ea eR a 9xi800_ 377 ‘
0.7 x 9 x 10 439 Wa
2 Ce 0.988 Y
Team
T= Pair) = ene (0.7)(38 852) |
: The design moment is therefore
ay
M, = (1.058)(680)
+ (1.327)(800) = 1781 kKN-m : = *
. .
:
a '
Bar spacing may not exceed 3h or 18 in. (here, 3h =18 in.). For bars at 18 in. (1.5 ft) on centers,
A,, = 1.5(0.0864) = 0.1296 in.’ required; No. 4 bars at 18 in. on centers provide 0.13 in.”. For horizontal
reinforcement with No. 5 or smaller deformed bars having f, at least equal to 60,000 psi,
A,,, = 0.0020A ,= (0.0020)(72) = 0.144 in.’/ft; No. 4 bars at 16 in. on centers provide A,, = 0.15 in.’/ft.
Both horizontal and vertical bars are placed at the center of the wall, and are fastened together with
bailing wire at every bar intersection.
11.6. Use the method of elastic weights, with n = 7, to calculate the critical buckling load P. for a
pinned-end column of constant stiffness E/.
The computations are begun in Table 11.1, where the notation follows Fig. 11-3. The total moment
about the base is R,/, whence R, = 11.196DP_1/(36EJ). Now calculate the new value of y, (the
maximum deflection) as the net moment about node 4 of R,, Q,, Q,, and Q,:
2 11.196DP_l 31 2 i 0.500DP.1/6 2l m 0.866 DP_1/6 a4
Ya Bb Efaae 6) a: 36EI «6 36EI 6
= 3.732DP._I7/(36EI)
Equating this to the old value, 1.000D, we find
P. =9.65 o
The “‘exact” value is P. = 7 = = 9.87 = (2.2 percent conservative).
Table 11.1
ie ElasticSew Moment about base

mx, /l eer /1) lx Sa
tenes cee
(0.866D)(I/6)P./EI | 3.464DP,17/(36El)
(1.000D)(1/6)P./EI | 3.000DP.17/(36El)
(0.866D)(I/6)P./EI | 1.732DP.1°/(36El)
(0.500D)(I/6)P./EI | 0.500DP,17/(36El)
0.000 0.000
Sum 11.196DP.17/(36EI)
All problems refer to Figs. 11-9 and 11-10.
11.7. Table 11.2 presents data for subproblems (a)-(k). Verify the listed solutions, assuming that all columns
are square, so h=b and y, =2y,; w, = 145 Ib/ft*; all columns are identical in cross section; side
columns take one-half as much axia! load as interior columns; corner columns take one-fourth as much
axial load as interior columns. A, is the area of one reinforcing bar.
11.8. Verify the solutions of subproblems (a)—( J) as given in Table 11.3, making the same assumptions as in
Problem 11.7 and taking w, = 2400 kg/m’*.
a
c
9
S
oa
9 Solutions
Nn
11.2
Table 11.3
Table
|
1850
1850
0.86
gis
Given
[ao]
Pa
[20
400
[Cs
[a0
[200
oso
|
[seo
00cy
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (A) (i)
11.9. Verify the concrete wall solutions to subproblems (a)—(/) as given in Table 11.4. Use f, = 60,000 psi.
Table 11.4
A sv? A,),>
in.’/ft in./ft
11.10. Verify the concrete wall solutions to subproblems (a)-(j) as given in Table 11.5. Use f, = 400 MPa.
Table 11.5
h, a Ae 7
kN/m mm’/m | mm’*/m

210
400
11.11. Data for the nonuniform column of Fig. 11-3(a) are /= 120 in., E, = E, = 10,000 kip/in”’, 1, =2/, =
2000 in.* (take J = 1500 in.* at the discontinuity). Using the method of elastic weights, with n = 11,
determine a lower bound for P., if (a) A=0.3, (b) A=0.4, (c) A=0.5, (d) A= 0.6, (e) A =0.7, and (f)
A=0.8.
Ans. (a) 12,223 kip; (b) 10,831 kip; (c) 9252 kip; (d) 8071 kip; (e) 7356 kip; (f) 6984 kip
Chapter 12 ’
Footings
NOTATION
a=column width, in. (mm)
oa, =a coefficient for strength design of steel as given in Table 5.2 (Table 5.3)
A = area of poete: ft” (m*)
A,=steel area, in.” (mm’)
A,, = Steel area in band width B, in.” (mm’)
A,,= total steel area, in.” (mm’*)
A, = pile area, ft” (m*)
b = width of a beam or smaller dimension of a column cross section, in. (mm)
= perimeter of a shear section, in. (mm)
B = footing width, ft (m)
c = distance between centers of columns, ft (m)
c = distance from neutral axis to a stressed point, in. (mm)
d= effective depth of a footing, in. (mm)
d= distance between pile centers, ft (m)
d, = diameter of a reinforcing bar, in. (mm)
d, = diameter of a pile, in. (mm)
D= diameter of a circular column, in. (mm)
e =eccentricity of load, ft (m)
f( = ultimate strength of concrete, psi (MPa)
f, =steel stress, psi (MPa) botany
f, = yield stress for steel, psi (MPa) £ se .
F=any force, kip (kN) fo P || Se
h = distance from footing base to horizontal force, ft (m) law ©
h = greater dimension of a column cross section, in.
1.(mm) oS * pei
H = horizontal force, kip (kN) gs 2 |bad .
I= moment of inertia of footing base,ft*(m*) i i We aae ey | 1ets 7 <4
Us lena ofokie base,ft(m) ried aie
CHAP. 12] FOOTINGS 241
P=any load, kip (KN)

P’ = change in pile load due to displacement from critical section, kip (KN)
q =soil pressure, kip/ft? (kPa)
oR,, =a coefficient for strength design of concrete as given in Table 5.2 (Table 5.3)
V =shear force, kip (KN)
V.= permissible shear force on concrete, kip (KN)
V,,= nominal shear force = V,/¢, kip (KN)
V,, = ultimate shear force = @V,, kip (KN)
W = column load, kip (KN)
W,.= footing weight, kip (KN)
a, = perimeter shear factor for footings and two-way slabs (see Chapter 6)
Wall Column
(a) Wall footing (b) Isolated footing
Columns
Pedestal
(c) Footing with pedestel (d) Combined footing
Columns Wall Cound
(e) Raft foundation (f) Cantilever footing
Fig. 12-1
242 FOOTINGS [CHAP. 12
B..= aspect ratio of a column cross section for perimeter shear of footings and two-way
slabs (see Chapter 6)
¢ = capacity reduction factor or resistance factors as specified in the 1989 ACI Code (see
Chapter 5; ¢ is member-type dependent)
GENERAL NOTES
Reinforced concrete foundations or footings are utilized to support columns and walls composed
of a variety of materials, including concrete, steel, masonry, and timber.
Spread footings are designed to distribute large loads over a large area of soil near the ground
surface to reduce the intensity of the force per unit area so that the soil will safely support the
structure.
Pile footings are designed to deliver large loads to individual piles. The piles transfer the forces
to lower levels by means of skin-friction between the soil and the pile surface and point-bearing of
the pile on a dense soil strata at its base.
Both spread footings and pile footings may be classified into subgroups such as isolated footings,
multiple column footings, wall footings, and mat footings.
Isolated footings support the load of a single column. The foundation for a structure may be
composed of many isolated footings and, in addition, other types of footings.
Multiple column footings support two or more columns, acting as a beam or slab resting on the
soil or piles.
Wall footings usually support continuous concrete or masonry walls around the perimeter of a
building. Interior partition walls may also rest on continuous wall footings.
A special application of wall footings exists for retaining walls, which are discussed in Chapter
14.
Raft footings may support many columns and walls, acting as a continuous slab to distribute the
loads over a large area.
Special types of footings are also used for particular purposes. Cantilever footings may be utilized
advantageously near property lines or other structures.
Figure 12-1 illustrates the types of footings which are used most often in general practice. These
may be used with or without piles. (Here, ‘‘piles”’ includes drilled piers and caissons.)
ALLOWABLE LOADS ON SOIL OR PILES

It is always desirable to determine safe bearing values for soil or allowable pile loads for the
particular site upon which a structure is to be erected. Foundation engineers or soil testing experts
should always be consulted in connection with the design of foundations, since it is usually more
costly to rectify errors in judgment concerning foundations than to seek the advice of an authority
before proceeding with the design of foundations.
In the absence of more authoritative information, most building codes permit the use of
approximate values of safe soil-bearing load. Typical values are listed in Table 12.1.
It should be noted that the values listed refer to service loads and not to ultimate loads. Soil
testing laboratories often report the ultimate values, allowing the structural engineer to select an
appropriate safety factor.
It is not possible to state general values which should be used for designing pile footings. Pile
tests should be initiated, or a soils expert consulted, before proceeding to design pile footings.
ee
Table 12.1
2 958
30
in sound condition 9576
DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS TO SOIL

The 1989 ACI Code permits the use of uniform soil pressure beneath spread footings so that
q=PI/A, (12.1)
The soil pressure stated in equation (12.1) refers to footings for which the resultant column load
is applied at the centroid of the base of the footing. If eccentricity of load exists, the pressure of the
soil will vary uniformly, and one of two cases will exist. These are illustrated in Fig. 12-2.
Case 1 of Fig. 12-2 occurs for moderate values of M’ or H, and Case 2 occurs for large values of
M' or H. The resultant R consists of the applied load P plus the weight of the footing.
Pe
M'
a:
eo
W/2 1/2 U2 ule

h h
Ymin
4 max
Qmax
eet 2a
e R
l l
(a) Entire footing subject to soil pressure (b) Portion of footing not subject to soil pressure
Case 1 Case 2
Fig. 12-2
If the effects of M’ and the moment due to H are combined as M, the maximum and minimum
soil pressure can be obtained as follows, considering a constant width of footing B:
For Case 1, Ymax = R/BI + 6M/BI? (12.2)
Qmin = R/BI — 6M/BI? (12.3)
For Case 2, Qmax = 4R/[3B(l — 2e)] (12.4)
Fats (12.5)
For both cases, the resultant R is located by determining the eccentricity of load,
e=(M'+Hh)/R (12.6)
Case 1 will always exist if R lies within the middle third of the footing or if
e=1/6 (12.7)
otherwise, Case 2 will apply. If Case 2 applies,
a=I/2-—e (12.8)
The foregoing equations for eccentrically loaded footings apply to bending about one axis only
and are derived using the equation
q= RIA, + MclI (12.9)
in which A, = base area of the footing, M = Re, c=1/2, [= BI’/12, B = width of footing.
When bending occurs about both the x and y axes, and the entire footing is subjected to pressure,
Qmat = IA + M,C, tT Mealy (12.10)
Gmin RIA p— Mcll Mead, (12.11)
The values of e, and e, are obtained using equation (12.6) first about the x axis and then about
the y axis. If the resulting point of application of e falls outside of the kern of the section (as labeled
in Fig. 12-3), a special case exists and the points of zero pressure must be determined by trial. It
should be noted that tension cannot exist between the soil and the footing. For the effects of soil
pressure due to axial forces and overturning momentor, see Chapter 14.
Fig. 12-3. Plan view of base of footing with resultant outside of kern.
FORCES ON PILES
Vertical Forces
When the resultant R is applied at the centroid of a pile group of N piles as in Fig. 12-4 (N = 12),
each pile receives an identical load, so the pile load P will be
| Pe
P= RIN (42,12)
When bending and axial load occur on pile footings, the approach is as follows: Let A, be the
area of each pile, so the average stress q; in any pile i located at a distance d, from the pile group
centroid will be
q; = R/NA, + Md,/I
where J=N (A ay then if each pile has an identical area,
AR eas ea)
ie NAS A, yy he
Multiplying both sides of the above equation by A, and noting that qA , is the force in a pile, the
equation for any pile i becomes
Posen — (12.13)
Piles can assume tension loads if sufficient negative skin-friction can be developed, so only one
case need be considered for bending about one principal axis. The positive sign applies to those piles
on the side of the axis which is being rotated downward toward the piles.
When bending occurs about both principal axes, the load in pile i will be
LSSaey Mids mivad;,
P=—+—~*+—2? 12.14
Ns ed ( )
In all cases, the x and y principal axes must be directed through the centroid of the pile group.
cry
Battered
pile
Fig. 12-4 Fig. 12-5
Horizontal Forces
When horizontal loads are applied to spread footings, those loads must be transmitted to the soil
by friction of concrete on soil or by passive pressure of the side of the footing (or a key) against the
soil. Piles must resist the horizontal forces by shear stress in the Puce and passive soil pressure, or
battered piles (see Fig. 12-5). ;
bt” ote eal
~— *
.
Battered piles are not as effective in resisting vertical loads as are vertical piles. If 6 is the batter
angle, the efficiency of the battered pile is proportional to cos 6, and the values of N and J must be
adjusted to reflect the loss in efficiency due to the batter. (See Fig. 12-5.)
The vertical component V, of the allowable pile load is P, cos @, and the horizontal component
H, is P, sin 6. The sum of all of the horizontal components of the pile loads must resist the applied
horizontal force H, just as the sum of all the vertical components of the pile loads must resist the
applied vertical force W.
WALL FOOTINGS
The equations presented previously for isolated column footings may be used for continuous wall
footings if the following factors are utilized:
(1) For spread footings, the width B of the footing is taken as 1 ft (1 m) along the length of the
wall.
(2) For pile footings, one transverse row of piles is considered for uniform pile patterns, or, one
repetition of the pile pattern (or one panel) is considered for non-uniform pile patterns.
This is illustrated in Fig. 12-6.
fae
Fig. 12-6
ri
MULTIPLE COLUMN FOOTINGS sales
ye) ay
a The 1989 ACI Code Committee has not chosen to state specific requirements for the designof |
_ multiple column footings. Traditionally, such footings have been designed as invertedbeams, nine. :
beam design criteria. ie _
_ Whether spread footings or pile footings are used, ‘itis necessary to locatethecenter ofgravity ¢
Bese at the centroid of the base area of the footing or pile gr | (
niformly. eo For oepr apeefs coe ae
Whenever possible, the footing width is made constant so that the area of the footing can be
obtained in a simple manner.
It is sometimes impossible to use perfect rectangles for combined footings. Clearances with other
footings or adjacent structures may prohibit this simplification. An odd shape may be necessary in
order to place the center of gravity of the loads at the centroid of the footing base or at the centroid
of the pile group. Figure 12-8 illustrates some of the shapes which are often used.
When multiple column footings are utilized, the footing is treated as a beam on two or more
supports in the long direction.
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 12-8
Transverse beams are designed to support the longitudinal beam and to transmit the soil pressure
or pile reactions to the columns. Typical qualitative shear and moment diagrams for the longitudinal
beam are illustrated in Fig. 12-9.
Several comments must be made regarding Fig. 12-9.
(a) The column loads are actually distributed in some manner over the top of the footing, but
the loads are usually considered as line loads in the transverse direction at the center of the
columns. These loads may also be considered to be uniformly distributed over an area
equal to the width of the column in the long direction and the total short width of the
footing. In either case the solution is the same, since critical sections do not occur under
the column.
(b) The entire weight of a pile cap is considered by some designers to be supported by the soil.
Others assume that these loads are delivered to the piles. Either assumption has merit,
although the latter is more conservative.
(c) If the pile spacing is not uniform or if the number of piles is not constant for all transverse
rows, the concentrated live loads will differ from one row to another.
(d) For spread footings the weight of the footing is used in obtaining the gross soil pressure
while the net soil pressure is used in proportioning the concrete and reinforcement.
Load
Moment
(a) Spread footing (b) Pile footing
Fig. 12-9
Transverse Beams
Regardless of the mode of support of the footing (soil or piles), the transverse beam is required
to transfer the loads to the column, and each transverse beam must be designed to distribute the total _
load of the column (it supports) to the footing. (See Fig. 12-10.) “es =
Each transverse beam is designed for a uniformly distributed pressure equal to the respective
column load divided by the assumed area of the transverse beam. For example, the beam under
column / has an area equal to B x b,, and the transverse beam pressure p, for design is equal to
pr = P,/Bb, (12.17)
The width of the transverse beam has not been standardized in engineering practice. Recom-
mendations range from using the width of the column to using the footing width as the width of the
transverse beam.
Using the dimension B as the width of the transverse beam approximates the conditions used in
isolated footing design. Using only the width of the column is based on ordinary beam and slab
design.
A reasonable width for the transverse beam can be selected considering the usual mode of failure
of footings as shown in Fig. 12-11.
Failure
cone?) . g
—st_
Fig. 12-11
Failure due to shear occurs approximately along 45° lines when footings are tested to destruction.
This suggests that the width of the transverse beam should be taken as b = a + 2d, but not more than
tes
As will be shown later, the critical section for shear in slabs and footings occurs at a distance d/2
from the face of a support. For this reason, it is quite reasonable to use a transverse beam width
equal to a + 2(d/2) or
b=atd (12.18)
When necessary to resist bending or shear forces or to provide sufficient development length, the
transverse beam may be deepened to form a pedestal.
CRITICAL SECTIONS FOR BENDING AND DEVELOPMENT LENGTH

For isolated footings the 1989 ACI Code stipulates that the critical section for bending and
flexural bond shall be taken as a section across the full width of the footing at its top surface (to
account for tapered footings), at planes as shown in Fig. 12-12. ‘
In the case of combined footings, the critical sections are used as for isolated footings with
respect to bending and development length, as shown in Fig. 12-12. Although no stipulation is
contained in the Code with respect to combined footings, it is reasonable to regard such footings as
several isolated footings connected together.
250 FOOTINGS
Concrete column or
pedestal (or wall)
Masonry wall
Critical
kX Critical section
| section
Potential crack
Potential crack J
Centerline of wall
Critical
Critical
section
Face of
Face of —
metal column metal column
Face of
pedestal Metal
Critical
section
Ate
The critical sections for bending and development length as shown on Fig. 12-12 may be
described as follows:
(a) For footings supporting concrete columns, pedestals, or walls, the critical section occurs at
the face of the column, pedestal, or wall.
(b) For footings supporting masonry walls, the critical section lies midway between the center
of the wall and the face of the wall. This is due to the flexibility of a masonry wall.
(c) For footings supporting columns founded on metal base plates which are in turn supported
on a pier or pedestal, the critical section occurs at the midpoint between the edge of the
base plate and the edge of the pedestal.
(d) For footings supporting columns founded on metal base plates without pedestals, the critical
section occurs at the midpoint between the column face and the edge of the metal base
plate.
In all the above cases, the total shear force V, for flexure is that force exerted by the soil
pressure on area 1-2-3-4 as shown in Fig. 12-12. The design bending moment is the moment of V,
about the critical section.
When the footings are stepped, or at changes in depth or quantity of reinforcement, the section
should be checked for shear, bending, and development length of reinforcement.
Reinforcement
(a) In two-way footings, the reinforcement should be designed for bending and development
length at the critical section, and should be uniformly distributed across the footing.
(6) In square two-way footings, the steel should be identical in both directions. (Two layers are
provided, one in each direction.)
(c) In rectangular two-way footings, the steel must be computed separately in each direction,
and spaced as follows: (1) The Jong bars should be equally distributed across the footing
over the short dimension B, as shown in Fig. 12-13. (2) The short bars must be distributed
in three band widths over the long dimension /, as shown in Fig. 12-13.
Long bars, equal spacing

Short bars
Space in
band widths
AandB
Band A
(l— B)/2
The area of steel A,, in band width B is obtained from equation (12.19), and the steel
A,, in band width A is obtained from equation (12.20):
Ay, =2A,/(S +1) (12.19)
B52 FOOTINGS [CHAP. 12
and A= A, ~ARR (12.20)

where S=1/B (12.21)
and A,, is the total area of short bars required. Evidently, A Ss _ = A,, for a square footing,
since $= 1 for that condition.
The spacing of the short bars stated above refers only to isolated footings, supporting a
single column. The short bars are spaced uniformly across the widths of the transverse
beams in multiple column footings. The short bars are designed separately under each
column to resist the bending moments in each transverse beam.
Some quantity of steel is always placed in the segments between the transverse beams, and
outside of the transverse beams toward the ends of the footing.
The steel provided should be at least that which is specified for temperature reinforcement, but
the steel should be designed in a manner similar to that for isolated square footings or continuous
concrete wall footings, assuming an imaginary wall face to exist along the faces of the columns.
CRITICAL SECTIONS FOR SHEAR AND DIAGONAL TENSION

Two separate requirements must be considered with respect to shearing forces on single column
footings and multiple column footings, whether square, rectangular, or any other shape. The
conditions are shown in Fig. 12-14 below.
Critical section
for shear
(l-a-2d)/2 (l-a-d)/2'd d' (l-a-d)/2

PORT i 2
fe: (—a)/2
eve (12.22)
for strength design, where ¢ = 0.85.
The permissible shear force for beam (one-way) shear is
V, =2V fibd (AV f'bd) (12 23)
The more detailed analysis may be used and web reinforcement may be provided as described for
shear in beams (see Chapter 6).
The second condition considers perimeter shear or punching shear on the critical section 1-2-3-4,
as shown in Fig. 12-14(b). The shear force V or V, consists of all the net forces on the footing due to
soil pressure or pile reactions which exist outside section 1-2-3-4. Nominal shear force is given by
(12.22). The permissible shear force V, is obtained from (6.34), (6.35), and (6.36). The parameters
B., a,, and b, pertaining to these equations are discussed under “‘Slabs and Footings,” in Chapter 6.
ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS
(1) Piles are considered as contributing reactions concentrated at the pile center, except in the
case of a pile near the critical section. A pile having its center located at least d,/2 outside
the critical section delivers a full pile load to the critical section. If the center of the pile is
located d,,/2 inside the critical section, it delivers no load to the critical section. Referring to
Fig. 12-15, an equation may be derived for these conditions as
0 X<-d,/2
P'/P=433+(X/d,) —d,/2=X<d,/2 (12.24)
1 dae
where P’ = proportion of pile load P delivered to critical section
X=distance of pile center from critical section, counted positive when
within critical section and negative when outside critical section
‘Se
Fig. 12-15
(2) Minimum clearances for footings on piles are shown on Fig. 12-16. Embedment of piles
should be 4” to 6” (100 to 150 mm) for timber piles, and 6” to 12” (150 to 300 mm) for
concrete or metal piles. For heavily loaded piles, the larger values apply. Unreinforced
concrete may not be used for pile footings.
(3) Minimum clearances for footings on soil (spread footings) are shown on Fig. 12-17.
(4) For round columns (or pedestals) an equivalent concentric square section having the same
area as the round section shall be used for determining the critical sections. This is also
practical for use with other symmetrical shapes, i.e., ct ca, hexagonal, cross, etc., and
is permitted by the 1989 ACI Code.
Ly
ag 4 dina Si tants
| 3” (70 mm) clear
3” (70 mm) clear

varies
@
.
al 12” |(300
ae. et
mm)
minimum varies SETHE
Fig. 12-16
_{ 3" (70 mm) clear

8” (200 mm) min.
(unreinforced)
3" (70 mm) clear
Fig. 12-17
TRANSFER OF FORCE AT THE BASE OF A COLUMN

(1) The forces in the longitudinal steel in any column shall be transferred into its supporting
pedestal or footing by extending the vertical bars into the pedestal or footing a sufficient
distance to develop the full bar capacity.
(2) In lieu of extending the column bars into the pedestal or footing, the use of dowels is a
common practice. The dowels must have a cross-sectional area at least equal to that
required to transfer the force that is not transferred by the concrete. The minimum area of
dowels is 0.005bh, and at least four dowel bars must be used for each member. The dowel_
bar diameter may not exceed that of the column bars by more than 3” (3 mm).
Dowels must be lapped with the column bars in the column for anes equal to the |
development of the larger bars (see Chapter 7). The dowels must extend into the pedestal
or footing a distance at least sufficient to develop the yield strength of the bar.
ALLOWABLE BEARING STRESSES ON THE TOP SURFACES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE

_ PEDESTALS AND FOOTINGS
j
The compression stress in the concrete at the base of a column shall be S eroie to be© dstbuted
to the pedestal or footing as bearing stress. na my ee
The fare bearing ane of a column or al pede tal on afooting must
m satisfy a Sint
7 - -_ 5 ‘ a; ee,
When the supporting surface is wider on all sides than the loaded area (A,), a may be taken as
equal to VA,/A, but not more than 2.0, where A, is the supporting area. See Figs. 12-18 and 12-19.
Unloaded
area, Ag
Loaded
Fig. 12-18 Fig. 12-19
BEARING FOR SLOPED OR STEPPED REINFORCED CONCRETE FOOTINGS

For sloped or stepped footings (as shown in Fig. 12-19) the supporting area (A) for bearing may
be taken as:
(1) The top horizontal surface of the footing (area 9-10-11-12) or
(2) The largest base (area 5-6-7-8) of the frustum of a cone wholly within the footing, formed
by sides sloping from the actual loaded area and extending outward on a slope of | vertical
to 2 horizontal.
Under certain circumstances, case (1) will provide the larger area, and under other circum-
stances case (2) will provide the larger area.
The area selected shall then be used as the unloaded area as shown in Fig. 12-18. The restrictions
shown in that figure are fully applicable here. A, and A, are used to compute a for (12.24).
STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF FOOTINGS

The effective depth required and the steel reinforcement may be determined using either the
alternate design method or the strength design method. For both procedures the methods of
obtaining the basic elastic shears and moments are identical. The difference lies in the use of safety
factors in using one method rather than the other. For the alternate design method, the shears and
moments are used as calculated, whereas those values are increased by load factors for the strength
design method. ;
Sections are proportioned by the same methods as used for beams or slabs, in general. For both
methods of design, the equations for proportioning can be placed in similar forms. The strength
method will be used in the design problems.
eo : Dae ; a ule
FOOTINGS [CHAP. 12
256
FLEXURAL DESIGN
The required effective depth to resist compressive stresses is
d=\M,(6R,)b (12.26)
and the required area of reinforcement is
A,=M,/(¢a,)d (12.27)
Attention should be paid to the units involved in (12.26) and (12.27) when these equations are used
in conjunction with Table 5.2 or Table 5.3. The reader is referred to the discussion in Chapter 5.
Solved Problems
12.1. Derive an equation for the required effective depth for flexure of a square spread footing
which supports a square isolated column as shown in Fig. 12-20. The maximum soil pressure is
q. Use the alternate design method.
a 4(B—a)
Fig. 12-20
The total shear force V, on the critical section is V, = qB(B — a)/2, and the moment of that force
about the critical section is M = qB(B — a)’/8.
The required depth for flexure is
d= VM/RB = \ qB(B — a)’/8RB

or d=+4(B-—a)Vq/2R (12.28)
The equation may be modified for use with strength design by replacing q with q, and R with R,.
12.2. Using strength design, derive an equation for the required effective depth of the footing in
Problem 12.1 to resist shear as a measure of diagonal tension. Refer to Fig. 12-21 and t
(6.34), (6.35), and (6.36). % ;
B
a+d
Fig. 12-21
For one-way slab shear as shown in Fig. 12-21(a), V=(B—a-—2d)Bq/2.

The unit shear is v = V/bd = V/Bd, since here b = B; then d=(B—a-—2d)q/2v.
The allowable shear stress is a\/f’, where a=2 (1¢); thus
(coed) = avfi (12.29)
or yfite geal
2)= ; (12.30)
which can be used effectively for developing design aids since it is dimensionless.
For perimeter shear as shown in Fig. 12-21(b), V=[B* —(a+d)’]q; and v =V/b,d where b, =
4(a + d). Thus
where y=2+4/B.<4
weil ave
[§(1+2/B.) <3]. This equation becomes
nan
(Bldy —(ald+1) _ 4yVF
ald +1 q Ce
which may be readily utilized to produce design aids since it is dimensionless. [The reader is cautioned
not to use (12.31) and (12.32) when a portion of the critical perimeter extends beyond the footing. In
such cases, see Fig. 6-7 and the related discussion in Chapter 6.]
12.3. An 18-in.-square interior column [a, = 40 in (6.35 )] is required to support a 214-kip dead-load
force and a 154-kip live-load force. The allowable soil pressure is 4.25 kip/ft”. Using
Ff.= 3000 psi and f, = 40,000 psi, design the footing using strength design. The column
contains ten No. 9 vertical bars.
Since allowable soil pressure is stated rather than ultimate soil pressure, the footing area is
calculated using service loads. Thus considering the footing to weigh approximately 7.0 percent of the
total applied load, W,. = (0.070)(214 + 154) = 25.76 kip (use 26 kip). 7
The total load is therefore W= 214 + 154 + 26 = 394 kip, and the required footing area is A, =
W/q = 394/4.25 = 92.7 ft”. Thus B = V92.7 = 9.63’. Try a footing 9’-8” square for which A, = 93.5 ft”.
The ultimate applied load will be P, = 1.4W, + 1.7W, = (1.4)(214) + (1.7)(154) = 561 kip. The net
ultimate soil pressure will then be net g, = P,,/A,, = 561/93.5 = 6.0 kip/ft*.
Refer to Fig. 12-22 and check perimeter shear. Assume d = 19”. Thus
c=a+ d=18"+ 19" =37"=3.08' and b, =(4)(37) = 148”
Fig. 12-22
The total shear force outside the critical section will be V, = 6.0[93.5 — (3.08)*] = 504 kip. Since the
column aspect ratio is B. = 18/18 = 1.0, the permitted punching shear force is given by (6.36) as
V. = 4V3000(148)(19) = 616,080 Ib = 616.08 kip > 504 kip
By (6.34), (2+4/B.)=[2+(4)()]=6>4, and, by (6.35), (a,d/b, +2) =[(40)(19)/148 + 2] =
7.14> 4; so those equations do not apply, and (6.36) governs. The footing is satisfactory for punching
shear.
Refer to Fig. 12-23 and check beam shear. The critical section is at D-D', and the total shear force
outside the section is V, = (6.0)(30/12)(9.67) = 145 kip. The beam shear force allowed on the concrete
is
V. = 2V
flbd = 2V3000(116)(19) = 241,430 Ib = 241.43 kip > 145 kip
The footing is therefore satisfactory for beam shear.
lesen a
|
” | ”
| [D'__\E"
lV /
116”
9.67’
=
Refer to Fig. 12-23 and design the section for flexures. The critical section is at E-E’. The ultimate
moment about E-E’ is M,, = (6.0)(49)7/[(2)(12)"] = 50.0 ft-kip/ft. Now
M, _ 50.0 x 12,000
From Table 5.2, for f’ = 3000 psi and f, = 40,000 psi, the required steel ratio p is 0.004. This is less than
Prin = 9.005. However, the 1989 ACI Code permits the use of 1.33 times the required steel ratio when it
is less than p,,;,- But (1.33)(0.004) = 0.00532, which is larger than p,,,,; so p = 0.005 will be used. Thus,
A, = 0.005bd = (0.005)(116)(19) = 11.02 in.”

Using No. 6 bars having an area 0.44 in. each, the number of bars will be 11.02/0.44 = 25. The distance
available for the steel is
116.0 — 2(3.0) — 0.75 = 109.25 in.

The center-to-center distance between bars will be (24 spaces) 109.25/24 = 4.55 in.
The maximum spacing is the lesser of 18 in. and 3h = 3(19.0 + 0.75 + 3.0) = 3(22.75) = 68.25 in.
The minimum spacing is the greatest of
(a) 2d, =2(0.75) =1.5 in.
(b) 1.0+d, =1.75 in.
(c) (1.33)(maximum aggregate size) + d, = (1.33)(1) + 0.75 = 2.08 in.
It follows that the spacing furnished is satisfactory.
It is necessary to investigate the development length of the bars. The available distance is from the
face of the column to the end of the bar,
116.0 18.0 :
Sayaw dings 3.0 = 46.0 in.
The development length required by Chapter 7 is the greater of

0.04A,f,/VF; = (0.04)(0.44)(40,000)/V 3000 = 12.85 in. and 12.0 in.
The 46” furnished is more than satisfactory.
At this point, the design tables in Chapter 5 will be employed. Table 5.2, for f/ = 3000 psi,
f, = 40,000 psi, and p = 0.005, gives da,, = 2.882, $j, = 0.8646, and a/d = 0.0784; furthermore, the area
of steel is
A, = pbd = (0.005)(12)(19) = 1.14 in.?/ft width
We thus have three equivalent ways of computing the resisting moment:
(a) M,=A,(¢a,,)d = (1.14)(2.882)(19) = 62.42 ft-kip/ft
(6b) M,=A,f,(¢j,,)d = (1.14)(40,000)(0.8646)(19)
/12,000 = 62.42 ft-kip/ft
Cer 64, fa(1 : ae = COREE = 0.0784/2) _ 65 49 teckip it
Transfer of stress at the base of the column must be investigated. The allowable bearing force at the
base of the column will be F,. = ¢,,(0.85f')A,, where ¢,, = 0.7 and A, is the cross-sectional area of the
column; thus,
F,,. = (0.7)(0.85)(3.0)(18)(18) = 578.3 kip

On the footing, F, = ¢,,(0.85f/)V A,/A,, provided VA,/A, =2.0. But, as seen from Fig. 12-24,
VA,/A, = V(109)(109) /(18)(18) = 6.06 > 2.0

So F, = $,,(2)(0.85)(
f,) A, = (0.7)(2)(0.85)(3.0)(18)(18) = 1156.7 kip
The ultimate load is (1.4)(200) + (1.7)(145) = 526.5 kip, which is less than 578.3 kip; so only minimum
dowels are required:
A, = 0.005(A,).., col = (0.005)(18)(18) = 1.62 in?
with no fewer than four bars. If No. 6 dowel bars are used, 1.62/0.44 = 3.68 dowels are needed; use four
No. 6 dowels. The development length /, for No. 6 dowel bars in compression, with d, = 0.75 in., is
(Chapter 7) the greatest of
(a) 0.02d, f,/\V/f/ = (0.02)(0.75)(60,000) /V 3000 = 16.43 in.
(b) 0.00034,f,= (0.0003)(0.75)(60,000) = 13.5 in.
(c) 8 in.
260 FOOTINGS [CHAP.. 12
19.0 + 3.0 + 0.75 = 22.75”
Fig. 12-24
The required minimum development length of the dowels into the footing is 16.43 in., which is less than
that which will be furnished. Because the longitudinal bars and the dowel bars are No. 6, the
development length available is 19.0 — 0.75 — 0.75 = 17.5 in. > 16.43 in. (O.K.).
The splice length for the No. 6 dowels up into the column will be based on the larger size No. 9
bars. By Chapter 7, the splice length of No. 9 bars in compression is the greater of 0.0005f,d, and 12 in.
A No. 9 bar has d, = 1.128 in.; so /, = (0.0005)(60,000)(1.128) = 33.84 in. > 12.0 in. Thus, splice the
bars 34 in. into the column.
The estimated footing weight, 26.0 kip, must also be checked.
W, = (8.67)(8.67)(0.15)(19.0 + 0.75 + 3.0)/12.0 = 21.38 kip
Hence the design is slightly conservative. The total depth required is 22.75", so 23.0” would be used. The
steel consists of twenty-five No. 6 bars in each direction.
12.4, Design a footing to support a continuous concrete wall as shown in Fig. 12-25. Allowable soil
pressure q is 4.75 kip/ft’. The wall dead-load reaction is 12 kip/ft and the live load is 6 kip/ft.
Use strength design with f/ = 3000 psi, f, = 40,000 psi. The vertical steel in the wall consists of
No. 5 bars at 8” center to center on both faces. The wall width is 12”.
tf.
Critical section
for shear
for flexure and

development length
Net q = 4.75 — (10)(12.5/1000) = 4.625 kip/ft?

and the required area of the footing is A, = 18.0/4.625 = 3.89 ft’/ft (say B = 4.0’).
The factored load will be P, = 1.4D + 1.7L = 1.4(12) + 1.7(6) = 27.0 kip/ft. Hence the net ultimate
soil pressure is q, = P,,/A,, =27.0/4.0 = 6.75 kip/ft”.
The permissible shear force on the concrete is
V, = 2\V/fbd = 2V3000(12)(6) = 7890 lb = 7.89 kip
The actual ultimate shear force is V, = (2.0 — 0.5 — 6.5/12)(6.75) = 6.47 kip, and
V,, = V,/ = 6.47/0.85 = 7.61 kip
< 7.89 kip
so the footing is satisfactory for beam shear.
Since M,, = (6.75)(1.5)(1.5)/2 = 7.59 ft-kip/ft,
M,, _ 7.59 x 12,000
RuR, =
ba?= >— = 179.6
(12)(6.5)" a psi/ft
Table 5.2, for fi = 3000 psi and f, = 40,000 psi, shows
p oR,
0.0050 iG Re
0.0055 189
Thus, by interpolation, p=0.0050 + (0.0005)(6.6/16) =0.0052. Then A, =(0.0052)(12)(6.5) =
0.406 in.*/ft. One No. 4 bar has an area of 0.20 in.’, so s = (0.2/0.406)(12) = 5.91". Use No. 4 bars at
5.5 in. on centers. According to Chapter 7, the development length of a No. 5 bar in tension is the
greater of:
(a) 0.044, f,/VFf; = (0.04)(0.31)(40,000)
/V 3000 = 9.06 in.
(ByTHI2 ink
The available development length is 18.0” — 3.0" = 15.0" >9.06" (O.K.).
In the longitudinal direction, shrinkage steel will be provided.
A, = 0.002bd = (0.002)(48)(6.5) = 0.624 in?
Use four No. 4 bars.
The No. 5 bars in the wall are extended into the footing to be developed. The development length
of a No. 5 bar in compression is the greatest of:
(a) 0.02d, f,/V/f! = (0.02)(0.625)(40,000)
/54.77 = 9.13 in.
(b) 0.00034,f,= (0.0003)(0.625)(40,000) = 7.5 in.
(c) 8in.
which is 9.13 in. Since the effective depth of the footing is only 6.5 in. and the total depth is only 10 in.,
the present conditions do not satisfy the ACI Code.
The situation may be modified by extending a lug below the footing, as shown in Fig. 12-26. The
total depth required, including the lug thickness, must be at least 9.13 + 0.625 + 3.0 = 12.76". A total
depth of 13” will suffice.
No. 3 at 8” o.c. No. 4 at 54” o.c.

262 FOOTINGS (CHAP. 12
However, since concrete placed at ground level is much cheaper than concrete placed above ground,
a better solution would be to increase the depth of the entire footing to 13 in. This would permit a
reduction in the required transverse steel area. The bars could be placed farther apart than 5.5 in.
The 1989 ACI Code requires that stress be transferred from the base of the wall to the footing. The
bearing strength of the wall and the footing may not be exceeded, and a minimum quantity of dowel
reinforcement must be provided across the wall-footing interface. The area of steel must be at least:
(a) 0.0012bh for bars not larger than No. 5, with a specified yield strength not less than 60,000 psi
(400 MPa);
(b) 0.0015bh for other deformed bars;
(c) 0.0012bA for welded wire fabric, plain or deformed, not larger than W31 or D31.
Presumably, condition (b) holds when f, is less than 60,000 psi (400 MPa). This dowel reinforcement
may not be spaced farther apart than three times the wall thickness, nor 18 in. (500 mm).
The actual bearing stress on the top of the footing is P,/A, where P,, = P,,/@ = 27/0.7 = 38.57
kip/ft. So f, = 38.57/[(12)(12)] = 0.268 ksi per linear foot of wall. The allowable bearing stress on the
wall is f/ = (0.7)(3.0) =2.10 ksi>0.268 (O.K.).
Bearing on the footing will obviously not be critical, but it will be calculated for the purpose of
illustration. The force on the base of the wall is presumed to “spread outward” over a width that is equal
to the width of the wall, plus twice the total depth of the footing on each side. Thus, the width of spread
is 12" +2[(2)(10)] =52”. The projected area per linear foot of wall is (52)(12) =624 in... Thus the
bearing stress is f, = 38.57/624 = 0.062 ksi/ft. The allowable bearing stress on this area is 2of/=
(2)(0.7)(3.0) = 4.2 ksi > 0.062 ksi (O.K.).
Using condition (b) above, the dowel area per foot of wall will be (0.0015)(12)(12) = 0.216 in.”/ft.
The No. 5 bars on 8" center to center on both faces would provide (0.31)(2)(12/8) = 0.93 in.’/ft.
However, the dowel bars are not required to match in size and spacing the bars in the wall. No.3 bars in
both faces for dowels at 8” center to center would result in (0.11)(2)(12/8) = 0.33 in.7/ft. > 0.216
(O.K.). This would provide a practical solution, since the No. 3 dowel bars could be spliced directly to
the No. 5 bars in the wall. To conserve steel the No. 3 dowel bar spacing could be increased to
(0.33/0.216)(8) = 12.2 in. Then, if the bars were spaced at 12 in. center to center, every third dowel
would coincide with a No. 5 wall bar and could be lap-spliced directly thereto.
The development length of the dowels into the footing would have to be the greater of:
(a) 0.02d, f,/\VF. = (0.02)(0.375)(40,000) /54.77 = 5.48”
(b) 0.00034, f, = (0.0003)(0.375)(40,000) = 4.50”
(c) 8”
The 8” minimum development length governs and is not satisfied by the total depth of 10". The ©
development length furnished is /, = 10.0 — 3.0 — 0.375= 6.625”. If excess steel is used, /, can be reduced —
proportionally. Hence, the bar spacing can be reduced to (6.625/8.0)(12.2)= 10.1". A spacing of 10” will
satisfy the requirements.
When bars of different sizes are spliced, the splice length is the greatest of:
(a) the development length of the larger bar
(1) 0.02d, f,/VF. = (0.02)(0.625)(40,000) /54.77 = 9.13”
(2) 0.0003d, f, = (0.0003)(0.625)(40,000) = 7.50”
(3) Sr
or the greatest of
(b) the splice length of the smaller bar
Q)80..0005¢, Ff, = (0.0005 )(0.375)(40, mee Tl og
2 ; |
e development length of the larger ed 9.13",sana forLek pleas bsg 5” splice
‘em. bar
Wiel, - .
Af : ; 2 A
CHAP. 12] | FOOTINGS 263
c = 39"
be oO 47"
|
39"
c= dey
Critical section
ao] for moment,
short direction
16” | Critical section

for beam shear,
13’-0" a 156" long direction
Fig. 12-27 Fig. 12-28
210 kip and P, = 150 kip. The footing width is limited to 6.5 ft. The gross allowable soil
pressure at service loads is 5.0 kip/ft’ Assume No. 8 bars. The base of the footing is 6 ft
below grade. Soil density is 100 Ib/ft* and concrete density is 150 Ib/ft*. Use strength design
(load factors and resistance factors). For the column, f’ = 5000 psi, f,=60,000 psi, and the
vertical bars are No. 9.
The solution requires iteration to determine the footing length and the total depth. After several
trials, a footing length of 13.0 ft and a total depth of 27 in. are considered to be satisfactory. The final
review concerning those dimensions follows.
Total service load is P, + P, =210+150=360 kip. The footing area required is therefore
=(P, + P,)/q,-., where q,., is the allowable net soil pressure after subtracting the weight of the soil
ee aii and the footing weight, both in kip/ft?:
Aner=5.0 — (27/12)(0.15)—(6.0 — 27/12)(0.10)=4.827 kip/ft?
Thus, A, = 360/4.287=83.97 ft? and, since B = 6.5, | = 83.97/6.5=12.92 ft. Use
1= 13.0 ft and Ay, = (6.5)(13.0) = 84.5 ft”
When the ratio //B for a rectangular footing approaches 2.0, beam-type shear governs the depth of
the footing in the long direction. The effective depth to the top of the lower layer of steel is
vi d = 27.0 —3.0— 1.0 = 23.0 in. Figure 12-28 shows that the overhang beyond the critical section for beam
shear (d from the face of the support) is 47.0 in. = 3.917 ft. The ultimate soil pressure is
3 (1.4P, + 1.7P,)/A, = [(1.4)(210)+ (1.7)(150)]/84.5 = 6.497 kip/ft?
i): _ Thus, V, = 6.497(6.5)(3.917) = 165.4 kip and V, = V,/¢ = 165.4/0.85 = 194.6 kip. Allowable is
ay - V. = 2V
fibd = 2V3000(78)(23) /1000 = 196.5 kip > 194.6 kip (O.K.).
7. Punching shear will not govern, but the calculations will be illustrated. The perimeter b, =
is 4(16 + 23) = 156 in., shown as DEFG on Fig. 12-27. The ultimate shear is the total force acting outside
DEFG; thus, | ly
— 7 : V,=6. 497184.5 — (39/12)°] = 480.37 kip : :
i gk to andV,, = V,/= 480.37/0.85=565.1 kip. The allowable punching shear around a square column is,by —
to
7 nok d Sxvut v.=4VFb,¢ = (4V5000
BR)186)2)/100
( =hata saSE Pande ts.
+s
For the long direction, the ‘cantilever’ length of the footing, as shown on Fig. aiid is
70.00 in. = 5.833 ft. Hence, the bending moment is
M,, = 6.497(6.5)(5.833)(5.833
/2.0) = 718.42 ft-kip
and R,, = M,/bd? = (718.42)(12,000)
/[(6.5 x 12)(23)?] = 208.93 psi
Interpolating in Table 5.2, p = 0.006092, so A, = pbd = (0.006092)(6.5 x 12)(23) = 10.93 in.’ Using No.
8 bars, the number required is 10.93/0.79 = 13.8 (use 14).
The distance available is (6.5)(12) — 6.0 = 72 in. and spacing is 72/13 = 5.54 in. Use 5.5-in. center-
to-center spacing.
The development length available is (13.0 x 12)/2.0 — 8.0 — 3.0 = 67.0 in. The required develop-
ment length is the larger of
(a) 0.04A, f,/VFfz = 0.04(0.79)(40,000) /V3000 = 23.08 in.
(b) 12.0 in.
The governing development length is 23.08 in. <67.0 in. available (O.K.).
The cantilever overhang beyond the column face in the short direction is, from Fig. 12-28,
31.0 in. = 2.583 ft. The short-direction bending moment is
M,, = (6.497)(13.0)(2.5833)7/2.0 = 281.82 ft-kip
whence $R, = M,,/bd* = (281.82 x 12,000) /[(13.0 x 12)(23.0)*] = 40.98 psi, which is less than $R,
corresponding to p,,,, = 0.0050. Consequently, p = 0.0050 and
A, = pbd = (0.005)(13.0 x 12)(23.0) = 17.94 in?
Using No. 8 bars in the short direction, the number of bars required is 17.94/0.79 = 22.7, or 23 bars,
with a total A, = 23(0.79) = 18.17 in?
The 1989 ACI Code requires that most of the short bars be concentrated over a “band width B,”
centered on each side of the column; B =6.5 ft in this problem. The amount of steel area for “band
width B” is equal to 2.0A,/(8 +1), where B =/1/B=13.0/6.5=2.0. Thus, 3 of the steel must be
distributed over 29 in. on each side of the column centerline, and 3 of the steel on each side of ‘‘band
width B.”
The available development length is (78.0 — 16.0)/2.0 — 3.0 = 28.0 in. From previous calculations,
1, = 23.08 in. required, which is less than 28.0 in. available (O.K.). ‘
The column forces must be transferred to the footing by bearing and steel dowels. The ultimate
axial load from the column is
P,, = 1.4(210) + 1.7(150) = 549 kip
With the column cross-sectional area A, = 16 X 16 = 256 in.’, the allowable ultimate axial force is ha
P., = $(0.85)f;A, =0.7(0.85)(5.0)(256) = 761.6 kip > 549 kip

so bearing stress on the column is satisfactory. (Note that ¢ for bearing is 0.7.) By (12.24), the bearing
force allowed on the footing is
(0.85)(0.7)(3000 x 10° *)(2)(256) = 913.9 kip
which exceeds 549 kip, the ultimate axial load, so dowels are required.
When required, the minimum area of dowels from the ene into the column is
0.005A, = 0.005(256) = 1.28 in? :
The minimum number of dowels is four, so each dowel must have an area of 128/4 = 0.32: in” Ussing7:
bi four No. 6 bars, pe sowie) area is mS ae i 5 of
“
CHAP. 12] FOOTINGS
‘
265
The governing development length is 10.95 in. However, this may be multiplied by the factor 0.727 due
to excess steel being provided, making
1, = 10.95(0.727) = 7.96 in.
With an effective depth of 23.0 in., there is more than sufficient available development length.
The splice length for the No. 6 dowels to the No. 9 column bars is the larger of the development
length of the larger bars or the splice length of the smaller bars. For the No. 9 bars, the development
length /, is the greatest of
(a) 0.02d, f,/VF. = (0.02)(1.128)(60,000) /V 5000.= 19.14 in.
(b) 0.0003d,f,= 0.0003(1.128)(60,000) = 20.30 in.
(c) 8.0 in.
For the No. 6 dowels, the splice length is the greater of
(a) 0.0005d,f,= (0.0005)(0.75)(60,000) = 22.5”
(CR) eee
The controlling development length is 20.30 in., but this may be multiplied by the factor 0.727.
Therefore, the required development length of the dowels into the column is 0.727(20.3) = 14.76 in. The
dowels should be extended into the column 15 in.
12.6. Design a pile footing to support an 18-in.-square column subjected to a live-load reaction of
180 kip and a dead-load reaction of 160 kip at service loads. The testing laboratory recom-
mends an ultimate pile load of 70 kip per pile, and a service pile load of 42 kip per pile. The
vertical steel in the column consists of twelve No. 7 bars. Use f/ = 3000 psi, f, = 40,000 psi,
and 12-in.-diameter piles; take a, = 30 (edge column) in (6.35). —
Since the footing weight will be about 3 kip/pile, the net service load per pile is 42.0—3.0=
39.0 kip/pile. The number of piles required is N = W/P = 340/39 = 8.7, or 9 piles. Use a pile pattern as
shown in Fig. 12-29. —
The net ultimate load is used to design the footing; thus W, = (1.4)(160) + (1.7)(180) = 530 kip,
and the load per pile is P, = 530/9 = 58.9, say 59.0 kip/pile, which is less than the maximum ultimate
load, 70 kip/pile.
Punching shear around a single pile often governs the footing depth determination, except in cases
in which the loads are small. In this case, it will be shown that beam shear governs. Referring to Fig.
12-30, we calculate the punching shear stress. After several trials, assume d = 19.5". The shear perimeter
is b, = 7(12 + d) = 99.0". The permissible shear force around the pile is given by (6.36):
= 4V/f'b,d
Les a |
= 4V3000(99)(19.5) /1000 = 423 kip
Since the piles develop concentrated loads, equation (6.35) must be considered, with a corner pile
having a, = 20. But the factor (a,d/b, + 2) = [(20)(19.5)/99 + 2] = 3.94 + 2 =5.94> 4.0, so that (6.35)
does not govern in this case. Since the actual shear force is the nominal pile reaction, P, = P,/¢ =
59.0/0.85 = 69.4 kip < 423 kip, the pile should not punch through the pile cap (footing).
Perimeter shear (punching shear) must now be checked around the column in a similar manner. In
this case, all the nominal pile reactions outside the critical section plus any partial reactions outside the
critical section will contribute to punching shear for the column. Refer to Fig. 12-31.
et
ection
moe
e
ritical
Cc for
beam
shear
37.625"
Fig. 12-31 Fig. 12-32
Assuming No. 6 bars will be used, clearance above the pile butts will be 3” and embedment of the
piles will be 6”. The total depth required will be 28.75”. For practical reasons use 29”; this furnishes an
effective depth d= 19.625". Thus c=a+d=18.0 + 19.625 =37.625" and 6b, = 4(37.625)= 150.0”.
Hence, V,,, = 472 kip on eight piles outside the critical section as shown on Fig. ibher The permissible
punching ‘shear force (8. = 18/18 <2) is given by (6.36) as
V, =4V3000(150)(19.625) /1000 = 644.9kip a
For an edge column with a, =30, (a,d/b, + 2)== [(30)(19.625)/150] + 2==39342=593>41
equation (6.35) does not govern in this case. The for esisted is Vas:
Bie ge
| (9959
Xpthereforethe ileSse
The bending moment about the face of the column must now be investigated. Refer to Fig. 12-32.
M,, = (177)(27/12) = 398.3 ft-kip
M,, _ 398.3 x 12,000
DRI bd“ Sede (102)(19.625)
aay FACE = 121.67 psi
Table 5.2, for f; = 3000 psi and f, = 40,000 psi, discloses the fact that the steel ratio required is less than
the minimum steel ratio p,,,, = 200/f, = 0.005. Further, if the steel ratio required is increased by 1/3, it
will still be less than p,,,,- It would appear that 4/3 times the required steel ratio would satisfy the 1989
ACI Code. However, the Code does not permit unreinforced (plain concrete) pile caps. Since any
section having less than minimum reinforcement is usually considered to be unreinforced, the minimum
area of steel will be provided. Thus,
A, = (200/f,bd = (200/40,000)(102)(19.625) = 10.0 in?
Use seventeen No. 7 bars (A, = 10.2 in.’).
The 1989 ACI Code is not explicit concerning minimum steel for footings. Hence, some structural
engineers use 0.002bh for minimum steel area if f, = 40,000 psi and 0.0018bh if f, = 60,000 psi. This
corresponds to temperature and shrinkage reinforcement requirements.
The assumed footing weight must finally be checked. The total weight is
= (8.5)(8.5)(29)(12.5) /1000 = 26.2 kip
and the weight per pile is 26.2/9 = 2.91 kip/pile. The assumed weight of 3.0 kip/pile is most satisfactory.
Development length of the longitudinal bars, transfer of the force at the base of the column, dowels,
and splice lengths are investigated as in previous problems. The reader may verify that all prove to be
satisfactory.
The final details are shown in Fig. 12-33.
17-#7 bars
8’-6”
— 3” clear
Fig. 12-33
Ca 7 ; R&
+
18” square andi aise to a dead-load moment

of 85 ft-kip and ati
iis both al he yaxisasshown in Fig.12-34 The axi ds are
pst. 3-0" 1’-6"|1"- a 3’-0” i ’ 37” _, (ford = 19’’)
Critical section
for perimeter
shear
Fig. 12-34 Fig. 12-35

Several sets of trial calculations indicate that twelve piles will be required, and a pile pattern as
shown in Fig. 12-34 is selected. The total service load is 202 kip, and M = 118 ft-kip.
Since the footing is subjected to bending, the equivalent moment of inertia of the piles about the
centroid of the footing must be calculated:
¥ d= (2)(3)(1.5)° + (2)(3)(4.5)° = 135 fk
The load on any pile is obtained using the equation
R_. Mad,
MNT Sa (1)
The maximum P, will be in row 4 (Fig. 12-35), Shee d, = 4.5 ft; so
= (202/12) + (118)(4.5)/135= 20.76 kip
at service loads. Using a ap factor of 2.0 for the piles, a safe service load per pile will Pe
50/2 = 25 kip. This allocates 25.0 — 20.76= 4.24 kip to each pile as its share in supporting the weight of
the pile cap.
The ultimate load on each row of piles can be obtained by substituting the values of P.and M, for
each row in equation (1). Here,
’ =1.4D + 1.7L= (1.4)(143) + (1.7)(59) = 300.5 kip (te aa
= (1.4)(85)+(1.7)(33)=175.1 ft-kip | <¢
_ whence P,,= P,/d= 300. 5/0.7 = 429.3 kip and M,, = 175.1/0.7= 250.1 ft-kip. Then, the stim ‘"
© sd (R,) on each pile can be obtainedred
panes the pepmeriate ae Hya9 og eae
Because a bending moment exists at the base of the column, all the bars should be doweled into the
pile cap and appropriately developed.
12.8. Fig. 12-36 shows a multiple column footing which must be designed to support two columns, A
and B. For column A, P,, = 118.0 kip and P,, = 84.6 kip. For column B, Pp, = 203.6 kip
and P,, = 127.0 kip. The columns are oriented near the property lines as shown in the figure.
The ultimate soil pressure is 6.5 kip/ft*. Establish the dimensions of the footing and draw the
shear and bending moment diagrams for the long direction.
line
Property
line
Property
|309 kip |501 kip

} | | 154.5 kip/ft | | } 250.5 kip/ft
Shear, kip
Moment, ft-kip
—955.4
Fig. 12-37
For column A, P,, = 1.4(118.0) + 1.7(84.6) = 309 kip

For column B, P= 1.4(203.6) + 1.7(127.0) = 501 kip
The total load is 810 kip.
Assuming the soil pressure due to 1.4 times the footing weight will be approximately 0.525 kip/ft*
(after several trials), the net ultimate soil pressure is
Net q, = 6.5 — 0.525 = 5.975 kip/ft

and the required footing area is
A, = 810/5.975 = 135.5 ft’
The center of gravity of the loads is located at a distance X = (501)(20)/810 = 12.37’ from the
center of column A. Considering the overhang at A to be 1.63’, y = 12.37 + 1 + 1.63 = 15.0’ = 1/2. Hence
the length of the footing must be 30’ in order that the centroid of the footing and the center of gravity of
the loads will coincide.
Since the length is 30’ and the area is 135.5 ft’, the width of the footing must be 4.5’, and the net soil
pressure is 6.0 kip/ft’.
The shear and bending moment diagrams for the footing design are shown in Fig. 12-37. Although it
is usually considered desirable to make footings as nearly square as possible, it is often necessary to build
long narrow footings of the type developed in this problem.
12.9. For the interior column and footing shown in Fig. 12-38, P,, = 150 kip, P,_, = 200 kip, f’ = 4000 psi,
f, = 60,000 psi. Determine the required effective depth. Use strength design and net q = 4.92 kip/ft*.
Ans. d=15.75"
12.10. Design the reinforcement for Problem 12.9. (Fig. 12-38) Ans. A, =5.414 in?
| eer
8'-0" ean |
16”
Fig. 12-38 Fig. 12-39
12.11. Determine the gross soil pressure at points 7 and 2 for the footing shown in Fig. 12-39. Include the
weight of the footing. | Ans. q, = 2.25 kip/ft”, q, = 4.59 kip/ft?
12.12. Determine the maximum and minimum net onloads for the footing shown in Fig. 12-40 (not including
footing weight). Ans. P,,,, = 36.11 kip, P,,,, = 30.55 kip
P: , *
FrCHAP. 12] FOOTINGS 271
\
1’=67" 3-0” 3-0" 1-6"
Fig. 12-40
12.13. Verify the designs of square footings indicated in Table 12.2. In each ‘subproblem, f= 3000 psi,
f, = 60,000 psi, column sizes are 20 in. x 20 in., and No. 6 bars are assumed. The footing bases are 3.0 ft
= below grade. Concrete density is 150 Ib/ft* and soil density is 100 Ib/ft®. Subtract the footing weight and
. soil overburden weight from the given allowable gross soil pressure. Use 3-in. clear cover over steel.
= Effective depth is to the top of the lower steel layer. All columns are interior to a building.
ae ;
Table 12.2
Given (service loads) —
| | Allowable
soil pressure,
kip/ft?
12.14. (Hard conversion of Problem 12.13) Verify the designs of square footings indicated in Table 12.3. In
each subproblem, f! = 20 MPa, f, = 400 MPa, column sizes are 508 mm x 508 mm, and No. 20M bars
are assumed. The footing bases are 910 mm below grade. Concrete density is 2400 kg/m* and soil
density is 1600 kg/m*. Subtract the footing weight and soil overburden weight (use g = 9.8 m/s? to
convert from mass to weight) from the given allowable gross soil pressure. Use 70-mm clear cover over
steel. Effective depth is to the top of the lower steel layer. All columns are interior to a building.
Table 12.3
Allowable Footing Effective

soil pressure, depth,
Chapter 13
The Equivalent Frame Method
NOTATION
A ,= area of concrete for transfer of unbalanced bending moment by direct shear stress
(see Appendix A-10)
b, (b,) = width of critical section for two-way shear, measured along (transverse to) the span
for which moments are calculated
-C, (c,) =size of rectangular or equivalent rectangular column, capital, or bracket, measured
along (transverse to) the span for which moments are being calculated
C = torsional constant defined by (13.2)
d= distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of tension reinforcement
E.., = modulus of elasticity of beam concrete
E..= modulus of elasticity of column concrete
E.., = modulus of elasticity of slab concrete
h = overall thickness of member
I, = moment of inertia about centroidal axis of gross section of beam*
I,= moment of inertia of gross section of column
I,= moment of inertia about centroidal axis of gross section of slab
= h’/12 times width of slab defined in notations a and B,
J = equivalent polar moment of inertia of rectangular-cross section
J/c = modulus of critical section for transfer of bending moment by torsional shear stress
(see Appendix A-10)
k =stiffness factor coefficient in KEI/I
K, = flexural stiffness of beam; moment per unit rotation
K,= flexural stiffness of column; moment per unit rotation
K,..= stiffness of equivalent column at a joint
K, = flexural stiffness of slab; moment per unit rotation
K,= torsional stiffness of torsional member; moment per unit rotation
. = height of column
[,, = length of clear span in direction in which moments are calculated, measured face to
face of supports
I, (l,)=length of span in (transverse to’) direction in which moments are calculated,
measured center to center of supports
M,, = total factored static moment
UV. = permissible combined direct and torsional shear stress at critical section
*For monolithic or fully composite construction, a beam includes that portion of slab on each side of the beam extending a
distance equal to the projection of the beam above or below the slab, whichever is greater, but not more than four times the
slab thickness.
"When transverse span of panels on either side of the centerline varies, /, shall be taken as the average of adjacent span
lengths. When the span adjacent and parallel to an edge is being considered, /, is the distance from the edge of the panel to
the centerline.
a3
274 THE EQUIVALENT FRAME METHOD [CHAP. 13
v, = actual combined direct and torsional shear stress at critical section

W , = factored dead load per unit area
w, = factored live load per unit area
w,,= factored load per unit area
x = shorter overall dimension of rectangular part of cross section
y = longer overall dimension of rectangular part of cross section
=ratio of flexural stiffness of beam section to flexural stiffness of a width of slab
bounded laterally by centerlines of adjacent panels (if any) on each side of the
beam= E_,/,/E..1,
a,= ratio of flexural stiffness of columns above and below the slab to combined flexural
stiffness of the slabs and beams at a joint taken in the direction of the pen for
which moments are calculated= © K,/2 (K, + K,)
Qinmin = Minimum a,
a, (a,) = a taken along (transverse to) the span for which moments are calculated
B, = ratio of dead load per unit area to live load per unit area (in each case without load
factors)
B, = ratio of torsional stiffness of edge beam section to flexural stiffness of a width of
slab equal to span length of beam, center to center of supports= E.,C/2E,,1
y,= fraction of unbalanced moment transferred by flexure at slab-column connec-
tions = 1/(1+ 3\/ b,/b,)
y, = fraction of unbalanced moment transferred by eccentricity of shear = 1 — y,
THE EQUIVALENT FRAME

The 1989 ACI Code permits the use of an equivalent frame like that shown in Fig. 13-1. Because
of the many possibilities of live-load variation, the Code requires the application of pattern loads
(also called checkerboard loads and skip loads) to the frame to determine the maximum bending
moments and shear forces in the beams and/or slabs, and the maximum shear forces, axial forces,
and bending moments in the columns. The patterns that must be investigated involve full-factored
dead load on all spans, plus (i) 3/4 of factored live load on spans AB and CD only; (ii) 3/4 of
factored live load on span BC only; (iii) 3/4 of factored live load on spans AB and BC only; (iv) 3/4
of factored live load on spans BC and CD only; (v) full-factored live load on all spans. (Refer to
Chapter 5 for the values of the various load factors.) Out of these five analyses, the “worst case” for
a given member is chosen to represent the maximum moment or force at critical location.
Fig. 13-1
CHAP. 13] THE EQUIVALENT FRAME METHOD 273
Because the slab-beam system acts as a diaphragm, the horizontal deflections of all columns are
assumed identical at each floor level. Hence, a three-dimensional frame can be modeled as a series of
plane frames linked together for lateral loads (e.g., wind, earthquake). For gravity loads (dead load
and live load), the plane frames can be considered individually, each with its hand-calculated
moment distribution. Columns are assumed to be fixed at the levels above and below the floor under
consideration. Computer analyses commonly consider the entire three-dimensional frame in de-
termining axial forces, shears, and bending moments, both for gravity loads and lateral loads.
The 1989 ACI Code provides the following requirements relative to the equivalent frame
method:
Design of slab systems by the Equivalent Frame Method shall be based on

assumptions given below, and all cross sections of slabs and supporting members
shall be proportioned for moments and shears thus obtained.
The structure shall be considered to be made up of equivalent frames on
column lines taken longitudinally and transversely through the building. Each
frame shall consist of a row of columns or supports and slab-beam strips, bounded
laterally by the centerline of panel on each side of the centerline of columns or
supports. Columns or supports shall be assumed to be attached to slab-beam
strips by torsional members transverse to the direction of the span for which
moments are being determined and extending to bounding lateral panel center-
lines on each side of a column.
Frames adjacent and parallel to an edge shall be bounded by that edge and
the centerline of the adjacent panel. Each equivalent frame may be analyzed in its
entirety, or for gravity loading, each floor and the roof (slab-beams) may be
analyzed separately with far ends of columns considered fixed. Where slab-beams
are analyzed separately, it may be assumed in determining moment at a given
support that the slab-beam is fixed at any support two panels distant therefrom,
provided the slab continues beyond that point.
Slab-Beams and Columns
Moment of inertia of slab-beams at any cross section outside of joints or

column capitals may be based on the gross area of concrete. Variation in moment
of inertia along axis of slab-beams shall be taken into account. Moment of inertia
of slab-beams from center of column to face of column, bracket, or capital shall
be assumed equal to the moment of inertia of the slab-beam at face of column,
bracket, or capital divided by the quantity (1—c,/l,)’, where c, and 1, are
measured transverse to the direction of the span for which moments are being
determined. [This applies also to flat plate construction, where there are no
beams. In all cases, the moment of inertia of the columns is assumed to be infinite
from the lower ends of beams to the centerline of the slab above, and from the
slab surface to the centerline of the slab at the lower end of the column. ]
When the slabs, slab-beams, or columns are haunched or tapered or have
other variable cross sections, the stiffness properties of the members must be
utilized and fixed-end moments determined accordingly. When axial loads in-
fluence the member properties, they must be included in the structural analysis.
Torsional Members
Torsional members shall be assumed to have a constant cross section

throughout their length consisting of the larger of: (a) a portion of slab having a
width equal to that of the column, bracket, or capital in the direction of the span
for which moments are being determined; (b) for monolithic or fully composite
construction, the portion of slab specified in (a) plus that part of the transverse
beam above and below the slab; (c) transverse beam torsional resistance shall be
included.
Stiffness K, of the torsional members shall be calculated from
oo re
k= 2 (13.1)
(1-F)
where c, and /, relate to the transverse spans on each side of the column.
The constant C in (13.1) may be evaluated by dividing the cross section into
separate rectangular parts and carrying out the following summation:
c=> (1-0.63 =)zy

3
(13.2)
Where beams frame into columns in the direction of the span for which
moments are being determined, the value of K, from (13.1) and (13.2) shall be
multiplied by the ratio of the moment of inertia of slab with such beam to
moment of inertia of slab without such beam. This is necessary because, if a panel
contains a beam parallel to the direction in which moments are being calculated,
the value of K, may lead to an underestimation of the frame stiffness.
Arrangement of Live Load
When the loading pattern is known, the equivalent frame shall be analyzed
for that load.
When live load is variable but does not exceed three-quarters of the dead
load, or the nature of live load is such that all panels will be loaded simultaneous-
ly, maximum factored moments may be assumed to occur at all sections with full
factored live load on the entire slab system.
For loading conditions other than those defined above, maximum positive
factored moment near midspan of a panel may be assumed to occur with
three-quarters of factored live load on the panel and on alternate panels; and
maximum negative factored moment in the slab at a support may be assumed to
occur with three-quarters of factored live load on adjacent panels only.
Factored moments shall be taken not less than those occurring with full
factored live load on all panels.
Factored Moments
At interior supports, the critical section for negative factored moment (in
both column and middle strips) shall be taken at the face of rectilinear supports,
but not greater than 0.175/, from the center of a column.
At exterior supports provided with brackets or capitals, the critical section
for negative factored moment in the span perpendicular to an edge shall be taken
at a distance from the face of the supporting element not greater than one-half the
projection of the bracket or capital beyond the face of the supporting element.
Circular or regular polygonal supports shall be treated as square supports of
the same area for location of the critical section for negative design moment.
_ SLAB-BEAMS AND COLUMNS

Figure 13-2 shows the members at a joint in the equivalent frame. Figure 13-3 gives the
lies
to”
ee
ape
yt ee Fr
computer. An illustré
SS leo e
Coie eA
tn
2 3
(a)
Actual column above
Zi Parallel beam
Face of Face of
support support
it Le Lo] PP Lo.|
|
Slab system without beams Slab system with drop panels
le l,
l
1
[eam ienane a
hy
to Hs |
Section A-A ; |
; Section C-C Section D-D
l,
.| l,
= ee |
ie
|
J7/a-ec/t,F% +
es oct ! I
: ee |
Section B-B Section E-E
EL /=cJ/l¥ E. [1 ey/l,)?
|) EI, ||
ro/2 el : c,/2 f,
c/2—>| |}-____+____,] |e-eve2 oe us
Equivalent slab-beam stiffness _ Equivalent slab-beam stiffness
Fig. 13-4 : +:oe ‘

re > s- : =
TORSIONAL RESISTANCE; THE EQUIVALENT COLUMN i... ooo

_In modeling a three-dimensional structure, it is neces
and/or beams that are perpendicular to the plane fr
rate the vari $ torsional soaeesiet te sta al
"Yy a a
CHAP. 13]
a
A
jo
aoe
hi
jo
908
yazoddns
—__»
qeIS Ule3SAs
AIM UUIN]oOo sjeqzideo
J yaoddns
THE
nN
| [in
woroeg
V-V worpag
d-_
EQUIVALENT
ot
FRAME
al = L)/7T
— 1/9 | T 21 oo
|
I i
| |
re
ara ae
FE oe) ee
pe nt
aaa
worpeg
9-0 worpeg
d-gd uorpeg
D-H
METHOD
laa g DPT
— 51/9
a wr Pe or ZyS2 RU og
$0 yr= ire
ee
| 2/9 Sa See eats z/"o—+
JUaTeAINbyY Ureaq-qe[ssseuyjiys WeIdeIp JUsTeAIND| Ureeq-qeIsSSeUjI}s WeiseIp

279
“3
S-€l
l=o
Sa [=
E.T,
f. E.I.
=a [=x I=
Slab system Column stiffness Slab system with Column stiffness

without beams diagram column capitals diagram
aS [=a =
Le Eels
E.1.
— (eu
[=
Slab system with Column stiffness Slab system Column stiffness

drop panels diagram with beams diagram
Fig. 13-6
LOADING CONDITIONS
It is important to note that when the equivalent frame method is used with lateral loads, the
entire frame must be considered. Also, the moment of inertia of the slab-beam system must be
reduced to account for the reduced stiffness caused by cracking of the concrete (by gravity and/or
lateral loads). The 1989 ACI Code does not provide requirements concerning the reduction, but the
Commentary for the Code recommends using from 1/4 to 1/2 of the gross cross-sectional moment of
inertia of the slab.
Figure 13-9 shows the loading conditions that must be considered in the analysis of an equivalent
frame for gravity loads (live load plus dead load). In the loading patterns, loads are uniformly
distributed over the entire area of the slab. The slab may also be subjected to line loads due to walls
supported by the slab or beam webs beneath the slab. Furthermore, concentrated loads of various
types can—and usually do—occur within the spans.
The partial frame analysis indicated in Fig. 13-9 must be followed by a second analysis, in which,
along with the vertical loads, a portion of the slab moments is assigned to the beam cross sections.
4 a - ‘ . -
CHAP. 13] THE EQUIVALENT FRAME METHOD i 281
Cy
ae
Cy
eal
Condition (a) Condition (a)
. Condition (a) Condition (c)
‘ i
Po J ;
3 CaeHLAP. 13] THE EQUIVALENT FRAME METHOD 283
\ :
Columns assumed
fixed at remote ends
(1) Loading pattern for design moments in all spans with L = {
(2) Loading pattern for positive design moment in span AB
Slab-beam assumed
fixed at remote end
FACTORED MOMENTS
Moment distribution is the most convenient and simple hand-calculation method for analyzing
partial frames involving several continuous spans with the far ends of upper and lower columns fixed.
The mechanics of the method are illustrated in Problem 13.1. For the two-cycle method, which
accounts for the whole range of loading conditions in a single moment distribution, see Problem 13.4.
In any moment technique it is necessary to consider (1) the equivalent column, so as to include
torsion effects at the slab-beam joint; (2) the proper distribution of the equivalent column moments
from the frame analysis to the actual columns above and below the joint. A three-dimensional view
of the members that frame into a joint (joint 2), together with notation for the pertinent stiffnesses
(K = kEI/1), is given in Fig. 13-10.
Fig. 13-10
COMPUTER PROGRAM LISTINGS
PROGRAM "FEMWFP" BY DR. NOEL J. EVERARD
PROGRAM FOR OBTAINING FIXED-END MOMENTS FOR UNIFORM LOADS

FOR SLAB-BEAMS WITH FINITE JOINT SIZES. THE MOMENT
OF INERTIA FOR SLAB-BEAMS IS TAKEN AS:
ISB = I1/((1.@-C2/L2)**2) FROM COLUMN FACES TO COLUMN

CENTERLINES, WHERE Ii IS THE MOMENT OF INERTIA OF THE
SLAB-BEAM AT COLUMN FACES. IF MOMENT OF INERTIA IS TAKEN AS
INFINITY OVER "AL" AND "BL", INPUT C2A, C2B AND L2 AS ZERO.
DEFINITIONS OF INPUT VALUES:
- ALI = DISTANCE FROM COLUMN CENTERLINE TO COLUMN FACE 7

AT LEFT END (A), FEET
BLi = DISTANCE FROM COLUMN CENTERLINE TO COLUMN FACE }
_ AT RIGHT END (B), FEET |
cea = COLUMN DIMENSION PERPENDICULAR TO Li AT Has car
— C2B
i =isCOLUMN DIMENSION pene nea | af “ &
Le =
2990900900000
00000000OAAOAD
REAL L,Li,L2, INA, INB, INERTA

DIMENSION X(11@),BM(11@), AMEI (11@)
DIMENSION BEAM (4)
KOUNT = @
NOPAGE = 1
NSEGC = 102
J2 = NSEGC
Fae ea 4 1
ASEGC = NSEGC
WRITE (6,81) NOFAGE
81 FORMAT (5@XxX,’PAGE’,14,//)
45@ FORMAT (2X, 4A2, 7-12.3)
1 FORMAT (13X,°’BEAM’,6X,’SFAN’,7X,’AL’,8X,’BL’,
& 8X,7WU’,6X, >FEM(A)’, 4X, 7FEM(B)?)
2 FORMAT (24X,°FT.°, 7X,’FT.%, 7X, FT.7, 5X, *KIPS/FT.”,
& 2X,’ FT-KIPS’, 3X,’ FT-KIPS’,/)
3 FORMAT (8X, 72('-*),/)
WRITE (6,1)
WRITE (6,2)
WRITE (6,3)
1@@@ READ (5, 450, END=999) (BEAM(K),K=1,4),L, AL, BL, WU, C&A, C2B, Le
42@ FORMAT (11X, 4A2,F9. 3, 4X,F6.3, 4X, F6.3,F9.3,F11.3,
& Fi. 3)
Cees ices AL Bi
DX = CL/ASEGC
X(1) = AL
RL = WU * L/2.a
RR = WU * L/2.8
BM(1) = RL * AL —-WU*(AL*#2)/2.a
SUMA = 2.8
SUMOM = 8.2
DO 4@@ K = 2,Je2
ins Kae ing Sal
X(K) = XK * DX + AL
BM(K) = RL * X(K) — WU * (X(K) **2)/7 2.08
AMEI (K) = BM(K) * DX
SUMA = SUMA + AMEI (K)
SUMOM = SUMOM + AMEI(K) * X(K)
422 CONT INUE
IF (Lesser. @.1)) FACAL 1.@
IF «(Le .tT. @. 1) FACBL 1.2
TRC tee toe GO) TO os
FACAL = 1.8/((1.@-C2A/L2) **2)
FACBL = 1.@/((1.@-C2B/LE) **2)
65 AM1A = (BM(1) * AL/2. a) /FACAL
IF (Le .~LT. @.1) AMIA = 2.4
AM2A = (BM(1)* DX/e.@)
SUMA SUMA + AMIA + AMZA
SUMOM = SUMOM + (AMIA#2. @*AL/3.@) + AMEA * (AL + DX/3.@)
BM(J3) = RR * BL — WU * (BL#¥#*2)/ 2.8
X(J3) = X(J@) + DX
AMIB = BM(J3) * Dx/e2.a
AM2B = (BM(J3) * BL/2.8) / FACBL
lh (ke <Li. @. 1) AMZB = 2.0
SUMA = SUMA + AMLIB + AMEB
SUMOM = SUMOM + AMIB*(X (J2)+2. @*DX/3. )
& + AM2B * (AL + CL + BL/3.@)
XTOP = SUMOM/SUMA
Deetce Cr. 2.1) GO 70 92
FLAT PLATE TYPE
AREA = CL + AL/FACAL + BL/FACBL
ENUM = (AL/FACAL) *AL/2. + CL*¥(AL+CL/2.) + (BL/FACBL)*(L-BL/é. )
CA = ENUM/AREA
CB = L- CA
E = XTOP - CA
INERTA = (CL¥*¥3)/12. + (CL*(CA-AL-(CL/2.))**2) + (AL/FACAL) *
& (AL#*#3/12.) + (AL/FACAL) *((CA-AL/2.)**2) + (BL/FACBL) *
& (BL*¥*3/12. ) + (BL/FACBL) * ((C-BL/2&. )**2)
GO TO 93
286 THE EQUIVALENT FRAME METHOD (CHAP. 13
c INFINITE MOMENT OF INERTIA OVER “AL" AND "BL"

92 CA = AL + CL/2.
CB = BL + CL/2.
AREA = CL
E = XTOP - CA
INERTA = (CL¥*3) / 12.8
?
93 CONTINUE
c RESULTANT OF M/EI ASSUMED TO RIGHT OF CENTERLINE OF SPAN.
c I.E. ECCENTRICITY OF ELASTIC LOAD IS ASSUMED TO BE POSITIVE
FEML = SUMA/AREA -— SUMA * E * CA/INERTA
FEMR = —(SUMA/AREAR + SUMA * E * CB / INERTA)
c CLOCKWISE MOMENTS ARE CONSIDERED TO BE IN NEGATIVE DIRECTION.
WRITE (6,420) (BEAM(M), M=1,4),L,AL,BL,WU, FEML,FEMR
KOUNT = KOUNT + 1
IF (KOUNT .LT. 55) GO TO 1002
KOUNT = @
NOPAGE = NOPAGE + 1
WRITE (6,81) NOPAGE
WRITE (6,1)
WRITE (6,2)
WRITE (6,3)
GO TO i1ae¢@
999 STOP
END
DATA FOLLOWS
(1) 18.9 2. 67 @. 67 3. 06 {233 1.33 14.8

(2) 22.2 1.2 2.0 etl & 2.a @.@ a.90
(3) 22.0 1.2 1.2 2.2 0.2 2.2 0.8
SOLUTION:
BEAM SPAN AL BL wu FEM(A) FEM(B)

FT. FT. FT. KIPS/FT. FT-KIPS FT-KIP
(1) 18. 200 2.672 2.672 3. 062 83.612

(2) 22. Baa 1. 20@ 2. 22a 1. 200 42. 282
(3) 2a. 20a 1. 200 1. G02 2. BBO 72.994
* FIXED-END MOMENT SOLUTION FOR PROBLEM 13.1

PROGRAM "CLEMSTIF" BY DR. NOEL J. EVERARD
PROGRAM FOR OBTAINING STIFFNESS FACTORS Ki, Ke AND KS

FOR BEAMS AND COLUMNS WITH FINITE JOINT SIZES. FOR
BEAMS, THE MOMENT OF INERTIA IS CONSIDERED TO BE INFINITE
FROM COLUMN CENTERLINES TO COLUMN FACES. FOR COLUMNS,
THE MOMENT OF INERTIA IS CONSIDERED TO BE INFINITE FROM
THE CENTERLINE OF THE SLAB ABOVE TO THE BOTTOM OF THE
BEAM ABOVE THE COLUMN, AND FROM THE SURFACE OF THE SLAB
BELOW THE COLUMN TO THE CENTERLINE OF THE SLAB BELOW THE
COLUMN. FOR FLAT PLATE SLABS USE FROGRAM "SLEMSTIF".
we
OHA
oon
enoOonn
RAO
COMMON LINES, NOPAGE
0 NORM IS THE MEMBER NUMBER, S DIGITS OR LESS
REAL L, INERTA, I, Ki, Ke, K3, K1AB, K2AB, KEBA, KZBA
CALLS TITLE
TAKE ACTUAL EI AS 1.2a
ea READ (5, 1@,END=999) L,AL, BL, NORM
EI = 1.2
NOFPAGE = a
LINES = @
IBLANK = @
CL =L- AL - BL
XL = AL + ( 0.5 * CL)
AREA = CL/EI
INERTA = (1.@/EI) * (CL **#3 ) /12.
KiAB = (1.@/AREA) + 1.@ * XL * XL/INERTA
Ki = KiAB * L
KEeAR = CCS W/AREA — (150% XE *6(L=—XIE))7 INERTA
K3BA = (1.@/AREA) + 1.0 * (L-XL) * (L-XL)/INERTA
K3 = K3BA * L
K2BA = ( 1.Q/AREA) — ( 1.@ * (L-XL) * XL) / INERTA
AVERAGE THE K2 VALUES
K2 = 2.5 * (K@AB + K2BA) * L * (-1.2)
WRITE (6,32) NOBM,L,AL, BL,K1,K2,K3
LINES = LINES + 1
IBLANK = IBLANK + 1
IF (IBLANK .GT. 4 ) WRITE (6, 4@)
42 FORMAT (/)
12 FORMAT (3F1@.5,215)
IF (IBLANK .GT. 4 ) IBLANK = 2
32 FORMAT (5X, 15,6F12. 3)
IF (LINES .GT. 5@ ) WRITE (6,99)
99 FORMAT (1H1)
IF ( LINES .GT. 5@ ) CALL TITLE
GO TO 2a
999 STOP
END
SUBROUTINE TITLE
LINES = @
WRITE (6, 1@)
1Q@ FORMAT (71°)

NOPAGE = NOPAGE + 1
WRITE (6,42) NOPAGE
42 FORMAT (S@X,’ PAGE’, IS, ///)
WRITE (6,15)
15 FORMAT (2@X,’STIFFNESS FACTORS’,/)
WRITE (6,16)
WRITE (6,17)
16 FORMAT (5X,’MEM 3X, ’LENGTH’,BER’ ,BL’,
7X,’ AL’, 8X,’
7X,7 AX,K12,
>K2’, 9X, 7K3" )
17 FORMAT (SX, *NUMB ER?,
5X,’ (L)’,//)
RETURN
END
DATA FOLLOWS
20. 2 2.2 a.2 1
22.2 6.2 6.2 2
10.2 2.0 2.2 2
SOLUTIONS PAGE 1
STIFFNESS FACTORS
MEMBER LENGTH AL BL K1 Ke
NUMBER (L)
1 22. aaa a. aaa a. aaa 4. 200 2.202

2 32. Daa 6. 202 6. aaa 15.556 12. 222
3 12. aaa 2. 20a 2. aaa 9.688 4.375
FROGRAM "SLEMSTIF" BY DR. NOEL J. EVERARD
FROGRAM FOR OBTAINING STIFFNESS FACTORS Ki, Ke AND KS

FOR SLAB-BEAMS WITH FINITE JOINT SIZES. THE MOMENT
OF INERTIA FOR SLAB-BEAMS IS TAKEN AS:
ISB = I[1i/((1.@-C2&/L2)**2) FROM COLUMN FACES TO COLUMN

CENTERLINES, WHERE I1 IS THE MOMENT OF INERTIA OF THE
SLAB-BEAM AT COLUMN FACES, Ce IS THE COLUMN DIMENSION
PERPENDICULAR TO THE DIRECTION OF BENDING, AND
Le IS THE DISTANCE FROM SLAB CENTERLINE TO SLAB
CENTERLINE ON BOTH SIDES, PERPENDICULAR TO THE DIRECTION
OF BENDING. IF THERE IS AN INTERSECTING PERPENDICULAR
BEAM, THE MOMENT OF INERTIA IS CONSIDERED TO BE
INFINITE FROM THE COLUMN FACE TO THE COLUMN
CENTERLINE. (USE PROGRAM CLBMSTIF)
mt
op
ge
aps
FS
oe
PE
en
gp
Ft
ioe
eT
Dt
To
ge
ei
ae
ge
po
cp
7ee
a ee ee A A A Neate ae ES Se ee Me Sane Me sees ee eesme sent ee Hee

NOBM IS THE MEMBER DESIGNATION, 8 CHARACTERS OR LESS
REAL I1, IA1, IAZ, IAS, Ki, K2, K3, KEL, KER, L1,L2
DIMENSION NOBM (4)
WRITE (6, 44)
44 FORMAT (2X, ’?MEMBER’, 9X, 7K1%, 8X,’ Ke", 8X,7KS",//)
TAKE ACTUAL EI AS 1.@ FOR SLAB-BEAM AT COLUMN FACES
Ii = 1.
22 READ (5, 300, END=999) Li, AL1, BLi, C2L, CeR, Le,
& (NOBM(KK), KK = 1,4)
32a FORMAT (6F1@. 2, 2X, 4A2)
Cll Ei oH ALL. — Bel
m Lonfe i Ti/((1. @-CeL/Le) **2)
tou I1i/((1. 0-CeR/L2) **2)
= (1.@/EILL) * ALI
Ae = (1.0/EILR) *BL1
AS = (1.00/11) * CLi
AREA = Al + A2 + AS
XBARL = (AL#ALI/2.€@ + AS*¥(LI-BL1/2.@)
& + AS*(CL1/2.4 + AL1)) /AREA
XBARR = L1-XBARL
XR = XBARR
XL = XBARL
IAL = (1.@/EILL) * (ALI **3)/12.0
+ AL * (XL-AL1/2. 2) ¥*2
IAZ = (1.Q@/EILR) * (BLi¥*3)/12.a
+ AZ * (XR - BLI/2.Q) *¥2
wm D ie) ii (1.Q/T1) * (CL1i¥#*3)/12.a
+ AZ * (L1/2.@ - XL) *¥*2
Q@ = IAL + IA2 + IAB
K3 = (1.@/AREA) + (1.8 * XR * XR/Q)
K2R = (1.@/AREA) —- (1.8 * XR * XR/Q)
K1 = (1.@/AREA) + (1.@ *% XL * XL/Q)
Kel = (1.8/AREA) - (1.@ * XL * XL/Q)
USE AVERAGE K2 FROM BOTH ENDS OF THE MEMBER
Ke CoS se (hee. Kell)
K1 Ki * Li
Ke fouKe ae Ea
K3 = K3 * Li
WRITE (6,12@) (NOBM(KK), KK = 1,4), Ki,K@,K3
122 FORMAT (2X, 4A&, 3F1@.3)
GO TO 2a
939 STOP
END
FOLLOWS
a. 2 BEAM1
ge s8 fu
S a2.a BEAMe
SOLUTION
MEMBE R K1 Ke KS
BEAM1 4.182 —2.143 4.182

BEAMe 4. 222 —-2. BAA 4. 222
Solved Problems
13.1.* Referring to the slab plan, Fig. 13-11, use the equivalent frame method to determine the
design moments for the slab in the transverse direction for an intermediate floor.
18’-0"
18'-0”
18'-0”
Fig. 13-11
Data are story height = 9 ft; columns are 16 in. x 16 in. square; lateral loads are to be resisted by
shear walls and there are no spandrel beams; partition weight = 20 Ib/ft*; service live load = 40 lb/ft’.
f! = 3000 psi (for slab); f; = 5000 psi (for column); f, = 60,000 psi.
Preliminary Design for Slab Thickness
(a) Control of deflections. With f, = 60,000 psi, «,, = 0.0<0.2, no interior beams, no edge beam, and
no drop panels, the 1992 Revision of the 1989 ACI Code and Table 8.3 prescribe h,,;, = /,/30=
200/30 = 6.67 in. for an interior panel. This exceeds the minimum thickness, 5 in., and governs.
To be on the safe side, make all panels 7 in. deep. The slab dead load will then be 87.5 lb/ft’.
(6) Shear strength. Use an average effective depth d of about 5.75 in. for j-in. cover plus No. 4 bar.
The total factored load is
w,, = 1.4(87.5 + 20) + 1.7(40) = 218.5 Ib/ft”
Wide-beam action is investigated for a 12-in.-wide strip at distance d from the face of support in the
long direction (see Fig. 13-12). Thus, the actual and allowable one-way shear forces are
V,, = (218.5)(7.854)/1000 = 1.72 kip
bV.=26V fib,,d = 2(0.85)V3000(12)(5.75) /1000 = 6.43 kip
V,<¢V,. (O.K.). As for two-way action, since there are no shear forces at the centerlines of
adjacent panels, the punching shear strength at distance d/2 around the support is
“Problem 13.1 was initially developed by Chris Pickett for “PCA Notes on ACI-318-71.” The problem was expanded
by the author in collaboration with Gerald Neville for “PCA Notes on ACI-318-77” and “PCA Notes on
ACI-318-83.” It was included in the second edition of this book by agreement with Mark Fintel, then Director of
Engineered Structures and Codes, of the Portland Cement Association.
wi
V,, = (218.5)[(18)(14) — (1.81)7]/1000 = 54.3 kip

while, for a square column, (6.36) gives
oV, = 46V f/b,d = 4(0.85)V3000(4 x 21.75)(5.75) /1000 = 93.2 kip
Again, V,<@V, (O.K.).
The conclusion is that a 7-in. overall slab thickness is adequate for control of deflections and
shear strength.
Pasta
Fig. 13-12
Members of Equivalent Frame
Determine moment distribution constants and fixed-end moments for the equivalent frame mem-
bers. The column analogy procedure of Problems 13.2 and 13.3 yields the stiffness factors k, = k, = 4.13;
carryover factors COF=k,/k, =k,/k,=0.509 (since k,=2.10); and the fixed-end moment factor
0.0843, for the slab-beams. For the columns, k, = k, = 4.74; COF = 0.549 (so k, = 2.60).
(a) Slab-beams. From
I, =the
= = (168)55 (Fed= 4802 in.
oe
E., = 57,000V3000 = 3.12 x 10° psi

1, = 18'-0" = 216 in.
it follows that the flexural stiffness at either end is
Et 240°
K,, =4.13 —= =4.13 fetes W802) 286 x 10° in.-Ib
: ii 216
(b) Columns. From
c* (16)* sgt |
1h = D I 12 = 5461 in.
E, = 57,000V5000 = 4.03 x 10° psi

1, = 9'-0" = 108 in.
it follows that the flexural stiffness at either end is (flat plate, no beams)
(4.03 x 10°)(5461) ee
K, = 4.74 = + 4.74 108 = 966 X 10° reein.-Ib
aM eS
c
1 6"
| | Torsional
tz
cae eee Condition (a)
Fig. 13-13
(c) Torsional members. Since (Fig. 13-13) c, = 16 in. and 1, = 14’-0"= 168 in., equations (13.2) and
(13.1) give
pae a: ( 7\ “3
(06) 4
c=(1-0.63*) = — 1— 0.63 +5 = 1325 in.
OFC ee 0m2 ~ 10 (1325)

= —— Ss = = 299
x 10°
("Tl —ely 168(1—16/168)° co in.-Ib
The equivalent column stiffness is given by (13.4) as
_UK,X2K, (2X 966)(2 x 299)

K
ec YEK.+2K, (2X 966) + (2 x 299)
= 457 x 10° in.-lb

where © K, is for two torsional members, one on each side of the column, and © K-. is for the upper and
lower columns at the slab-beams joint of an intermediate floor (see Fig. 13-14). By use of Fig. 13-15,
with the known values of K,, and K,.,ec? the slab-beam joint distribution factors are calculated as
286 we
7864457 ~ 0.385 exterior joint
er 286
386 +286 +457. 0.278 interior joint
Fig. 13-14 Fig. 13-15

Partial Analysis of the Equivalent Frame
Determine maximum negative and positive moments for the slab-beams using the moment
distribution method. Since L/D = 40/(87.5 + 20) = 0.37 <3/4, design moments are assumed to occur at
all critical sections with full-factored live load on all spans.
Factored dead load per unit area: w, = 1.4(87.5 + 20) = 150.5 lb/ft”
Factored live load per unit area: w, = 1.7(40) = 68 Ib/ft?
Factored load per unit area: w, + w, = 218.5 lb/ft?
FEM due to w, + w,: 0.0843w,,1,/7 = 0.0843(218.5/1000)(14)(18)? = 83.6 ft-kip
The moment distribution is shown in Table 13.1 and the accompanying Fig. 13-16; all moments are
in ft-kip. Positive span moments are determined from
M(midspan) = M, — 3(|M,| + |M,|)

s
where M, is the moment at midspan for a simple beam with uniform load. When the end moments are
not equal, the maximum moment in the span does not occur at midspan; but its value is close to that at
midspan, and it is common practice to use the positive moment at midspan in practical design cases.
Fig. 13-16
Table 13.1
1-2 2-1 2-3 3-2 3-4 4-3

DF 0.385 0.278 0.278 0.278 0.278 0.385
0.509 0.509 0.509 0.509 0.509 0.509
+83.60 —83.60 +83.60 +83.60 —83.60
Sey, 0.0
5 oS 16.38
Computer
solution
Center of
span +M +49.81 +37.59 +49.81
53.15 ft-kip 95.01 ft-kip 86.61 ft-kip 86.61 ft-kip
3.0599 aC ee
@ [sce «ana
[sce ft V1 ®
Fig. 13-17
Using Fig. 13-17, the end shears are calculated for each span, acting as a simply supported beam
with end moments. For spans 1-2 and 3-4,
Vi =V4= (—95.04 + 53.11) /18 + (3.059)(18)/2 = —2.329 + 27.531 = 25.202 kip
V5 = V3 = +2.329 + 27.531 = 29.86 kip
V5= V3 = (3.059)(18) /2 = 27.531 kip
The ACI Code permits the design end moments to be taken at the faces of the supports. Hence, it is
necessary to reduce the negative moments by the areas under the shear diagrams over the width of the
supports. For the 18-in. columns, the change in shear over 8 in. is AV= (3.059)(8/12) = 2.039 kip. At
the interior faces of supports 1 and 4, V,, = V,, = 25.202 — 2.039 = 23.162 kip. The areas under the shear
diagram are
AM = 25.202 + (23.162)(1/2)(8/12) = 16.12 ft-kip
The moments at the interior faces of columns 1 and 4 will be —53.11 + 16.12 = —36.99 ft-kip.
At the exterior faces of columns 2 and 3, the shear is V,, = V,, = 29.860 — 2.039 = 27.821 kip. The
areas under the shear diagram from the column centerlines to the faces will be
AM = (29.860 + 27.821)(1/2)(8/12) = 19.227 ft-kip
and so M, , = M,_, = —95.04 + 19.227 = —75.813 ft-kip.
At the interior faces of columns 2 and 3, the shear is 27.531 — 2.039 = 25.492 kip. The areas under
the shear diagram from the centerline of the columns to their faces will be
AM = (27.531 + 25.492)(1/2)(8/12) = 17.764 ft-kip
so the moments at the column faces will be M,,= M,_,= —86.300 + 17.764= —68.626 ft-kip. The —
shears, areas under the shear diagram, and the moments at the faces of the columns are shown on Fig.
13-18.
The maximum positive moments in spans 1-2 and 3-4 occur where the shear is zero: R.
- 25.202-3.059x=0 or x=8.239 ft
measured from the centerlines of columns 1 and 4. Therefore,
+M,,,, = —53.11 + (25.202)(8.239) — (3.059)(8.239)7/2 = +50.71 ft-kip

The difference from the positive moment at midspan, 49.81 ft-kip, is
i insignificant. Due to gpitibe FAs
maximum positive moment in span 2-3 occurs at midspan and is +37.59 ft-kip.
. Design Moments ae c
- Positive and ante factored moments for the slab system (all spans carrying hilltectored live” |
me in oe transverse direction are shown intae 13-18. ee
Hae oma’ awea takenie ee *
1 ! 2 3
| w = 0.2185 x 14 = 3.059 kip/ft |
18’-0" 18'-0"
] | |
49.81 ft-kip
37.59 ft-kip
86.30 ft-kip 86.30 ft-kip

Frame moments
9:0)
29.86 kip
27.53 kip
29.86 kip
Frame shears
49.81 ft-kip
37.59 ft-kip
36.99 ft-kip
68.63 ft-kip
Design moments
Fig. 13-18
M,, = w,[2/8 = (0.2185)(14)(16.67)*/8 = 106.3 ft-kip

End span: 49.8 + (36.9 + 75.8)/2 = 106.2 ft-kip ~ 106.3 ft-kip
Interior span: 37.5 + (68.7)/2 = 106.2 ft-kip ~ 106.3 ft-kip
The negative and positive factored moments at the critical sections may be distributed to the column
strip and two half-middle strips of the slab-beam according to the proportions specified in the Code.
Distribution of factored moments (in ft-kip) at critical sections is summarized in Table 13.2.
Table 13.2
Factored To two half-
moment To column strip middle strips
End span:
Exterior negative 36.99 36.99 (100%) 0.0 (0%)
Positive 49.81 29.91 (60%) 19.9 (40%)
Interior negative 75.81 56.91 (75%) 18.9 (25%)
Interior span:
Negative 68.63 51.47 (75%) 17.16 (25%)
Positive S159 22.55 (60%) 15.04 (40%)
The unbalanced moments from the slab-beams at the supports of the equivalent frame are
distributed to the actual columns above and below the slab-beam in proportion to the relative stiffnesses
of the actual columns. Referring to Table 13.1, the unbalanced moments are +53.11 ft-kip at joint 1 and
—95.01 + 86.61 = —8.4 ft-kip at joint 2. The stiffness and carryover factors of the actual columns and the
distribution of the unbalanced moment (in ft-kip) to the exterior and interior columns are shown in Fig. ©
13-19. The design moments for the columns may be taken at the juncture of the face of the column and
the slab. Summarizing: design moment in exterior column = 25.23 ft-kip; design moment in interior
column = 4.13 ft-kip.
COF = 0.549 26.56

K, = 960 Bottom of slab
CL. slab —” ASo8 tea

Exterior column ;
rime
ee Ae
Fig 1319
}
'*
~ 2. ry 7
‘ CHAP. 13] THE EQUIVALENT FRAME METHOD 297
2) Unbalanced moment transfer. From Table 13.2, the unbalanced moment at exterior columns is
M,, = 36.99 ft-kip. For an edge column with bending perpendicular to the edge, the calculation of
the actual combined shear stress uv, at the inside face of the critical transfer section makes use of
Appendix A-10:
a=c, + 2d/2=16 + 5.75/2 = 18.88 in.

b=c,+d=16+5.75 = 21.75 in.
c = a’/(2a + b) = (18.88)7/[2(18.88) + 21.75] = 5.99 in.
A. = (2a + b)d = [2(18.88) + 21.75](5.75) = 342.2 in,
J/c = [2ad(a + 2b) + d*(2a + b)]/6
= {2(18.88)(5.75)[18.88 + (2)(21.75)] + (21.75)°[(2)(18.88) + 21.75]} /6.0 = 2358 in
For an exterior column,
d De f
We = Crea 5 = 16.0+ a = 18.88 in.
b,=c,+d=16.0+ 5.75 = 21.75 in.

1
whence Nea 1+ 2V5,/b, = 0.62 8 a 1 — 0.62 = 0.38
"4 MA 527,500 36.99 x 12,000 _ .

and v= 44 % Fie ~ 342.2 + 0.38 7358 = 151.89 psi
Similarly, the combined shear stress at the outside face of the critical transfer section is
27,500 36.99 x 12,000 _ :
v, = 347.2 38'm— Soda t 73.54 psi
The permissible shear stress is given by

ou, = 64V/f"= (0.85)(4)V3000 = 186.2 psi > 151.89 psi (O.K.)
Now design for unbalanced moment transfer by flexure (under temperature change and/or
shrinkage of the concrete) for both half-middle strips (b =7 ft = 84 in.) and column strip:
A sin) = 9-0018bh = 0.0018(84)(7) = 1.06 in.
For No. 4 bars, total bars required = 1.06/0.20 = 5.3 bars. For s,,,, =2h =2 x 7= 14 in., total bars
required = 84/14 = 6 bars.
Check the total reinforcement required for column-strip negative moment M,= 4M, =
36.9 ft-kip. Corresponding to
M 36.99 x 12,000
5S = 0.0592
bf'bd? —(0.9)(3000)(84)(5.75)”
since d = 7.0 — 1.25 = 5.75 in., Table 5.1 gives w = 0.0613; therefore,
A, = of (bd/f, = (0.0613)(3000)(84)(5.75)
/60,000 = 1.48 in.”
For No. 4 bars, total bars required = 1.48/0.20 = 7.4 bars. Use six No. 4 bars at 14-in. spacing in
the middle strip and two No. 4 bars in the portion of the column strip outside the unbalanced
moment transfer section,
c + 2(1.5h) = 16 + 2(1.5 X 7) = 37 in.

Additional reinforcement is required over the column within an effective slab width of 37 in.
to resist the fraction of the unbalanced moment transferred by flexure. For a square column, ~
y,M,, = (0.62)(36.99) = 22.93 ft-kip

must be transferred within the effective slab width of 37 in. Try two additional bars over the
column, making a total of four No. 4 bars. Checking moment strength for four No. 4 bars within a
37-in. width,
A,f, (0.80)(60,000)
A, = 4(0.20)=0.80
in.” and = w= = 0.0752
fibd (3000)(37)(5.75)
Enter Table 5.1 at w = 0.0752 to obtain M,/f'bd* = 0.0719, whence
M,, = (0.0719)(3000)(37)(5.75)?/12,000 = 22.0 ft-kip
and so #M, = (0.9)(22.0) = 19.8 ft-kip < 22.93 ft-kip (N.G.). Try, then, three additional bars, for
a total of five No. 4 bars. For five No. 4 bars within a 37-in. width,
(1.00)(60,000)
A, = 5(0.20) = 1.00 in? w = (3000)(37)(5.75) — °-0928
From Table 5.1, M,/f!bd* = 0.0877, and thus
#M,, = (0.9)(0.0877)(3000)(37)(5.75)7/
12,000 = 24.1 ft-kip
which; exceeding 22.93 ft-kip, is satisfactory.
13.2. Use the column analogy method to obtain the stiffness factors (kK) for the beam shown in Fig.
13-20. Consider the moment of inertia to be infinite over the distances a/ and bl, from the
column centerlines to the faces of the columns.
Fig. 13-20
In the solution, k, and k, will be the stiffness coefficients in K,, = k,EI/l and K,, = k,EI/l. The —
stiffness factor k, in K, = k,EI/I relates to the member stiffness matrix. For moment distribution, the _
carryover cee are ‘defined as Cy, =k,/k, and Cz,=k,/k,. Use 1=20ft and al=bl=1.0 ft
(symmetric case).
In the column analogy method, the beam is replaced by an analogous column (or equivalent
column), so defined that, at any location along the beam, the column is of width 1/EJ, where EI is the
beam stiffness at the given location. In general, the cross-sectional moment of inertia J will be variable so_
that the analogous column will have variable width. Figure 13-21 shows a cross section of the analogous
column for the present problem; because of the assumption made in the problem pEsteents c=
La 8. ;
i Under the analogy, stresses in the equivalent column represent moments in the actual beam.
Specifically, let end A of the beam be held fixed and let end B undergo a unit rotation, ¢ = 1 rad.me |
at distance x from the centroidal axis of the analogous column, } , ss
l
Face of column
al cl bl
1/EI
ee
EA
el/2 el/2
Fig. 13-21
ao c engrsS05. UC gee
Ky, =
(/END(18) * (/EN(18)712 ~ 27013!
from which the stiffness factor at joint B is
l
k, = 7 Koa = (20)(0.26133) = 5.227
By symmetry, K,, = K,,, and so k, =k, =5.227.
The carryover stiffness is obtained by using x = —//2 = —10 ft in the analogy:
pee eae UOM O)

*2= G7EN(8) (/EN(18)712
» = 20(+0.1502) = 3.004
The carryover stiffness factor k, has been taken positive in accordance with the modern practice of
distributing directional moments. Because of Maxwell’s law of reciprocity, k, is the stiffness factor both
for carryover from end B to end A and for carryover from end A to end B.
Use of the computer program SLBMSTIF leads to the same k values as found above; see Problem
13.5(p).
13.3. For the beam of Fig. 13-20, determine the fixed-end moments at A and B by the column-
analogy method. Assume that a = b = 0; / = 22 ft; EJ is constant over the span, which carries a
uniform load of w = 1.0 kip/ft.
The moment diagram is parabolic, with a maximum simple beam moment wi/’/8 at the center of the
span. The elastic load N on the analogous column is equal to the area under the M/EI diagram (also
parabolic):
) pies p= 2 (1.0)(22)° _ 887.33
SREP NS a) ey 2
In this case, because of symmetry, there is no eccentricity of the elastic load, so the fixed-end moments
at both ends of the beam are simply
FEM ,, = FEM,, = A®N _ (ALBIN

887.33/EI
22)
= 40.33 ft-kip
The moment is counterclockwise at A and clockwise at B.
The computer program FEMWFP provides solutions FEM,, = FEM, , = 40.23 ft-kip; see Problem
13.7(a). The computer program uses finite elements to calculate the fixed-end moments, this being the
best approach when a and 5b are nonzero and/or unequal.
13.4. Figure 13-22 shows the loading conditions that must be investigated to determine the
maximum negative moments at the supports and the maximum positive moments at the
centers of the spans. Use the two-cycle moment distribution method to obtain a solution that
includes all seven loading conditions, with only one distribution of moments. (The results of
the two-cycle moment distribution method agree reasonably well with the maximum negative
and positive moments obtained by distributing moments seven times, once for each loading
condition, and finding the maximum moment at all points.) For simplicity assume that
members have constant E/ and that column stiffnesses are one-half of beam stiffnesses.
20 ft 20 ft 23.3 ft 25 ft
VLLEEEZLLLLLAC
LLL LLL LLL RCLLLL LLLLLL LLL LLL LLL 1.08 kip tt
LIVE LOAD
6) ee ee ae
6) VILLL LLL LLL LLL 1.08 kip/ft

es ae
LIVE LOAD
WILLLLLLLLALLAL ae ULLILLLILL LALLA 1 08 kip/ft
(3) sae us vA
Q—-LLLLLLLLLLML. WLLLLL ALLEL 1,08 pitt
\) (227277 TZZL LLL LLL Omaaipin
ne 13-22 ; ; - ‘ ‘ "
(a) Calculate distribution factors DiS= KID K atthejoints: a in

For AB, BA, BC, and CB, MF=072(20)7/12 = 24.0 ft-kip

For CD and DC, ME = 0.72(23.3)*/12 = 32.6 ft-kip
For DF and ED, MF = 0.72(25)?/12 = 37.6 ft-kip
With live load of 1.08 kip/ft:
For AB, BA, BC, and CB, MF = 1.08(20)’/12 = 36.0 ft-kip
For CD and DC, MF = 1.08(23.3)7/12 = 48.9 ft-kip
For DE and ED, MF = 1.08(25)7/12 = 56.3 kip
(6) Calculate the products of the distribution factors and carryover factors, DF x COF, at the ends of
each member. In this problem, each COF = 3 by assumption of uniform beam stiffness. In Table
13.3, record DF, then COF, and then DF x COF. Next, list the dead-load fixed-end moments and
the total-load fixed-end moments (total load = dead load + live load). The moments are considered
to be positive if clockwise and negative if counterclockwise.
Table 13.3
A B Cc D E
DF 1/2 1/3 1/3 1/3 1/3 1/3 1/3 1/2

COF
DF x COF
DLFEM — 24 —24 24 = 972.6
TLFEM —94 94
~(TLFEM + DLFEM) —(60 — 24)(1/6) —(60 — 32.6)(1/6) —(81.5 — 37.6)(1/6) —(94 — 0)(1/4)(6)
x (DF x COF)
=D1 6 —4.56 -731 =23.5
~(TLFEM + DLFEM) —(60 —0)(1/4) —(—60 + 24)(1/6) —(-81.5 + 24)(1/6) —(—94 + 32.6)(1/6)
x (DF x COF)
=D2 15 6 9.58 10.23
0
0
Z=-[(X + Y) x DF] 33 —3.48 | -3.48

: 7.6 7.6 8.81 8.81 —52.1
oe,
= DIRECTION M
SS
33 Wieder
ae
—68.04 73.6 —81.21
a 99.89
eae
— 108.69 52713
vs)
SUM =
CLMFE + P+Q
= Final moment at 44.48 37.02 $2.03 70.27
center of beam
(c) Start with distribution item D1, going diagonally down across each joint from right to left. Obtain
the algebraic sum of DLFEM and TLFEM. Multiply the sum by (DF x COF) and record on the
left end of each beam. Do not include joint A, since there is no beam to the left of it. r
(d) Follow with distribution item D2, going diagonally down from left to right. Obtain the algebraic
sum of DLFEM and TLFEM. Multiply the sum by (DF x COF) and record on the right side of
each member. Do not include joint E, since there is no member to the right of it.
(e) Calculate and record on the left side of all beams the term X = TLFEM + D1.
(f) Calculate and record on the right side of all beams the term Y = TLFEM + D2.
(g) Record zero (0.0) for X on the right side of all beams and for Y on the left side of all beams.
(h) Calculate Z = —Y [(X + Y) x DF], where the summation is around the joint, at both sides of all
joints and record.
(i) Add algebraically and obtain the sums (X + Y + Z), at both sides of all joints. These are the final
directional moments at the ends of all beams.
(J) Transform directional moments to bending moments. Counterclockwise moments are negative
bending moments on the left sides of beams, and clockwise moments are negative bending
moments on the right sides of beams. In general, the end moments on all beams will be negative
bending moments.
(k) Calculate the moments at the centers of all beams due to total load (dead load + live load) under
fixed-end conditions. For uniformly distributed loads, the centerline moment is CLMFE = wl7/24.
Record at the centers of all beams.
(!) Calculate (-D1)(1 + DF)/2 for all beams and record at the centerlines of the beams as item P. Use
DF for the left sides of beams.
(m) Calculate (D2)(1 + DF)/2 for all beams and record at the centerlines of the beams as item Q. Use
DF for the right sides of beams.
(n) Obtain the sum CLMFE + P + Q and record this as the final positive moments at the centers of all
beams.
(0) Record the solution for negative and positive moments as in Fig. 13-23.
It should be noted that the positive moment at the center of a beam (CLMFE) is obtained by
calculating the simply supported beam moment for the particular loading condition (w/’/8 for uniformly
distributed loads) and subtracting the average of the absolute moments due to fixed-end conditions (cf.
Problem 13.1). The factor k in kEI/l]= K is 4.0 for beams of constant EJ, and is larger than 4.0 for
variable moment inertia. Likewise, the carryover factor is greater than 1/2 for beams having variable
moment of inertia.
For comparison with the solution yielded by the two-cycle moment distribution method, Fig. 13-24
shows the results of using (a) seven separate loading conditions and seven separate moment dis-
tributions, (b) the 1963-1986 ACI Code moment coefficients (see Table 2.1).
(6) 80.3
(a) 69.4
ove was. p
(6) 61.1
51.6
(a) 36.7
(a) —49.6
(6) —70.3
(a) —73.5 ¥ (a) —66.1
(6) —72.0! (6) —72.0
| (a) —74.0
(b) -76.7 (a) —102.8 (a) —109.5
(6) ~105.1 (6) -105.1
Fig. 13-24 Final moments, in ft-kip, by other methods.
13.5. Subproblems (a)-—(p) in Table 13.4 have to do with the continuous beam of Fig. 13-20. Confirm the
solutions yielded by computer program CLBMSTIF.
13.6. (SI analog of Problem 13.5) Subproblems (a)—(p) in Table 13.5 have to do with the continuous beam of
Fig. 13-20. Confirm the solutions yielded by computer program CLBMSTIF.
£37. Subproblems (a)-(t) in Table 13.6 have to do with the continuous beam of Fig. 13-20. Confirm the
solutions yielded by computer program FEMWFP.
13.8. (SI analog of Problem 13.7) Subproblems (a)—(p) in Table 13.7 have to do with the continuous beam of
Fig. 13-20. Confirm the solutions yielded by computer program FEMWFP.
Table 13.4
i Ce 2.000 4.000
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(7)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
()
(m)
(n)
(0)
(Pp)
Table 13.5
[ed oe
Table 13.6
FEM(A), FEM(B),
l, ft al, ft bl, ft w, kip/ft ft-kip ft-kip
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(/)
(m)
(n)
(0)
(Pp)
(q)
(r)
(s)
(t)
Table 13.7
FEM(A), FEM(B),
I,m al,m bl,m w,kN/m kN-m kN-m
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(/)
(k)
(!)
(m)
(n)
(0)
(p)
.
13.9. Refer to Fig. 13-22. Find the bending moments at the supports and at the centerlines of the spans.
Distribution factors and carryover factors are the same as for Problem 13.5. Span lengths and uniformly
distributed loads are given in Table 13.8.
Ans. See Table 13.9; moments are symmetrical about structure centerline.
Table 13.8
Span length, ft
AB and DE BC and CD
(a) Bienen Liamrs

®
©
e
(e)
(f)
(g)
Table 13.9 ;
Positive moments, ft-kip
©
»
© a
a
© [6 , |
ia
Table 13.10
Span length,m
ABand DE | BCandCD | w,,kN/m w,,kN/m
13.10. (Soft conversion of Problem 13.9) Refer to Fig. 13-22. Find the bending moments at the supports and at
the centerlines of the spans. Distribution factors and carryover factors are the same as for Problem 13.5.
Span lengths and uniformly distributed loads are given in Table 13.10.
Ans. See Table 13.11; moments are symmetrical about structure centerline.
Table 13.11
Chapter 14
Retaining Walls
NOTATION
c= unit cohesion for clay soils, lb/ft” (kKN/m”)
e =eccentricity of resultant of vertical loads, ft (m)
f=friction coefficient
h = total thickness of a member, in. (mm)
= height of wall stem, ft (m)
h,= surcharge height in equivalent soil, ft (m)
h,, = height of wall from base of footing, ft (m)
H = horizontal force, kip (kN)
H, = active pressure horizontal force, kip (KN)
H,, = passive pressure horizontal force, kip (KN)
H, = total pressure force due to surcharge, kip (KN)
k, = coefficient of active soil pressure
k, = coefficient of passive soil pressure
1= length of base of a footing, ft (m)
M = bending moment, ft-kip (kKN-m)
M,, = overturning moment, ft-kip (kN-m)
M, = resisting moment, ft-kip (kKN-m)
N= normal force, kip (KN)
p = unit pressure, lb/ft” (kPa)
P, = active soil pressure, Ib/ft” (kPa) Md
P, = passive soil pressure, lb/ft” (kPa) a4
p, = Surcharge pressure, lb/ft” (kPa) an
P, = sloping orhorizontal active pressure force, kip (kN) . a “aie
7 P,,=sloping or horizontal passive pressure force, kip (KN) — . re
ne= resultant vertical force, ku (KN. i~ me? weg Ps |
—- hs ‘
SF= safety factor +Asie eb i. ary
: T = surcharge load on a footi ,Ib/t
z
Wh
an
‘ q
rie force,kip (KN)
CHAP. 14] RETAINING WALLS 309
USES OF RETAINING WALLS

Very often in the construction of buildings or bridges it is necessary to retain earth in a relatively
vertical position. Whenever embankments are involved in the construction, retaining walls are
usually necessary. In the construction of buildings having basements, retaining walls are mandatory.
Figure 14-1 indicates some of the various types of retaining walls which are commonly utilized.
—— ~——___________+|
1~0.46h,, 1~0.65h,,
(a) T-shaped cantilever wall, horizontal fill (b) T-shaped cantilever wall, sloping fill
1>0.65h,,
(d)
1~0.8h,,
(f)
h,
eae ene
1~0.55h,,
poesy
1~0.7h,
(g) Reversed L-shaped retaining wall, horizontal fill (h) Reversed L-shaped retaining wall, sloping fill
Fig. 14-1
310 RETAINING WALLS [CHAP. 14
FORCES ON RETAINING WALLS
The usual gravity loads due to the weights of the materials do not present great problems with
respect to retaining walls. Actually, the horizontal pressures due to the retained soil will present the
greatest problems.
If we construct a box having a sliding wall, as shown in Fig. 14-2, fill the box with sand, and then
suddenly lift the wall, the sand will slide along a shear plane and form a slope as shown in Fig. 14-3.
Horizontal G,
Sand
Fig. 14-2 Fig. 14-3
The angle a formed by the sand is called the natural angle of repose of the material. Different
materials exhibit widely varying slopes of repose. Further, the moisture content of the material is an
important factor with respect to the slope of repose.
If the moisture content of the sand in Fig. 14-2 would be at an optimum value, the sand might
stand vertically for a short time.
Granular materials such as sand or gravel behave differently than cohesive materials such as clay
when retained in some manner. Materials which contain combinations of the two types of soil will act
similar to the predominant material. Since the percentages of cohesive and noncohesive materials
vary extensively in nature, it is necessary to conduct tests to determine the properties of a natural
deposit of soil.
Although a soil will assume its natural angle of repose when not confined, it is improper to use
the angle of repose in design for confined material. Under confinement, the soil has a tendency to
slide in a manner similar to that discussed with respect to Figs. 14-2 and 14-3, but somewhat
modified. The sliding surface will be more like those shown in Figs. 14-4-and 14-5.
Failure
surface Failure
surface
Pa Pp
Fig. 14-4 Outward movement of the wall. Fig. 14-5 Inward movement of the wall.
If the wall is absolutely rigid, earth pressure at rest will develop. If the wall should deflect or
move a very small amount away from the earth, active earth pressure will develop, as shown in Fig.
14-4. If the wall moves toward the earth, passive earth pressure will develop, as shown in Fig. 14-5.
The magnitude of earth pressure at rest lies at some value between active and passive earth pressure.
Under normal conditions earth pressure at rest is so intense that the wall deflects, relieving itself
of this type of pressure, and active pressure results. For this reason, most retaining walls are designed
for active pressure due to the retained soil.
Although the actual pressure intensity diagram is very complex, it is usual to assume a Jinear
pressure distribution due to active or passive pressure. The intensity is assumed to increase with
depth as a function of the weight of the soil so that the horizontal pressure of the earth against the
wall is often called equivalent fluid pressure.
Figure 14-6 shows the usual types of pressure diagrams assumed in designing retaining walls.
Vi = h,,
H,
|H
Y2/3 me Y1/3
2 :
PRES Ekeirs SS SiON Sse Ae Ie = t
Sn ee:
P. Frictional aplciel Active soil

P Passive soil shear force a pressure
pressure
Fig. 14-6
For granular, noncohesive materials which are dry, the assumed linear pressure diagram is nearly
correct. Cohesive soils do not behave in this manner, and it is not good practice to backfill a wall
with cohesive soils. Granular materials are used for backfill whenever possible to provide a linear
pressure distribution and also to provide for drainage to release water pressure from behind the wall.
In French drains the granular materials are prevented from entering the open joints and holes in the
drain pipe by galvanized screen. .
When the materials used behind a wall are such that a linear pressure distribution may be
assumed, the pressure intensity at any depth y may be stated as
Pa=k,wy (14.1)
for active pressure, and as
Ue Wy (14.2)
for passive pressure, where k, = coefficient of active pressure, k, = coefficient of passive pressure,
w = density of the soil in lb/ft® (kg/m*), y =distance from the surface to the plane in question in
ft (m).
Fundamentally, k,w and k,w are equivalent pressures to be used in determining the total
horizontal force acting against the wall.at any given depth.
The coefficients k, and k, are usually only approximate, and should never be treated as though
they are scientifically exact.
Experience has proven that walls can be safely designed using the approximate coefficients
obtained from mathematical theories such as those of Coulomb and Rankine. The angle of internal
friction ¢ is obtained experimentally or approximated from experience for use with those theories.
Figures 14-7 and 14-8 illustrate results of test data for cohesionless soils and cohesive soils,
respectively. It is important to note from the figures that the friction angle line passes through the
origin for cohesionless soils, and for cohesive soils the line springs from a nonzero value. The latter
value is called the cohesion c and represents the greatest portion of the shear strength of the cohesive
soil.
The general case concerning the forces acting on the back face of a retaining wall is shown in Fig.
14-9.
‘ It is significant to note that Coulomb’s theory accounts for the frictional force between the wall
and the soil while Rankine’s theory neglects this force. Since it is rather difficult to accurately
312 RETAINING WALLS
force
Normal force
Normal
Shear force
Shear force
Fig. 14-8
Fig. 14-7
determine the frictional force on the back face of the wall; Coulomb’s theory is not widely used in
retaining-wall design.
For a cohesionless soil a triangular pressure diagram is assumed to develop. This assumption is
applied to both passive and active pressure. The nature of the triangular pressure diagram shown in
Fig. 14-6 is such that the total force which develops at a depth y from the surface will be
H, =(k,w)y/2_ (14.3)
for active pressure and
H, es 2
= (k,w)y?/2 (14.4} 9
“ff
for passive pressure.
Although it is an approximation, for sloping backfill as shown in Fig. 14-9 it is usually assumed
that the force P, is parallel to the surface of the fill, so the components of the force are stl to )
determine. In such cases equations (14.3) and (14.4) are usually applied in practice. i
A more detailed study of the Rankine theory indicates that the force is not only dicpendent on
the slope of the surface of the fill but is also dependent on the angle between the face of the wall and
the
= surface. For active pressure the angle between the back face of the wall and the horizontal is
"use ~
_ The more accurate ee arecase atinHea 14-10 3 ine‘the Rankine theory. When the v Il is
Case I. Wall leaning toward fill (@ < 90°) Case II. Wall leaning away from fill (@ > 90°)
B = ¢ =angle of internal 8B =6 =slope of fill surface
friction for the soil
C sin 6 — cos 8
aoe C cos 6
eth ere cos

6 —
lt~ (cot 6)(tan B)]
cos’
cos 6 + \/ cos” 6 — cos

6 — cos
Cwh* jest }
PAS Same bs [1 — (cot @)(tan B)]
For 6 = 90° and 6 = 0,
wh?| 1—sin =
o ia A and
=0 = =
Fig. 14-10 Rankine soil pressure and force for cohesionless soils.
Ts
Passive
pressure
Gy hy
Shear key
aes
Pp
Fig. 14-11
The passive pressure on the front of the wall is usually neglected, since it is possible that this soil will
erode away or that shearing will occur, thus eliminating this passive pressure. It is always safe to
neglect this passive pressure.
The active horizontal soil pressure must be resisted by opposite forces so that the wall will not
slide. Those forces are provided by friction of the footing base on the soil and by passive forces on the
shear key when such is provided.
The unit passive pressure at any depth h is
pk wi, (14.7)
_1itsind
where k= (aan (14.8)
which may also be written as

k, =tan® (45°+ $/2) (14.9)
Although it is common practice to ignore the erodable soil above the toe of the wall, it is
satisfactory to use the least magnitude of the pressure on the toe in front of the key as a surcharge in
calculating the passive pressure on the shear key. This will be discussed in detail in connection with
shear key design.
ANGLE OF INTERNAL FRICTION @

True valuesof the angle of internal friction can only be obtained by tests of the soil. In the
absence of laboratory tests, the angle @ may be approximated as follows. For:
Dry, loose sand with round grains, uniform gradation, ¢ = 28.5° (0.5 rad)
Dry, dense sand with round grains, uniform gradation, ¢ = 35.0° (0.61 rad)
Dry, loose sand, angular grains, well graded, ¢ = 34.0° (0.59 rad)
Dry, dense sand, angular grains, well graded, ¢ = 46.0° (0.80 rad)
Dry, loose silt, @ = 27 to 30° (0.47 to 0.52 rad)
Dry, dense silt, @ = 30 to 35° (0.52 to 0.61 rad)
When the soil is saturated, the angles of internal friction may be used as stated, considering the
buoyed unit weight of the soil particles and, in addition, the hydrostatic pressure of the water.
FRICTION ON THE FOOTING BASE

The true friction factor which should be used in obtaining the force which resists sliding is that of
the shear strength of the soil. In practice, the coefficient used is that of soil on concrete for coarse
granular soils, and the shear strength or cohesion of the soil for cohesive soils. In the absence of tests,
the following values may be used. For:
Coarse-grained soil without silt, = 0.55
Coarse-grained soil with silt, f=0.45 _ :
Silt, f = 0.35
The total frictional force on the base of a footing is
F=fN : | itaiay,
where f is the friction coefficient and N the normal force of the footing against the soil. fh
s When the foundation rests on clay, the cohesion ppeule be used to determine the force resisting
_ Sliding. This cohesion force may be calculated es 3 to3of the unconfined compressive shrengihof
the soil as the unit cohesion c. +9
7 - When pile footings are used, the outer rows shouldbe

t ered.(the aliens the slope of of the
am tesist theDee caenit he . dex o f
overturn the footing about point A. The overturning moment will be

M,= Ay, (14.11)
The weight of the stem, the soil, and the base will resist the overturning by providing a moment
about A equal to
Me Wt. Wx WaXs (14.12)
which is the righting moment. See Fig. 14-12. The safety factor against overturning is
SF = M,/M, (14.13)
and should always exceed 1.5, with 2.0 being a desirable value.
The resultant vertical load R should be so located that the stability of the wall is insured. This is
usually accomplished by dimensioning the wall so that the resultant force R falls within the middle
third of the base. However, it is not absolutely necessary that the resultant fall within the middle third
of the base, even though this provides the most economical solution. Under certain conditions such
as hydrostatic uplift, it may not be feasible to have the resultant in the middle third. Also, when
several loading conditions must be checked, it may be economical to have the resultant force outside
the middle third for one or more conditions.
When strength design procedures of the 1989 ACI Code are used for proportioning the concrete
and steel in the wall and footing, the safety factors are usually of the order 1.8. It is proper that
safety factors for sliding and overturning should also be of this order.
When the alternate design method is used for proportioning the concrete and steel, the safety
factors are about 2.0 to 2.5. It is proper that the safety factors against sliding and overturning should
also be in this range.
SURCHARGE PRESSURES
Loads are often imposed on the soil surface behind a retaining wall. Such forces may be due to
loading dock slabs, railroad tracks, roadways, etc. It is common practice to consider such loads as a
surcharge and to transform the load into an equivalent height of soil.
Figure 14-13 illustrates a concrete slab supported on the soil. The height of the surcharge is
h, = w,/w (14.14) _
where h, = equivalent height of soil, ft (m)
w, = pressure of the surcharge, lb/ft” (kg/m)
w = density of the soil, lb/ft? (kg/m’)
316 RETAINING WALLS [CHAP. 14 i
5) fe
Fig. 14-13
It is seen that the horizontal pressure due to the surcharge is constant throughout the depth of
the soil to the base of the footing. The intensity of p, is obtained from the equation
p, = wh,k, | (14.15)
The vertical pressure of the surcharge is equal to w,.
In the case of a wheel load, the weight of the wheel is assumed to be distributed over a stated
area. For example, train wheels are usually assumed to act over a width of 14 ft (4.27 m) and a
length of 5 ft (1.52 m), considering two wheels (two rails) to act over this area. This is recommended
by the Code of the American Railway Engineers’ Association (AREA). If the wheels involved are
due to highway-type loading, the Code of the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) must be used. If other types of concentrated loads are applied
(such as fork lifts), the equipment manufacturer should be consulted.
When a concentrated load or partial uniform load acts at some distance from the rear of the wall,
only a portion of the total load affects the wall. A reasonable approach devised by Ketchum is shown
in Fig. 14-14.
2 \"
: |
he = T/(wb)
h' =h,(x/h) (14.17)

using the equivalent height of surcharge in feet (meters) of soil,
h,=w,/w (14.18)
where w= T/b (14.19)
Many engineers assume that the effective height of pressure is that shown as dimension Z in Figs.
14-14 and 14-15. Terzaghi and Peck recommend this method, considering that line AB forms an
angle of 45° with the horizontal. This procedure is also recommended by the author.
——+ Ps —
Fig. 14-15
BASE PRESSURE ON FOOTING

The base pressure which will develop on the footing of a retaining wall may be calculated in the
same manner as that described for eccentrically loaded footings in Chapter 12. Generally, the
pressure diagram will be trapezoidal, as shown in Fig. 14-16. The pressure diagram may be
triangular, but will rarely be rectangular due to uniform pressure.
DESIGN PROCEDURE
Dimensioning
In the usual case, the design of retaining walls involves a trial process. Referring to Fig. 14-16,
the dimensions may be discussed in general. (See, for example, Fig. 14-1.) Since the vast majority of
retaining walls are of inverted-T shape, this discussion will be concentrated in that direction.
The height of the wall will be dictated by the conditions of the problem. The thickness GH of the
stem is usually at least 8” (200 mm) at the top, for practical reasons. A larger thickness may be used
at the top if the base of the stem is unusually thick or many reinforcing bars are used. The stem
thickness at its base, DE, is determined by the forces and moments to be resisted.
A minimum base length is obtained when the resultant vertical load strikes the ground
immediately below the front face of the stem, or at D’.
If the toe is extended such that CD is exactly } of DF, a triangular pressure diagram results if the
vertical resultant acts at D’.
If CD is more than } of DF, a trapezoidal pressure diagram results when the vertical resultant
strikes at D’.
It is important to note that the conditions stated above usually provide a safety factor of about 2
against overturning.
The base thickness A will average from about 7 to 10 percent of the overall height of the wall. A
minimum thickness of 10” to 12” (250 to 300 mm) is considered to conform to good practice.
Base Length Determination
Professor Ferguson has given an excellent practical method of estimating the base length.
Considering Fig. 14-17 and temporarily disregarding the difference in weight of concrete and soil,
using W, as the weight of a soil block ABD'E’, a reasonable estimate of the length X can be
obtained. (When surcharge exists, it is considered as added soil.) If W, = wh,,X, the resultant will
pass through D’ if 5 M,, =0. Then whX7/2= H,y, + H,y,, from witch
X =V2(HA,y, + Hy,)/wh,, (14.20)
The footing base length / may then be closely estimated by
1=1.5V2(H,y, + Hyy,)/wh, | (14.21)
Since the concrete density is about 1.5 times that of the earth, a slight additional safety factor is
introduced against overturning by disregarding the differences in the weight of soil and concrete.
For the simple special case in which there is no surchage, that is, in which H, = 0, H, = k,wh*/2
and y, =h,,/3, the equation simplifies to
P=1.5V kn13 © (14.22)

To design the stem, an estimate of the depth of the base is made. Considering the base thickness h
to be about 7 to 10 percent of the total height, the preliminary wall height h,, can be established. The
stem is considered to be a vertical cantilever, springing from the base as shown in Fig. 14-18. The
bending moment and shear are obtained per unit width of wall, and the usual equations for obtaining
d, A,, and development length are applied. The alternate design method or the strength design
method may be employed for this purpose.
The basic soil pressure, hydrostatic pressure, and surcharge pressure due to permanent load are
considered as dead load. Intermittently applied surcharge loads (such as wheel loads or storage loads)
are considered to be live load.
Surcharge |
hg
SS Eee QSZSSZ AZO

12 1°B Main reinforcement
iri (Tension steel)
hy i reinforcement
iP ET Roe Glaus \ PTE ey

:
SiN oy = = PS
sy EOI 3 Keyway
:. (Construction joint) J eh Oe
ea CU UP ich OP oe ryder SEC
Rae an
Fig. 14-18 Fig. 14-19
In the case of walls of the type shown in Fig. 14-18, the stem reinforcement is required on the
earth side of the wall. Adequate anchorage of the reinforcement into the base is absolutely necessary.
During construction, a construction joint is used at the base of the stem so that the footing and
the wall may be constructed separately and not as a unit. The construction joint often takes the form
of a keyway, as shown in Fig. 14-19, but may simply be a roughened surface. The latter is used rather
frequently in modern practice because of simplicity. Further, some tests indicate the roughened joint
to be stronger than the keyway. This construction joint must be capable of transmitting the stem
shear into the footing. For this reason the shear force is calculated at the support rather than at a
distance d from the support as in other types of beams. It may be necessary to provide dowels for
both faces of the wall in order to resist excess shear at the construction joint.
Heel Design
The heel is considered to be a cantilever beam beyond the stem, fixed at the location of the
tension steel in the stem. This location is chosen rather than the face of the stem since the tension
bars in the stem provide for the transmittal of the reaction forces into the stem. This condition can be
approximated fairly accurately by adding 3” (76 mm) to the projection of the base slab beyond the
rear face of the stem. Since the thickness of the stem has been established on the basis of an assumed
base thickness, several trial solutions may be necessary to make the stem and base calculations
compatible.
The moment and shear in the heel are taken at the intersection of the stem tension steel and the
assumed top of the heel. Two conditions are considered (see Fig. 14-20):
(1) Moment and shear due to the downward load p, plus the weight of the footing acting
downward.
(2) Moment and shear due to the net effect of the downward load p, and the upward loads q,
and q,. In this case, the weight of the footing causes downward load and upward pressure
which counteract one another.
320 RETAINING WALLS (CHAP. 14
Fig. 14-20
In common engineering practice, case (1) is permitted to cause 150 percent of the allowable
stresses. If this is considered with respect to the alternate design method,
MIS =1.5f, =3f/2 (14.23)
V,/bd= 1.5v =3v/2 (14.24)
If equations (14.23) and (14.24) are multiplied by §, then
4M,/S=f. : ) (14.25)
2V/ibd =v (14.26)
It is practical, then, to consider the moment and shear due to case (2) and compare those
quantities to } of the values obtained for case (1). The larger of the two conditions is employed in
design using the actual allowable stresses. This procedure is also valid when the strength design
method is used.
Toe Design
The toe of the base is considered to be cantilevered from the edge of the front face of the stem. |
The loads employed are those of the base weight acting downward and the base pressures acting \
upward. The weight of the backfill soil above the toe is usually neglected since erosion could cause
this counterbalancing load to be diminished. (See Fig. 14-21.)
In cases in which the backfill is confined under a slab, these loads should be considered as a
second condition in order to determine which case governs the design. Figure 14-22 shows another
J ve sil 7s a
woth) 9 ra h
condition which could exist. Such construction usually produces complex design calculations which
are merely approximate even under the most simple conditions. This situation should be avoided
whenever possible.
Preliminary Dimensions
For reasonable preliminary estimates, the base length is usually about 40 to 65 percent of the
wall height, and the base thickness may be obtained as 7 to 10 percent of the total height.
Shear Keys
When frictional resistance of the footing against the soil is insufficient to provide a satisfactory
safety factor against sliding, shear keys are employed. The shear key must develop a sufficient passive
pressure force to resist the excess lateral force. In order that the passive pressure might develop, the
depth of the key and its location along the base must be such that the distance C in Fig. 14-23 will be
at least
C=atan’ (45° + $/2) (14.27)
since (45 + @/2) is the shearing angle for passive pressure. The passive pressure p, may be computed
as
P, = p, tan’ (45° + $/2) (14.28)
or P,p =pP,(1
+sin @)/(1
— sin $) (14.29)
which are identical. The multiplier of p, is the passive pressure coefficient k,,.
Fig. 14-23
Inasmuch as there will be a pressure gradient under the footing in front of the key, the smaller
value p,, should be used.
It should be noted that p, is the pressure beneath the footing, which is pressing downward on the
soil as well as upward on the base of the footing.
When possible, the shear key should be located directly beneath the stem to provide additional
anchorage for the stem reinforcement.
COUNTERFORT RETAINING WALLS

Often it is desirable to use retaining walls which have counterforts. Such a wall is illustrated in
Fig. 14-24 and is used when the retaining wall must be extremely high.
The structural analysis and design of counterfort walls is quite different than for cantilever walls.
The counterforts serve as supports for the wall and footing, both of which are designed as continuous
slabs supported at the counterforts. The main reinforcement is placed horizontally in this type of
wall. ;
a
_——— Counterfort
Retaining
wall
Section A-A
Fig. 14-24
The spacing of the counterforts depends on a number of factors, but usually ranges from 5 to 3 of
the height of the wall.
Overturning and sliding are handled in the same manner as for cantilever walls, as is the design
of the toe when such is used.
The stem and hee! are considered to be one-way slabs, and the 1989 ACI Code coefficients for
continuous beams are used in the design, or else moment distribution is used. The uniform load per
unit width of vertical wall is taken as the average horizontal soil pressure over that strip, as shown in
Fig. 14-25.
Counterfort
eat ae Main steel
Stem
strip “A” 7 \ \ pele eth hn
strip
“RB?
1 ne ‘
Fig. 14-25 Fig. 14-26
The counterforts are designed as triangular-shaped cantilever beams, fixed at the base slab.
The stem may be used as the flange of a T-beam for which the counterfort acts as a web. The
_ maximum depth of the T-beam is shown as section A-A’ in Fig. 14-26. The design loads on the
_ counterfort are the accumulated reactions from the slab which actually vary linearly. The Code does
, not specify a critical section for shear for counterforts, because retaining walls are considered byACI
Committee 318 to be beyond the scope of the Code; butin
i practic peatioy A’-B’ isoften nsed. The ae
= force should be calculated using the equation — ae
tt hat
- Eee yu ine
in order to hold the main bars in place. It should be noted here that when the counterforts are placed
in front of the wall, the term buttress is used. The wall is then called a buttressed wall. This does not
affect the procedure for designing the wall, but the forces on buttresses are reversed from those on
counterforts.
MINIMUM WALL REINFORCEMENT

The minimum ratio of vertical reinforcement area to gross horizontal cross-sectional area of wall
shall be:
(a) 0.0012 for deformed bars not larger than No. 5 (15M) with a specified yield strength not
less than 60 ksi (400 MPa)
(6) 0.0015 for other deformed bars
(c) 0.0012 for welded wire fabric, plain or deformed, not larger than W31 or D31
The minimum ratio of horizontal reinforcement to gross vertical cross-sectional area of wall shall
be:
(a) 0.0020 for deformed bars not larger than No. 5 (15M) with a specified yield strength not
less than 60 ksi (400 MPa)
(b) 0.0025 for other deformed bars
(c) 0.0020 for welded wire fabric, plain or deformed, not larger than W31 or D31
Walls more than 10 in. (250 mm) thick, except basement walls, shall have reinforcement for each
direction placed in two layers parallel with the faces of the wall, in accordance with the following:
(a) One layer, consisting of not less than one-half and not more than two-thirds of the total
reinforcement required for each direction, shall be located not less than 2 in. (50 mm) nor
more than one-third the thickness of the wall from the exterior surface.
(b) The other layer, consisting of the balance of the required reinforcement in that direction,
shall be located not less than 3/4 in. (20 mm) nor more than one-third the thickness of the
wall from the interior surface. [This does not apply when the interior surface is exposed to
earth. In such case, the clear distance from the earth face shall be at least 2 in. (50 mm),
when the face is formed; and at least 3 in. (75 mm), when the wall surface is cast directly
against the earth.]
(c) Vertical and horizontal reinforcement shall not be spaced farther apart than three times the
wall thickness, nor 18 in. (500 mm).
(d) Vertical reinforcement need not be enclosed by lateral ties if the vertical reinforcement area
is not greater than 0.01 times the gross horizontal cross-sectional concrete area of the wall,
or where the vertical reinforcement is not required as compression reinforcement.
BASEMENT AND OTHER BEARING WALLS

The method used for designing basement walls will differ in accord with the method of
construction. Four-way support may be obtained from columns or pilasters and the basement and
first-floor slabs, as shown in Fig. 14-27(a). Two-way support will occur if the slabs alone support ie
wall, as shown in Fig. 14-27(b).
Axial loads on the wall may be large, in which case beam-column action should He considered, as
shown in Fig. 14-28.
Bearing stresses (such as causedin basement walls by the weight of overlying floors) in excess of
allowable values must be transferred to the base by bearing bars and/or dowel bars. In accordance
with Chapter 12, the cross-sectional area of steel provided must be at least 0.005 times the gross
Column
(a) Four-way support (b) Two-way support
Fig. 14-27
Pa
Fig. 14-28
horizontal cross-sectional area of the concrete wall. Additional requirements of the 1989 ACI Code
are:
(1) The wall thickness must be at least 1/ 25 of the unsupported height or width, whichever is
smaller, but not less than 4 in. (100 mm).
(2) The thickness of exterior basement walls and foundation walls shall not be less than 7.5 in. xs
(190 mm).
(3) The thickness of nonbearing walls shall not be less than 4 in. (100 mm) nor less than 1/30
the least distance between members that provide lateral ‘Support.
Walls designed as grade beams shall have top and bottom reinforcement as required for bending
: moment, and shall be designed to resist shear as beams. Portions of grade beam walls above grade :
must also meet the minimum reinforcement and bar spacing ‘requirements stated above.
When walls are designed by the strength design method as aseries of connected columns side by7
a
: ade the minimum thickness provisions of theCode do notappl 3 . a he Meh
Y 48, , qi, er win). “00meh
it pete > a healt
=A bite’
iA, bd
~
21.67’
7.22’
Pmax = 720 psf
Fig. 14-29 Fig. 14-30
Using Fig. 14-30,
k, =(1-sin @)/(1 + sin @) = (1 — 0.5)/(1 + 0.5) = 0.33.

Pax = (0.33)(100)(21.67) = 720 Ib/ft*, H = (720)(21.67)/2 = 780 lb/ft.
Thus M,, = (7800)(7.22) = 56,300 ft-lb/ft about the toe (point A).
14.2. Determine the individual vertical forces and the total vertical force acting on the structure
shown in Fig. 14-29.
Refer to Fig. 14-31.
Earth: W, = (6.25)(20)(100) = 12,500 lb/ft
W, =(1)(20/2)(100) = 1,000
Concrete: W,=(1)(20/2)(150) = 1,500
W, = (0.67)(20)(150) = 2,000
W, = (1.67)(10.43)(150) = 2,600
W, = (1.08)(1.08)(150) =__175
Total load = 19,775 lb/ft
SL Chg GALES! OA
<
N
“+
7.29"
Ly
SANS
44
W, OZ
yNO
SASS
hy,
Fig. 14-31
14.3. Determine the righting moment (about A) caused by the vertical loads for the structure of
Problems 14.1 and 14.2. The lever arm for each force is shown in Fig. 14-31.
[CHAP. 14
—
326 RETAINING WALLS
The appropriate values are tabulated as follows:

Force, lb/ft Arm, ft Moment, ft-lb/ft
12,500 7.29 91,125
1,000 abd 3,830
1,500 3.50 5,250
2,000 2.83 5,660
2,600 Diol 13,550
eS: 4.04 710
© F=19,775 lb/ft M, = 120,125 ft-Ib/ft
The total vertical load is 19,775 lb/ft and the righting moment is 120,125 ft-lb/ft.
14.4. Determine the safety factor against overturning for Problem 14.3.
From Problem 14.1 and Fig. 14-30, M, = 56,300 ft-Ib/ft.
From Problem 14.3 and Fig. 14-31, M, = 120,125 ft-lb/ft.
Thus SF = M,/M, = 120,125/56,300 = 2.13.
14.5. Consider that a 12"-thick slab is placed over the surface of the ground behind the retaining
wall in Fig. 14-29. Determine the added horizontal pressure against the wall, the changes in
M, and M_, and find the new safety factor against overturning. Use results of Problem 14.4
and k, = 0.33 with w = 100 Ib/ft*.
The slab weight produces a vertical pressure of 150 lb/ft. The equivalent height of soil is
h, = 150/100 = 1.5’, and the resulting change in horizontal pressure is p, = (100)(1.5)(0.33) = SO Ib/ft*.
The change in the vertical force is W, =(150)(1)(7.92) = 1188 lb/ft, and the change in the
horizontal force is H, = p,h,, = (50)(21.67) = 1083 lb/ft. The changes in the moments are
AM, = H,y, = (1083)(10.89) = 11,800 ft-Ib/ft
AM, = W,x, = (1188)(6.46) = 7680 ft-lb/ft
and total moments are
M.,, = 56,300 + 11,800 = 68,100 ft-Ib/ft ree

M, = 120,125 + 7,680 = 127,805 ft-Ib/ft iG
The safety factor against overturning is SF = M,/M, = 127,805/68,100 = 1.88.
‘ _
Refer to Fig. 14-29. The pressure is proportional to the distance from the top; thus p=
(0.33)(100)(20) = 660 Ib/ft*.
The horizontal force on the stem is H = (660)(20/2) = 6600 Ib/ft, and the moment of that force
about the base of the stem is M = Hy = Hh,,./3 = (6600)(20/3) = 44,000 ft-lb/ft. This moment would be
used to design the stem.
14.7. Locate the resultant force R for Problem 14.1 and find the soil pressure at the edges of the toe
and heel.
The net moment about point A is M, — M,, = 120,125 — 56,300 = 63,825 ft-lb/ft.
The total vertical force R is 19,775 lb, so the location of the resultant with respect to point A is
x, =(M, — M,)/R = 63,825/19,775 = 3.22'. Thus the eccentricity from the center of the footing is
e=12-x, =5.22—3.22 =2.0'
Since ¢ is greater than //6 and therefore outside the middle third of the base, the pressure dia-
gram does not cover the entire base. The total length of the pressure diagram is 3x, or 9.66’. The
effective area of the base will therefore be A = 9.66 ft7/ft, and the pressures will be p, =2R/A=
(2)(19,775) /9.66 = 4094 lb/ft? and p,.. = 0.
Ca Cp
a
(ite
cl
aoe,
S|
DD | 2
4, . Cee
|
. 7 +. ‘ a: .
I saynent
tiie os9.96’ Sh gy, LSet. ae
a a. mie 9.96"
‘i. Fig. 14-33 Fig. 14-34
14.8. Calculate the shear force and bending moment per foot of width for the retaining wall toe
shown in Fig. 14-34 above. Point E represents the face of the stem. The pressures given are
net values. The difference in density between the concrete and the earth displaced by the base
_has been deducted from the gross values. (Many designers ignore this quantity, while others
ignore the displaced soil and consider the weight of the footing as a downward load.)
_ The pressure at A is 3980 lb/ft”, so the pressure at E by proportion will be ;
“«<
~
: leith i]
= (3980)(7.46)/9. 96 = 2980 lb/ft?
t
nali. o¢ oF ee Pe
y tiig forces are calculated as. he volume e the ‘Brest prisms
ges foot off width ¢hus
328 RETAINING WALLS [CHAP. 14 |
14.9. Determine the preliminary design dimensions for the retaining wall shown in Fig. 14-35(a).
The granular backfill weighs 100 lb/ft” and has an angle of internal friction ¢ = 30°. Use
f= 3000 psi, f, =40,000 psi, and p = 0.014. The local Building Code constrains you to use
the load factors 1.5 and 1.8 for dead and live loads.
El. 0.0’
Line of
a cut
Granular
h,,
16’
=
16/3’
Fig. 14-35
Refer to Fig. 14-35(b) and temporarily assume no difference in the weight of soil and concrete. The
total weight of block ABCD is W, = hwX — 1600X, and the lever arm for this force about A is X/2.
The active pressure coefficient is k, =(1—sin ¢)/(1+sin ¢) =0.5/1.5= §. .
*
The total horizontal force is H, = k,wh?,/2= (4)(100)(16)7/2= 4260 lb/ft.
The resultant may be established at point A by using equation (14.22) to determine the base feng:
das 1=1.5Vk,h’,/3 =8.0'. t
Try /=8.0' with a toe overhang of Ci or 2'-8". *
Assume the thickness of the footing to be approximately 8 percent of the total height, or about 1.3’.
Thus the cantilever height of the stem will be approximately 14.7’, as shown ina 14-36.
J 7 pray 42 .
+
Ais Py
Since the forces are related to dead loads, the ultimate values for use in design are
V, = (1.5)V, = (1.5)(3600) = 5400 Ib/ft
M,,= (1.5)M, = (1.5)(17,650) = 26,500 ft-Ib/ft
For f% = 3000 psi, f, = 40,000 psi, and p = 0.014, Table 5.2 gives #R,, = 448 (in psi/ft). The effective
depth is therefore
d=\VM,/oR,,b = V(26,500)(12)/[(448)(12)] = 7.69”

which will require a total thickness of 11.5” (to next higher 3") including 3” cover. If No. 8 bars are used,
the effective depth furnished will be 8”.
The nominal shear force is V, = V,,/ = 5400/0.85 = 6353 lb/ft, while the allowable shear force is
V. = 2fibd = 2V3000(12)(8) = 10,615 Ib/ft>V,, (O.K.)

The heel behind the wall is designed using | of the shear and moment due to downward loads,
disregarding the upward soil pressure. The design conditions are shown in Fig. 14-37.
WaTECEMEMET — — — 7
| 2.56’ | |
|
|
|
Stem | _
reinforcement | =
| ~
~~
|
|
|
oD
& ey
The total downward force is that due to the earth weight on the overhanging heel beyond the face of
the stem. The moment, however, is usually taken about the center of the vertical (or slightly inclined)
bars in the stem on the back side, at F. The force is W= (4.54)(14.7)(100) = 6670 Ib/ft, so the ultimate
load is W, = (1.5)(6670) = 10,000 lb/ft. The ultimate shear is therefore V, = 10,000 lb/ft, and the
ultimate moment about point F is M,, = (10,000)(2.56) = 25,600 ft-lb/ft.
Since 3 of the shear and moment are used in the design, the effective values are
V, = (3)(10,000) = 6670 Ib/ft

M,, = (3)(25,600) = 17,100 ft-Ib/ft
Again using #R,, = 448,
d = (17,000)
(12) /[(448)(12)] = 6.18”
Now, in terms of allowable shear force, d= V./(2\/f/b). In this expression, substitute V, = V,/¢ =
6670/0.85 = 7877 lb/ft for V, to obtain
nin = 7847/(2V3000 12) = 5.97" < 6.18"
Moment governs, and the total thickness must be at least h = 6.18 + 0.5 + 3.0 = 9.68”, considering
that No. 8 bars will probably be used. This thickness is based on the measurements including 5 bar
diameter and 3” clear cover. For practical purposes use h = 10", so the d furnished is 6.5”.
The initial assumption for the thickness of the footing was 8 percent of the base length or 1.3’, so the
height of stem used was 1.30 — 0.83 = 0.47’ smaller than the value provided by the 10” depth.
The slight error involved would be eliminated in a final review of the designed section. The review is
also made considering the total downward force and the total upward force acting together.
330 RETAINING WALLS | [CHAP. 14
14.10. Determine the safety factor against overturning for the retaining wall shown in Fig. 14-38. Use
k, =4 and w= 100 lb/ft®, Concrete weighs 150 Ib/ft®.
h,, = 16’
5.33’
Fig. 14-38
Vertical forces and righting moments per foot of wall are tabulated as follows:
Calculations Force, lb/ft Arm, ft M_,, ft-lb/ft

= (4.538)(100)(15) = 6,807 6.269 42,700
W, = (0.292)(100)(15/2) = 219 3.360 740
W, = (0.67)(150)(15) = 1,508 2.830 4,250
= (0.292)(150)(15/2) = 329 Son 1,080
= (1)(150)(8) = 1,200 4.000 4,800 | ty
W, = (0.67)(150)(11.5/12)= 97 2.980 e tee SN
Totals: ; R= 10,160 lb/ft M, = 53,860 ft-lb/ft ?
The horizontal soil force H, = (4)(100)(16)7/2= 4270 lb/ft.

The overturning moment M,= H,h,,/3= (4270)(5.33)= 22,760 ft-Ib/ft.
For overturning, SF =M,/M,, = 53,860/22,760= 2.37, which is satisfactory. ¢
14.11. For the retaining wall footing ote in Fig. 14-39, the resisting moment is 52,610 ft-Ib/ft anda
the iS haat: moment is 23,600 ft-lb/ft. The total vertical load iis 9867 Ib/ pat SEAa
P.14] RETAINING WALLS 331
1595 lb/ft?
PE
Pc
Fig. 14-39 Fig. 14-40
= (9867/8) + (9867)(1.06)(4) /42.6 = 2218 Ib/ft” Pz = 1235 — 983 = 252 lb/ft”

As shown in Fig. 14-39, the soil ee is assumed to vary linearly from one end of the footing to
the other.
14.12. Determine the moment and shear force for design of the footing toe shown in Fig. 14-40.
Consider service loads.
s} ~ The forces are equal to the volume of the pressure prism per foot; thus \
we ‘ P, = (695)(2.5/2) = 870 Ib/ft P, = (1595)(2.5) = 4000 1b/ft
M The service-load shear force is Ve= P, +P, = 4870 lb/ft.
The service-load moment is Mg = (870)(1.67) + (4000)(1.25) = 6455 ft-Ib/ft.
If strength design is employed, ultimate shear force and nominal bending moment are required.
Because only dead load is involved, the understrength factors (#) and 0.85 for shear and 0.9 for bending.
a, Hence, with the load factor 1.4,
ie , & V,, = 1.4(4870) = 6918 Ib/ft | V,, = 6918/0.85 = 8138 lb/ft
7 and M,, = 1.4(6455) = 9037 ft-Ib/ft
.. The basement wall shown in Fig. 14-41 is backfilled with a eran dls material for which
o= aye Determine the design shear and bending moment for the wall if the soil weighs
calIb/ft°.
332 RETAINING WALLS | [CHAP. 14
Pax = Wh(1 — sin d)/(1 + sin ¢) = (90)(12)(1 — 3) /(1 + 3) = 360 Ib/ft”.

R_, = (§)(12)(360) = 2880 Ib/ft.
Maximum moment occurs at y = (0.5774)(h) = 6.93’ from B.
Max = (0.1283)Hh = (0.1283)(0.5)(360)(12)(12) = 3326 ft-Ib/ft.
Note: The coefficients for reaction R , and maximum moment come from Appendix A-9.
14.14. The counterfort retaining wall shown in Fig. 14-42 is backfilled with a material for which
w = 100 Ib/ft® and ¢ = 30°. Determine the shear and bending moments for designing the wall
at its base A at points B and F, considering the wall continuously supported over the
counterforts. Assume that restraint develops at A and E.
k,=(1-sin $)/(1 + sin ¢) = (1 — 0.5) /(1 + 0.5) = 0.33
Pax = Kawh = (0.33)(100)(12) = 400 Ib/ft?
Consider the load in the lateral direction to be equal to the maximum pressure at the lower end of
the wall and constant for the first foot of height; then w,, = 400 lb/ft. ;
Using the 1989 ACI Code coefficients (Chapter 2), the bending moments are approximately
M,. = —(4)w,,(l,)° = —(0.1)(400)(12)? = —5750 ft-Ib/ft ;
M,= (4)w,A1,)° = (4 )(400)(12) = 4110 ft-Ib/ft
Since the pressure varies linearly from the top of the wall, the uniform load in the transverse
direction will also vary in the same way. Thus the moments vary linearly from the top of the wall to the
base. Since the pressure is zero at the top, the moments are also zero at the top of the wall.
Under strength design (cf. Problem 14.12), with dead-load factor 1.4, -
M,,,: = 1.4(—5750) = —8050 ft-Ib/ft

M_,- = 1.4(4110) = 5754 ft-lb/ft
If any type of live load (such as truck or train wheels) were involved as a surcharge on the soil behind the
wall, the related forces and moments would have to be calculated separately and factored using the load
factor 1.7.
2.2m
| 34.85 kPa |
Fig. 14-43
The weight density of the soil is w = mg, where g = 9.8 m/s’, or

w = (1.633)(9.8) = 16 kKN/m*
Then, since k, =(1-sin ¢)/(1+sin d) = (1 —0.5)/(1 + 0.5) = 0.33,
Pmax = K,wh,, = (0.33)(16)(6.6) = 34.85 kN/m?
and the total horizontal force due to the soil is H = p,,,,h,,/2
= (34.85)(6.6)/2 = 115.0 KN/m. The
overturning moment about the toe (point A) is M, = Hh,,/3 = (115)(6.6)/3.0 = 253.0 KN-m/m.
14.16. Determine the individual vertical forces acting on the structure shown in Fig. 14-43, if the
concrete density is 2.398 kg/m’.
Refer to Fig. 14-44. Consider 1.0 m of wall and footing width. The concrete weight density is
(2.398)(9.8) = 23.5 kKN/m’*.
Earth: W, = (2.25)(6)(16) = 216.00 kN/m
= (0.3)(6)(16)/2 = 14.40
Concrete: W, =(0.3)(6)(23.5)/2 = 21.15

= (0.2)(6)(23.5) = 28.20
W, = (0.6)(3.5)(23.5) = 49.35
W, = (0.3)(0.3)(23.5) = __2.12
Total load = 331.22 kN/m
14.17. Determine the righting moment (about A) caused by the vertical loads for the structure of
Problems 14.15 and 14.16. The lever arms for the forces are shown in Fig. 14-44. Use the
forces calculated in Problem 14.16.
Fig. 14-44
The appropriate values per meter width are:

Force, KN/m Arm, m Moment, kN-m/m
216.00 2.375 513.00 ;
14.40 1.15 16.56
otis 1.05 22.21 a
© 28.20 0.85 23.97 | re
49.35 1.75 86.36 | 7
PAG! 15cm , 2.65 . o
Y F= 331.22 kKN/m x M, = 664.75 kN-m/m e :
14,18. Determine the safety factor against overturning for the structure ee: in.ae 14-44,
eee
‘; values obtained in Problems 14.15 through JA.17. ual
_ From Problem 14.15, M, = 253.0 kN-m/m
fet ie ne ore is. 48
= 6.6m
Fig. 14-45
The weight of the slab per meter width is

W, = (2)(1.375)(0.3)(1)(23.5) = 19.39 KN/m
and so the vertical pressure beneath the slab is p, = 19.39/2.75 =7.05 kPa.
The equivalent height of surcharge is (23.5)(0.3)/16=0.44 m, and the resulting horizontal sur-
charge pressure is
p, = h,wk, = (0.44)(16)(0.33) = 2.32 kPa
The total horizontal force due to the surcharge is H, = p,h,, = (2.32)(6.6) = 15.31 KN/m.
The resulting additional overturning moment is
AM, = H,h,,/2 = (15.31)(6.6)/2 = 50.52 kKN-m/m
and the resulting additional righting moment is
AM, = (W,)(2.125) = (19.39)(2.125) = 41.20 KN-m/m
The total moments are
M, = 253.0 + 50.52 = 303.52 kKN-m/m and M, = 664.75 + 41.20 = 705.95 kN-m/m
The safety factor against overturning is then SF = M,/M,, = 705.95/303.52 = 2.326, which exceeds 2.0
and is therefore satisfactory.
14.20. Determine the shear force and bending moment at the base of the stem for the wall of Fig.
14-43 and Problem 14.15. Include the surcharge found in Problem 14.19.
The horizontal pressure at the base of the wall is
P, = wh[(1 — sin @)/(1 + sin )] = (16)(6)(0.33) = 31.68 kPa
so that the horizontal force at the base of the wall is H = p,h/2= (31.68)(6)/2 = 95.04 kN/m. The
horizontal pressure due to the surcharge is constant and is equal to p, = h,wk, = (0.44)(16)(0.33) =
2.32 kPa. Hence, the horizontal force due to the surcharge is H, = p,h = (2.32)(6.0) = 13.92 kN/m.
The total service-load shear force at the base of the stem is
V=H + H, = 95.04 + 13.92 = 108.96 kN/m
and the total service-load bending moment at the base of the stem is
M = (Ah/3) + (H,h/2) = (95.04)(6/3) + (13.92)(6/2) = 232.56 KN-m/m
14.21. The concrete slab shown in Fig. 14-45 is used for storage, so that a live load of 8.0 kN/m?
must be provided for. Determine the new safety factor against overturning, as well as the
ultimate shear and bending moment at the base of the stem, using U =1.4D + 1.7L. Check
the stem for shear and moment and determine the required steel area at the base of the stem.
Use f= 20 MPa and f, = 400 MPa.
Taking the weight density of soil from Problem 14.15, the equivalent surcharge height for the live
load is h, = 8.0/16=0.5 m. The resulting horizontal pressure is
Pp, = h,wk, = (0.5)(16)(0.33) = 2.64 kKN/m?
The horizontal force is then H,= p,h= (2.64)(6.6) =17.42 KN/m, and the additional overturning
moment is AM, = H,h/2= (17. 42)(6. 6)/2=57.49 kKN-m/m.
The vertical load due to the live-load surcharge is F,, = (8.0)(2)(1.375)=22.0 kKN/m, and the
additional righting moment is
AM, = (22.0)(2.125) = 46.75 kN-m/m
Hence, the total overturning moment is
M,, = 303.52 + 57.49 = 361.01 kN-m/m

and the total righting moment is
M, = 705.95 + 46.75 = 752.70 kKN-m/m
The safety factor against overturning is
SF = M,/M, = 752.70/361.01 = 2.085 >2.0 (O. oe
The live-load horizontal pressure force at the base of the stem is
4
H, = p,h = (2.64)(6) = 15.84 kN/m : \

so that live-load shear force is 15.84 KN/m. The live-load bending moment at the base of the stem is
M = H,h/2 = (15.84)(6)/2 = 47.52 kN-m/m
The “‘dead-load” shear force and bending moment at the base of the stem were found in Problem
14.20 to be 108.96 kKN/m and 232.56 kN-m/m, respectively. The ultimate design values are therefore
V, =1.4D + 1.7L= (1.4)(108.96) + (1.7)(15.84)=179.47 KN/m Y a
M,,=(1.4)(232.56) + (1.7)(47.52)=406.37 kN-m/m
The nominal shear value is V, = V,/ = 179.47/0.85 = 211.345N/m, which, together withMy»oe
ny design the stem. :
, For shear, the permissible pe st
ed for 1 m of width, b = 1000 1
;
abl soem
Fy et Pee
teees
<4
concrete ¢
+ f - '
- ee) ae
? meet Ws ri-?
This is greater than the actual nominal shear force V, = 211.14 kN/m, so the design is satisfactory.
Using d = 440.25 mm and
M 406.37 x 10°
a 2 10 MP a/
PR. Fa? ~(4000)(440.25)° “hie
we may interpolate in Table 5.3 for the required steel ratio: p =0.0063. (The minimum steel ratio
Pmin = 90-0035 is satisfied.) It follows that A, = pbd = (0.0063)(1000)(440.25) = 2773.6 mm7/m. The area
of one No. 20M bar is 300 mm’, so the number of bars required per meter width will be 2773.6/300 =
9.25 bars (use 10). The center-to-center spacing of bars will be 1000/10 = 100 mm.
14.22. For the structure in Fig. 14-43, with the slab shown in Fig. 14-45 and the live-load surcharge
given in Problem 14.21, find the soil pressures beneath the footing and design the toe, using
f= 20 MPa and f, = 400 MPa. Use 1.4 as a dead-load factor and 1.7 as a live-load factor.
It would be very confusing to determine the soil pressures for dead-load forces separately and then
to factor the moments and shears thus obtained. It is much easier to factor the “‘applied forces,’’ such as
the overturning and righting moments and the vertical loads, and to obtain the resulting soil pressures
from these factored forces.
From Problems 14.16, 14.19, and 14.21, the vertical forces and moments are
Rp = 331.22 + 19.39 = 350.61 kN/m M, = 303.52 kN-m/m M, = 705.95 kN-m/m

R, = 22.0 kN/m AM, = 57.49 kN-m/m AM, = 46.75 kN-m/m
The factored forces are
M,),,, = [(1.4)(303.52) + (1.7)(57.49)]/0.9 = 580.73 KN-m/m

M,,, = [(1.4)(705.95) + (1.7)(46.75)]/0.9 = 1186.45 kN-m/m
R,, = [(1.4)(350.61) + (1.7)(22.0)]/0.9 = 586.95 kN/m
Note that ¢ =0.9 was also used in connection with R, because this vertical force, along with the
moments, is involved in the flexural design of the footing.
With reference to Fig. 14-46, the distance of the resultant force from the toe (point A) is
X =(M,, — M,,,)/R,, = (1186.45 — 580.73) /586.93 = 1.032 m

and the eccentricity e = 1.75 — 1.032 = 0.718 m.
The edge of the kern is at a distance 3.5/3 = 1.17 m, so the resultant force is slightly outside the
kern. The length of footing subjected to pressure is (3)(1.032) =3.096 m. The maximum pressure
(ultimate soil pressure) is
2R, 2(586.95)
n
= 379.3 kKN/m?
Pmax~ “A, (3.096)(10)
and the pressure p, at the face of the wall behind the toe is
Pr = (2.346/3.096)(379.3) = 287.4 kN/m?
The pressure forces per meter of width are shown in Fig. 14-47 with appropriate distances. We have
R, = (379.3)(0.75) /2.0 = 142.2 kN/m R, = (287.4)(0.75)
/2.0 = 107.8 kKN/m
Again, the weight of the soil above the toe has been disregarded because of possible erosion; this is
conservative.
The shear force at the face of the stem is
V,, = 142.2 + 107.8 = 250 kKN/m or V,, = 250/0.85 = 294.1 kKN/m
and the bending moment is
M,, = (142.2)(0.5) + (107.8)(0.25) = 98.1 KN-m/m
=" ant
[CHAP.14
” ; é. = a ¢
338 RETAINING WALLS
379.3 kKN/m”
a
379.3 kKN/m v0 ,
‘
.
7 %,
‘
i Lr Fak »* '*, ia. A
For shear, the allowable force on the concrete is V, = Vfibd/6, with mi

d=d,,,, corresponding to V,=V,; thus, eS ae
’
M 98.1 x 10°
R,=— = = 3 = 0.3624
PE bd* (1000)(520.25)*
But, in Table 5.3, this answers to a p value smaller than 1.4/f, = 0.005. Hence, the usual minimum
reinforcement for flexure will be used: p = 0.005, dR, = 1.208, and
PEM &. eal KOS eh

aN ida beks \GipORV AKO) a eee
Because this is smaller than the required minimum effective depth for shear (395 mm), use the latter as
the final effective depth. Required clear cover is 70 mm, so that with No. 20M bars (d, = 19.5 mm), the
total depth is
h = 395 + 70.0 + (19.5/2) = 475 mm <600 mm assumed (O.K.)
The steel area required is A, = phd= (0.0035)(1000.0)(395) = 1383 mm’/m, and since each No.
20M bar has an area of 300 mm’, the number required per meter is 1383/300 = 4.61, or 5. The spacing
between bars is then 1000/5 = 200 mm.
Section 7.6.5 of the 1989 ACI Code states that primary flexural reinforcement in slabs shall not
exceed 3 times the slab thickness nor 450 mm. This condition is satisfied in the above design.
The above determination of p and A, reflects the author’s preference: nothing in the 1989 ACI Code
directly specifies minimum reinforcement in the perpendicular direction for wall footings. However,
many designers interpret the ‘shrinkage reinforcement” requirements of Section 7.12 of the 1989 ACI
Code to apply to footings. In this view, minimum transverse steel should be 0.0020bh when Grade 300
deformed bars are used and 0.0018bh when Grade 400 bars are used so that, alternatively,
A, = (0.0018)(1000)(475) = 855 mm?/m

using No. 20M bars, and the number required per meter is 855/300 = 2.85. Using 3 bars per meter, the
spacing is 1000/3 = 333 mm.
14.23. For Problem 14.22 (and related previous problems) design the heel of the footing. Again use
f= 20 MPa and f, = 400 MPa, and refer to Fig. 14-47.
The weight of the soil is, from Problem 14.16, W, = 216 kN/m. The weight of the concrete slab is
W, = (2.25)(0.3)(1.0)(23.5) = 15.86 kKN/m
The surcharge force is
W, = (8.0)(2.25)(1.0) = 18.00 kKN/m
and the footing weight involved is
W,,. = (0.6)(2.25)(23.5) = 31.73 kKN/m
The total dead load is therefore
W, + Wz, + W,, = 216.00 + 15.86 + 31.73 = 263.59 kN/m
Since the live load is W, = 18.00 kKN/m, the factored load is
F=1.4D + 1.7L = (1.4)(263.59) + (1.7)(18) = 399.63 KN/m
The cover over the vertical steel in the stem is 50 mm and the diameter of a No. 20M bar is
19.5 mm, so the distance from the center of the bar to the face of the concrete is 50 + 19.5/2 = 59.75 mm
(use 60 mm).
The lever arm of the force F from the center of the reinforcing bars in the stem is
x = 2.25 + 0.06 = 2.31 m
so that the moment is Fx = (399.63)(2.31) = 923.15 kN-m/m. The design is made for 5 of the shear and
moments, so the nominal design shear force and ultimate moment are
V, = (2)(399.63) /0.85 = 313.4 kN/m M,, = (3)(923.15) = 615.4 kN-m/m

J
SS)
340 RETAINING WALLS [CHAP. 14 _
Assuming No. 20M bars with 70-mm cover, the effective depth is d = 520.25 mm (cf. Problem
14.22), and the allowable shear force on the concrete is ;
V, = BY fibd = $V 20(1000)(520.25)
/1000 = 387.8 kN/m
which exceeds 313.4 kN/m (O.K.).
From M, = $R,bd’,
pe M, __ 615.4x 10°
= 2.274 MPa/m
“bd? (1000)(520.25)”
and so, by interpolation in Table 5.3, p = 0.00687. Consequently,
A, = pbd = (0.00687)(1000)(520.25) = 3574 mm?
As each No. 20M bar has area 300 mm’, the number of bars required per meter of width is
3574/300 = 11.91, or 12 bars. Their center-to-center spacing is 1000/12 = 83.3 mm.
14.24, Solve Problem 14.1 if ¢ = 28° and the soil weighs 90 lb/ft*. Ans. M, =55,000 ft-lb/ft
14.25. Solve Problem 14.3 if the soil weighs 90 lb/ft’ and the stem has a constant thickness of 15”. The length of
toe is unchanged. Ans. M, = 111,300 ft-lb/ft
14.26. Determine the safety factor against overturning for Problem 14.24. Ans. SF=2.02
14.27. Solve Problem 14.5 if a live load of 250 lb/ft? acts down on the slab. Ans. SF=1.60
14.28. Determine the design moment for the base of the stem of the wall in Fig. 14-29 for @ = 35° and
w = 110 lb/ft*. Ans. M = 39,700 ft-lb/ft
14.29. Solve Problem 14.8 if the pressure at A is 2600 lb/ft’. Ans. M,. = 7460 ft-lb/ft
14.30. Investigate completely the retaining wall shown in Fig. 14-48. Check wall stability and check shear in the
stem, toe, and heel. Determine required steel areas in the stem, toe, and heel. Consider No. 25M bars,
fi. = 20 MPa, f, = 400 MPa. Use approximate p = 0.01 with strength design. Soil weight is 16 kN/m? and
concrete weight is 24 kKN/m*. Use a 20-kPa surcharge as live load, with k, =0.3 and sliding friction
coefficient f = 0.5.
Partial Ans. (a) stem A, = 3050 mm’; (b) stem V, = 165 kN/m; (c) toe V, = 225 kN/m;
(d) toe A, = 1100 mm?
— | Appendixes
A-1 Conversion Factors from IP Units to SI Units
To convert from to multiply by
Length
inch (in.) millimeter (mm)
inch (in.) meter (m)
foot (ft) meter (m)
yard (yd) meter (m)
Area
square foot (sq. ft or ft”) square meter (m”) 0.09290
square inch (sq. in. or in.’) square millimeter (mm’) 645.2
square yard (sq. yd) square meter (m”) 0.8361
Volume ;
cubic inch (cu. in. or in.’) cubic millimeter (mm*) 16387.1
cubic foot (cu. ft or ft*) cubic meter (m°*) 0.023832
cubic yard (cu. yd) _ cubic meter (m’) 0.7646
gallon (gal) Canadian liter (L) os 4.546
gallon (gal) Canadian cubic meter (m°* ) ; 0.004546
gallon (gal) U.S. liter (L) 3.785
Force, weight
Skip newton (N)
kip _ kilonewton (KN)
pound (Ib) newton (N)
_ Force per unit length 3
pound per foot (lb/ft) | newton per meter (N/m) 14.5939
kip per foot (kip/ft) kilonewton per meter (kKN/m) < 4.5939
Force per unit area
| pound per square foot (Ib/ft’) newton per square meter (N/m*) . 47.8803
“F -Stress, modulus of elasticity, pressure
“pound per square inch (psi) _ megapascal (MPa). 0.006895
pound per square foot (Ib/ft”) pascal (Pa) | 47.8803
_ kip per square inch (kip/in.’) _ megapascal (MPa) 6.895
kilonewton meter (kN-m)

newton meter (N-m)
kilogram (kg) |
kilogram per meter (kg/m) ©
kilogram per square meter (kg/m?)
ae be ee meter Cae)
9-0 cs036VF ign =

ae 2
344 APPENDIXES
A-2 Properties of Reinforcing Bars

ASTM standard reinforcing bars
ae Nominal dimensions—Round sections
aoe lb/ft in area, in.” in
ea
Metric reinforcing bars

Nominal dimensions*
Diameter, Cross-sectional Perimeter,

mm area, mm? 6 ee
having
the same mass per meter as Ae efo
(By courtesy oftheConcrete mates
=
rae
\ 7 4
in
Tes — eal
APPENDIXES 345
A-3 Densities of Floors, Ceilings, Roofs, and Walls
Density, Density,
Material lb/ft? Material lb/ft?
CEILINGS PARTITIONS
Channel suspended system 1 Clay tile
Lathing and plastering See Partitions 3 in.
Acoustical fiber tile 4 in.
FLOORS :ih
Concrete—Reinforced 1 in. 10 ety
pee’ Gypsum block
pine 2 in
Lightweight 3 vat
Concrete—Plain 1 in. om
4 in.
Stone
5 in.
Bite 6 in
Poeerecient Wood studs 2 x 4
Fills—1 in. é
12-16 in. o.c.
Gypsum
Steel partitions
Sand
Plaster 1 in.
Cinders
Cement
Finishes
2 Gypsum
Terrazzo 1 in. f
C : aaGah: Lathing
eramic or quarry tile 7 in.
; ioe Metal
Linoleum j; in.
Gypsum board 3 in.
Mastic 3 in.
Hardwood; in. WALLS
Softwood 3 in. Brick :
ROOFS
aS Om
ae
8 in.
“os
80
BPS : 12 in. 120
3-ply ready roofing Hollow concrete block (heavy aggregate)
3-ply felt and gravel An 30
5-ply felt and gravel 6 in. 43
Shingles
ee :
8 in. 55
Asphalt
Gay oe iPr concrete block (light aggregate)
Hollow ps
Slate ° } ie
6 in. “6
Sheathing = 4 30
8 in. 38
Wood j in. :
| Gypsum
ees1 ina tatile (load bearing)
Clay i
Loose 2 a:
L 6 in. -
Poured-in-p
een lace ,
8 in.
g 12 in.
Stone 4 in.
Glass block 4 in.
Windows, glass, frame & sash
Structural glass 1 in.
Corrugated cement asbestos { in.
_ (By courtesy of the Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute, Chicago, Illinois.)

346 APPENDIXES
a
A-3 (cont.)
Material kg/m*
FLOORINGS
normal-density concrete topping, per 10 mm of thickness
semi-low-density concrete (1900 kg/m*) topping, per 10 mm
low-density concrete topping, per 10 mm
22 mm hardwood floor on sleepers, clipped to concrete without fill
40 mm terrazzo floor finish directly on slab
40 mm terrazzo floor finish on 25 mm mortar bed
25 mm terrazzo finish on 50 mm concrete bed
20 mm ceramic or quarry tile on 12 mm mortar bed
20 mm ceramic or quarry tile on 25 mm mortar bed
8 mm linoleum or asphalt tile directly on concrete
8 mm linoleum or asphalt tile on 25 mm mortar bed
20 mm mastic floor
hardwood flooring, 22 mm thick
subflooring (softwood), 20 mm thick
asphaltic concrete, 40 mm thick
CEILINGS
12.7 mm gypsum board
15.9 mm gypsum board
19.0 mm gypsum board directly on concrete
20.0 mm plaster directly on concrete
20.0 mm plaster on metal lath furring
suspended ceilings, add
accoustical tile
accoustical tile on wood furring strips
five-ply felt and gravel (or slag)

three-ply felt and gravel (or slag)
five-ply felt composition roof, no gravel
three-ply felt composition roof, no gravel
asphalt strip shingles
slate, 8 mm thick
gypsum, per 10 mm of thickness
insulating concrete, per 10 mm
(By courtesy of the Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute, Chicago, Illinois.)
APPENDIXES 347
A-3 (cont.)
Density, kg/m?
| One side Both sides
Material Unplastered plastered plastered
brick wall
brick wall
brick wall
hollow normal-density
concrete block
concrete block
concrete block
concrete block
concrete block
hollow low-density
block or tile
hollow low-density
block or tile
hollow low-density
block or tile
hollow low-density
block or tile
hollow low-density
block or tile
brick, 100 mm hollow
normal-density block
backing
backing
backing
low-density block
backing
brick, 200 mm hollow low-
density block backing
brick, 300 mm hollow low-
density block backing
Windows, glass, frame and sash
100 mm stone
Steel or wood studs, lath, 20 mm plaster
Steel or wood studs, lath, 15.9 mm gypsum
board each side
Steel or wood studs, 2 layers 12.7 mm
gypsum board each side
(By courtesy of the Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute, Chicago, Illinois.)
i)
348 APPENDIXES
A-4 Minimum-Design Uniformly Distributed Live Loads, Impact Included*
Auditoriums
Fixed seats 60 (2.87)
Movable seats 100 (4.79)
Garages for passenger cars 50 (2.39)
Hospitals
Operating rooms, laboratories, and service areas 60 (2.87)
Patients’ rooms, wards, and personnel areas 40 (1.92)
Libraries
Reading rooms 60 (2.87)
Stack areas—books and shelving 65 lb/ft? (1040 kg/m”) 150 (7.18)
Lobbies, first floor 100 (4.79)
Manufacturing 125-250 (6-12)
Office buildings
Corridors above first floor 80 (3.83)
Files 125 (6.00)
Offices 50 (2.39)
Residential
Apartments and hotel guest rooms 40 (1.92)
Attics, uninhabitable 20 (0.96)
Corridors (multifamily and hotels) 80 (3.83)
One- and two-family 40 (1.92)
Retail stores
Basement and first floor 100 (4.79)
Upper floors 75 (3.59)
Schools
Classrooms 40 (1.92)
Corridors 80 (3.83)
*See local building code for permitted reductions for large loaded areas.
10150)
APPENDIXES 349
A-5 Pressures, lb/ft? (kPa), for Winds with 50-Year Recurrence Interval
Exposures
110 mph (180 km/h) 90 mph (145 km/h) 80 mph (130 km/h)
basic wind speed* basic wind speed* basic wind speed*
(coastal areas, N.W. and (northern and central (other parts of the
——— S.E. United a United States) United States)
Height zone,
ft (m) above curb At Bi CG
0-50
(0-15) 0 (1.% °i ©2 (1.» u- (0.= (0.96) (1.68)
50-100 25 40
(15-30) oe e» 08 v0 (1.© @9
i ne (ie8). Gk2
100-300
(30-90) an om aon un 29 ee 099 uss ais
300-600
(90-180) as nee, re 8 nes ae ca “on en
over 600 85 100 120 60 70 80 45 55 65
(180) fA easy ee 5.75)al (287) (3.35) *10(3.84)_ |. (25y) 1(2.63) | .11)
* At 30-ft (9-m) height above ground surface.
" Centers of large cities and rough, hilly terrain.
* Suburban regions, wooded areas, and rolling ground.
* Flat, open country of coast, and grassland.
A-6 Roof Design Loads, Ib/ ft? (kPa), for Snow Depth with 50-Year Recurrence Interval
Regions (U.S.A.) Roof angle with horizontal, deg (rad)

(other than mountainous)* 0-30 (0-0.5) 40 (0.7) 50 (0.9) 60 (1.0)
Southern states 5 (0.24) 5 (0.24) 5 (0.24) 0
Central and northwestern states 10 (0.48) 10 (0.48) 5 (0.24) 5 (0.24)
Middle Atlantic states 30 (1.44) 25 (1.20) 20 (0.96) 10 (0.48)
Northern states 50 (2.39) 40 (1.92) 30 (1.44) 15 (0.72)
*For mountainous regions, snow loads should be based on analysis of local climate and topography.
ee
ee
350 APPENDIXES
A-7 Geometrical Properties of Sections

Dash-and-dot lines are drawn through centers of gravity
A = area of section 7 = moment of inertia r=radius of gyration
= 0.7854d?
r, = 0.2887d
r,=0.5774d
A=d’
y=0.7071d A = 0.8660d*
r I= 0.060d*
I age r=0.264d
r= 0.2887d
PY Eos A =0.8284d"
Popa. 1=0.055d*
1,
3 r=(0.257d
r, = 0.2887d
r, = 0.5774d
A= bd
a
Vb? +d?
bed
I
~ 6(b? +d’)
bd
" Vo(6? +d")
A=a a(d° 27— d;)/4
NF
_ bsina+dcosa
Vic wee eae = 0.7854(d? — d?)
_ bd(b* sin® a + d? cos? a) T= n(d* — d})/64
= 0.0491(d* — a?)
r= Vd? +d? '
~0.78544;
055d?— «
APPENDIXES 351
A-8 Fixed-End Moments*
If a=b=1/2,
M, max. a=1/3
enbat
Pere |e PP WP
A B
n loads equally spaced

a=I/(x +1)
Ww
M —
at Fh bd
x [(1— bP (L + 3b) — a°(41 - 3a)]
If a=1/2
* Reproduced with permission of Canadian Portland Cement Association.

352 APPENDIXES
A-9 Reactions, Moments, and Displacements in Beams Supported at Both Ends (Reproduced by permission of
United States Steel Corporation)
Uniform load partially distributed Uniformly distributed load
ce | i
Aty= 2,R,
When 0<x</,
WwW
wx
Mo positive
=
R,(a a5 aw
St) W
eae IP
22
(2abel + b é ) M, = > (!-x)
wx
A. JAE Qi?
= P= 5
When 0<x <a,
M, = R,x- wees
ped whex
(b? + 4e* — 41? + 4x7)
eA Bal
when a<x<(a+b),
M, = R,x- > (x-a)?

Ww
A, = app [bex(b? + 4c? — 41? + 4x”) — U(x — )*]
APPENDIXES 353
A-9 (cont.)
Concentrated load at any point Concentrated load at center
max. positive aa
Pa*b*
SEL When 0< x :
9) >
354 APPENDIXES
A-9 (cont.)
=
Rae ar
wb? Gea
nD.
Atx=a+b a At x= <q= 0.57741,
toe ee ae (30ee2) Mikes ee = 0.06415 wl?

When 0<x <a, : eae .
Moree ue. Atx=I\V1- 15> 0.51931,
Anax, = —0.006522 we
4. = 3940El When 0<x <I,
x [45b°c + 17b® — 270de(I + e) + 270ex"]
M, 6 (Ce)
em eliked
Zee 2 /
|
when a<x<(a+tb),
M, = =; [3b7ex — x ~ a)"] ee rat (71*—101?x? + 3x*)

soe Ses
ao (x 2145b7c2 + 176°3 as -270de(I + e)
+ 270ex”] — 27I(x — a)”}
_ when (a+ b)<x<I,
APPENDIXES BDA
A-9 (cont.)
Moment applied at one end Moment applied at any point
me
;
M,=M max. positive Atx= Brett)»
max. negative = R,a

= 0.57741,
atx= Qight)>
MI M,I’
A = —0.06415 El =R,a+M,
max.
m. OV3EL positive
When 0<x <I,

if a > 0.42261,
é ally
3
2
M,
max, positive
3Ell 3
aia “i if a <0.5774l,
ee (aaa
max. negative
3Ell 3
When 0<x <a,

M, = Rx
Mx
(3b* —[> +x’)
are an
when a<x< i,
M,.=R,x+ M,
Ml
~ = x) Dos Bi:
A. 6EIl (Sa 21x +X")
356 APPENDIXES
A-10 Section Properties for Shear Stress Computations (Courtesy of Portland Cement Association, Skokie,
Illinois)
Interior column
Concrete area of critical section:

A, =2(a+ b)d
Modulus of critical section:
_ J _ ad(a+3b)+d°
3
Wee
WY

| A,=(4¥b)d
_ Modulus of critical section:
_ ad(a + 4b) + d°(a + b)/a
6 t
+b)
a’d(a +4b) +d*(a
TE
: e
| asia a
where c = a’/2(a + 6)
ce’ =a(at+2b)/2a+ nF ;
: ae
APPENDIXES 357
A-10 (cont.)
Edge column (bending parallel to edge)
=(a+2b)d
J bee. ad(a + 6b) + d°

Cah. Ce 6
where c=c’'=a/2
A, =(2a+ b)d

EN, +2b)+d°(2a+ b)/a
Cc 6
mills 9 ele 2a*d(a 4p ND) a d°(2a + b)

mete Cm 6(a + b)
where c = a’/2(a + b)
c'=a(a+ b)/(2a+ b)
Index ‘.
Absolute volume (concrete mix design), 11 Cement, 3

Active soil pressure, 308, 311 air entrained, 4
Admixtures, 1, 6, 13 natural, 3
Aggregates, 1, 4, 10, 12, 13 portland, 3
Air entrained concrete, 9, 11 Cementitious materials, 1, 12, 13
Alignment charts (nomographs), 227, 228 Coloumb soil pressure, 311-312
Allowable stress (service load), 59 Columns, 1, 2, 23, 179
Alternate design method, 25, 57 design, 182
AASHTO, 316 short, 187
AREA, 316 long, 220
ASTMA 1s 25 4poe2 Column analogy, 298-299
Anchorage, reinforcing bars, 156 Column interaction diagrams, 191-202
Angle of internal friction (soil), 311 Combined footings, 23
Angle of repose (soil), 310 Compression reinforcement, 64-65, 75, 76, 82-83, 85-86,
Approximate methods of analysis, 26-31, 48-50 92, 126
Areas and diameters of reinforcing bars, 21 Compressive strength, 2, 12, 16
Axial load: standard cube test, 2
compressive, 131, 182, 188, 190-205, 208-209 standard cylinder test, 2, 15
tensile, 133, 190 Compressive stress distribution, 17-18
Conversion factors — units, 342
Balanced conditions: Counterfort walls, 24, 321
beams, 64, 99-100, 115, 125-126 Crack control, 163-164
columns, 189 Cracking moment, 168
Balanced reinforcement, 64, 99-100, 115, 125-126 Creep factor, 222
Band width “B,” 251 Critical sections:
Bar dimensions and weights, 21-22 bending moment, 249-250, 276
Bars: development length, 249-250
areas and diameters for reinforcing, 21-22 shear and diagonal tension, 130, 137, 141, 252, 290
basic development length, 149, 152-153 torsion, 130
bundled, 153 Cubes, concrete, 2 ze
deformed, 2 Cylinders, concrete, 2, 14, 15 =
development length modifiers, 152-160
minimum clear cover, 149-150 — Dead load tables, 344-346
plain (nondeformed), 2 Deflection, 162
reinforcing, dimensions, areas, and weights, 21-22 ACI provisions, 164-166
spacing requirements, 150-152 computation, 167
Basic development length, 149, 152-153 creep effects, 171
Basement walls, 24, 309 equations for computation, 169-170
Beams: limitations, 164-166
continuous, 26 long term, 171
flanged (T and L), 22, 62, 73-76, 81-82, maximum, 164-165
84-85, 101, 115, 121, 125 minimum depths for control, 165-166
rectangular, 61-62, 64-72, 75-76 tables for calculating, 351-354 "i
spandrel, 27 time-dependent, 171
Beam and slab coefficients (shear and moment), 26, 27, Design aids and tables, 67, 76, 101-110, 190-208, 208
29-30 Details of reinforcement, 148
Bearing capacity (soil), 242-243, 317 Development length: :
Bearing stress, 59, 254 basic, 148-149, 152-153 a
Bearing walls, 323 bundled bars, 153 Ph —
Biaxial bending, 207, 209 compression, 154 * ao
Buckling load, 224-226 modification factors, 149-150, 152-156 4
Building drift, 163 negative moment, 159 oy
Bundled bars, 153 positive moment, 158
Butt-welded splices, 149 standard hooks, 155-156 ; aS.
tension, 152-153, 156
-Caissons, 208-209 _ web ‘reinforcement, 159 —
Cantilever moment distribution, 50, 52-55_
INDEX 359
Eccentricity, minimum, 207 Maximum deflection, 164-171

Effective length factor, 226 Mechanical anchorage, 149
alignment charts for, 227-228 Minimum eccentricity, 207
Effective moment of inertia, 167—168 Minimum reinforcement ratio, 22, 102
Elastic theory, 25 Minimum thickness, 164-166
Elastic weights, 225 Mix design, 11
End bearing splices, 149 Mixing water, 6
Equivalent column, 273, 278 Modular ratio, 58
Equivalent frame method, 274, 291-298 Modulus of elasticity:
Equivalent pin-end length, 226-228 concrete, 18, 58, 66
Equivalent rectangular stress block, 96-97 steel, 20
Equivalent uniform load, 30 Modulus of rupture (tensile strength), 19
Moment:
Fineness modulus, 4, 5 coefficients, ACI Code, 26-27
Fixed-end moments, 276 cracking, 168
tables for, 350 distribution, 50
Flat plate, 23 fixed-end, 276, 350
Fly ash, 7 Moment distributian method, 50, 284, 300-303
Footings, 136, 240 Moment of inertia:
bearing stress on, 242-244 cracked transformed section, 62, 167-168
caissons, 208-209 effective, 167-168
cantilever, 241 gross cross section, 167
combined, 23, 241, 246, 252 variable, 225
isolated, 241 - Moment magnification, 224, 229-230
pile, 23, 208-209, 265 M/EI diagram, 226
raft, 241 Multiple column footing, 23
sloped or stepped, 255
spread, 242 - Nomograph, equivalent length factor, 227-228
wall, 241, 260
_ Frame analysis, 32, 221 Overturning moment, retaining walls, 314-315
approximate methods, 49- 50.
cantilever moment distribution, 50 Passive soil pressure, 245, 308, 311
equivalent frame method, 274, 291-298 P-Delta effects, 221-223
portal method, 49—S0 Pattern loads, 32-33
Frames: Pedestals, 22
alignment ne (gomographe); 227-228 Perimeter shear (slabs and footings), 137-139
braced, 227-229 Piles, 208, 209, 244 na
first order analysis, 221 Pile footings, 244-245, 265
P-Delta effects, 221-223 Plain concrete, 2
‘ : _ second order analysis, 222 Portal method, 48-51
-~——— unbraced, 227-229 Portland cement, 3, 4
_ Friction: Pozzolan, 7
angle of internal (soil), 314 Pozzolan cement, 7
pe footing base, 245, 314 Pressure, earth:
horizontal, 310-314
vertical, 317
eometric properties of sections, 349
Prestressed concrete, 2
jradation of aggregates, 4
Properties of geometric shapes, 349
; ravity loads, 25
Properties of reinforcing bars, 20-21
_ Gyration, radius of, 224-225
Punching shear (perimeter shear), 137-139
looks, reinforcing bars, 155 Radius of gyration (table), 349
Raft foundations, 241
olated footings, 241 Rankine’s theory (soils), 311, 313-314
on diagrams, 191-202 Rectangular beams, 61-62, 64-72, 75-76, 99-101
on tables, 190, 203-205, 208 ectangular stress distribution (stress block), e
96-97, 99 - =
Rectangular tied columns (interaction dineTene) 195-202,
Reintorcement 2, 21, 60, 100
360 INDEX
Reinforcement (Cont.): Stress (Cont.):

minimum steel ratio, 22, 102 shear around columns, 355-356
shrinkage and temperature, 152 Stress-strain diagram, 16-18
spacing limits, 150 Stirrups, 133-134
spiral, 21, 151 Strain condition, balanced, 99-100
splices, 151 Strength:
temperature and shrinkage, 152 compressive, 12
tensile strength, 20 tensile, 3, 19, 20
ties, 151 Strength reduction factors, 97
web, 130-133 Stress-strain diagrams, 17-18, 20
Resistance factor, 97-99 Structural systems, 23-24
Resisting moment, 70-72, 103-104 Structural integrity, 152
Retaining walls, 24 Surcharge pressures, 315
basement, 24
cantilever, 24 Temperature, 152
counterfort, 24 Tensile strength, concrete, 19
gravity, 24 Testing specimens, 15
Roof design loads, 345 Ties, lateral, 21, 180
Time dependent deflections, 171
Safety factors, retaining walls, 315 T-beams, 22, 62, 73-76, 81-82, 84-85, 115, 121, 125
Safety provisions, 206 Temperature reinforcement, 152
Secondary moments, 223 Tolerances, 149-150
Serviceability, 162 Torsion, 128, 133, 135
Shear, 128 Torsional members, 275
one-way, 139 Transfer of force at base of column, 181, 254
permissible service load stresses, 59 Transformed section, 62
’ stresses around columns, 355-356 Trial batch (concrete), Wyle 18}
two-way, 137 Two-cycle moment distribution, 284, 300-303
Shear key, 312-313 Two-way slabs, 28-32, 137-139
Shear reinforcement (web reinforcement), 130, 133-134
Shear walls, 227, 277 Understrength factors, 97-99
Short columns, 187 Unsupported length, 224-229
Shrinkage reinforcement, 152 U-stirrups, 133-134
Slabs, 136
moment coefficients, 29
minimum thickness, 165-166 Variable moment of inertia, 225, 226, 275, 284, 287
one-way, 22, 26, 139 Vertical pressure, 243-244, 254-255, 315, 317
two-way, 27, 29, 31, 137-139 Vibration, 163
Slenderness, 222
Slump, 8, 9, 12, 14 Walls:
Soil pressure, 242 basement, 24 : ‘
allowable, 243 bearing, 323
horizontal, 310-317 cantilever, 24, 317 vt
vertical, 242-243 counterfort, 24, 321
Spandrel beams, 27 gravity, 24
Spirals, 180 shear, 227, 277 «*
od.
Splices, 160 Wall footings, 241, 246, 260
Split cylinder test, 19 Water/cementitious materials ratio (w/c), 7, 8, 9
Spread footings, 242 Web reinforcement, 130, 133-134
Stability index, 222 Wind load, 348
Standard hooks, 155 Wire fabric, 156
Stiffness factors, 50, 276
Stress, 3 Yield line theory, 22 . :
allowable, 59-60 Yield strength, 3, 20 ion
bearing, 59, 254 Yield stress, 20 |
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SCHAUM’S

The perfect aid for better grades

Covers all course fundamentals and

Teaches effective problem-solving

Features fully worked problems

Ideal for independent study

THE ORIGINAL AND MOST POPULAR

THEORY AND PROBLEMS

NOEL J. EVERARD, MSCE, Ph.D.

SCHAUM’S OUTLINE SERIES

NOEL J. EVERARD, Ph.D., is Professional Engineer; Professor/Chair-

Schaum’s Outline of Theory and Problems of

10 11 12 13 14 15 CUS CUS 98765

Sponsoring Editor, David Beckwith

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Everard, Noel J., date . im

Chapter 1 MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS FOR REINFORCED CONCRETE

Bipipier 2 GRAVITY LOADS: Forces, Shear, Moments, and Reactions ..............++++ 25

Allowable Stresses cc ccciscccaccecsdectete torent ey snare cundnssentauienigeewossconedsste fenpaeras “neaeey 59

Chapter 6 SHEAR AND TORSION<ficssssssssccssessesesssscstcesviyacesoseacssseseeceyeotee saan

Chapter fi DETAILS OF REINFORCEMENT sssssssssssentststeseeststnetseneenet Zi 148 . w

INGESTION oso ahex ans ateeeeees OF ic OCI

Chapter 8 SERVICEABILITY AND DEFLECTIONS .............cccccccescseccsccceceecceceecs 162

Chapter 9 GENERAL PROVISIONS FOR COLUMNG...........c:ccsecssccsccsecsececeeceees 179

Chapter 10 SHORT COLUMNS: STRENGTH DESIGN ...............- siuiaseeesaetenccsescieetaes 187

Chapter TPASLONG COLUMNS

Chapter 12 MADER MEIN See ccos esas dstscctecetersocaterieseccussonsdsteceresescedeevesavedses ceskeaseoreiesa OSU

Chapter 13 THE EQUIVALENT FRAME METHOD ................csccscssccocceccsccseees eexsp aie

Chapter 14> “RETAINING "WALUS cccgetese riescaitecetecsecnescccodaceteesassnvenceeetcr

APPENDIKXES .........02. guahineeh+et¥austrePanpeesckee

Materials and Components

Service dead load—The calculated dead weight supported by a member.

MATERIALS FOR CONCRETE

Table 1.1 Approximate Relative Strengths of Concrete

Special-Purpose Portland Cements

Gradation; Fineness Modulus

Table 1.2 Acceptable Ranges of Particle Size in Fine

Percent passing by weight

Table 1.3 Determination of the Fineness Modulus

Table 1.4 Volume of Coarse Aggregate per Unit of Volume of Concrete

Table 1.5 Maximum Chloride Ion for Corrosion Protection

(1) Water-reducing (plasticizing) admixtures

WATER-CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS (W/C) RATIO

Table 1.6 Typical Relationship between W/C Ratio and Compressive

2 ofconcreteis important since it is“necessary have the co

Table 1.8 Maximum W/C Ratios for Various Exposure Conditions

Maximum w/c ratio

Concrete protected from expo- Select w/c ratio on basis

Table 1.9 Recommended Slumps for Various Types of Construction

Reinforced foundation walls and

Slump, in. o [tim] tin [tin [zine |3in* |6in* |

1 to2 aac 315 300 275 260 220 190

| marinepiers. ieee oe alee Ga Srckesten an may vs to be fined with pr

QUANTITY AND DENSITY OF CONCRETE OBTAINED

Table 1.11 Unit Weights of Fresh, Air-Entrained Concretes

Maximum . Unit weight,* lb/ft’, for indicated

METHODS OF CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

540 (320) Less than 3000 (20) fi+1000 (7.0)