CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
 CHAPTER 1

1. INTRODUCTION

Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) has proven to be a clean, economical and environmental
friendly fuel, significantly improving the ambient air quality of cities like Delhi, Mumbai,
Pune, etc. after the implementation of the CNG program. The hydrogen addition in CNG has
the potential to lower the CNG emissions.

Hydrogen blend with CNG (HCNG) has several benefits, hydrogen flame speed is much faster
than natural gas, optimum flame speed in combustion, improves power performance, fuel
economy and reduces all pollutant levels than the CNG engine. This is a pathway solution to
increase indicated thermal efficiency. Secondly, CNG and hydrogen mix homogeneously at
standard temperature and pressure as they are both in a gaseous state. Existing CNG
infrastructure can be used for HCNG vehicles. High energy storage density is an added
advantage of HCNG when compared to pure hydrogen, which allows lower fuel volume to
be carried on board. In short, HCNG is the transition fuel. HCNG could be an immediate
promising solution to the automotive application.

This research work presents a detailed investigation of various blends of HCNG and its effects
on overall heavy-duty CNG engine performance, particularly power performance and emission
characteristics. The goal is to find out an optimum blend ratio through modeling and
experimentation, by calibrating fuel system parameters and varying equivalence ratio, spark
ignition timing, etc.

Alternate Fuels

The gaseous fuels are best suited for internal combustion (IC) engine. The Government of India
has initiated infrastructure development for gaseous fuel applications. The advantage of
gaseous fuel is that it mixes homogeneously with air to produce an air-fuel mixture without
physical delay. Gaseous fuels generally have less tendency of carbon deposition and residual
gases contamination during the combustion process. (Park et al., 2012)

Gaseous fuels such as CNG, LPG are popular in the end-user due to less operating costs,
environment-friendly and less emissions as shown in figure 1.1. Penetration of gaseous fuel

1
has started in the Indian automotive market. India has a successful CNG infrastructure in Delhi,
Ahmedabad, Mumbai and Pune. At present India has over 1276 CNG refueling stations in
operation, and approximately 32,00,000 vehicles are running on CNG. The successful
implementation of CNG buses in Delhi is a showcase example for the rest of the county to
switch over to gaseous fuel. Delhi was awarded the “Clean Cities International Partner of the
Year Award. ”

Reduced
Emissions
& Smog

Reduced
Cleaner Fuel
Environment Import
Benefits of Bill
Alternative
Fuels

Lower
Renewable
Operating
Source
Cost

Figure 1.1: Benefits of Alternative Fuels

1.1.1 Need of Alternate fuel

The fuel economy of engines has greatly improved from the past. One can see the inevitability
of demand for alternate fuels in the coming decades. Conventional fuels will become scarce
and costly. Fossil fuels are degrading the air quality at an alarming rate. To control the
degradation of air quality, enforcement of stringent emission norms is required as shown in
figure 1.2. Alternate fuel availability and usage will become more common in the coming
decades to achieve emission compliance. The operating cost of alternate fuels is much less than
fossil fuel. (Sun et al., 2012)

2
 Air Quality
Degradation

Global Stringent
Warming Emission
Alarm Norms
Need for
Alternative
Fuels
Dependency
on Foreign Reduced
Countries Fossil Fuel
for Fossil Depletion
Fuel
Increase in
Oil Price

Figure 1.2: Need of Alternative Fuels

1.2 Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)

1.2.1 Fundamentals

Natural gas mainly comprises methane (70-98 % by volume) with small amounts of propane
and butane and is a very good spark ignition (SI) engine fuel. Natural gas contributes over 25
% of the energy demand in the developed world. However, when compared to liquid petroleum
fuels, the ability to store the same amounts of energy content on-board vehicles has presented
a significant barrier to its broad use as a transportation fuel. Significant advances have been
made in high-pressure cylinders that can store natural gas at high pressure (up to 200 bar) which
are made of lightweight materials including aluminum and carbon fiber. Mounting of CNG
cylinders on the vehicle is the preferred method of on-board natural gas storage. (Collier et al.,
2005)

Natural gas has a higher octane number and antiknock characteristics to operate in an SI engine.
The CNG fuel properties are reported in Table 1.2.1. The compression ignition (CI) to SI
converted CNG engines will operate on a higher compression ratio (CR) up to 12 in the
previous study. (Thipse, 2010). The gasoline engine can effectively use natural gas in addition
to a suitable gaseous fuel control system with minor modifications.

3
 1.2.2 Properties of CNG

Table 1.2.1: CNG Fuel Properties

Chemical formula CH4
Molecular weight 16
Temperature Ambient
Freezing point -182°C
Boiling point -162°C
Viscosity 0.01 mPa-s @ 20°C
Latent heat of vaporization 510 kJ/kg
Lower heating value 12000kJ/L
Flashpoint -104°C
Auto-ignition temperature 540°C
Flammability limits 5-15
Stoichiometric air-to-fuel ratio 17.2
Flame visibility Visible in all conditions
Octane number 120 (RON)
Source: (Thipse, 2010).

1.2.3 Advantages of CNG

Some of the beneficial characteristics are listed below:

1. Environment-friendly fuel with no particulate matter (PM) and smoke emissions.

2. Renewable fuel with lower greenhouse CO2 emissions.

3. Poor carbon fuel, cleaner than gasoline and diesel with lower CO and HC emissions.

4. Obtainable from diverse sources.

5. Quiet operation of the engine.

6. Odorless fuel.

7. Dedicated CNG vehicles produce little or no evaporative emissions during fueling and
use.

8. In terms of weight, CNG costs 50-60 % less than gasoline and diesel on average, giving
equal or more distance covered than that of petrol/diesel.

4
 9. Clean burning fuel that reduces vehicle maintenance.

10. Like liquid fuels, CNG cannot be siphoned from a vehicle.

11. CNG boosts the national economy by reducing dependency on crude oil.

1.2.4 Limitations of CNG

Although a promising fuel for the future, CNG suffers from the following limitations:

1. Inadequate and expensive infrastructure (distribution, storage, etc.).

2. Higher vehicle capital cost.

3. Short driving range.

4. Much heavier fuel tank, reducing fuel economy and increasing braking distance.

5. Poor lubricity causing increased wear.

6. Lack of trained personnel for its proper maintenance.

1.2.5 Current scenario

Natural gas has become a popular alternative fuel because of its emissions benefits in
comparison with diesel and gasoline engines. The chemical structure of the fuel is
advantageous as the carbon-hydrogen bonds in methane reduce carbon dioxide emissions per
unit of energy compared to diesel and gasoline. (Amrouche et al., 2011).

In natural gas, methane is the main component among all hydrocarbons. It has the slowest
flame speed and less efficient burning characteristics which leads to a significant amount of
methane remains in the exhaust after the combustion cycle is completed. It has 21 times the
global warming potential of carbon dioxide due to unburned methane expelled into the
atmosphere. (Iyengar et al., 2007). Another issue with a natural gas engine is to accommodate
the large variation in the composition of natural gas with a change of source or topographical
location.

Lack of appropriate CNG infrastructure prevents effective distribution to the entire population
of vehicles and penetration in the market. Fuel storage tanks require aggressive safety features
such as stainless steel or carbon fiber tanks, which increase vehicle weight.

5
1.3 Hydrogen Enriched CNG (HCNG)

1.3.1 Prospects

Due to certain physical and chemical properties, HCNG used in IC engine has many
advantages. HCNG has several unique features well suited to engine applications. Some of the
most notable features are as follows :

1. The addition of hydrogen increases the H/C ratio of the fuel. A higher H/C ratio results
in less CO2 per unit of energy produced and thereby reduces greenhouse gas emissions.
(Subramanian, 2014)

2. The addition of hydrogen in CNG attains stable combustion when the excess air ratio
is much higher than the stoichiometric condition because hydrogen has a fast flame
speed compared to CNG. Adding hydrogen to CNG extends the amount of charge
dilution to achieve efficient combustion. (Bauer & Forest, 2001)

3. Hydrogen laminar burning speed is nearly eight times higher than that of natural gas
which has certain advantages such as shorter combustion duration, a greater degree of
constant volume combustion and improved indicated thermal efficiency. (Chiodi et al.,
2004). Figure 1.3.1. compares the laminar flame speed of methane and hydrogen to the
fuel-air equivalence ratio (ϕ):

Figure 1.3.1: Laminar flame speed versus equivalence ratio (ϕ)

Source: (Nanthagopal et al., 2011).

1.3.2 Properties of CNG and HCNG blends

Table 1.3.1 summarizes the various physical and chemical properties of a typical composition
of CNG and its various blends with hydrogen.

6
 Table 1.3.1: Properties of CNG and selective HCNG blends
Properties CNG HCNG 10 HCNG 20 HCNG 30
Hydrogen content (% volume) - 10 20 30
Hydrogen content (% energy) - 3.17 7.02 11.8
LHV (MJ/kg) 45.3 46.2 47.3 48.6
LHV (MJ/Nm3) 36.9 34.3 31.7 29.0
Flame speed (m/s) 0.37 0.42 0.47 0.51
Source: (Mariani et al., 2012).

Figure 1.3.2 illustrates the variation in flame speed with varying percentage of hydrogen in
CNG at ϕ = 1:

Figure 1.3.2: Laminar flame speed versus hydrogen fraction in HCNG

Source: (Ceper et al., 2009).

1.3.3 Advantages of HCNG

1. The flame speed of hydrogen 2.9 m/s versus 0.38 m/s for methane. The hydrogen
addition in CNG for use in an IC engine is an effective way to enhance flame speed,
improve combustion quality and reduce the cycle-by-cycle variations caused by
relatively poor lean-burn capabilities of the natural gas engine. (Cho & He, 2007;
Jensen et al., 2001).

2. Due to the very low energy content from hydrogen (up to 20% by volume), HCNG
is safer to handle than hydrogen. It is usable with the existing CNG infrastructure
and safety properties are similar to CNG. (Gajendra & Subramanian, 2013).

3. Minor modifications are required in the natural gas engine due to the moderate
concentration of hydrogen in the fuel mixture (Ochoa et al., 2002).

7
 4. No major changes are expected in the fuel system and engine components due to
the moderate addition of hydrogen in the natural gas with respect to hydrogen
embrittlement. (Boretti et al., 2013)

5. Hydrogen addition in natural gas speeds up the combustion process and decreases
the engine’s unburned hydrocarbons and NOx emissions (by lean burn). It also
improves engine efficiency and lowers fuel consumption. (Heffel et al., 1999)

1.3.4 Challenges with HCNG

1. The Hydrogen fraction increases more than 20% in CNG, it starts behaving pure
hydrogen and it requires hydrogen safety and material compatibility for engine
components and fuel system parts.

2. If spark timing and air-fuel ratio are not optimized properly this may lead to
abnormal combustion such as pre-ignition, knock, and backfire. This is due to the
faster flame speed of hydrogen as fuel.

1.4 Objectives

The objectives for research are as follows :

1. To investigate the potential hydrogen blend with compressed natural gas, as an

alternative fuel for the spark-ignition engine.
2. To determine the HCNG fuel system configuration.
3. To explore the effect of an optimum blend of hydrogen with compressed natural gas on
the following parameters
a. Power, torque, and brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC).
b. Exhaust pollutants like Nitric Oxides, (NOx), non-methane hydrocarbons
(NMHC), carbon monoxide (CO).

1.5 Scope of Present Research Work

The scope of the research work as follows :

1. To find the optimum hydrogen blend with compressed natural gas suitable to heavy-
duty engine applications from 5%, 10%, 15%, 18%, and 20%.

2. To carry out the tests at a different speed and load conditions as per the BS III legislative
cycle for the investigation of combustion performance and emission characteristics of
identified HCNG blends.

8
 To meet the objectives a Research Methodology has been developed, which is shown
in Figure 1.5.1 is a flow chart of the present work.

Figure 1.5.1: Methodology of Research Work

The Scope of the research work is to develop a strategy to meet emission norms on HCNG fuel
to follow a professional methodology for the timely and efficient completion of the task. The
methodology is, to break up the research work into small tasks based on the type and nature of
the activity.

9
1.6 Structure of the Thesis

This present research work consists of a total of seven chapters. Chapter 1 begins with
background, status, and development in CNG and HCNG engines with advantages, limitations,
and demands of the current scenario are explained including research objectives and
methodology.
Chapter 2 is a thorough review of the relevant literature and its critical analysis. This gives a
multidimensional perspective regarding earlier work on various HCNG blends optimization
parameters and combustion concept.
Chapter 3 elaborates on the experimental set up including test cell layout and its
instrumentation to measure the various combustion parameters. It also explains the test
procedure and testing methodology recommended by central motor vehicle rules (CMVR) and
type approval procedure (TAP) notified by the Government of India regulations for pollutant
measurement. Standard techniques used to measure engine combustion, performance, and
emission characteristics are explained in this chapter
Chapter 4 explains the fuel system components and various sensors used during the HCNG
engine calibration in detail. The various combustion optimization parameters are elaborated.
Chapter 5 explains simulation model preparation and its validation with a baseline CNG engine
Chapter 6 explains engine performance and emission characteristics of CNG and identified
HCNG blends. Also, the effect of variable ignition timing, equivalence ratio, on various HCNG
blends are discussed in this chapter. The obtained experimental results are compared with
emission norms.
Chapter 7 explains the key finding from the research work. It also proposes the future scope of
the present research work.

10