Electricity

constitutes the flow of electrons in the circuit, and in this process, work is
done. It is a
form of energy.
is all about electrons, which are the fundamental cause of electricity.
The Greek word "electron" means amber.
Type of Electricity
Static Electricity
electrons that are moved from one place to another, usually by rubbing or
brushing.
contact between equal amounts of protons and electrons (positively and
negatively charged subatomic particles).

Friction - opposite nature (+,-)

Non-friction - same-kind particles (+,+ or -,-)

History of Electricity
600 BC - rubbing a hard fossilized resin (Amber) against a fur cloth, it would
attract particles of
straw.
1600 - William Gilbert, a physician who lived in London at the time of Queen
Elizabeth I and
Shakespeare, studied magnetic phenomena and demonstrated that the Earth itself was
a huge
magnet, by means of his "terrella" experiment.
William Gilbert
Father of electricity
The word "electricity" was coined by Gilbert, who based it on the Greek word for
amber
Benjamin Franklin
In 1752, Franklin proved that lightning and the spark from amber were one and the
same
thing.
Franklin fastened an iron spike to a silken kite, which he flew during a
thunderstorm,
while holding the end of the kite string by an iron key. When lightning flashed, a
tiny
spark jumped from the key to his wrist.

Luigi Galvani
(1786) italian professor of medicine, found that when the leg of a dead frog was
touched
by a metal knife, the leg twitches violently. Galvani thought that the muscles of
the frog
must contain electricity.
Alessandro Volta
(1792) He disagreed with Galvani, he realized that the main factors in Galvani's
discovery were the two different metals - the steel knife and the tin plate - upon
which
the frog was lying. Volta showed that when moisture comes between two different
metals, electricity is created.
invent the first electric battery, the voltaic pile, which he made from thin sheets
of copper
and zinc separated by a moist pasteboard.
showed that electricity could be made to travel from one place to another by wire
Unit of electrical potential was named after him (voltage or volts)

Michael Faraday
credit for generating electric current on a practical scale goes to the famous
English
scientist
Electricity could be produced through magnetism by motion
When a magnet is moved inside a coil of copper wire, a tiny electric current flows
through the wire.
He had discovered the first method of generating electricity by means of motion in
a
magnetic field.
He also realized that the electric force is transmitted by an electric field
James Watt
When Edison's generator was coupled with Watt's steam engine, large-scale
electricity
generation became a practical proposition
inventor of the steam condensing engine
his name was given to the electric unit of power, the Watt
Andre Marie Ampere
the first to explain the electro-dynamic theory.
use of his name for the unit of electric current (ampere).

George Ohm
In 1827 he published, "The Galvanic Circuit Investigated Mathematically".
He was awarded the Copley Medal in 1841.
His name has been given to the unit of electrical resistance.

How Electricity is produced

Frictional Energy (Static Electricity)
It can be produced by rubbing certain dissimilar materials together

the application of static electricity is in a device used in atomic research called

Pressure
Electricity produced from pressure is called piezoelectricity
An electric charge will be develop but the amount of charge will depend on the
amount of pressure exerted
The amount of charge produced depends on the difference in temperature
between the junction and the opposite ends of two wires.
A greater temperature difference results in a greater charge.
Electricity is produced by heating the junction of a thermocouple.
Chemical Reaction
Electric cells are electricity produced by chemical reactions.
Light
produced by light,striking photosensitive materials
Photosensitive materials release electrons when excited by light under the right
conditions (photoelectric effect).

Magnetism
produced by relative movement of a magnet and a wire that result in the cutting
of lines of force.
The electricity produced depends on the number of tums in the coil, the speed
with which relative motions of the coil and the magnet tak.e place and strength of
the magnet.
Atoms
Atoms are everywhere
Matter is made up of atoms
Atoms are made of nucleons (called protons and neutrons) and electrons
Protons have a positive charge, neutrons have no charge, and electrons have a
negative
charge
The charges of protons and electrons are equal and opposite
Electrons move in and out of fixed pathways around the nucleus
Changing the number of electrons in a particular type of atom creates an ion of
that atom
Electrons in the outer rings or shells of atoms are bound more loosely to the
nucleus
Such electrons tend to break free from the nucleus and wander around among other
nearby atoms
electrons are called free electrons

Matter
Anything that occupies space and has weight
Solid, Liquid, Gas, Plasma

Atoms
Smallest part that an element can be reduced to and still keeping the chemical
properties of the element. It is the smallest building block of matter.
Elements
A substance that cannot be decomposed any further by chemical reaction
Molecule
It is the smallest particle that a compound can be reduced to before it breaks down
to its
elements.
Compound
A combination of two or more elements.
Electron
Negatively charged particles that revolve around the nucleus of an atom. Electron
is one
of the lightest particles with a known mass.
The mass of electron is about 9.11 x 10^-31 kg.
Proton
Positively charged particles that stay in the nucleus of an atom.
Proton is very small, but it is fairly massive compared to the other particles that
make up
matter.
The mass of one proton is 1.675 x 10^-21 kg.

Neutron
Particles having no charge.
Neutrons are about the same size as protons but their mass is slightly greater
The mass of one Neutron is 1.675 x 10-2' kg.
Nucleus
The central part of the atom where the protons and neutrons are located.
Atomic Number
Represents the number of electrons or protons of an atom.
Atomic Mass
Represents the sum of protons and neutrons of an atom.
Valence Electron
Electrons found in the outermost shell or orbit of an atom.
Conductor
electric charges are free to move through the material
The charge carriers are called free electrons
Only negative charges are free to move
men isolated atoms are combined to form a metal, outer electrons of the atoms do
not
remain attached to individual atoms but become free to move throughout the volume
of
the material
Good conductors - let the electric charge flow through them
Bad Conductor
Electrolytes
- resists the electric charge
- Both negative and positive charges can move.

Semiconductors
In-between conductors and insulators in their ability to conduct electricity
Conductivity can be greatly enhanced by adding small amounts of other elements
Requires quantum physics to truly understand how they work.
Insulator
exact opposite of conductor
Made of materials, generally non- metals, that have very few or no "free electrons"
float
about within their basic atom structure
The electrons in the outer valence shell are strongly attached by the positively
charged
inner nucleus.
If a potential voltage is applied to the material no current will flow as there are
no
electrons to move which gives these materials their insulating properties.
Examples of good insulators are marble, p.v.c plastics, rubber, glass ,oil,
asphalt,
fiberglass, porcelain, ceramic, dry cotton, dry copper, dry wood, air, diamond,
mica,
textile fiber, and wax.

PREFIX
exa
peta
tera
giga
mega
kilo
deci
centi
milli
micro
nano
pico
femto
atto

Direct Current System (DC)

electric current that is uni-directional, so the flow of charge is always in the
same
direction
the direction and amperage of direct currents do not change
used in many household electronics and in all devices that use batteries
Anything that works with a battery works on DC.
Electric Circuit Theory
Fundamental theory upon which all branches of electrical engineering are built.
Many branches of electrical engineering, such as power, electric machines, control,
electronics, communications, and instrumentation, are based on electric circuit
theory.
Electric Circuit
An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements and each component
of the
circuit is known as an element.
A simple electric circuit in the figure above consists of basic elements such as
battery, a
light bulb, connecting wires and a switch.
An electric circuit is always a closed path. A closed circuit is one that is
complete, with
good continuity throughout.

Type of Electric Circuit

Open Circuit
implies that the two terminals are points are externally disconnected, which is
equivalent to a resistance . This means that zero current can flow between
the two terminals, regardless of any voltage difference.
Short Circuit
implies that the terminals are extema!!y connected with
resistance , the same as an ideal wire. This means there is zero voltage
difference for any current value.
Close Circuit
Circuit that has a close path and has any kind of load

Basic Electrical Engineering Instruments

Ammeter
is an instrument used to measure current and must be connected in series with
measure the current flowing through it. Since all the current in the circuit passes
through the ammeter, it must have a very low resistance.
Voltmeter
is an instrument used for measuring electric potential difference between two
points in an electric circuit and must be connected in parallel with the part of
the
circuit whose potential difference is required.
To avoid a significant current flowing through it a voltmeter must have a very high
resistance.
Wattmeter
instrument for the measurement of power in an electrical circuit.
Ohmmeter
instrument for measuring resistance.
Multimeter
universal instrument may be used to measure voltage, current and resistance

Circuit Variable
Electric Charge
Charge is an electrical property of the atomics particles of which consists,
measured in Coulombs(C).
Like charges repel while unlike charges attract
-1.602x10^-19 c
1 electron =
1 proton 1.602x10^-19C
1 coulomb (C) =6.24x10^18 proton or electron
Types of Current
Direct Current (DC)
current that remains constant with time.
Alternating Current(AC)
current that varies sinusoidally with time.
Can be in positive or negative current flow
Main effects of electric current
Magnetic effect
bells, relays, motors, generators, transformers, telephones, car-ignition and
lifting
magnets
Chemical effect
primary and secondary cells and electroplating

Heating effect
cookers, water heaters, electric fires, irons, furnaces, kettles and soldering
irons
Voltage
like charges repel each other whereas unlike charges attract each other. To
overcome
this force of attraction or repulsion. a certain amount of work or energy is
required. When
the charges are moved, it is said that a potential difference exists and the work
or energy
per unit charge utilized in this process is known as voltage or potential
difference
A constant voltage is called DC voltage and is represented by V. Whereas a
sinusoidal
time-varying voltage is called an AC voltage represented by v
Types of Voltage
DC Voltage
commonly produced by batteries
AC Voltage
produced by an electric generator

Power
time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured in watts (W) or J/s
Watt is the unit of Power.
Equivalent to one joule of energy consumed in one second.
Named after the British engineer and inventor James Watt.
If the current enters the positive terminal of the voltage then power is positive
(Absorbing
power)
If the current enters the negative terminal of the voltage then power is negative
(Supplying power)
Circuit Elements
Active Circuit elements
Capable of generating energy (Voltage source, Current source, Generator,
Batteries, Operational Amplifier)
Independent Voltage Source
Characterized by terminal voltage and completely independent of
the current through it. ( battery, Combination of generator and
battery)
Independent Current Source
The current through it is completely independent of the voltage
across it.
Dependent or Controlled Current and Voltage Source
In which the source quantity is determined by a voltage or current
existing some other location in the electric system under
examination

Passive Circuit elements

Not capable of generating energy (Resistor, Capacitor, Inductor)
Resistor
The circuit element used to impede the flow of current or, more
specifically, the flow of electric charge.
Resistance (Q)
The capacity of a resistor to impede the flow of current or, more
specifically, the flow of electric charge.
Fixed value Resistor
Type of resistor which offers a fixed amount of resistance in the
circuit. It cannot be changed as it is set a specific value
Variable Resistor
Type of resistor in which the value of resistance is not fixed. We
can change the value of resistance in variable resistors.

Law of Resistance
its varies directly as its length (l)
its varies inversely as the cross-sectional (A) of the conductor
it depends on the nature of the material
it depends on the temperature of the conductor
Specific Resistance or Resistivity (p)
The resistance of electrical materials in terms of unit dimensions length and cross
—
sectional area.
The amount of change of resistance in a material per unit change in temperature.
The unit is ohm — circular mils per foot (ohm)-CM/ft
Temperature Resistance Effect
Rise in temperature — increases the R of pure metals
Rise in temperature -- increases the R of alloys
Rise in temperature — decreases the R of electrolytes and insulators.
conductors undergoing drawing process (Constant Volume, Same Material)
In the process, the waste of the material is assumed negligible (efficiency is
100%), thus
keeping the volume to be constant all throughout the process.

Resistor Color Code

Manufacturers typically use a color band system known as the resistor color code
Tolerance
The amount ( in percent) by which the actual ohmic resistance can be different
from the color coded value.
Inductor
Passive element designed to store energy in its magnetic field
It consists of a coil of conducting wire and can be fixed or variable.
Its core can be made of iron, Steet plastic or air
Application
Electronics and power system
Power supplies, transformers, radios, TVs, radars and electric motors
Types
Fixed Value Inductor
Type of inductor which offers a fixed amount of inductance in the circuit. It
cannot be changed as it is set a specific value
Variable Inductor
Type of inductor in which the value of inductance is not fixed. We can
change the value of inductance in variable inductor .
Configuration
The configuration of Inductor can be solenoidal or toroidal

Inductance
Property whereby an inductor exhibits opposition to the change of current flowing
through it, measured in henrys (H).
The inductance of a coil varies directly with the magnetic properties of the coil.
Ferromagnetic material, therefore, are frequently employed to increase the
inductance
by increasing the flux linking the coil.
Capacitor
Passive element designed to store energy in its electric field
Consist of two conducting plates separated by an insulator or dielectric
Plates can be aluminum foil while the dielectric can be air, ceramic, paper or mica
Application
Tuning circuits of radio receivers
Dynamic memory elements in computer system
To block dc, pass ac, shift phase, store energy, start motor and suppress noise
Types
Fixed Value Capacitor
Type of Capacitor which offers a fixed amount of capacitance in the
circuit. It cannot be changed as it is set a specific value

Variable Capacitor
Type of Capacitor in which the value of capacitance ig not fired. We can
change the value of inductance in the variable capacitor.
Capacitance
Ratio of the charge on one plate of a capacitor to the voltage difference between
the two
plates, measured in farads (F)
1 farad = 1 coulomb/volt
Ohm's Law
Current flowing in an electric circuit is directly proportional to the impressed
EMF applied
to the circuit and inversely to the equivalent resistance of the said circuit.
Named after the German physicist, Georg S. Ohm (1787-1854)
Conductance
Conductance is a measure of the material's ability to conduct electric current.
Reciprocal of Resistance
measured in mho (O), siemens (S)
Named after the german engineer, Eamst Werner von Siemens (1816-1892)

Conductivity
Reciprocal of resistivity
Series and Parallel Network
There are two ways in which components may be connected together in an electric
circuit.
Men a circuit is more complicated than two or three elements, it is very likely to
be a
network of individual series and parallel circuits.
These circuits may seem very complicated, but with a methodical analysis approach
the
functionality of the circuit can become obvious.
Series Network
components are connected 'end-to-end
The Current (A) is equal in all parts of the Circuit
The Total Voltage (V) is the sum of all voltages in each part of the circuit
The total resistance (O) is the sum of all the resistance in the circuit
Voltage or Potential Divider
A potential divider is the simplest way of producing a source of lower e.m.f. from
a source of higher e.m.f., and is the basic operating mechanism of the
potentiometer, a measuring device for accurately measuring potential differences
It is derived from Substituting voltage and resistance to the current of the
network
since the current is equal in any part of the circuit.
Parallel Network
components are connected 'across each other
The Voltage (V) is equal in all parts of the circuit

I he total current (A) is the sum ot all currents in each part ot the circuit
The total reciprocal of the resistance (Q) is the sum of the reciprocal of each
resistance
in the circuit
Current Divider
Current divider is the fastest way to find a specific Current in a Parallel
network.
It is denved trom Substituting current and resistance to the voltaae ot the network
since the voltage is equal in any part of the circuit.
Battery and Cell
Is a device that converts chemical energy to electricity.
Batteries are an indispensable item for many electronic devices and are essential
for
devices that require power when no mams power is available.
The purpose of an electric cell is to convert chemical energy into electrical
energy.
A simple cell compnses two dissimilar conductors (electrodes) in an electrolyte.
An electric current is found to flow between the electrodes. Other possible
electrode
pairs exist, including zinc—lead and zinc—iron.
Types ot Battery
Primary Battery
Not designed to be electrically recharged
Secondary Battery
Designed to be re-charged

Corrosion
Gradual destruction of a metal in a damp atmosphere by means of simple cell action.
If metals widely spaced in the electrochemical series are used in contact with each
other
in the presence of an electrolyte, corrosion will occur
The presence of moisture and air required for rusting, an electrolyte, an anode and
a
cathode are required tor corrosion.
The effects of corrosion include the weakening of structures, the reduction of the
life of
components and matenals, the wastage ot matenals and the expense of replacement.
Corrosion may be prevented by coating with paint, grease, plastic coatings and
enamels,
or by plating with tin or chromium.
iron may De gaivamzea to prevent tne Iron trom corroding.
Network Theorem
Network
is an interconnection of elements or devices
Circuit
is a network providing one or more closed paths
Branch
represents a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor
represents any two- terminal element.
Node
is the point ot connection between two or more branches
A node is usually indicated by a dot in a circuit. If a short circuit (a connecting
wire) connects two nodes, the two nodes constitute a single node.

Loop
is any closed path in a circuit.
It is a closed path formed by starting at a node, passing through a set of nodes,
and returning to the starting node without passing through any node more than
once.
It IS said to be Independent if It contains a branch that is not In any other loop.
Independent loops or paths result in independent sets of equations.

Inductor
passive element designed to store energy in its magnetic field
They are used in power supplies, transformers, radios, TVs, radars, and electric
motors.
Any conductor of electric current has inductive properties and may be regarded
as an inductor.
In order to enhance the inductive effect, a practical inductor is usually formed
into
a cylindrical coil with many turns of conducting wire
1 Henry equals 1 volt-second per ampere
inductance can be increased by increasing the number of turns of coil, which
material with higher permeability as the core, increasing the cross-sectional area,
or reducing the length of the coil.
Inductors may be fixed or variable. The core may be made of iron, steel, plastic,
or air
An ideal inductor does not dissipate energy. The energy stored
retrieved at a later time.
The inductor takes power from the circuit when storing energy
power to the circuit when returning previously stored energy
in it can be
and delivers power to the circuit when running previously stored energy

Joseph Henry
first secretary of the Smithsonian Institution
conducted several experiments on electromagnetism and developed powerful
electromagnets that could lift objects weiqhinq thousands of pounds
Joseph Henry discovered electromagnetic induction before Faraday but failed to
publish his findings
Capacitor
A capacitor is a passive element designed to store energy in its electric field
Capacitors are used extensively in electronics, communications, computers, and
power systems
used in the tuning circuits of radio receivers and as dynamic memory elements in
computer systems
It consists of two conducting plates separated by an insulator.the plates may be
aluminum toll while the dielectric may be air, ceramic, paper, or mica.
The capacitor is said to store the electric charge.

The amount ot charge stored, represented by q, IS directly proportional to the

applied voltage so that in the equation. where C, the constant of proportionality,
is known as the capacitance of the capacitor.
- voltage it does not depend on q or It depends on the physical dimensions of the
capacitor.
The surface area of the plates—the larger the area, the greater the capacitance.
The spacing between the plates—the smaller the spacing, the greater the
capacitance.
- The permittivity of the material—the higher the permittivity, the greater the
capacitance

Michael Faraday
credit for generating electric current on a practical scale goes to the famous
English scientist
Electricity could be produced through magnetism by motion
men a magnet is moved inside a coil of copper wire, and a tiny electric current
flows
through the wire.
He had discovered the first method of generating electricity by means of motion
in a magnetic field.
He also realized that the electric force is transmitted by an electric field
coined such words as electrolysis, anode, and cathode

Complex Number and Phasor

The mathematics used in Electrical Engineering to add together resistances,
currents or DC voltages use what are called "real numbers" used as either
integers or as fractions
In electrical engineering this type of number is called an "imaginary number" and
to distinguish an imaginary number from a real number the letter " j " known
commonly in electrical engineering as the j-operator is used. Thus the letter •j"
is
placed in front of a real number to signify its imaginary number operation.
Complex Numbers represent points in a two-dimensional complex or s-plane that
are referenced to two distinct axes. The horizontal axis is called the "real axis'
while the vertical axis is called the "imaginary axis".
The real and imaginary parts of a complex number are abbreviated as Re(z) and
lm(z), respectively.
Complex numbers that are made up of real (the active component) and
imaginary (the reactive component) numbers can be added, subtracted, and used
in exactly the same way as elementary algebra is used to analyze DC Circuits.
In the rectangular form, we can express a vector in terms of its rectangular
coordinates, with the horizontal axis being its real axis and the vertical axis
being
its imaginary axis or j-component. In polar form, these real and imaginary axes
are similarly represented by "A (angle theta)"

Rectangular form IS best tor adding and subtracting complex numbers as we saw
above, but the polar form is often better for multiplying and dividing.
Sinusoidal Voltage and Current
- A sinusoidal current is usually referred to as alternating current (ac). Such a
current reverses at regular time intervals and has alternately positive and
negative values.
Circuits driven by sinusoidal current or voltage are called ac circuits
A sinusoidal signal is easy to generate and transmit.
ac is more efficient and economical to transmit over long distances
A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of sine or cosine function
- Alternating current is the current that constantly changes in amplitude, and
which reverses direction at regular intervals.

Advantages of AC Generation
- Accomplished economically in large power plant that may be located where fuel
and water are abundant.
Transmission over network of high-voltage lines to distant loads centres is
entirely practicable
Widely used in Industrial Application such as Industrial motors, Transformer
equipment and control devices

Properties of Alternating Current

Frequency
number of complete cycles it goes through in a fixed period of time. For
standard measurements, the period of time is one second, so the frequency of the
wave is commonly measured in cycles per second
(cycles/ sec)
expressed in units of Hertz (Hz). it is represented in mathematical
equations by the letter f
Period
know the amount of time required to complete one cycle of the waveform
the reciprocal of frequency
of one cycle of the waveform, and is measured in seconds/ cycle.
Wavelength
length of one complete wave or cycle.
Greek letter (lambda) is used to represent wavelength in mathematical
expressions.
wavelength can be measured from any part of one cycle to the equivalent
point in the next cycle.
wavelength is measured in distance per cycle while period is measured in
time per cycle.

Waveforms
representation of the variation of a voltage or a current plotted to a base of
time.
for AC waveforms this horizontal base line represents zero condition of
either voltaqe or current.
The most common periodic signal waveforms that are used are sinusoidal
waveform
AC waveforms can also take the shape of either complex waves, square
or trianqular waves,etc

Peak Value
greatest value of either voltage or current that the waveform reaches during each
haif cycie measured from zero baseiine.
Peak to Peak Value
there are always two maximum or peak values, one for the positive half-cycle
and the other for the negative half-cycle.
difference between the peak positive value, and the peak negative value called
the peak-to-peak value of the sine wave.
This value is twice the maximum or peak value of the sine wave and is
sometimes used for measurement of ac voltaqes.

Instantaneous i(t)
The value of alternating quantity at any instant.
average value
expressed by that steady current which transformed by that alternating current
driving the same time.
arithmetical average or mean of all the values of an alternating quantity over one
cycle.

Effective Value (RMS)

The rms value of an alternating current is given by that steady state current(dc)
which when flowing through a given circuit for a given time produces the same
heat as produced by alternating current when flowing through the same circuit for
the same time.
Defined as the square root of the average of the squares of the given quantity
taken over a complete period.

Crest Factor or Peak Factor

ratio of the maximum value to the rms value
Form Factor
ratio of the rms value to the average value
Phase
the fraction of time period of that alternating current which has elapsed since the
current had passed through the zero position of reference (wt is the phase angle)

phase angle
difference in degrees between the voltage waveform and the current waveform
having the same periodic time.
Angular Frequency
represents the phasor relationship between two or more waveforms.
rotational unit of angular frequency 2nf with units in radians per second, rad/s.

Phase Difference Vapue

Leading
An alternating quantity is one that reaches its maximum or zero value
earlier as compared to the other quantity
Lagging
Alternating quantity is which reached its maximum or zero value later than
quantity.

Summation of In-Phase sinusoidal wave

When two or more sinusoidal voltage or current waves are in - phase and have
the same frequency they may be added to yield a sine wave of a same
frequency. The resultant wave will then have a maximum value that is equal to
the arithmetical sum of the maximum values of the component waves.
A sinusoid can be expressed in either sine or cosine form. When comparinq two
sinusoids, it is expedient to express both as either sine or cosine with positive
amplitudes.

Power
It is customary to refer to an AC load by using the term volt-amperes (VA) in
systems involving considerable loads
it is a measure of such operational factors as current-carrying capacity of wires,
heating effect in eiectricai equipment, ratings of machines and others.

Apparent power
also known as demand, is the measure of the amount of power used to run
machinery and equipment during a certain period. It is found by multiplying (kVA
= V x A). The result is expressed as kVA units.
Power Factor
expression of energy efficiency. It is usually expressed as a percentage and the
lower the percentaqe, the less efficient power usage is.
the ratio of working power, measured in kilowatts (kW), to apparent power,
measured in kilovolt amperes (kVA).
Type of power Factor
- Unity p.f
the voltage current are in phase (i.e. resistive loads)
Lagging p.f
the current lags the voltage by an acute angle theta (I.e. series RL
or inductive loads)

- Leading p.f
the current leads the voltage by an acute angle theta.(i.e. series RC
or capacitive loads.
• Zero p.f
if the voltage and current are out of phase by exactly 90 degrees.
(i.e. ideal conductor or ideal capacitor loads)

Power Factor Correction (PFC)

technoiogy which when instaiied aiiows the consumer to reduce their eiectricity
bill by maintaining the level of reactive power consumption.
One method of improving the power factor of an inductive load is to connect a
bank ot capacitors in parallel With the load.
Conductance (G)
It is the reciprocal of resistance, R and is given the symbol G.
Conductance is defined as the ease at which a resistor (or a set of resistors)
allows current to flow when a voltage. either AC or DC is aoolied.

Susceptance (B)
It is the reciprocal of reactance, X and is given the symbol F.
circuits susceptance is defined as the ease at which a reactance (or a set of
reactances) allows current to flow when a voltage is applied.
It is the reciprocal of impedance, Z and is given the symbol y.
Admittance
admittance is defined as the ease at which a circuit composed of resistances and
reactances allows current to flow when a voltage is applied taking into account
the phase difference between the voltage and the current.

Three Phase System

A balance three-phase supply connected to a set of balance three phase loads
Balance Three-Phase Supply
Set of three sinusoidal voltage with the same magnitude and
frequency with a phase difference of 120 deqrees
Balance Three-Phase load
Set Of three Single phase load with the same complex impedance
and thus taking the same amount of current and power from the
supply