Describe that noble gas electronic configuration, octet and duplet Rules help predict chemical properties of main

group
elements. Define ionic, covalent, coordinate covalent and metallic bonds
Account for the electropositive and electronegative nature of metals and non-metals.

Compare the formation of cations and anions.

What Makes Noble Gases Unique?

Noble gases possess a unique trait that sets them apart from other elements. They
have a full outermost shell consisting of eight electrons, also known as the "octet
configuration." This promotes stability within the atom .

Even helium, which deviates from this pattern, has a stable "duplet configuration" with
only two electrons in its single shell. Due to their stable electron configurations, noble
gases have no need to bond with other atoms and remain content with their current
state.

Why Do Other Atoms Bond?

Within the periodic table, the majority of elements exist as compounds or molecules in
nature, while the noble gases stand out due to their inherent stability and reluctance to
form compounds or molecules under normal conditions. This stability can be attributed
to their complete valence shells by following octet or duplate electronic configuration,
which makes them electronically stable. However, other elements can also achieve a
stable electronic configuration by forming compounds or molecules by sharing or
transferring electrons between atoms.

To achieve stable electronic configuration like noble gases.

Four primary bonding mechanisms accomplish this: -

Ionic Bonding. Covalent Bonding

Coordinate Covalent Bonding: Metallic Bonding
Let's discuss each of these bonds one at a time.

Ionic compound
Positive Ions: The Loss of Electrons

Ionic bonding occurs when atoms gain or lose electrons in order to achieve a more
stable electron configuration. Metals, due to their low ionization energies, often
easily lose their valence electrons, resulting in a positively charged ion with the
same electron configuration as its nearest noble gas, typically with eight valence
electrons. This attribute of metals is known as electropositive character, which is
trendy in a periodic table. We will discuss this in more detail in upcoming chapters.
For instance, when a sodium atom loses its single valence electron, the remaining
electrons acquire a stable configuration. As a result of losing an electron, sodium
ends up with 10 negatively charged electrons instead of the initial 11

Because there are still 11 positively charged protons in its nucleus, the sodium atom
becomes a sodium ion, which is no longer neutral. It is now a sodium ion with a positive
electrical charge (1+), called an ionic charge. The ionic charge of 1+ is written in the
upper right corner Na +, where the 1 is understood. A metal ion is named by its
element name. Thus, Na + is named the sodium ion. The sodium ion is smaller than the
sodium atom because the ion has lost its outermost electron from the third energy

level. A positively charged ion of a metal is called a cation.

Ionic charge = Charge of protons + Charge of electrons

1+ = (11+) + (10-)

Magnesium obtains a stable electron configuration by losing two valence electrons

to form a magnesium ion with a 2+ ionic charge, Mg2+. The magnesium ion is
smaller than the magnesium atom because the outermost electrons in the third
energy level were removed. The octet in the magnesium ion is made up of
electrons that fill its second energy level.

Ionic charge = Charge of protons + Charge of electrons

1+ = (11+) + (10-)
 Negative Ions: Gain of Electrons

Nonmetal atoms have a high ionization energy, making it difficult to lose their
valence electrons. To achieve a stable electron configuration, nonmetal atoms gain
one or more electrons, resulting in the formation of a negatively charged ion. For
instance, a chlorine atom with seven valence electrons gains one electron to form
an octet. As a result, it becomes a chloride ion with an ionic charge of 1-

The name of a negatively charged ion, also known as an anion, is formed by using
the first syllable of its element name, followed by ide like (chloride).

Gaining electrons instead of losing, making nonmetals electronegative. Due to the

additional electron, a chloride ion is larger than a chlorine atom since it completes
its outermost energy level..

Ionic charge 1- = Charge of protons = (17+) + Charge of electrons + (18-)

Here are examples of the main group elements and their electronic arrangements,
including their ionic state after gaining or losing electrons to achieve stability.
Ionic Charges from Group Numbers

In ionic compounds, representative elements usually lose or gain electrons to give a

stable electron arrangement like their nearest noble gas. We can use the group
numbers in the periodic table to determine the charges for the ions of the
representative elements. The elements in Group 1A (1) lose one electron to form ions
with a 1+ charge. The elements in Group 2A (2) lose two electrons to form ions with a
2+ charge. The elements in Group 3A (13) lose three electrons to form ions with a 3+

charge. In this text, we do not use the group numbers of the transition elements to
determine their ionic charges. In ionic compounds, the elements in Group 7A (17) gain
one electron to form ions with a 1- charge. The elements in Group 6A (16) gain two
electrons to form ions with a 2- charge. The elements in Group 5A (15) gain three
electrons to form ions with a 3- charge. The nonmetals of Group 4A (14) do not
typically form ions. However, the metals Sn and Pb in Group 4A (14) lose electrons to
form positive ions. TABLE( ) lists the ionic charges for some common monatomic ions of
representative elements
Ionic compound

We use ionic compounds such as salt, NaCl, and baking soda, NaHCO3, every day. Milk
of magnesia, Mg(OH)2, or calcium carbonate, CaCO3, may be taken to settle an upset
stomach. If you take a mineral supplement, iron may be present as iron(II) sulfate,
FeSO4, iodine as potassium iodide, KI, and manganese as manganese(II) sulfate,
MnSO4. Some sunscreens contain zinc oxide ZnO, while tin(II) fluoride, SnF2, in
toothpaste provides fluoride to help prevent tooth decay. Gemstones are ionic
compounds that are cut and polished to make jewellery. For example, sapphires and
rubies are aluminium oxide, Al2O3. Impurities of chromium ions make rubies red, and
iron and titanium ions make sapphires blue.

Properties of Ionic Compounds

In an ionic compound, one or more electrons are transferred from metals to nonmetals,
which form positive and negative ions. The attraction between these ions is called an
ionic bond. The physical and chemical properties of an ionic compound such as NaCl are
very different from those of the original elements. For example, the original elements
of NaCl were sodium, a soft, shiny metal, and chlorine, a yellow-green poisonous gas.
However, when they react and form positive and negative ions, they produce NaCl,
which is ordinary table salt, a hard, white, crystalline substance that is important in our
diet. In a crystal of NaCl, the larger Cl - ions are arranged in a three-dimensional
structure in which the smaller Na + ions occupy the spaces between the Cl - ions (see
FIGURE ). In this crystal, every Na + ion is surrounded by six Cl - ions, and every Cl - ion
is surrounded by six Na + ions. Thus, there are many strong attractions between the

positive and negative ions, which account for the high melting points of ionic
compounds. For example, the melting point of NaCl is 801 °C. At room temperature,
ionic compounds are solids

Chemical Formulas of Ionic Compounds

The chemical formula of a compound represents the symbols and subscripts in the
lowest whole-number ratio of the atoms or ions. In the formula of an ionic compound,
the sum of the ionic charges in the formula is always zero. Thus, the total amount of
positive charge is equal to the total amount of negative charge. For example, to achieve
a stable electron configuration, one Na atom (metal) loses its one valence electron to
form Na +, and one Cl atom (nonmetal) gains one electron to form a Cl - ion. The
formula NaCl indicates that the compound has charge balance because there is one
sodium ion, Na +, for every chloride
ion, Cl -. The ionic charges are not shown
in the formula of the compound
Lewis Dot and cross Formula

To explain the various types of bonds and to visualize the shift in the valence
electrons, G. N. Lewis proposed the Lewis dot formula. In this, the valence
electrons of the participating atoms are shown in the form of dot or cross. The
valence electron of one of the participating atoms is represented as the dot and
that of the other one as the cross now we will discuss some example on
formation of ionic compounds with reference of dot and cross formula .

Formation of Sodium Fluoride (NaF)

Electronic configuration of:

 Sodium (11) is 2, 8, 1
 Fluorine (9) is 2, 7

Sodium has a tendency to lose its one valence electron to attain the
nearest inert gas configuration of neon. Na−→Na+

Fluorine has a tendency to accept an electron from sodium to attain

the electronic configuration of neon. F + e −→F−

Combining the resulting ions: Na + F −→NaF

Formation of Calcium Chloride (CaCl₂)

Electronic configuration of:

 Calcium (20) is 2, 8, 8, 2
 Chlorine (17) is 2, 8, 7

Calcium has a tendency to lose its two valence electrons to attain

the nearest inert gas configuration of argon.

Ca−→Ca2+

Chlorine has a tendency to accept one electron to attain the

electronic configuration of argon. But since calcium loses two
electrons, two chlorine atoms will be needed to balance the
charges.

Cl + e −→ Cl

Combining the resulting ions:

Ca2+ 2Cl−→CaCl2

So, the formation of these compounds is a result of the transfer of

electrons in order to attain a more stable, inert gas electronic
configuration for the involved atoms.
A molecular compound (covalent compound)
A molecular compound consists of atoms of two or more nonmetals that share one or
more valence electrons. The atoms are held together by covalent bonds that form a
molecule. There are many more molecular compounds than there are ionic ones. For
example, water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are both molecular compounds.
Molecular compounds consist of molecules, which are discrete groups of atoms in a
definite proportion. A molecule of water (H2O) consists of two atoms of hydrogen and
one atom of oxygen. When you have iced tea, perhaps you add sugar molecules
(C12H22O11), a molecular compound.

Other familiar molecular compounds include propane (C3H8), alcohol (C2H6O), the
antibiotic amoxicillin (C16H19N3O5S), and the antidepressant Prozac (C17H18F3NO).
Here, we will learn about only basics, but in higher classes, you will discuss them in
more detail about molecular compounds.

Molecular compounds are also known as covalent compound because atoms that form
molecular compound is linked through covalent bonding, which might be polar or non-

polar
 Molecular
compounds,
also called
covalent
compounds,
are formed
through polar or nonpolar covalent bonding. Let's discuss covalent bonding.

Covalent Bond
A covalent bond is a bond formed when two atoms share one or more electron pairs.

Each atom contributes an equal number of electron(s) towards the bond formation.

Formation of Hydrogen Molecule

Hydrogen has one electron. It shares this electron with another atom of hydrogen,
attaining the duplet configuration. Hence, the two hydrogen atoms share the electron
pair, and thereby, a covalent bond is formed between the two hydrogen atoms.

Since the bonding between two hydrogen atoms is associated with equitable sharing of
electrons between the bonded atoms, this does not result in any charge separation
within the molecule. These types of bonds are called non-polar covalent bonds.

Some other examples of non-polar covalent bonds are given below

Multiple Covalent
Bonds In many molecules, atoms attain a noble-gas configuration by sharing more than
one pair of electrons between two atoms, forming a multiple covalent bond. Atoms of
the elements carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur most often form multiple bonds. How
do you know when two atoms will form a multiple bond? The number of valence
electrons of an element is associated with the number of shared electron pairs needed
to complete the octet and gives a clue as to how many covalent bonds can form. Double
and triple covalent bonds are examples of multiple bonds. A double covalent bond
occurs when two pairs of electrons are shared. The atoms in an oxygen molecule (O2)
share two electron pairs, forming a double bond. Each oxygen atom has six valence
electrons and must obtain two additional electrons for a noble-gas configuration. If each
oxygen atom shares two electrons, a total of two pairs of electrons is shared between
the two atoms a double covalent bond results. See Figure ( ). A triple covalent bond is
formed when three pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms. Nitrogen (N2)
shares three electron pairs, producing a triple bond. One nitrogen atom needs three
additional electrons to attain a noble-gas configuration. Figure ( ) shows the triple bond
formed between two nitrogen atoms.

properties of non-polar covalent molecules

Polar Covalent Bond
A polar covalent bond is a type of covalent bond formed between two non-identical
atoms. Since the two atoms differ in their capacity to attract the shared electron pair,
unequal sharing of electrons results. Due to the unequal sharing of electrons, fractional
positive and negative charges are developed on the bonded atoms, and the bond is said
to be polar. Although it is a covalent bond, a slight ionic character is imparted to the
bond due to the electronegativity difference between the two bonded atoms

Examples are given below.

comparative studies of ionic and molecular compound
 GIANT COVALENT COMPOUND

Giant covalent structures are made up of many non-metal atoms arranged in a

repeating pattern called a giant lattice. Covalent bonds connect all the atoms to form
very strong substances. Now, we will discuss some examples of giant covalent
compounds.

Diamond
The Diamond Figure depicts the impressive diamond structure, wherein each
carbon atom is covalently bonded to four others, resulting in a tetrahedral
arrangement. This unique bonding pattern creates a remarkably inflexible three-
dimensional structure, contributing to diamond's unparalleled hardness.
Moreover, all outer shell electrons of the carbon atoms are utilized for covalent
bonding, leaving no electrons to conduct electricity.
Graphite
The figure shows the structure of graphite. This is a layer structure. Each carbon atom is
bonded to three others within each layer by strong covalent bonds. Each layer is,
therefore, like a giant molecule. There are weak forces of attraction between these
layers, so the layers will pass over each other easily. With only three covalent bonds
formed between carbon atoms within the layers, an unbonded electron is present on

each carbon atom. These

‘spare’ (or delocalized)
electrons move freely
between the layers, and it is
because of these spare
electrons that graphite conducts electricity.
Testing the electrical conductivity of ionic and covalent substances

The apparatus was set up as shown in the diagram to investigate the electrical conductivity of a number of compounds in
aqueous solution.

1 Write a conclusion for this experiment Using your answers to columns three and four in the results table. In your
conclusion, state and explain any trends shown in the results.
2 Would the results be different if solid potassium chloride was used instead of potassium chloride solution?
Explain your answer.
3 What is the reason for using graphite electrodes instead of diamond?
4 Is it possible to determine the type of bonding through the application of electricity?
Coordinate Bond
Coordinate bonds are those covalent bonds where the electron pair is provided by only
one of the bonded atoms but shared by both the atoms.

This atom which donates the electron pair is called donor and the other atom which
accommodates the shared pair of electrons is called acceptor.

The coordinate bond is represented by a one-sided arrow ‘→’ where the arrow head
points towards the acceptor and the tail towards the donor.

Example: 1. Formation of ammonium ion +

The lone pair of electrons is donated by N-atom of ammonia and it is accepted by H+.
Hence, N atom is a donor and H+ is an acceptor.
2. Formation of hydronium ion

atom of water molecule is a donor and H+ is an acceptor.

Metallic Bond

A metal is a crystalline substance. A metal atom generally has either 1, 2 or 3 electrons

in its valence shell. It can easily lose these electrons and gain stability. Metals are, thus,
highly electropositive in nature. These electrons lost by the metal are called free
electrons or delocalized electrons.

The free electrons of all the metal atoms form an electron pool. The resulting positively
charged metal ions are believed to be held together by the electron pool. The force of
attraction that exists between the mobile electrons and the metal ions is known as a
metallic bond.
 Metals are commonly used in making wires and sheets for a variety of
practical reasons:

1. Metals like copper and aluminium are excellent conductors of electricity,

making them ideal for wires in electrical devices.
2. Metals can be easily shaped: drawn into thin wires or flattened into sheets
without breaking. This quality is known as ductility for wires and
malleability for sheets. Some metals, such as aluminium, combine strength
with lightness, which is essential for applications like construction or
aircraft manufacturing.
3. Metals are durable and can withstand various environmental conditions,
ensuring longevity.
4. Many useful metals are abundant and accessible, ensuring they can be
widely used for various purposes.