SAMPLE DESIGN, MEASUREMENT

AND DATA COLLECTION

Dr. Swarnambuj Suman

Assistant Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department
NIT Patna
 Sample Design
Quite often we select only a few items from the universe for
our study purposes. The items so selected constitute what is
technically called a sample.

The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or

what is popularly known as the sample design. In other words,
a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data
are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given
population.

 Researcher must select/prepare a sample design which

should be reliable and appropriate for his research study.
Steps in Sample Design

1. Type of universe
• The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly define
the set of objects, technically called the Universe, to be studied.
• The universe can be finite or infinite.

2. Sampling unit
• A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before
selecting sample.
• Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state, district,
village, etc. or a construction unit such as house, flat, etc., or it
may be a social unit such as family, club, school, etc., or it may be
an individual.
• The researcher will have to decide one or more of such units that
he has to select for his study.
Steps in Sample Design Cont…
3. Source list
• It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from which sample is to
be drawn.
• It should be comprehensive, correct, reliable and
appropriate.
• It is extremely important for the source list to be as
representative of the population as possible.

4. Size of sample
• This refers to the number of items to be selected from the
universe to constitute a sample.
• The size of sample should neither be excessively large, nor
too small. It should be optimum.
• An optimum sample is one which fulfills the requirements of
efficiency, representativeness, reliability, and flexibility.
Steps in Sample Design Cont…
5. Parameters of interest
• In determining the sample design, one must consider the
question of the specific population parameters which are
of interest.

6. Budgetary constraint
• Cost considerations

7. Sampling procedure
• Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample he
will use i.e., he must decide about the technique to be
used in selecting the items for the sample.
Types of sampling

Sampling

Non-
Probability
Probability
Sampling
Sampling
Probability Sampling
 Probability
sampling is also known as ‘random sampling’ or
‘chance sampling’.

A probability sampling scheme is one in which every unit in

the population has a chance (greater than zero) of being selected
in the sample, and this probability can be accurately determined.

When every element in the population does have the same

probability of selection, this is known as an 'equal probability of
selection' (EPS) design. Such designs are also referred to as 'self-
weighting' because all sampled units are given the same weight.
Keeping this in view we can define a simple random
sample (or simply a random sample) from a finite
population as a sample which is chosen in such a way
that each of the NCn possible samples has the same
probability, 1/ NCn, of being selected.
Methods used in probability sampling

Sampling

Simple
Systematic Stratified Cluster Multi-Stage
Random
sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling
Sampling
SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

• Applicable when the population is small,

homogeneous & readily available.

• All subsets of the frame are given an

equal probability. Each element of the
frame thus has an equal probability of
selection.

• It provides for greatest number of

possible samples. This is done by
assigning a number to each unit in the
sampling frame.

• A table of random number or lottery

system is used to determine which units
are to be selected.
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
• Systematic sampling relies on arranging the target population according
to some ordering scheme and then selecting elements at regular intervals
through that ordered list.
Systematic sampling involves a random start and then proceeds with the
selection of every kth element from then onwards.
In this case, k=(population size/sample size).
Example would be to select every 2nd person from the telephone directory.
Stratified Random Sampling

• The population is divided into two or more groups called

strata, according to some criterion, such as geographic
location, grade level, age, or income, then subsamples are
randomly selected from each strata.
Stratified Random Sampling Cont…
 The following three questions are highly relevant in the context of
stratified sampling:
(a) How to form strata?
(b) How should items be selected from each stratum?
(c)How many items be selected from each stratum or how to allocate
the sample size of each stratum?

Proportionate stratified sampling: The no. of sampling units drawn

from each strata is in proportion to the population size of that strata.
Stratified Random Sampling Cont…
Disproportionate stratified sampling: The no. of sampling
units drawn from each strata is based on the analytical
consideration, but not in proportion to the size of the population of
that strata.

where σ1, σ2 , ... and σk denote the standard deviations of the k strata,
N1, N2,…, Nk denote the sizes of the k strata and n1, n2,…, nk denote
the sample sizes of k strata. This is called ‘optimum allocation’ in the
context of disproportionate sampling. The allocation in such a
situation results in the following formula for determining the sample
sizes different strata:
Numerical
Cluster Sampling
The population is divided into subgroups (clusters) like families. A
simple random sample is taken of the subgroups and then all
members of the cluster selected are surveyed.
Stratified Sampling Vs Cluster Sampling
Multistage Sampling

This technique is meant for big inquiries extending to a

considerably large geographical area like an entire country.
Under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to select large
primary sampling units such as states, then districts, then towns
and finally certain families within towns.
If the technique of random-sampling is applied at all stages, the
sampling procedure is described as multi-stage random
sampling.
Non-Probability Sampling
Non-probability sampling is also known by different names such as
deliberate sampling, purposive sampling and judgement sampling.

In this type of sampling, items for the sample are selected
deliberately by the researcher; his choice concerning the items
remains supreme.

In such a design, personal element has a great chance of entering

into the selection of the sample.
Non-Probability Sampling
Itis a sampling method where some elements of population have no
chance of selection (these are sometimes referred to as 'out of
coverage'/'under covered'), or where the probability of selection can't
be accurately determined.

The selection of elements is nonrandom, non probability sampling not

allows the estimation of sampling errors.
Non Probability Sampling

Non Probability Sampling

Quota Sampling

Convenience Sampling/
Snowball Sampling

Purposive Sampling/ Judgmental

Sampling
QUOTA SAMPLING
 The population is first segmented into mutually exclusive sub-groups,
just as in stratified sampling.

 Then judgment used to select subjects or units from each segment based on
a specified proportion.
 Forexample, an interviewer may be told to sample 200 females and 300
males between the age of 45 and 60.
CONVENIENCE SAMPLING

Sometimes known as grab or

opportunity sampling or
accidental or haphazard sampling.

When population elements are

selected for inclusion in the sample
based on the ease of access, it can be
called convenience sampling.

A type of non probability sampling

which involves the sample being
drawn from that part of the
population which is close to hand.
That is, readily available and
convenient.
CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
For example, if the interviewer want to conduct a survey at a
shopping center early in the morning on a given day, the people that
he/she could attend interview would be limited to that given time,
which would not represent the views of other members of society in
such an area.

Itmay give biased result particularly when the population is not

homogeneous.
Judgmental sampling or Purposive sampling

• The researcher chooses the sample based on who they think

would be appropriate for the study.
• This is used primarily when there is a limited number of people that
have expertise in the area being researched
 Data Classification
Data classification is the process of organizing data into categories for its most
effective and efficient use.
The data can be categorized broadly into two groups as following:
1. Linguistic data
2. Numeric data
Linguistic Data
Linguistic data is any content that can be analyzed and presented to further
linguistic analysis.
This can include, but is by no means limited to, naturalistic observations fixed
as audio or video recordings or notes, surveys, intuitions and examples.
Numeric Data
The data that is in the form of numbers, and not in any language or descriptive
form. They are also called quantitative data.
Measurement Scales
Measurement Scales
Nominal Scale

Ordinal Scale

Interval Scale

Ratio Scale
Nominal Scale
• Nominal scale is simply a system of assigning number symbols to
events in order to label them.

• Such numbers cannot be considered to be associated with an ordered

scale for their order is of no consequence; the numbers are just
convenient labels for the particular class of events and as such have
no quantitative value.

• Nominal scales provide convenient ways of keeping track of people,

objects and events.

• Example: Player Jersey number, marital status, “Yes or No” answers

to a question as “1” and “0”.

• It is widely used in surveys and other ex-post-facto research when

data are being classified by major sub-groups of the population.
Ordinal scale
• In those situations when we cannot do anything except set up
inequalities, we refer to the data as ordinal data.
• For instance, if one mineral can scratch another, it receives a higher
hardness number and on Mohrs’ scale the numbers from 1 to 10 are
assigned respectively to talc (1), gypsum (2), calcite (3), fluorite (4),
apatite (5), feldspar (6), quartz (7), topaz (8), sapphire (9), and diamond
(10).
• With these numbers we can write 5 > 2 or 6 < 9 as apatite is harder than
gypsum and feldspar is softer than sapphire, but we cannot write for
example 10 – 9 = 5 – 4, because the difference in hardness between
diamond and sapphire is actually much greater than that between
apatite and fluorite.
Interval scale
• When in addition to setting up inequalities we can also form
differences, we refer to the data as interval data.

• Temperature readings (in degrees Fahrenheit): 58°, 63°, 70°,

95°, 110°, 126° and 135°.

• In this case, 100° > 70° or 95° < 135° which simply means that
110° is warmer than 70° and that 95° is cooler than 135°.

• And, 95° – 70° = 135° – 110°, it sense that the same amount of
heat is required to raise the temperature of an object from 70° to
95° or from 110° to 135°.
•
Interval scale
• On the other hand, it would not mean much if we said that 126°F is
twice as hot as 63°F, even though 126°/63° = 2.
• To show the reason, we have only to change to the centigrade scale,
where The first temperature becomes 5/9 (126 – 32) = 52°, the
second temperature becomes 5/9 (63 –32) = 17° and the first figure is
now more than three times the second.
• This difficulty arises from the fact that Fahrenheit and Centigrade
scales both have artificial origins (zeros) i.e., the number 0 of neither
scale is indicative of the absence of whatever quantity we are trying to
measure.
Ratio scale
• When in addition to setting up inequalities and forming differences we
can also form quotients (i.e., when we can perform all the customary
operations of mathematics), we refer to such data as ratio data.
• Ratio data includes all the usual measurement (or determinations) of
length, height, money amounts, weight, volume, area, pressures, etc.
 Methods of Data Collection

• The task of data collection begins after a research problem has

been defined and research design/plan chalked out.

Types of data:

• Primary data : Which are collected afresh and for the

first time, and thus happen to be original in character.

• Secondary data: Those which have already been collected

by someone else and which have already been passed through
the statistical process.
Primary Data Collection
• We collect primary data during the course of doing experiments in an
experimental research.

• But, if we do research of the descriptive type and perform surveys, whether

sample surveys or census surveys, We can obtain primary data either through
observation or through direct communication with respondents in one form
or another or through personal interviews.

• There are several methods of collecting primary data, particularly in

surveys and descriptive researches. Important one are:
(i) Observation method,
(ii) Interview method,
(iii) Through questionnaires,
(iv) Through schedules
Observation Method

 Under the observation method, the information is sought by way

of investigator’s own direct observation without asking from the
respondent.

 Advantage: Subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done

accurately. Secondly, the information obtained under this method
relates to what is currently happening; it is not complicated by
either the past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes. Thirdly,
this method is independent of respondents’ willingness to
respond

 Limitations: Firstly, it is an expensive method. Secondly, the

information provided by this method is very limited. Thirdly,
sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the
observational task.
Interview Method
 The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of
oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses.
This method can be used through personal interviews and, if
possible, through telephone interviews.

 Personal interview method requires a person known as the

interviewer asking questions generally in a face-to- face
contact to the other person or persons. At times the interviewee
may also ask certain questions and the interviewer responds to
these, but usually the interviewer initiates the interview and
collects the information.
Interview Method
 The method of collecting information through personal interviews
is usually carried out in a structured way. As such we call the
interviews as structured interviews. Such interviews involve the use
of a set of predetermined questions and of highly standardized
techniques of recording.

 While Telephonic Interview method ; collecting information

consists of contacting respondents on telephone itself. It is not a
very widely used method, but plays important part in industrial
surveys, particularly in developed regions.
Through Questionnaires

 This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in

case of big enquiries.

 It is being adopted by private individuals, research workers,

private and public organisations and even by governments.

 In this method a questionnaire is sent to the persons concerned

with a request to answer the questions and return the
questionnaire.
Through Schedules
 This method of data collection is very much like the collection of data through
questionnaire, with little difference which lies in the fact that schedules (proforma
containing a set of questions) are being filled in by the enumerators who are
specially appointed for the purpose.

 This method requires the selection of enumerators for filling up schedules or

assisting respondents to fill up schedules and as such enumerators should be
very carefully selected. The enumerators should be trained to perform their job well
and the nature and scope of the investigation should be explained to them
thoroughly so that they may well understand the implications of different questions
put in the schedule.

 This method of data collection is very useful in extensive enquiries and can lead to
fairly reliable results. It is, however, very expensive and is usually adopted in
investigations conducted by governmental agencies or by some big organisations.
Population census all over the world is conducted through this method.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN QUESTIONNAIRES
AND SCHEDULES
Both questionnaire and schedule are popularly used methods of collecting
data in research surveys. There is much resemblance in the nature of these
two methods. But from the technical point of view there is difference between
the two. The important points of difference are as under:
The questionnaire is generally sent through mail to informants to be
answered as specified in a covering letter without further assistance from
the sender. The schedule is generally filled out by the research worker or
the enumerator, who can interpret questions when necessary.

To collect data through questionnaire is relatively cheap and economical

since we have to spend money only in preparing the questionnaire and in
mailing the same to respondents. Here no field staff required. To collect
data through schedules is relatively more expensive since considerable
amount of money has to be spent in appointing enumerators and in
importing training to them. Money is also spent in preparing schedules.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN QUESTIONNAIRES
AND SCHEDULES
Non-response is usually high in case of questionnaire as many people do
not respond and many return the questionnaire without answering all
questions. Non-response is generally very low in case of schedules because
these are filled by enumerators who are able to get answers to all questions.
In case of questionnaire, it is not always clear as to who replies, but in case
of schedule the identity of respondent is known.
The questionnaire method is likely to be very slow since many respondents
do not return the questionnaire in time despite several reminders, but in case
of schedules the information is collected well in time as they are filled in by
enumerators.
Wider and more representative distribution of sample is possible under the
questionnaire method, but in respect of schedules there usually remains the
difficulty in sending enumerators over a relatively wider area.
Secondary Data Collection
Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to
the data which have already been collected and analysed by someone
else.

Researcher must be very careful in using secondary data. He must

make a minute scrutiny because it is just possible that the secondary
data may be unsuitable or may be inadequate in the context of the
problem which the researcher wants to study.

Due to the above mentioned reason, before using a secondary data one
must see that they possess following characteristics i.e. reliability,
suitability, and adequacy. If answer comes yes then only move
further with the data obtained.
Secondary Data Collection
Reliability
The reliability can be tested by finding out such things about the said data:
Who collected the data?
What were the sources of data?
Were they collected by using proper methods
At what time were they collected?
Was there any bias of the compiler?
What level of accuracy was desired?
Was it achieved ?
Suitability
The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not necessarily be found suitable in
another enquiry. The researcher must very carefully scrutinize the definition of various
terms and units of collection used at the time of collecting the data from the primary
source. Similarly, the object, scope and nature of the original enquiry must also be
studied. If the researcher finds differences in these, the data will remain unsuitable for
the present enquiry and should not be used.
Secondary Data Collection
Adequacy
If the level of accuracy achieved in data is found inadequate for the purpose
of the present enquiry, they will be considered as inadequate and should not
be used by the researcher.
The data will also be considered inadequate, if they are related to an area
which may be either narrower or wider than the area of the present enquiry.
Guidelines for Constructing Questionnaire /
Schedule
There are no hard-and-fast rules about how to design a questionnaire,
but there are a number of points that can be borne in mind:

1. A well-designed questionnaire should meet the research objectives.

2. It should obtain the most complete and accurate information possible.
The questionnaire designer needs to ensure that respondents fully
understand the questions and are not likely to refuse to answer, lie to the
interviewer or try to conceal their attitudes.
3. A good questionnaire is organized and worded to encourage
respondents to provide unbiased information.
4. A well-designed questionnaire should make it easy for respondents to
give the necessary information and for the interviewer to record the
answer, and it should be arranged so that sound analysis and
interpretation are possible.
5. It would keep the interview brief and to the point and be so arranged
that the respondent(s) remain interested throughout the interview.
 Steps in Questionnaire Design

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Steps in Data Pre Processing
Data Pre-processing refers to the cleaning, transforming, and integrating of data
in order to make it ready for analysis. The goal of data preprocessing is to
improve the quality of the data and make it more suitable for the specific data
analysis.
Steps Involved in Data Preprocessing:

1. Data Cleaning:
The data can have many irrelevant and missing parts. To handle this part, data
cleaning is done. It involves handling of missing data, noisy data etc.
(a). Missing Data:
This situation arises when some data is missing in the data. It can be handled in
various ways.
Some of them are:
Ignore the tuples:
This approach is suitable only when the dataset we have is quite large and
multiple values are missing within a tuple.
Fill the Missing values:
There are various ways to do this task. You can choose to fill the missing values
manually, by attribute mean or the most probable value.
Steps in Data Pre Processing
(b). Noisy Data:
Noisy data is a meaningless data that can’t be interpreted by algorithms.
It can be generated due to faulty data collection, data entry errors etc. It
can be handled in following ways :
Binning Method:
This method works on sorted data in order to smooth it. The whole data is
divided into segments of equal size and then various methods are
performed to complete the task. Each segmented is handled separately.
One can replace all data in a segment by its mean or boundary values
can be used to complete the task.

Regression:
Here data can be made smooth by fitting it to a regression function. The
regression used may be linear (having one independent variable) or
multiple (having multiple independent variables).

Clustering:
This approach groups the similar data in a cluster. The outliers may fall
outside the clusters.
Steps in Data Pre Processing
2. Data Transformation:
This step is taken in order to transform the data in appropriate forms
suitable for analysis process. This involves following ways:
Normalization:
It is done in order to scale the data values in a specified range (-1.0 to
1.0 or 0.0 to 1.0)

Attribute Selection:
In this strategy, new attributes are constructed from the given set of
attributes to help the analysis.
3. Data Reduction:
Data reduction is a crucial step in the data mining process that involves
reducing the size of the dataset while preserving the important
information. This is done to improve the efficiency of data analysis and to
avoid overfitting of the model. Some common steps involved in data
reduction are:
Feature Selection: This involves selecting a subset of relevant features
from the dataset. Feature selection is often performed to remove
irrelevant or redundant features from the dataset. It can be done using
various techniques such as correlation analysis, mutual information, and
principal component analysis (PCA).
Steps in Data Pre Processing
• Feature Extraction: This involves transforming the data into a lower-
dimensional space while preserving the important information. Feature
extraction is often used when the original features are high dimensional
and complex. It can be done using techniques such as PCA, linear
discriminant analysis (LDA), and non-negative matrix factorization
(NMF).
• Sampling: This involves selecting a subset of data points from the
dataset. Sampling is often used to reduce the size of the dataset while
preserving the important information. It can be done using techniques
such as random sampling, stratified sampling, and systematic
sampling.
• Clustering: This involves grouping similar data points together into
clusters. Clustering is often used to reduce the size of the dataset by
replacing similar data points with a representative centroid. It can be
done using techniques such as k-means, hierarchical clustering, and
density-based clustering.