Development through Infancy, Early Childhood

and Elementary
Antonija Koprčina Horvat

September, 2021
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Infancy ( birth to three-year-old)

Newborn children have certain reflexes that help them survive. They are "most

obvious patterns of behaviour" (Berk, 2018, p. 82). Some of these newborn reflexes are the

foundation for future physical development. They usually desire when the cerebral cortex is

developed, between four and six months old (Berk, 2018, Spielman et al., n.d; Vasta et al.,

2008).

Physical development

In the first year of life, physical development is the most obvious one. During the first

year of a child's life, their body length is 50% bigger, and during the second year of life, it is

75% (Berk, 2018).

The most significant influence on child growth and physical development are genetic

inheritance, diet, and emotional well-being (Vasta et al.,

2008).
Fine motor skills start to aspire pretty early when a child develops a twister grasp or

opposition of the tomb. Gross motor skills are significant in this period, and from a newborn

baby that only lays down, the child starts to walk, run, throw and catch objects (Berger &

Straub, 2014).

Cognitive development

Brain development is high-speed during infancy, especially in the development of

synapsis in the cortex. Through that period, the brain discharges all synaptic connections that

are not used. How the brain will be formed is related to brain maturation and family bonds

(Berger & Straub, 2014).

The first stage of development, according to Piaget, lasts only the first month of a

child's life, and that is the stage of reflexes. The second stage, first acquired adaptation, is

when a child starts to adapt first behavioural differentiations like sucking the thumb or pacifier
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because each of them is acquiring different tongue movements. These first two stages are

known as primary circular reactions.

Stages there and four first condition behaviour starts when the baby is trying to
prolong
activities of its interest. In this period, some essential cognitive realizations happen, like

object permanence, in stages five and six that influence cognitive and social behaviour These

two stages are known as secondary circular reactions.

Stages five and six are happening between twelve and twenty-four months, and they

are the beginning of an understanding of causal relationships. In this stage, first mental

combinations are happening, and they are saying that the child thinks and plans before doing

(Berger & Straub, 2014).

One of the significant influences on learning and cognitive development is the

imitation of the environment and has a significant influence on the relationship between

parents and child (Berk, 2018).

One of the most important developments is speech. Infants can comprehend much

more than they can express through speech. One of the most important developmental

theories in speech development is Chomsky's theory of universal grammar, which proves that

children are born with brain abilities to learn how to speak any language. (Vasta et.al, 2008)

Social development

In this period the most significant function has been the development of perception.

Developing visual, auditory, and tactile perception allows children to develop a first social

understanding of the world around them. Ericsson (as cited in Berk, 2018) is the first one that

established connections between trust vs. mistrust. Trust is developed through close

relationships with caregivers during infancy, and it is combined with object permanence.

When a child understands that even if a caregiver is not in reach, s/he will appear, and the

primary virtue that it develops is hope.

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The second phase is autonomy and shame. The basis of this relation is built on the

need to keep parental love and profoundly depends on caregivers responding to certain types

of behaviours and conditional behavioural responses. From this phase, the idea of will is

developed (Berk, 2018).

Moral development

In this stage, the first phase of Kohlberg's moral development corresponds with

Piaget's Sensorimotor stages. The first stage in morality development is fear of authority and

avoiding punishment (Spielman et al., n.d.).

Educational implications

In this stage, when children are developing and learning in the quickest past. As we

know, the maturity of the brain unwinds very quickly, so we could conclude that in this

phase, learning is fastest during development. This stage does not have specific educational

implications. Every child's touches are new and exciting, so the child learns by exploring,

trying, and combining the two. During this period, one thing that can be done is to provide a

healthy, rich environment so infants have many opportunities to explore and learn. In that

way, educators can help children keep as many synaptic connections in the brain, so future

learning is more effortless.

Early Childhood (from three to six years old)

Early Childhood is a period of fast cognitive development and the creation of strong

social bonds.

Physical development

Physical development in this period is slower than in infants. Basic gross motor skills

are learned, so children now develop more complicated body movements, like running with a

sudden stop, balancing on narrowed surfaces, dressing, undressing, and putting on shoes.
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Mastery of fine motor skills is more represented in this period—proper usage of writing and

painting tools and cutlery. One of the essential skills is eye-hand movement coordination.

Cognitive development

This is Piaget's Pre-operational stage phase. Memory and creation are

developing.
Children are egocentric, which means they have problems considering the world outside their

perspectives.

The major accomplishment of this stage is the ability to attach meaning to things with

language. Thinking is starting to be symbolic. In this way of thinking, children can attach

symbolic meaning to any object in their surroundings. At this moment, they can understand

that sounds have symbols (letters), and early reading can start.

This is the phase assimilation and accommodation are used to reach new schemas.

This concept is repetitive, and every schema is changed according to the new assimilation

and accommodation process (Seifert, & Sutton, 2009).

In combination with Social development, this constructivism Piaget theory is getting a

new meaning, and it is becoming Vygotsky's social constructivist theory.

Social development

Through this period, social understanding is increasing. Relationships with parents

begin to weaken, and relationships with peers are growing stronger (Thompson, 2013).

According to Ericson, this period has two stages, initiative vs. guilt and competence vs.

inferiority. However, this second stage is more appropriate for the elementary level because it

ends at twelve.

In the phase of initiative and guilt, children start to project activities, make up games,

and launch projects with others. If granted this possibility, children understand leadership and

feel confident in leading others and making resolutions. If being criticized for taking the

initiative, children develop a sense of shame.

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Moral development

Early Childhood is the second stage of Kohlberg's moral development. The

self-interest stage has an orientation towards instrumental purpose. Its main goal is satisfying

personal needs, and it corresponds with Piaget's Pre-operational stage (Spielman et al.,
n.d.).
Educational implications

In this stage, implications for education are evident and necessary. In this stage,

students are ready to learn and to make more meaningful relationships. Even though we

mentioned Piaget's theory in cognitive development, more appropriate is Vygotsky's theory.

Children's social and emotional life is now in correspondence with their learning abilities,

and they need their peers to be able to learn in an acceptable way for this age, and that is

through play. At this age, except for learning, children are gaining a more objective

self-image and understanding of their abilities in correspondence with their peers.

Accordingly, teachers for this age group should be able to give different opportunities to the

children to learn and socialize so they would gain autonomy over their knowledge and

develop accordingly.

Elementary Age (from six to eleven years old)

Elementary age students' development is even slower than early Childhood, and it is

more visible in parts of cognitive, social, and moral development than in physical.

Physical development

In this period, growth is slower until adolescence. Children are now more skilled in

writing and prepare for cursive writing. Their fine motor skills are now developed. Interest in

sports activities appears, and children can understand and follow the rules in sports activities

(Vasta et al., 2008).

Cognitive development
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Piaget's third phase of development is the concrete operational stage. In this phase,

children are less egocentric at this stage. It comes among the ages of 7 to 11 and is

characterized by the logical and systematic use of symbols.

The main aim at this stage is for students to start managing things inside their heads.

At this age, children can resolve problems without physically encountering concrete

materials. They start to be more aware of how they are thinking and have a more prominent

ability for problem-solving (Seifert, & Sutton, 2009).

Social development

At this age, self-esteem starts to rise, and children are capable of estimating their

abilities. According to Prisons, this age is in the third phase of development, industry vs.

inferiority. |In this stage, pears are starting to play the most significant role in a child's life.

The child is gaining selective through interactions with peers. If a child cannot satisfy some

of society's demands (like playing basketball) in this period, their feeling of inferiority is

developed (Berger & Straub, 2014).

Moral development

By this age, children have internalized control over good behavior. Kohlberg's third

stage of moral development is good interpersonal relationships. This stage of the

interpersonal relation of moral development is centred on enduring and succeeding social

expectations and performances. There is an accent on compliance, being "kind," and

considering how decisions impact connections (Berk, 2018).

Educational implications

At this age, the play still has a significant role in children's lives. However, toward the

end of this stage, children are already gaining autonomy, and understanding their thinking

process development is very important for educators. Understanding a moment when children

do not need play and natural objects to finish tasks is one of the turning points in the
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education of elementary students. One more important thing that educators should be aware

of is that they start to be more and more critical in children's lives and that at this age, they

can raise a child's self-esteem and make students feel inferior.

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References

Berger, K. S., & Straub, R. O. (2014). Invitation to the life span (2nd ed.). Worth Publishers,

New York.

Berk, L. E. (2018). Exploring lifespan development. Pearson Education.

Seifert, K., & Sutton, R. (2009). Educational psychology. The Saylor Foundation.

https%3A%2F%2Fwww.saylor.org%2Fsite%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2012%2

F06%2FEducational-Psychology.pdf

Spielman, R.M., Dumper, K., Jenkins, W., Lacombe, A., Lovett, M., & Perlmutter, M. (n.d.).

Unit 10. Psychology: lifespan development. OER Commons.

https://www.oercommons.org/courseware/unit/8480.

Thompson, R. (2013). Social and personality development in childhood. NOBA.

http://nobaproject.com/modules/social-and-personality-development-in-childhood

licensed under CC -BY-NC- SA 4.0.

Vasta, R., Miller, S. A., Ellis, S., Adler, S. A., & Younger, A. J. (2008).Child psychology (2

Canadian edition). Wiley.