Mechanics of Flight 1

Student: Maciej Hajduk

Aircraft: PZL.37 Łoś
Teacher: prof. Krzysztof Sibilski
Group: MoF1-En1
8 April 2023

Aerodynamic Characteristics
of the Airplane

Deadline: 17 April 2023 Grade:......................

Mechanics of Flight 1 Warsaw University of Technology

1 Introduction
This project is devoted to determine drag coefficients of different parts of the airplane. These parts being:
• fuselage and nacelles,
• horizontal tailplane,
• vertical tailplane,
• other parts (undercarriage, crew canopy, antennas, struts),
Drag forces of parts of the airplane other than the wing referred as the parasite drag.

Beside drag will also be finding lift coefficient of the aircraft.

2 Drag coefficients of different parts

2.1 Fuselage and nacelles
PZL 37 Łoś is an aircraft with engines mounted on wings with relative long fuselage. Because of that, the drag
coefficient of the fuselage at CL = 0 can be calculated using Ostoslavsky formula:
Swet
CDf = Cf riction · ηf · ηM a ·
Sf
where:
• Cf riction - friction coefficient due to viscosity of the air flowing around the fuselage body, given as a
function of the Reynolds number (Ref ); for V∞ =, lf = 12.92m (total length of the fuselage) and ν =
Reynolds number is calculated from the formula:
V ∞ · lf 33.(3) · 12.92
Ref = = = 2.961 · 107 = 29.61M Re
ν 1.453 · 10−5
Cf riction = 0.002421 (from the Cf riction (M Re) graph)
• Sf - largest cross section area of the fuselage measured from the nose of the fuselage (lnf ):
Sf (lnf = 3.2m) = 0.6 · 1.1 · π = 2.07m2 (area of an ellipse),
• ηf - correctional coefficient adding the influence of shape of the fuselage, given as a function of so called
fuselage aspect ratio (Λf ):
lf 12.92
Λf = q =q = 7.958
4·Sf 4·2.07
π π

ηf = 1.1 (from the ηf (Λf ) graph)

• ηM a - influence of the compressibility on body drag; since Łoś’ maximum speed is < 500 km
h we can assume
ηM a = 1.0,
• Swet - external area of the fuselage body in contact with the air flow; for this project, the area will be
calculated using such formula:
√
Swet = 2.8 · lf · Sf = 2.8 · 12.92 · 2.07m = 52.05m2
p

Thus:
52.05
CDf = 0.002421 · 1.1 · 1.0 ·
2.07
CDf = 0.0669

After checking with the project conditions (CDf ≥ 0.08) the calculated value does not fit inside the conditions.
Thus, we will assume CDf = 0.08.

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2.2 Horizontal tailplane

Since, PZL 37 Łoś has no given information about the type of airfoil used for horizontal and vertical stabilizers,
we assume NACA 0012 airfoil, because Łoś does not exceed 500km/h.

Aerodynamic lift and drag forces acting on the horizontal tailplane depend on longitudinal equilibrium of the
aircraft, and can be computed using airplane’s equations of symmetric steady motion. The drag force consists
of two components: a constant part and a part depends on horizontal tailplane lift force.

Equation of motion for horizontal steady flight with constant speed can be written as:

L − mg = 0, D − Px = 0, Ma.c. + L(xc − xa.c. ) − LH · lH = 0.

After transferring above equations to the non-dimensional form, third equation we can obtain as:

Cma.c. + CL (x̄c − x̄a.c. ) = κ′H · CLH

where,
• Cma.c. = −0.039 - pitching moment coefficient of the wing measured in aerodynamic center of the wing;
• x̄a.c. = xca.c.
a
= 0.246 - relative (non-dimensional) coordinate of the aerodynamic center (same as for wing
section- from Project 2),

• x̄c = xc
ca = 0.294 - relative (non-dimensional) coordinate of the center of mass of the airplane,

• κ′H = SH ·lH
S·ca · ( VVH∞
∞
)2 = 0.274 - horizontal tail volume ratio,

• ( VVH∞
∞
)2 - a square of relationship of mean flow speed close to the horizontal tail to the speed of undisturbed
flow far before the aircraft;
PZL 37 Łoś has a tail mounted in the center line, so we assume ( VVH∞ ∞
)2 = 0.85.

• SH = 8.58m2 , lH = 7.21m - horizontal tail area and the distance of the tail from center of mass,
Now, we are able to calculate CLH using such formula:
Cma.c. x̄c − x̄a.c.
CLH = + CL ·
κ′H κ′H

The drag coefficient of horizontal tail should be calculated using formula:

2
CLH
CDH = CDH∞ min + ∆CDgap +
π · ΛeH
where:

• CDH∞ min = 0.00621- minimal drag coefficient of the tailplane airfoil,

• ∆CDgap = 0.5 · CDH∞ min = 0.00311 - drag coefficient increment due to gaps between horizontal stabilizer
(fixed part of the tailplane) and horizontal control surface,
b2 2
• ΛeH = SHH · eH = 5.82
8.58 · 0.7 = 2.763 - effective horizontal tail aspect ratio; eH is the Oswald’s correction
factor for tailplane.

Caluclated results are presented in the table at the end.

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2.3 Vertical tailplane

The vertical tail drag coefficient can be calculated similar to horizontal tail coefficient neglecting the induced
drag part:
CDV = CCD∞ min + ∆CDgap = 0.00621 + 0.00311 = 0.00932

2.4 Other parts of the aircraft

Fuselage
Taken from the previous calculations: CDj = 0.0669 and Sref = 2.07m2 .

Crew Canopy
For the drag coefficient of the crew canopy I looked in a materials uploaded on the course site. For PZL 37 Łoś
crew canopy shape is the most similar to the one with no. 3.
Thus we obtain: CDj = 0.200 and Sref = 0.942m2 .

Figure 1: Drag coefficients for different shapes of crew canopy

Horizontal tailplane
Data for horizontal tailplane is taken from earlier calculations: CDj = 0.012 and Sref = 0.566m2 .

Vertical tailplane
Data for vertical tailplane is taken from earlier calculations: CDj = 0.00932 and Sref = 0.330m2 .

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Engines nacelles
Since PZL 37 Łoś’s engines are mounted on wings they also need to be included in a drag coefficient calculations.
Data is taken from the materials uploaded on a site; the engines look the most similar to the 2A one, thus:
CDj = 0.088 and Sref = 3.079m2 .

Figure 2: Drag coefficients for different shapes of wing mounted engines

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2.5 Airplane’s parasite drag coefficient

Figure 3: Parasite drag coefficient summation.

Tests performed in wind tunnels show that parasite drag of parts of aircraft mentioned above depends on angle
of attack. This effect can be taken into account using following simple method:

• Minimal parasite drag coefficient:

P5
j=1 CD′ j · Sj 0.4722
(CDparasite )min = = = 0.0263
S 17.93

• Changes of the parasite drag coefficient due to changes of angle of attack can be estimated using linear
function of wing lift coefficient (instead of angle of attack):

′ |CL |
CDparasite = (CDparasite )min · (1 + )
ζ

where:
• ζ - proportional factor depend on the aerodynamic properties of the airplane; we assume 6.0.

3 Drag coefficient of the complete aircraft

Flight tests as well a lot of investigations in wind tunnels show that drag coefficient of an airplane is usually
greater than simple sum of drag coefficiens of all parts of the aircraft. This additional component of the
aerodynamic drag have its source in unfavorable influence between aircraft’s parts and is called as interference
drag. Interference effect can be estimated using formula:

′ SH
CDairplane = (CDwing + CDparasite + · CD H) · (1 + Kinterf er )
S
where:

• Kinterf er = 0.08 - empirical interference drag factor.

4 Lift coefficient of the airplane

According to initial assumptions, the influence of horizontal tail lift force on total lift of the aircraft should be
taken into account using simple formula:
SH
CLairplane = CLwing + · CLH
S

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5 Additonal aerodynamic functions

Besides basic aerodynamic characteristrics of the airplane CL = f (α) and CD = f (CL ) following two additional
functions of wing angle of attack should be calculated:
CLairplane
• K(α) = CDairplane - the lift to drag ratio,
3
CLairplane
• E(α) = 2
CDairplane
- the aerodynamic energy function.

Figure 4: CL , K/10, E/100 functions graph

Figure 5: The Lilienthal polar.

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6 Analytical form of aerodynamic characteristics of the airplane

For fast (but less accurate) estimation of some performance parameters of an aircraft (i.e. gliding optimal
parameters, maximum horizontal speed), following algebraic approximation of the lift and drag coefficients
would be very useful:

CL = α · (α − α0 )
CL2
CD = CD0 +
π · Λe
It may be assumed (due to small influence of the horizontal tail lift force in most of flight regimes), that con-
stants α and α0 are for the airplane practically same as for the wing (computed in the Project 2).

Next two approximation coefficients:

1
CD0 ,
π · Λe
should be obtained using one of numerical approximation methods.
2
CL
By using function of linear regression in excel we obtain that a = 14.087 which is equal to ∆CD and b = −0.723.

Then, CD0 = −0.723

14.087 = 0.0513. This value should be as close as possible to minimal drag coefficient of the
airplane CDmin = 0.045.
2
CL 14.087
Following instruction we also obtain Λe = π·∆CD = π = 4.484.

Oswald’s factor is calculated from formula:

Λe 4.484
e= = = 0.76
Λ 5.921
Which is acceptable for the ranges given in the instruction.

7 Aerodynamic characteristics of the Airfoil, Wing and Aircraft

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Figure 6: Table: characteristics of the Airfoil, Wing and Aircraft
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