HY206: MODERN EAST ASIAN HISTORY

ASSESSMENT 1: SOURCE ANALYSIS

SELUIPEPELI VETEKINA
S11213622
 Assessment 1: Source Analysis
Part A (15 marks)
1) Who was recruited for the pearling industry in Australia prior to World War II and
why?
The people that were recruited before World War II, by the Australian pearling industry were
workers primarily from various Asian countries, including Japan, China, Malaysia, the
Philippines and also indigenous Australians (Aboriginal Australians). Source 4 portrays a
Japanese pearl diver and crew onboard a boat owned by a Victor Kepert which could indicate
that Asians were recruited for the purpose of pearl diving. According to (Ganter 1994) the
Australian pearling industry engaged in the recruitment of workers from diverse Asian
countries prior to World War II, including nations like Japan, China, Malaysia, and the
Philippines.1 Ganter (1994) stated that the initial entrants into the industry as divers and crew
members were Melanesians and Torres Strait Islanders but, the dominant and preferred
workforce, particularly in diving roles, became the Japanese and joining them were
Malaysians, Filipinos, Chinese, and other Asians, who also found employment as divers and
crew members within the industry. The reasons for recruiting workers from these countries
were multifaceted and often tied to the industry's specific needs and economic considerations.
In the context of the Australian pearling industry, distinct factors influenced the recruitment
of different ethnic groups. Martinez (2001) stated that the Japanese were primarily recruited
due to their adept diving abilities, readiness for remote work, and accessibility via the
Japanese government's labour export policy; Malays were chosen for their proficiency in
sailing and fishing, cultural adaptability, and sourcing through the British colonial
administration in Singapore; while Aboriginal workers were sought after due to their
familiarity with marine environments, exemption from the White Australia policy, and
willingness to accept low wages and unfavourable working conditions.2 It's important to note
that while the recruitment of Asian workers brought certain benefits to the pearling industry,
it also came with challenges and controversies, such as concerns about cultural differences,
racial biases, and unfair treatment of workers.

1
Regina Ganter, The Pearl-Shellers of Torres Strait: Resource Use, Development and Decline, 1860s–1960s
(Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1994).
2
Julia Martinez, “The Politics of Pearl-Shelling: The Japanese Presence in Northern Australian Waters, 1860s-
1970s” (PhD diss., University of Wollongong, 2001).
2) What were the working conditions of pearl divers like?
The hiring of Asian workers faced obstacles such as resistance from the Australian
government and society, regulatory limitations on their employment, and instances of
mistreatment and exploitation, encompassing low wages, strict contracts, subpar living
conditions, and racial bias. In Source 3, the statement conveys that the indentured workforce,
largely consisting of Asian laborers, faced extremely harsh and inequitable conditions,
essentially resembling a form of slavery, as they were tethered to pearling authorities through
contracts. An illustrative incident involves a young Malay laborer who was fined a significant
sum for seeking time off from work. This description strongly denounces the exploitative
nature of the indentured labour system and the mistreatment of Asian workers in the pearling
industry. Akagawa investigates the historical and cultural aspects of Japanese pearl divers
who were employed in Broome, Western Australia, from the late 1800s to the mid-1900s.
According to Akagawa (2009, 5) the Japanese divers encountered numerous challenges and
risks, including extended underwater hours, decompression sickness, shark attacks, cyclones,
accidents, racial prejudice, and violence from white settlers and authorities, often resulting in
premature deaths or disabilities.3 Pearl divers faced perilous and physically demanding
conditions, working without proper equipment, enduring health risks like decompression
sickness and ear damage, encountering exploitative labour practices, isolation in remote
locations, and often experiencing racial discrimination.

3) What challenges were posed by the White Australia Policy to labour recruiting of
Pacific Islanders and Asians?
The White Australia Policy, enforced from 1901 to 1973, aimed to limit non-white
immigration and work in Australia, presenting obstacles to labour recruitment in the pearl-
shelling industry through measures like the dictation test, crew quotas, cost-cutting that
exploited workers, and the social exclusion and discrimination faced by non-white laborers.
In Source 2, the statement implies that Australian workers, who uphold beliefs in white
supremacy and democratic values, hold an inaccurate and racially prejudiced perception of
workers from other countries, especially Asian laborers. They incorrectly assume that Asian
workers lack education, organization, and agency, viewing them as almost subhuman, akin to

3
Natsuko Akagawa, “The Japanese Pearl Divers of Broome: A Case Study in Heritage Management,” in Heritage
Management in Asia and the Pacific: Histories, Policies and Practices, ed. Natsuko Akagawa and Laurajane
Smith (London: Routledge, 2009), 5.
slaves. The statement critiques both the White Australia Policy and the prejudiced attitudes of
Australian workers toward Asian laborers. The Pacific Island Labourers Act of 1901 banned
the arrival of Pacific Islanders as indentured laborers and mandated the expulsion of most
already present in Australia by 1906.4 The Immigration Restriction Act of 1901 introduced a
language-based dictation test to exclude non-white individuals and granted immigration
officers the power to decline or deport those deemed undesirable.5 The Post and Telegraph
Act of 1901 stipulated that solely white workers could serve on ships transporting Australian
mail, curtailing opportunities for Asian seafarers and traders.6 The Aliens Registration Act of
1920 compelled non-British subjects to register, imposing curbs on their travel, employment,
and property rights.7 The Nationality and Citizenship Act of 1948 withheld Australian
citizenship, social benefits, and political rights from non-white migrants, even if born or
naturalized in Australia.8 Martinaz (2001) stated that the White Australia Policy hindered
labour recruitment of Pacific Islanders and Asians, including struggles with securing permits,
challenges with untrustworthy recruiters, opposition from Australian unions and communities
leading to calls for repatriation, and legal uncertainties surrounding workers' rights,
immigration, and citizenship due to evolving laws and policies.9 The White Australia Policy
encompassed regulations and measures that limited the entry of individuals of non-white
origin into Australia between 1901 and 1973, founded on the notion of safeguarding the racial
integrity and supremacy of the British-Australian populace.

Bibliography
4
The Conversation, “Australian politics explainer: the White Australia policy,” February 17, 2017,
https://theconversation.com/australian-politics-explainer-the-white-australia-policy-74084.
5
The Conversation, “Reaping what we sow: cultural ignorance undermines Australia’s recruitment of Pacific
Island workers,” October 25, 2021, https://theconversation.com/reaping-what-we-sow-cultural-ignorance-
undermines-australias-recruitment-of-pacific-island-workers-197910.
6
The Conversation, “Reaping what we sow: cultural ignorance undermines Australia’s recruitment of Pacific
Island workers.”
7
The Conversation, “Australian politics explainer: the White Australia policy.”
8
The Conversation, “Australian politics explainer: the White Australia policy.”
9
Martinez, “The Politics of Pearl-Shelling: The Japanese Presence in Northern Australian Waters, 1860s-1970s.”
Akagawa, Natsuko. “The Japanese Pearl Divers of Broome: A Case Study in Heritage
Management.” In Heritage Management in Asia and the Pacific: Histories, Policies
and Practices, edited by Natsuko Akagawa and Laurajane Smith, 3-18. London:
Routledge, 2009.
Ganter, Regina. “The Pearl-Shellers of Torres Strait: Resource Use, Development and
Decline, 1860s–1960s”. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1994.
Martinez, Julia. “The Politics of Pearl-Shelling: The Japanese Presence in Northern
Australian Waters, 1860s-1970s.” PhD diss., University of Wollongong, 2001.
The Conversation. “Australian politics explainer: the White Australia policy.” Last modified
February 17, 2017. https://theconversation.com/australian-politics-explainer-the-
white-australia-policy-74084
The Conversation. “Reaping what we sow: cultural ignorance undermines Australia’s
recruitment of Pacific Island workers.” Last modified October 25, 2021.
https://theconversation.com/reaping-what-we-sow-cultural-ignorance-undermines-
australias-recruitment-of-pacific-island-workers-197910.

Part B
"Indentured Labour in the age of Imperialism 1834 - 1922"
David Northrup's book "Indentured Labour in the age of Imperialism 1834 - 1922"
investigates the history and repercussions of indentured labour during the era of imperialism,
spanning from 1834 to 1922. This work undertakes an exploration of the inception, nature,
and eventual decline of the indentured labour trade, which involved the migration of millions
of individuals from Asia, Africa, and Europe under contractual service agreements to various
corners of the world. Northrup's goal is to furnish a comprehensive and comparative analysis
of the indentured labour system within the broader tapestry of global history, with the aim of
challenging prevailing assumptions and stereotypes surrounding it.10 He specifically aims to
debunk notions that liken indentured labour to slavery, highlight its exploitation by colonial
powers, or relegate it to the fringes of nationalist movements.

Structured across six chapters, the book commences by introducing the concept of indentured
labour and positioning it vis-à-vis other labour migration forms. It then traces the roots and
evolution of the indentured labour trade, elucidating the influences that shaped its supply and
demand. Subsequently, the conditions and experiences of indentured workers during
recruitment, transportation, and employment come under scrutiny. The book further
investigates the social and cultural ramifications, including family dynamics, identity
construction, ethnic relations, and cultural exchange, that both source and host societies
experienced due to indentured labour.

The narrative extends to encompass the political and economic consequences incurred by
indentured labour, encompassing facets like colonial development, labour movements,
nationalism, and the decolonization trajectory. What emerges is a holistic portrait of the
indentured labour phenomenon, one that traverses its multifaceted aspects and their broader
historical implications. This exploration of the experiences of Asians in Pacific Islands
underscores their role in regional development and integration, interactions with diverse
ethnic groups, and their impact on shaping local identities and cultures. Particularly evident
in chapter four, which scrutinizes social and cultural dynamics, Northrup sheds light on the
discrimination, assimilation, and segregation that Asians encountered, while equally
highlighting their resilience in forging novel forms of identity and culture.
1396 words

10
David Northrup, Indentured Labor, In the Age of Imperialism, 1834–1922 (Cambridge,
1999); Kay Saunders, ed., Indentured Labour in the British Empire 1834–1920 (London, 1984).
Bibliography
David Northrup, Indentured Labor, In the Age of Imperialism, 1834–1922 Cambridge:
1999; Kay Saunders, ed., Indentured Labour in the British Empire 1834–1920
London: 1984.
https://archive.org/download/indenturedlabori00nort/indenturedlabori00nort.pdf