BGCSE SDA Biology Final Moodle-1

BOTSWANA OPENUNIVERSITY
Inspire Tomorrow, Today
COLLEGE OF OPEN SCHOOLING
Botswana General Certificate of Secondary Education
BIOLOGY
SEDIRENG MOMPATI NDOLO, Subject Specialist Programme Developer
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CONTENTS
Contents
UNIT 1: LIVING THINGS .......................................................................................................... 4
Lesson 1 Plant and Animal Cells ............................................................................................... 10
Lesson 2 Cell Specialization And Organization Of Cells ........................................................ 17
Lesson 3 Movement of substances in and out of cells .............................................................. 27
UNIT 2: OBTAINING ESSENTIALS OF LIFE ..................................................................... 37
Lesson 1 Modes of Nutrition and Plant Nutrition .................................................................... 39
Lesson 2 Animal Nutrition ......................................................................................................... 45
Lesson 3 The Human Digestive System..................................................................................... 54
Lesson 4 Respiration .................................................................................................................. 62
Lesson 5 Transport In Plants ..................................................................................................... 68
Lesson 6 Transport And Circulation In Animals .................................................................... 80
UNIT 3: CONTROL OF THE INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT ............................................. 94
Lesson 1 Homeostasis.................................................................................................................. 95
Lesson 2 Excretion .................................................................................................................... 104
UNIT 4: RESPONSE AND COORDINATION ..................................................................... 112
Lesson 1 Nervous System ......................................................................................................... 113
Lesson 2 Hormonal Coordination ........................................................................................... 121
Lesson 3 The Use And Abuse Of Drugs .................................................................................. 125
UNIT 5: REPRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 133
Lesson 1 Forms Of Reproduction ............................................................................................ 134
Lesson 2 Sexual Reproduction In Flowering Plants .............................................................. 140
Lesson 3 Sexual Reproduction In Mammals .......................................................................... 154
Lesson 4 Methods Of Birth Control ........................................................................................ 165
UNIT 6: LIVING THINGS AND THE ENVIRONMENT ................................................... 173
Lesson 1 Ecology ....................................................................................................................... 174
Lesson 2 Effects Of Human Activities On The Environment ............................................... 183
Lesson 3 Conservation .............................................................................................................. 191
UNIT 7: BIOTECHNOLOGY ................................................................................................. 196
Lesson 1: Biotechnology ........................................................................................................... 197
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DEFINITION OF TERMS....................................................................................................... 215
TASK QUESTION ANSWERS ............................................................................................... 205
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FOREWORD
The Outbreak of Corona Virus Disease (Covid 19) Pandemic Has Caused an
Unprecedented Crisis in The Educational Sector. In the Low and Middle-
Income Nations, Teaching and Learning Has Been Rushed and Squashed into
Ill-Developed Distance Learning Modalities That Are Digital Inclined. This
Is Despite Students Not Having Gadgets Such as Computers, Smartphones,
Or Internet to Be Able to Leverage on The Use of Digitized School Material.
Botswana Open University (BOU) Has Established Itself as An Authority in
Open and Distance Education Space. Following Its Inception, The University
Has Advocated for ODL Strategies That Continue to Minimize the Use of
Face-To-Face Interaction. As Part of Commitment Spelt in Its Strategic Framework, BOU Responded
to The Disruption of Teaching and Learning by Provision of Learning Material for Both Junior
Certificate and Botswana General Certificate of Secondary School into Open Website at Zero Charge
for Access. As A Government Initiative, BOU Has Been Mandated to Address the Learning Needs of
Out-Of-School Youth Through Open Schooling. Thus, This Makes Open Schooling Not Only Relevant
but Rather Unavoidable in This 21st Century Context.
In responding to the challenges encountered in learning, the science programme will be driven by
constructivism learning theory. The programme emphasis is on social context of learning as pivotal in
learning. New concepts and other components are better conceptualised when integrated to the prior
knowledge of the learner. In fact, the programme takes advantage of the native knowledge of the
student (social constructivist) acquired through social interaction and establish it as a platform for
integration of new science concepts.
In recognition of the blended approach, the programme further embraces community of inquiry model
(COI) which is used here to drive the principle of technological pedagogical content knowledge
(TPACK). This informs crafting of technology in meeting the pedagogical needs to engage content in
specific contexts for enhanced learning in ODL.
In transition from ODL classroom teaching to online provision and support, BOU further adopted an
ADDIE model in structural development of the study material. The Analyses of student characteristics,
their prior knowledge and the resources necessary for learning was considered. This was a prerequisite
on presentation of the learning objectives of this subject which includes describing coverage of material
in audio and video. This design will embrace auditory, visual and tactile learners’ spectrum among
others. The creation of content was developed in-house, in an effort to address the learning
environmental orientation of the learners. Since this is a new delivery mode that learners, support staff
and parents may not be familiar with to some extent, appropriate training and briefing of both students,
support staff including the community was critical.
My gratitude goes to Authors and Editors who have been so cooperative and willing to showcase their
expertise in offering insights and practical examples when guidelines are availed.
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Contributors
Authors/ Editors
Salani Amos Khutjwe is a Biology Teacher employed by the Ministry of Basic

Education of Botswana and currently teaching at St. Josephs College. He has taught
Integrated Science at Sesholo CJSS and Gaborone West CJSS. He is a former part-
time writer of Integrated Science distance learning materials for Botswana College
of Distance and Open Learning, now Botswana Open University. He is a former
writer of Integrated Science textbooks for Collegium Publishers. He holds a
Bachelor of Science degree, Post Graduate Diploma in Education, Diploma in Business Management,
Post Graduate Certificate in Enterprise Risk Management and Master of Financial Management degree.
Ms. G. D. Masogo has been a distance education writer and editor since 2016,
writing modules in Integrated Science, Science Double Award and Human and
Social Biology, for the now Botswana Open University. She holds a master’s
degree in Education (Curriculum and Instruction). She also has a bachelor’s degree in Science
(entomology) a Post Graduate Diploma in Education and a Diploma in Human Resources Management.
Lazarus Timothy is currently a Biology teacher at Shashe River School

employed by Ministry of Basic Education for Botswana. He is a graduate
with Bachelor of Education (Science) with the University of Botswana. He
also holds a Master for Finance and Control with AMITY University,
India. His teaching experience include teaching Science at Junior school level and being a part-time
tutor for Human and social biology with Botswana Open University. He is also an examiner for
Biology Paper 3 with Botswana Examination Council. Lazarus was part of the International Junior
Science Olympic on 2018 in Botswana.
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Godfrey Sekobye currently Senior teacher 1 Biology in Moeding college. He
holds Bachelor of Education (science) and Certificate in Human Resource
Management from the University of Botswana. He has over 23 years of
teaching experience both in Junior and Senior Secondary Schools.Godfrey
was involved in Commonwealth of Learning (COL) in collaboration with
William & Flora Hewlett Foundation on development of Open Educational Resources Project. Which
included instructional design, Moodle training (Learning Management System). This prepared him for
ODL space which he has been a parttime tutor since 2006. He acquired skills in development of
audiovisual teaching and learning materials for distant learners
Segakolodi Moothai is currently a Biology teacher at Mogoditshane

Secondary Senior School. Her teaching experience evolved from Mputhe to
Sedumedi Junior schools and lately Mogoditshane Senior Secondary school.
She worked as part-time tutor for offering courses for Diploma in Primary
Education, where she focused mainly in Science teaching and Psychology.
She is also a former Secretary for the National Organizing committee for the Botswana Science
Association. Moothai has a Bachelor of Education (Science) with the University of Botswana.
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INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY SUBJECT
DESCRIPTION
Hello learner, Welcome to Botswana Open University (BOU), College of Open Schooling (COS). COS
offers you this biology course which is a part of the Botswana General Certificate of Secondary
Education (BGCSE). Biology is a science course designed for learners who have completed Junior
Secondary Education. It provides learners with scientific knowledge, skills and attitudes needed for
tertiary training. Whilst a few of you might be taking this Biology subject for the first time, it was
designed to t resurrect and enhance your prior knowledge especially those who are retaking the subject
to sharpen and clarify conceptualization of concepts where there have been not clearly comprehended.
For those taking it for the first time, the design will stimulate your social and foundational academic
knowledge to scaffold knowledge building throughout the learning process.
NB: The approach and design of this booklet acknowledges the fact that the learner is studying on
Open and Distance Learning (ODL) platform hence the material is developed to be teacher enprint. The
design makes it relevant for leaner to work alone and be able to understand the concepts, however it
does not discriminate on use of collaborative learning through social media study groups or Learner
management systems (LMS).
The biology subject is structured into Units which are divided into Topics. Each Topics may have 1 or
more lessons. The Unit will always show the introduction, the Unit aims, Unit content which here is the
Topics covered within the Unit. Under each Topic there will be lessons to be covered for such Topic.
The structure of the Lesson will be as follows:
Introduction
It gives highlights on the background of the lesson to be learnt at that particular time. This helps
stimulates schemas and reorient the learners for proper new knowledge connections.
Learning Objectives
It describes output expected at the end of the lesson. It lists what the learners should be able to
execute or have acquired and able to apply at the end of the lesson.
Social Context
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In an effort to stimulate the learning process, the social prior knowledge that may have not been
relevant to science learning is brought on-bored and aligned to reveal the abstract science
behind it and detangled to create meaning to the facts and truth that defines the scientific
concepts. Here we do not necessary recap on the lesson taught previously but rather make a
deliberate effort to tap on the experienced knowledge of the learner to enhance the learning
process.
Key Issues
Key issues refer to simply extracting social context concepts and integrating them to scientific
knowledge or terminology to propagate the schemas connection of new knowledge or build
further on clarification of new concepts or previously misunderstood concepts
Scientific Integration
The key issues are then defined according to the scientific laws and given meaning meant to
refine the social knowledge to new scientific knowledge useful in today applications and
innovations. This will then help take the learners throughout the lesson with the assumption that
the use of prior knowledge has provided a firm foundation for proper learning process of the
entire lesson.
Sample Question
Equivalent to class exercise or activity, it evaluates or assess the learner’s understanding of the
concept taught during the lesson. Evaluates if the learners are following correctly the taught
lesson.
Sample Answer
The learners should be able to mark the sample question to establish if there is any
misunderstood that might need to be clarified further. Such misunderstood concepts shall be
brought forth during discussion forum online or during tutoring forums.
Summary
It reflects briefly on issues or concepts learnt during the lesson showing how the address the
stated objectives mentioned for the lesson.
Task Question
Similar to homework in conventional schooling, the task question assesses the overall
understanding and ability to apply the learnt knowledge as a way of formative assessment
specifically for such listed objectives. The intention is to build the confidence in addressing
question to prepare learners for summative assessment
At the end of the booklet, the answers for task question are compiled for references purposes.
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UNIT 1: LIVING THINGS
Unit introduction
Hello learner, welcome to Unit 1 of the BGCSE Science Double Award Biology. In this unit you will
learn about living things. You will learn cells that make up the bodies of living things and how the cells
are specialised to carry out their functions. You will also learn about how substances needed for life
processes enter or leave cells.
Unit aims
After completion of this unit you should be able to:
• acquire knowledge and understanding of plant and animal cells

• acquire knowledge on cell specialisation and organisation
• acquire knowledge and understanding on the process of diffusion
• acquire knowledge and understanding of the process osmosis and its role in living things.
• acquire knowledge and understanding of the process of active and passive transport in living
things
Unit contents
This unit consists of one topic called Cell Process and Maintenance. The topic has been broken down
into three lessons, and they are as follows: -
Lesson 1: Plant and Animal Cells
Lesson 2: Cell Specialization and Organization
Lesson 3: Diffusion and Osmosis
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Lesson 1 Plant and Animal Cells
Introduction
Living organisms have complex bodies that we have to know in order to understand how they live. In
Lesson 1 you will learn about the types of cells that make up the bodies of plants and animals. You also
learn about the parts of the cells and their functions.
Learning Objectives
By the end of this lesson you should be able to
• identify different parts of plant and animal cells

• identify from fresh preparations and diagrams or on photomicrographs cell membrane,
cytoplasm, cell organelles: nucleus, mitochondrion and ribosome in animal cells
• identify from fresh preparations and diagrams or on photomicrographs cell membrane, cell
wall, sap vacuole, cytoplasm, cell organelles: nucleus, mitochondrion, chloroplasts and
ribosomes in pant cells.
• state the function of the nucleus
• state the function of the mitochondrion, ribosomes, cell wall and cell membrane
Social Context
Thabo decided to build two houses, one mud house and the other one a modern cement brick house.
His builders laid the bricks to make the walls of the houses. The front wall of the modern house was
built using stones.
Figure 1.1 (a) Brick wall (b) Mud wall (c) Stone wall
Source: http://www.vectorstock.co./royalty-free
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Key Issues
• All objects are made of blocks of matter.

• Blocks of matter can have regular or irregular shapes. Cement or mud bricks have regular
shapes, stones have irregular shapes
• Blocks of matter used to build houses are bricks or stones
Learner, what blocks of matter were used by Thabo to build his houses? You are correct if you said the
blocks used are bricks. If houses are made up of building blocks called bricks, what are the bodies of
plants and animals made of?
Just like a house, the bodies of plants and animals are made out of special kinds of brick-like structures
called CELLS.
1.1 Plant and Animal Cells
What is the scientific description of a cell?
You are correct if you said a cell is a building block of life or it is the basic unit of life. Plant cells make
up bodies of plants and animal cells make up the bodies of animals. Cells are very small is size and can
only be seen using a microscope. Plant and animal cells appear under a microscope as shown in the
Figure 1.2 below. You can see in Figure 1.2 below that the plant cells in the skin of an onion and the
animal tissue cells are arranged almost the same way as the bricks in a brick wall. Plant cells have
regular shapes like cement or mud bricks and most animal cells have irregular shapes like the stones in
the stone wall.
Figure 1.2 (a) Plant cells (onion cells) (b) Animal cells (cheek cells)
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Source:https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&source=images&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjF8a7Q75jmAh
UOuRoKHeUJB9IQjRx6BAgBEAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.shutterstock.com%2Fsearch
%2Fonion%2Bcells&psig=AOvVaw3LC9aRpfdMrdLnj6q0uIaY&ust=1575441122990247
There are many types of cells that form different groups of living organisms just like different types of
bricks make different types of houses. In this lesson you will learn about two types of cells, that is the
animal cell that makes up the animal bodies and the plant cell that makes up the plant bodies, the parts
of the cells and the functions of the parts.
1.2 Parts of a Cell
There is cement, sand and clay particles inside the bricks. What structures are found inside the plant
and animal cells? The parts of plant and animal cells are shown in Figure ___ below. Pay more
attention to the parts of these cells as you will later be asked to state the similarities and differences of
these two cells.
Figure 1.3 (a) Animal cell (b) Plant cell
Source:https://www.siyavula.com/read/science/grade-9/cells-as-the-basic-units-of-life/images/gr9ll01-
gd-0021.png
1.3 Sample Questions
(a) Learner list the parts of a cell that are present in both the plant and animal cell.
1. ________________________________________________________________________
2. ________________________________________________________________________
3. ________________________________________________________________________
4. ________________________________________________________________________
5. ________________________________________________________________________
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(b) In the table below, state the differences between a plant and animal cell.
Plant Cell Animal Cell
1.4 Sample Question Answers
(a) Cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, mitochondrion, ribosomes
(b)
Animal Cell Plant Cell
Does not have chloroplasts Has chloroplasts
Does not have a vacuole Has a vacuole
Does not have a cell wall Has a cell wall
Has an irregular shape Has a regular shape
1.5 Functions of parts of a cell
The sand particles give strength to the brick, while clay or cement are used to bind the sand particles
together. The different parts of the animal and plant cell you just learned about have important
functions they play inside the cells. The functions of the parts of the plants and animal cells are
summarized in the Table 1.1 below.
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Table 1.1 Cell parts and their functions
Part Function
Cell membrane* It Controls substances entering or leaving the cell. The cell membrane
is selectively permeable. Small molecules e.g. water, sugars, amino
acids, mineral ions, etc., can enter or leave the cell through microscopic
pores in the cell membrane. Large molecules and organelles inside the
cell cannot pass out through the pores.
Cytoplasm* It is the site where chemical reactions take place inside the cell. It
consists of water and dissolved substances
Nucleus* It controls all activities taking place inside the cell. Genetic material
(DNA) in the nucleus has instructions that control cellular activities
Mitochondrion* It is the site where respiration takes place.
Ribosome* It is where proteins are made, or amino acids are assembled to form or
make proteins. E.g. enzymes, hormones, antibodies
Cell Wall To give the cell a strong and rigid structure. It is made of cellulose. It
has large pores in it for substances to pass through and is freely
permeable.
Chloroplasts. To manufacture glucose for the cell. It contains chlorophyll
Vacuole To store sugars, salts, pigments and water. The membrane around it is
called a Tonoplast. The tonoplast is selectively permeable.
NB: parts of a cell with an * are found in both plants and animal cells. Their functions are
similar.
1.6 SUMMARY
• A cell is a building block of life

• Plant and animal cells are made up of different parts that include cell membrane, cytoplasm and
organelles called nucleus, mitochondria and ribosomes
• The function of the parts of a cell are:
: nucleus- to control all activities in the cell
: mitochondrion is to produce energy for the cell
: ribosomes- to synthesize proteins
: cell membrane –to control substances entering or leaving the cell
: cell wall- give plant cell a rigid structure
: chloroplast –site for photosynthesis
: vacuole – store sugars, salts, pigments and water
• Cells that perform specific functions are called specialized cells
• The structure of specialized cells helps them perform their functions
• Cells making up the bodies of plants and animals are organized into tissues, organs, systems
and organism.
• A tissue is a group of similar cells working together to perform a particular function
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• An organ is a structure made from different tissues working together to perform a particular
function
• A system is a group of different organs working together to perform a particular function
• An organism is a living thing made up of different systems working together
1.7 STUDENT TASK QUESTIONS
Multiple Choice Questions
Questions 1 and 2 refer to the diagram of the cell shown.
Q1. Which structures identify it as a plant cell?
A. 1 and 2
B. 1 and 3
C. 2 and 4
D. 3 and 4
Q2. Which structure contains information that controls the activities of the cell?
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
Q3. Arrange the terms in the list in increasing order of organisation, starting with the smallest structure.
Cell, Organism, Tissue, Organ system, Organ. The first one has been done for you
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[4]
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Lesson 2 Cell Specialization and Organization of Cells
Introduction
In Lesson 1 you learned about the cells that make up the bodies of plants and animals. These cells
perform various functions. In this lesson you will learn about how the structure of the cell is related to
the function performed by the cell. You will also learn about how the cells come together to form parts
of the bodies of plants and animals.
Learning Objectives
By the end of this lesson you should be able to:
- Describe the relationship between cell structure and function using a red blood cell and nerve
cell in animals and root hair cell and xylem cell in plants
- Define tissue, organ, system and organism
Social Context
Lesego and his uncles killed a cow for a wedding ceremony. When its throat was cut, a lot of blood
came out from its blood vessels. It also kicked people holding it as it was killed. After it died the cow
was skinned and thereafter removed internal organs like the stomach, liver, intestines, lungs and the
heart. Lesego saw the organs for the first time and was amazed to see how they looked different, yet
they came from the same cow.
Key Issues
- Bodies of organisms are made up of many different parts
- the body parts do not look the same
- The different body parts have different functions the body
The parts of living organisms, that is plants and animals look different because they are made up of
different cells. The cells are different because they developed different features that enable them to
carry out their different functions. The changes that occur in cells when they develop to carry out
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specialized functions lead what is called cell specialization. The specialized cells form the structures
that make up the whole body of a living organism.
2.1 Cell Specialization
Living things exist as either unicellular or multi-cellular organisms. In a unicellular organism, the
single cell can perform all the functions of feeding, reproduction, movement, e.t.c. In a multi-cellular
organism, the cells are many and some have special responsibilities to carry out. You would have
realized that even though the bodies of plants are made of related cells, the parts of the plants look
different from each other. For example, the leaf looks different from a branch or roots. Even in animals
the structure of the liver looks different from that of the eye, tongue, skin and bones. What do think
could the cause of all these differences?
Because the bodies of large plants and animals are so big, the cells have divided responsibilities among
themselves so that different groups of cells carry out specific functions that will help the organism
survive in an environment.
What is cell specialization?
Cell specialization is the development of new features in cells to adapt them to perform certain specific
functions.
2.2 How Cells Become Specialised
As plants and animals grow their cells increase in number by cell division. A cell divides into two
daughter cells that grow larger and also divide. The body of an organism has regions where cells are
always dividing, for example the end of roots, bones, skin and plant buds.
As some daughter cells continue dividing, some stop dividing and become specialised cells. They
develop new special features that will enable them to perform new specific functions. When a cell
becomes a specialized cell, it undergoes the following developmental steps.
• The cell stops dividing

• It develops a distinctive shape or new feature
• Special chemical reactions start to take place in their cytoplasm
• They start to carry out a particular job
Do know any plant and animal cells that carry out specialized functions? Give three examples of
specialized cells in the table below.
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Specialized Plant Cells Specialized Animal Cells
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
Examples of specialized plant cells are palisade cells, spongy cells, guard cells, epidermal cells, phloem
cells, xylem cells, root hair cells. Examples of specialized animal cells include sperm cells, ova, rods
and cone cells of the retina, nerve cells, red and white blood cells.
2.3 Relationship Between Structure and Function of Specialised Cells
The developments taking place during the specialization changes the structure of a cell so that it is
suitable for the new function. Now let us learn how the structure of a specialized cell is related to its
function. The xylem cell, root hair cell, red blood cell and nerve cell will be used as examples.
Specialized Cell Adaptations Function

- Have no nucleus to increase To transport Oxygen
Red Blood Cell surface area around the body, i.e,
- Contains haemoglobin (a red from the lungs to the
pigment) that binds oxygen body cells
- Circular and biconcave shaped
for increased surface area
- Flexible cytoplasm to squeeze
through narrow capillaries
Nerve Cell
-Has a long nerve fibre to transmit To transmit nerve
nerve impulses over long distances impulses to and from
- have myelin sheath to insulate or the central nervous
prevent impulses jumping to system
neighbouring nerve fibres
Root Hair Cell - It has a finger-like projection Absorb water and

that increases the surface area dissolved mineral
for more absorption salts from the soil
-Has more mitochondria for more
energy used in active transport of
mineral salts
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Xylem Cells - It is hollow with no cytoplasm. They transport water
creating a hollow space where from the roots to the
water can pass through. leaves
- The cross walls or end walls
have dissolved away forming a
tube or vessel where water can
enter through one end and pass out
through the other.
- Has thicker cell walls containing
LIGNIN deposits that makes the
xylem walls strong and helps the
plant stems and branches to stand
upright for the leaves to reach out
to the sunlight.
Learner, for you to see the root hair cells, please carry out the activity outlined below.
Activity 1.
Step 1. Take a been seed and soak it in water over night.
Step 2. Fill a cup with wet soil
Step 3. Plant the bean seed in the soil in the cup and wait until it germinates.
Step4. Pull out the bean seedling 3 days after germinating and carefully wash off all the soil from the
roots.
Step 5. Observe the root of the seedling using a magnifying glass. If you do not have a magnifying
glass pick the seedling and observe the roots against a bright background or light. What do you see
along the edges of the root?
The correct observation would be fine hairs along the root of the seedling. The fine hairs are the root
hairs growing from the root hair cell. They are many and each one makes the total surface area of the
root very large so that more water and mineral salts can be absorbed from the soil.
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2.4 Organisation of Cells In The Bodies Of Living Organisms
You have learned that cells that make

up the bodies of plants and animals
have different responsibilities assigned
to them during the specialization
process. Now let us learn about how
the cells work together to make whole
body of an organism.
Fig 2.1 (a) Animal tissues
2.4.1 Tissue
A tissue is a group of similar cells working together to perform a particular specialized function. Both
plants and animals have tissues. Examples of plant and animal tissues are shown in Fig 2.1(a) and (b
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Figure 2.1 (b) Plant tissues
2.4.2 Organs
An organ is a structure made out of a group of tissues working together to perform a particular
function. Examples of animal and plant organs shown below.
Figure 2.2 (a) Animal organs (b) Plant organs
Source:
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2.4.3 Systems
A system is a group of organs working together to perform a particular function.
Systems in Animals
The kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra in Fig 2.4 make up the urinary system in humans. Learner
give four more examples of animal organ systems in table 2.1 below.
Animal Systems
Figure 2.4 Urinary system Table 2.1. Animal system
Source: https://sites.google.com/a/st.cabarrus.k12.nc.us/2nd-period-group-7-tennis/urinary-system
Other animal systems are Respiratory system, digestive system, skeletal system, nervous system,
circulatory system, hormonal system, etc.
Systems in Plants
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Figure 2.5 Plant systems Source: Adopted from https://www.slideshare.net
2.4.4 Organism
An organism is a complete living thing made of many different systems working together that make it
able to survive independently in the environment.
Examples of Animal Organisms are zebra, lions, humans, chicken, grasshopper, ants, flies, etc.
Examples of Plant Organisms are trees, grasses, herbs, shrubs, etc.
Summary
• As organisms develop some of their cells become specialized cells

• Specialized cells carry out specific functions
• Specialized develop special features that enable them to carry out specific functions
• There is a relationship between cell structure and function as seen in a red blood cell and nerve
cell in animals and root hair cell and xylem cell in plants
• Cells are organized in special forms to make up bodies of organisms
• The cells group themselves as tissues and form organs and systems that make up whole bodies
of organisms
Student task question
Q1. Fig. 1 shows a red blood cell and a root hair cell.
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(a) (i) Select two structures in the root hair cell which are also present in the red blood cell. In
each case state the letter, A to E, and name the structure.
1. Letter.....................................................................................................
Name of structure ................................................................................
2. Letter ....................................................................................................
Name of structure .......... .................................................................. [2]
(ii) Name one structure which is found in many plant cells but which is not present in the root
hair cell.
....................................................................................................................... [1]
(b) State one major function of each cell and describe one way in which the cell is adapted to
carry out this function.
(i) Red blood cell.
Function ............................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
Adaptation ........................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................... [2]
(ii) Root hair cell.
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Function ............................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
Adaptation ........................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................... [2]
Question 2
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Lesson 3 Movement of substances in and out of cells
Lesson Introduction
Cells in living things require many substances to be absorbed into their cytoplasts and used in chemical
reactions. The chemical reactions taking place in the cells produce chemical waste that has to be
removed from the cells. In Lesson 3 you will learn about the processes used by substances to enter or
leave the cells.
Lesson Objectives
By the end of this lesson you have to be able:
• Define diffusion
• Define osmosis
• Describe the effect of concentration gradient on uptake of water by plants
• Describe the effect osmosis on plant tissues
• Describe the effect of osmosis on animal tissues
• Conduct a simple experiment to demonstrate osmosis
Social Context
Tebogo was cutting apple pieces to make a fruit salad. Without noticing two apple pieces fell in a bowl
of vinegar. She only noticed the apple pieces in the vinegar after 30 minutes. She removed one piece
and tasted it. The apple piece tasted very sour and she threw it away. She removed the second piece of
the apple after 3 hours. To her surprise the apple piece had shrunk and was very soft. She also
discovered that a third piece had fallen into a glass of water. When she removed the apple, it was very
hard or firm.
Key Issues
- substances move across the cell membranes in and out of cells
- movement of substances in and out cells affect the size or volume of cells and firmness of tissues
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Why did the apple taste sour? Vinegar molecules permeated into the cells of the apple and spread from
cell to cell until the whole piece of apple was sour. The number of vinegar molecules outside the apple
cells was very high (high concentration) and low inside the apple cells (low concentration). This caused
the vinegar molecules to move into the apple cells where they are less and the apple tissues ended up
sour just like vinegar.
This kind of movement of substances or particles or molecules from where they are more (have a high
concentration) to where they are less (have a lower concentration) is called Diffusion.
3.1 Diffusion.
Diffusion is the movement of molecules from their region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration until they are evenly distributed.
NB: The difference between the higher concentration and lower concentration is called a concentration
gradient. The movement of molecules from the region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration is referred to as movement down the concentration gradient. Therefore, diffusion is also
defined as movement of molecules down the concentration gradient until they are evenly distributed.
3.1.1 Importance of Diffusion
Diffusion is very important to living things because:
• Organisms use to absorb most of important substances needed by their cells through diffusion.
For example: leaves absorb carbon dioxide, nutrients from others move by diffusion
• Living organisms also use diffusion to remove or expel waste substances out of their cells or
bodies. For example; carbon dioxide at the lungs, oxygen by the leaves
3.2 Osmosis
The apple piece that fell in water was firm when it was removed from the glass of water. Water in the
glass permeated into the apple cells, filling them up and the tissue became firm.
The amount of water molecules in the glass were higher causing water molecules to move into the
apple cells. The piece of apple that was removed from the vinegar after two hours it became soft
because water moved out of the apple cells and the firmness was lost. The movement of water in and
out of the cells takes place through a special kind of diffusion called Osmosis. It is special because the
water passes through the cell membrane and the tonoplast of the vacuole that are selectively permeable.
Osmosis can be defined as the movement of water molecules from their region of higher concentration
to a region of lower concentration (down the concentration gradient) through a selectively permeable
28
membrane until they are evenly distributed. Osmosis can also be defined as the movement of water
from a dilute solution to a concentrated solution through a selectively permeable membrane.
3.2.1 Types of solutions and their properties
It is very important to understand the concept of concentration in order to know which direction water
molecules will move during osmosis. The properties are stated in the table below.
Dilute Solution Direction of Concentrated Solution Direction of

Water Water
It has a high Away or Out It has a lower concentration Towards or into
concentration of free of the solution of free water molecules the solution
water molecules
It has less solutes or a Away or Out It has more solutes or a Towards or into
lower concentration of of the solution higher concentration of the solution
dissolved substances dissolved substances
It has a high-water Away or Out It has a low water potential Towards or into
potential of the solution the solution
It is hypertonic Away or Out It is hypotonic Towards or into
of the solution the solution
Osmosis is also important to all living organisms because it is used by all cells to absorb water from
their surroundings and to pass water from one cell to another. Plants absorb water from the soil at the
roots through osmosis. Animal cells also absorb water at the colon by osmosis.
3.3 Effect of concentration gradient on water uptake by plants
Plants absorb water from the soil through the roots. The difference in the concentration of water
between the soil and the cells of the roots determine how much water i absorbed by the roots from the
soil or lost from the root’s cells to the soil.
When the water molecules concentration is high in the soil than in the root cells, water molecules will
move from the soil into the root’s hair cells. This is called absorption of water from the soil. This
concentration gradient is achieved after watering plants or rains.
If the water solution in the soil is more concentrated than the cell sap in the root hair cells, then the free
water molecules in the root hair cells will move out of the cells into concentrated solution in the soil.
The cells will lose water, causing the plant roots to wilt and dry up. This concentration gradient is
attained when the soil has lots of sat deposit or when a lot of fertilizer has been added.
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3.4 Effect of osmosis on plant and animal tissues
Depending on the concentration of the solution around the plant or animal cells, the cells can absorb
water from the solution around them or lose water to the solution around them through osmosis.
3.4.1 Osmosis on plant tissues
Figure 3.1 Effect of a dilute solution on plant tissues
Source: https://www.tes.com/lessons/Lz2VqWvGFjs-aA/tonicity-of-cell
Plant tissue will absorb water and become turgid from the dilute solution as shown in figure 3.1 above.
When all the cells in the plant tissue are filled with water and become turgid the following changes or
effects will be observed on the tissue.
• The mass of the tissue increases

• The length of the tissue increases
• The volume of the tissue increases
• The tissue will be firm and easily break or snap when you bend it
Effect of a solution with the same concentration (Isotonic solution) as the cytoplasm of the plant
cells
If a plant tissue is placed in a solution with a concentration that is the same as that of the cytoplasm of
the tissue cells no water will move into the cells or move out of the cells since there is no concentration
gradient to cause the movement of water. Therefore, there will be no change in mass, volume and
length of the tissue.
30
Effects of a concentrated solution on plant tissues
The plant tissue will lose water to the concentrated solution. There are relatively more free water
molecules inside the cells and less free water molecules in the concentrated solution. So, the water
molecules will move out of the tissues to the solution by osmosis causing the cells to become soft or
flaccid when turgor pressure is lost. As more water continues to move out of the cells, the cytoplasm
shrinks to the centre of the cell in a process called plasmolysis. A plasmolysed cell is one with a cell
membrane that has move away from the cell wall.
When plant tissues lose water and become flaccid or plasmolysed, the following changes are observed
on the tissues.
• The mass of the tissue decreases

• The volume of the tissue decreases
• The length of the tissue will decrease
• The tissue will become soft. It bends easily but does not break when you bend it.
3.4.2 Effect of osmosis on animal tissues
Figure 3.2 Effects of a dilute (Hypotonic) solution on Animal tissues
Source: https://www.tes.com/lessons/Lz2VqWvGFjs-aA/tonicity-of-cell
The cytoplasm of animal cells has many substances dissolved in it. When the animal tissues are placed
in a dilute solution the animal tissue will absorb water from the dilute solution. The following changes
will take place when the animal tissue absorbs water.
• The volume of the tissue increases

• The length of the tissue increases
• The mass of the tissue increases
• eventually the cells will burst or ruptures because of the weak cell membrane.
Effects of an Isotonic Solution on Animal Tissues
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Animal tissues will not absorb or lose any water when they are placed in a solution with a
concentration that is the same as that of the cytoplasms of the cells. Therefore, there will be no change
in volume, mass and length of the tissues.
Effects of a Concentrated Solution on Animal Tissues
When animal tissues are placed in a concentrated solution, water will move out of the cells to the
concentrated solution causing the cells to shrink. The loss of water will cause:
• The volume of the animal tissue to decrease

• The length of the animal tissue to decrease
• The mass of the animal tissue to decrease
Sample Experiment on Osmosis in Plant tissues
Materials Required
a) carrot or potato or cucumber

b) 3 empty glasses
c) Salt
d) Teaspoon
e) Water
Experiment Steps
i) Half fill the glasses with water and label them A, B and C
ii) In glass A, add 10 full teaspoons of salt and stir until it dissolves
iii) In glass B, add ½ a teaspoon of salt and stir until all of it dissolves
iv) Do not add any salt to glass C
v) Cut six long sticks or chips of potato or carrot or cucumber that are equal thickness and
length.
vi) Measure and record their length. Also note their firmness and ability to bend. Use the table
given below.
vii) Place two of the chips in each of the three glasses labelled A, B and C and leave them for 30
minutes
viii) Remove the chips and measure their length again and calculate their change in length, check
their firmness and ability to bend.
32
Initial Final
Initial Final Change in Initial Final
Chips ability to ability to
length/mm length/mm length(F-I) firmness firmness
bend bend
A
B
C
Experiment Questions
1. (i) Describe the change in length observed in Chips A, B and C.
(ii) Explain why the length of chips changed the way they did.
(iii) Name the process that caused changes in length of chips A, B and C.
2. Explain why the chips in A were very soft at the end of the experiment
3. What is the reason for the firmness of the chips from C at the end of the experiment?
Sample Question Answers
1 (i) Chip A length reduced, Chip B length remained the same, Chip C length increased
(ii) Chip A length reduced because water moved out of the cells to the salt solution
Chip B length did not change because the it did not lose or gain water
Chip C length increased because the cells absorbed water
(iii) Osmosis
2. The chips cells became flaccid after losing water
3. The chips cells became turgid after absorbing water
Summary
• Diffusion is the movement of molecules from their region of high concentration to their region
of lower concentration until they are evenly distributed.
33
• Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from their region of higher concentration to their
region of lower concentration through a selectively permeable membrane until they are evenly
distributed.
• When the concentration of water in the soil is high than in the root cells, the water will be
absorbed into the root cells. When the concentration of water is low in the soil and high in the
root cells, the water moves out of the root cells into the soil.
• When plant cells are placed in a dilute solution, they absorb water by osmosis and become
turgid
• When plant cells are placed in a solution with the same concentration of water as the cytoplasm,
the cells do not absorb or lose water.
• When plant cells are placed in a concentrated solution, they lose water to the solution and
become flaccid or soft. Further loss of water will make the cells plasmolysed.
• Animal cells absorb water by osmosis, swell up and burst when placed in a dilute solution
• Animal cells do not absorb or lose water when placed in a solution with the same concentration
of water as their cytoplasm
• Animal cells lose water by osmosis and shrink when placed in a concentrated solution
Task Questions
Question 1.
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Question 2.
Four plant cells were placed in 20% sucrose solution, 50% sucrose solution, 80% sucrose solution and
pure water separately for 40 minutes. The appearance of the cells after 40 minutes are as shown in the
diagram below.
a) Describe the appearance of the cells

b) Identify the solution that the cells were placed in
CELLS: A B C D
Question 3
Question 4
35
36
UNIT 2: OBTAINING ESSENTIALS OF LIFE
Introduction
In Unit 1 you learned about plant and animal cells, how they are organised and how substances they
require for cellular processes move in and out of cells. In Unit 2 you will learn about how plants and
animal organisms obtain nutrients needed by their cells and their uses in processes like respiration to
obtain energy. You will also learn about how the nutrients and other substances are transported to reach
the cells of plants and animals
Unit Aims
By the end of this unit you should:
• Appreciated different ways of how organisms obtain their nutrients

• Have knowledge and understanding of the structure and functions of a leaf
• Have knowledge and understanding of nutrition in plants
• Understand the need for mineral nutrients in plants
• Appreciate how diet relates to energy intake
• Acquire knowledge on the procedure of carrying out food tests
• Acquire knowledge and understanding of enzymes
• Acquire knowledge on parts and functions of the human alimentary canal
• Acquire knowledge on the physical and chemical processes of digestion
• Acquire knowledge on absorption process and possible uses of end products of digestion
• Acquire knowledge and understanding of respiration, aerobic and anaerobic respiration
• Acquire knowledge and understanding of transport, transpiration and translocation in plants
• Acquire knowledge and understanding on the role of mammalian circulatory system
• Acquire knowledge on the different components of blood and their functions
Unit Content
This unit is made up of the following topics and lessons
Topic 1: Nutrition
Lesson 1 Plant Nutrition
Lesson 2 Animal Nutrition

37
Topic 2: Respiration
Lesson 3 Respiration
Topic 3: Transport and Circulation
Lesson 4 Transport in Animals
Lesson 5 Transport in Plants
38
Lesson 1 Modes of Nutrition and Plant Nutrition
Introduction
As mentioned in Unit 1, plant and animal cells need nutrients contained in food for them to carry out
cellular chemical reactions and other cellular process. In this lesson you will learn about the autotrophic
and heterotrophic modes of nutrition used by plants and animals to obtain nutrients. You will also learn
about the process of photosynthesis and how plants use magnesium and nitrate ions.
Learning Objectives
Learner, at the end of the lesson you should be able to:
• Describe autotrophic and heterotrophic modes of nutrition.

• Describe the significance of cellular and tissue structures of a dicotyledonous leaf in terms of
distribution of chloroplasts- photosynthesis; stomata and mesophyll cells- gaseous exchange;
vascular bundles- transport.
• Describe the intake of carbon dioxide and water by plants, the trapping of light energy by
chlorophyll, the conversion of light energy into chemical energy, and the formation of
carbohydrates, their subsequent storage and the release of oxygen.
• State both the word equation and symbol equation for photosynthesis.
• State the importance of nitrates for protein synthesis and magnesium ions for chlorophyll
synthesis.
Social Context (everyday life experiences)

Everyday Masego releases his goats so they can go to the forest to forage, in order to get nutrition, the
goats eat grass and leaves from shrubs.
Key Issues
1. Why do goats eat grass and leaves in order to obtain nutrition?
2. Since the leaves and shrubs that the goats feed on are also organisms, how do they obtain their own
nutrition?
Learners, by now you know that for organisms to continue living, they have to feed. Nutrition is the
provision of the food and nutrients necessary to support life. The food we eat provides the body with
39
nutrients, and the nutrients are used by the body for growth, repair and maintenance and also to give the
body energy.
The goats feed on plants because they are heterotrophs, while the plants create their own food and
hence called autotrophs.
1.1 Modes of Nutrition

Learner, note that there are two modes of nutrition; they are autotrophic nutrition and heterotrophic
nutrition.
a) Autotrophic nutrition
Autotrophic nutrition is a form of nutrition where organisms make their own food (organic molecules)
using simple inorganic substances. Organisms that manufacture their own food this way are called
Autotrophs. They are also known as producers e.g. Green plants, algae, blue-green bacteria make their
own food using carbon dioxide and water in the presence of light energy in the process known as
photosynthesis.
b) Heterotrophic nutrition
Heterotrophs are not self-nourishing; they feed on readily made food from autotrophs and other
organisms, this is why they are known as consumers e.g. Animals such as lions, humans, ants, dogs,
etc.
Now that you have read the above information, answer the following questions:
1. What is the name of organisms that obtain their food by consuming other organisms?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
You are right if you said the types of organisms that consume other organisms in order to obtain their
food are called heterotrophs.
2. Name the heterotroph given in the social context above.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Answer: In the social context above, the heterotroph is a goat.
In the next section, you will learn about the leaf, which is the organ responsible for the manufacture of
food in a plant.
40
1.2 Leaf Structure
As it has already been mentioned, green plants manufacture their own food by changing light energy
into chemical energy. Within the leaves there are chloroplasts which trap this light energy. Look
closely at the diagram below to see the arrangement of cells and tissues in a dicotyledonous leaf.
Source: https:// sites.google.com/site/scientificgreenmachine/microscopic-level/structure-of-a-leaf-

internal-external
Note these different parts of the leaf; refer to the diagram above as you go view the diagram.
Epidermis
The epidermis is a single layer of cells covering the top and bottom surfaces of the leaf.
a) Upper epidermis
The top-most layer of cells. This layer is transparent as the cells do not have chloroplasts. It is
transparent so as to allow light to filter through to the mesophyll cells below it. Its function is to
produce the cuticle that reduces loss of water by transpiration. It also protects the leaf from
infection by germs.
b) Lower epidermis
The layer found at the bottom of the leaf. Some of the cells here are differentiated into guard cells.
Each pair of guard cells opens and closes a stomata pore. Guard cells contain chloroplasts.
Mesophyll
a) Palisade mesophyll
41
It contains large closely packed cells with lots of chloroplasts. It is the major site where
photosynthesis occurs.
b) Spongy mesophyll
It contains loosely packed irregular cells with inter cellular spaces among them to allow for
easy diffusion or circulation of gases inside the leaf.
1.4 Photosynthesis
Plants make their own food using the energy from sunlight by a process called photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis is a build- up of sugars from carbon dioxide and water by green plants. Green plants
change light energy into chemical energy stored in carbohydrates. Learner, note that, this process can
be represented in a form of an equation, written in words or in symbols.
The word equation for photosynthesis is:
Carbon dioxide + water carbohydrates + Oxygen
The symbol equation for photosynthesis is
6CO2 +6 H2O C6H12O2 +6 O2
In the chemical reaction of photosynthesis, autotrophs combine carbon dioxide and water to produce
sugar and which other product?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Answer: Oxygen
Study the features of a leaf which allow for maximum photosynthesis, these are:-
1. The intake of carbon dioxide through the leaves
a. The spongy mesophyll cells are separated by large air spaces (which allow for diffusion of
carbon dioxide into the leaf)
b. Carbon dioxide enters through the stomata on the lower epidermis by diffusion.
c. Carbon dioxide dissolves in the moisture on the surface of the mesophyll cells and diffuses to
the chloroplasts.
d. Thin leave blade shortens the distance travelled by absorbed gases from the stomata to
mesophyll cells.
e. The leaves are flattened and broad to make a large surface area for absorption of light and
gases.
2. The intake of water by the leaves
a. Xylem vessels in the vein deliver water to all parts of the leaf.
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b. Water moves out of the xylem vessels in the leaf to leaf cells by osmosis. At the cells
the water molecules diffuse into the chloroplast where it will react with the carbon
dioxide.
c. The cuticle reduces water loss by evaporation.
d. Most stomata are on the underside of the leaf, away from direct sunlight to lessen
evaporation.
3. Trapping of light by the leaf
a. Palisade cells are close to the upper surface of the leaf.
b. The broad leaf shape exposes a very large surface area of chlorophyll containing cells to trap
the sunlight. The light energy trapped is used to split water molecules into Hydrogen ions (H+)
and Oxygen ions (O2-). The hydrogen ions react with carbon dioxide to form glucose. The
Oxygen ions react among themselves to form oxygen gas that is released by the leaves.
c. The leaves are arranged in such a way that one leaf does not overshadow another.
d. Most leaves at the bottom are larger than the leaves at the top.
4. The role of chlorophyll in the leaf

a. There are numerous chloroplasts in the palisade layer
b. The green pigmentation covers the entire leaf surface.
c. The products of photosynthesis are used in the creation of chlorophyll.
1.5 Mineral Nutrition

Mineral salts are absorbed from the soil in the form of ions e.g. Sulphates, Nitrates, and Phosphates.
The most essential minerals are Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Magnesium. Nitrogen, Sulphur and
Phosphorus are needed for protein synthesis. When plants lack Nitrogen in their nutrition they will
show stunted growth as a deficiency sign. Plants use Magnesium for the formation of chlorophyll and
will have yellow leaves when magnesium is lacking in the soil.
Student Task Questions
1. Name three things that plants need for the process of photosynthesis to occur (3)
a. …………………………………………………………………………………………….....
b. ………………………………………………………………………………………………..
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c. ………………………………………………………………………………………………..
2. Name the compound used by plants, to absorb light energy for photosynthesis (1)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
1.7 RESOURCES
1. https:// sites.google.com/site/scientificgreenmachine/microscopic-level/structure-of-a-leaf-internal-
external
44
Lesson 2 Animal Nutrition
Introduction
Animal cells require nutrients contained in food for them to carryout cellular processes and survive. In
this lesson you will learn about the human diet, enzymes and food tests used to test for the presence of
nutrients in food like starch, reducing sugars, lipids and proteins.
Learning Objectives
Learner, by the end of the lesson you should be able to:
• Explain why diet, especially energy intake, should be related to age and physical activity of an
individual.
• List the chemical elements that make up carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
• Define the term enzyme, as proteins which function as biological catalysts.
• Describe properties of enzymes.
• Investigate and describe the effect of temperature and pH on enzyme activity.
• Carry out tests for starch (iodine test), reducing sugars (Benedict’s solution), protein (Biuret
test), and fats (ethanol).
Social Context (Everyday Life Experiences)
Mma Motlogi is an elderly woman who had a baby a few months ago. She has been giving the baby
breast milk until a few weeks ago when she started him on solid foods. She had cooked lunch for her
family; it consisted of a lot of porridge for her teenage son, a big piece of meat for her husband and
mashed potatoes for her mother.
Key Issues
1. The baby has been given breast milk until just recently.
2. The people in Motlogi’s family are fed on different types of food.
45
Learner, when you look at the Motlogi family feeding habits, what comes to your mind? Why has the
baby been given milk only? Why is the teenage boy given lots of porridge? Why is the father given the
biggest piece of meat and why is the grandmother given mashed potatoes?
Different people require different energy intake. Some factors that determine the energy intake of
people are age, sex, physical activity or occupation, weight and other factors. Babies have a high
energy intake because they need energy for growth, and they are also highly active. It is for this reason
that babies eat many times in a day. The teenage boy engages in a lot of physical activities like running
and playing which need a lot of energy and is also still growing. The father also needs more
carbohydrates in his diet because of his highly physical occupation and also for repairing his wearing
out tissues. The grandmother needs less energy giving food because she has stopped growing and also
less active. Naturally men have high metabolic rates, as such they eat more carbohydrates in their diet
than women.
2.1 Diet
In the last paragraph, the word diet was used, learner do you know what the word diet means? Diet
means the food that a person habitually eats. A balanced diet refers to a meal containing all the
nutrients needed by a person, in the right amounts. These nutrients come from the food we eat. They
include carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, fibre and water.
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Figure 1.0: A balanced diet containing all the major food groups
https://carwad.net/sites/default/files/balanced-diet-chart-119112-7833373.jpg
Let us take a closer look at the main nutrients that human beings need.
Carbohydrates
The food stuffs in this group are the main energy providers. Carbohydrates molecules contain the
elements Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen.
Lipids (fats and oils)
Fats and oils keep body temperatures constant, protect internal organs from physical injury and they act
as energy reserves. Just like the carbohydrates, fats and oils contain the elements Carbon, Hydrogen
and Oxygen.
Proteins
The food stuffs in this group build cells and tissues (hence responsible for body growth) as well as
forming part of the cytoplasm and creating enzymes, antibodies, hormones, e.t.c. Proteins contain the
elements Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen and sometimes Sulphur.
2.2 Enzymes
Enzymes are biological catalysts made of proteins, which alter or speed up a chemical reaction without
themselves being changed at the end of the reaction.
For you to be able to tell that a substance is an enzyme, it has to have the following properties
• Each enzyme has a unique shape. Enzymes work in a lock and key hypothesis. This means that
they are substrate specific. Each enzyme catalyses reactions for one substrate only. The
substance that the enzyme works on is known as the substrate. The substrate molecule fits in the
active site of the enzyme exactly the way a key fit into a lock.
• Enzymes only work at specific temperatures and are sensitive to temperature changes. Below
that temperature they act slowly and above that temperature they get denatured and stop
working.
• Enzymes only work at specified pH. If the pH changes, the enzyme denature and stop working
• Enzymes are activated by water
• Enzymes are protein in nature
• Enzymes are recycled or remain unchanged during chemical reactions.
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Effect of temperature on enzyme activity
At high temperatures substances move faster, increasing the chances of substrate and enzyme collision
but once the temperature rises above the optimal temperature, denaturing occurs destroying the shape
of the enzyme and disabling it to work and hence stops the reaction.
Source:
Effect of pH on enzyme activity
Enzymes work at specific pH and will denature when the pH changes. An enzyme that functions
optimally at pH 7 will be denatured by lower or higher acidity/alkalinity levels.
Enzymes are defined as biological catalysts, what are catalysts?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
48
Answer: Catalysts are substances that increase the speed of chemical reaction.
2.3 Food tests
If you have a food sample and you want to test what nutrients it contains, you can carry out a food test
in a laboratory. What you will need to carry out the food tests are special equipment that are normally
referred to as apparatus, specific chemicals or reagents for each test and most importantly, you will
have to follow certain procedures for each test. The next section guides you on which apparatus and
which reagents to use for these different food tests.
2.3.1 Test for Starch
APPARATUS REAGENTS
1. Dimple tile 1. Iodine solution
2. Spatula 2. Food sample
Procedure
Step 1
The food sample is placed on the tile NB: If several samples are used, have a specific spatula for each
sample to avoid contamination.
Step 2
Add 3 drops of Iodine solution to the food sample and observe for colour changes
Results and Conclusion
If Starch Is Present Iodine Solution Will Change from Brown to Blue Black
If starch is absent the Iodine solution will remain Brown
2.3.2 Test for Fats
The Emulsion Test/The Alcohol Test/The Ethanol Test
APPARATUS REAGENTS
1. Test tube 1. Water
49
2. Beaker 2. Ethanol
3. Teat pipette or syringe 4. Food sample
Procedure
Step 1
The food sample is placed inside a dry test tube
Step 2
Equal amounts of alcohol (ethanol) are measured using the teat pipette
Step 3
Add 5 ml of Alcohol (ethanol) to the food sample in the test tube and shake in order to dissolve the fat
Step 4
Add 3 drops of Water to the test tube, shake and observe for colour changes
If Fats Are Present A White Emulsion or Suspension Will Be Produced
If Fats Are Absent the Mixture in The Test Tube Will Remain Clear
2.3.3 Test for Proteins (Biuret Test)
APPARATUS REAGENTS
1. Test tube 1.Copper Sulphate
2. 2 Teat pipettes or 2 syringes 2. Sodium hydroxide
3. Food sample
Procedure
Step 1
Make an aqueous solution of the food sample and place it in the test tube. This is done by crushing the
food sample, placing it in the test tube, adding 5ml of water and shake to dissolve the nutrients in the
food sample.
Step 2
Add 5ml of Sodium Hydroxide solution into the test tube and shake the test tube
50
Step 3
Add 3ml of Copper (II) Sulphate solution into the test tube, shake the test tube and observe for colour
changes
If Proteins Are Present the Mixture in The Test Tube Will Turn Purple/Violet
If Proteins Are Absent the Mixture in The Test Tube Remains Blue
2.3.4 Test for Reducing Sugars
APPARATUS REAGENTS
1. Test tube 1. Benedict’s solution
2. Beaker 2. Food sample
3. Bunsen burner 3. Matches
4. Tripod stand 4. Water
5. Teat pipette or syringe
6. Gauze
Procedure
Step 1
Make an aqueous solution of the food sample and place it in the test tube. This is done by crushing the
food sample, placing it in the test tube, adding 5ml of water and shake to dissolve the nutrients in the
food sample.
Step 2
Add 2ml of Benedict’s solution into the test tube, shake the test tube
Step 3
Heat the mixture in the test tube in a HOT water bath for 3 minutes and observe for colour changes
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If Glucose Is Present the Solution Will Change from Blue to A Brick Red Precipitate
Nb: Other Colours (Green, Orange, Yellow) Can Also Be Observed If the Amount of Reducing
Sugars Present Is Low to Moderate.
Name the food test that uses heat
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Answer: The Test for reducing sugars
1.5 Summary
• People have different food requirements depending on factors such as physical activity, age and
sex.
• Diet means the food that a person habitually eats
• A balanced diet refers to meal containing all the nutrients as needed by the body, in the right
amounts.
• The main nutrients needed by the human body are carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins,
minerals and water.
• Carbohydrates are the main energy providers, which contain elements Carbon, Hydrogen and
Oxygen.
• Fats are energy reserves; they also contain the elements Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen, just at
different proportions.
• The proteins are mainly the body building foods, but they form part of the cytoplasm in our
cells and they create enzymes. Proteins contain the elements Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and an
amino group containing Nitrogen and sometimes Sulphur.
• Enzymes are biological catalysts made of proteins, which can alter or speed up a chemical
reaction without themselves being changed or used up at the end of the reaction.
• Each enzyme has a unique shape, they are produced when needed in small amounts and only
work at specific temperatures and pH or else they get denatured or destroyed.
• Food tests are conducted to test samples of food for specific nutrients using chemicals called
reagents. The test for starch uses a reagent known as Iodine solution, the test for fats uses
Ethanol, the tests for proteins uses Biuret’s solution and the one for reducing sugars uses
Benedict’ s solution.
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Q1. The table below shows statements that apply to biochemical tests. Complete the table to show
which of these statements apply to the test carried out on the substance.
Use ticks to indicate applicable and crosses to indicate non - applicable.
Test Use heat Use biuret Use Boil with a A positive A

substance reagent Benedict’s dilute acid result will positive
solution show a test is an
blue-black emulsion
colour
Fats
Proteins
Starch
Reducing
sugars
(4)
Q 2. List three specific factors for enzymes (3)
………………………………………………………………………………………………....
Q3. List the elements contained in a fat compound (3)
………………………………………………………………………………………………....
1.7 Resources
1. https://carwad.net/sites/default/files/balanced-diet-chart-119112-7833373.jpg
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Lesson 3 The Human Digestive System
Introduction
The human body breaks down food through the digestive system to obtain nutrients needed by the body
cells. In this lesson you will learn about organs of the digestive system and their functions, and the uses
of the nutrients by the human body.
Learning Objectives
• Using diagrams and models, identify the main regions of the digestive system and the
associated organs: mouth, salivary glands, oesophagus, stomach, duodenum, pancreas, gall
bladder, liver, ileum, colon, rectum and anus
• Describe the main functions of the identified parts of the digestive system in relation to
ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion of food, as appropriate
• Describe physical digestion with reference to chewing, emulsification and peristalsis
• Describe chemical digestion with reference to the functions of amylase, protease and lipase in
digestion
• State the function of the hepatic portal vein as the route taken by most of the food absorbed
from the intestine
• Describe the role of the liver in the metabolism of glucose, as a storage organ, deamination and
detoxification
• Describe absorption of nutrients in the ileum (structure of villus not necessary)
• Describe the uses of glucose, amino acids and fatty acids
Social Context
Kelebogile is a lazy girl who often refuses to do chores at home. One day her mother asked her to cook
samp, and there was not enough wood to cook with. she felt lazy to go fetch more firewood, using the
little wood available so she cooked and dished the samp before it was fully cooked. When eating the
samp she complained that it was too hard to chew, later on she developed pains in her abdomen.
Key issues
• Food is cooked before eating it

• Cooked food is easy to digest
• Eating samp that was not fully cooked made chewing difficult.
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• Kelebogile developed pains in her abdomen after eating her food.
Scientific integration
The food that we eat is broken down into smaller pieces by the body, so that the nutrients it contains
can be absorbed and used by our cells. This is the reason why it is necessary to chew food when we eat.
Learner did you notice that it was not easy for Kelebogile to chew her food because it was not cooked
well? She also developed abdominal pains because she swallowed hard food. Cooking also softens
some food to make it easy to chew. Once the chewing is done, digestion has started. Digestion happens
in our digestive systems.
Study Figure 1.0 below, it shows the organs of the human digestive system.
Figure 1.0: The human digestive system

https://www.niddk.nih.gov/-/media/Images/Health-Information/Digestive-
Diseases/The_Digestive_System_450x531.jpg?la=en&hash=F9F89B8C9B062082180327E2DDBC
1FBA
55
Now let us learn the functions of the organs of the digestive system.
3.1 Organs of the digestive system and their functions
Mouth
Food enters the body through the mouth. Physical digestion starts here with the breakdown of food into
smaller pieces by teeth through chewing. Chewing increases the surface area of food so that enzymes
can easily act on it. The tongue rolls the chewed food into a bolus which is passed down the
oesophagus when swallowing.
Salivary glands
These are glands that secrete saliva containing an enzyme called salivary amylase, mucus and water.
Salivary amylase chemically breakdowns starch into maltose in the mouth.
Oesophagus (gullet)
This is a tube that runs from the pharynx to the stomach. It is a passage for food from the mouth to the
stomach. The bolus of food moves through the oesophagus by peristalsis. Peristalsis is the rhythmic
contraction and relaxation of the circular and longitudinal muscles of the oesophagus which pushes
downwards.
Figure: Peristalsis in the Oesophagus

(Source:https://medium.com/@thryve/irritable-bowel-syndrome-gut-motility-and-probiotics-
6ea8a1644c50)
Stomach
The stomach carries out several functions such as:
• Storing food temporarily
• Produces hydrochloric acid which activate pepsinogen to active pepsin, to give acidic
conditions conducive for action of pepsin and also kills the bacteria that may have entered the
body with the food.
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• Churning the food into chyme, which increases surface area making it easier for the food to be
digested by enzymes in the stomach and duodenum.
Small intestines
The small intestine is about 6 meters long in an average adult human being. It has two regions called
the duodenum and the ileum.
a) Duodenum
This is the first part of the small intestines; it is U-shaped and quite shorter than the other parts.
It receives pancreatic juice from the pancreas and bile from the liver, to further aid digestion.
The bile emulsifies fats in this region which breaks down large fats into small droplets called
micelles. The pancreatic juice contains enzymes that chemically digest most of the foods into
soluble end products
.
b) Ileum
This is the region where end products of digestion are absorbed into the blood stream. The end
products are absorbed through diffusion and active transport. The ileum is adapted for
absorption in the following ways.
• It has many folds on the inside lining called VILLI (villus singular) that increase the internal
surface area for absorption of more nutrients
• It is long and coiled to increase time for absorption of more nutrients
• It has a dense network of capillaries to increase the rate of absorption
• It has a thin epithelium wall for fast diffusion of nutrients into the blood capillaries
Large intestines
The large intestine has regions known as colon and rectum.
a) Colon
It plays a very important role in absorption of water from the undigested waste.
b) Rectum
This is the last portion of the large intestines. At the exit of the rectum is the anus, a round
muscle called the anal sphincter closes the anus. The function of the rectum is to stores faeces
temporarily and releases them through the anus at interval. The release of faeces is called
egestion/elimination/defecation.
Do you still remember the functions of some of the parts of the human digestive system? Give the
functions of the oesophagus and the ileum
Answer: The oesophagus passes the chewed food down to the stomach and the ileum completes
digestion and carries out absorption.
From the diagram of the digestive system that you just studied; you may have realised that the system
runs all the way from the mouth to the anus. As the food is put into the mouth, we say that it is being
ingested. Then it is digested or broken down into smaller pieces which will be absorbed in the ileum.
57
These small bits are the end products of digestion, for instance starch that is broken down is absorbed
in the form of glucose. When the absorbed nutrients from food are used by the body, we say that they
are being assimilated. All the materials that are in excess or the undigested waste get out of the body, or
egested.
The food is moved along the digestive system through the involuntary rhythmic wave like movement
of the muscles. When one set of muscles relaxes, the other set of muscles contracts, making the gut to
become narrower and longer for the food to be squeezed and pushed forward, and then for the gut to
dilate and shorten opening the lumen wider in order for food to enter. This movement is called
peristalsis.
Learner, can you tell the difference between absorption and assimilation?
Answer: Absorption is when the nutrients obtained from digested food is drawn into the blood stream,
whereas assimilation is when the absorbed nutrients are used by the body cells for different purposes
e.g. growth, chemical reactions, etc.
3.2 Types of digestion

In the digestive system, food can be digested physically or mechanically as well as chemically.
Mechanical digestion is done by the physical parts of the digestive system like chewing done by the
teeth, whereas chemical digestion is done by chemicals secreted by the body, such as enzymes. One of
the fluids produced by the body is bile. It is produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder. Bile
emulsifies fats into smaller pieces; it, therefore, carries out physical digestion.
In Lesson 2, you were taught that enzymes are substrate specific. Enzymes are placed into groups,
depending on the different substrates that they catalyse, the enzyme groups are: - Carbohydrase,
proteases and lipases.
• Carbohydrase are enzymes which work on carbohydrates e.g. Amylase, Maltase

• Proteases are enzymes which work on proteins e.g. Pepsin, Trypsin, Erepsin
• Lipases are enzymes which work on lipids (fats/oils) e.g. Lipase
Some of the enzyme that are involved in chemical digestion are shown in the table below
Enzymes Substrate End Product

Amylase Starch Maltose
Pepsin Protein Peptides
Trypsin Peptides Amino acids
Maltase Maltose Glucose
Lipase Lipids Glycerol + Fatty acids
Table 1.0: Enzymes and their activities
Let us take a closer look at some of the parts of the digestive system as well as some other parts from
other systems.
58
a) The hepatic portal veins
Most of the blood flowing from the intestines is carried to the liver through a major vein called the
Hepatic Portal Vein. Most of the end products of food digestion are also carried by this blood vessel;
hence it brings nutrient-rich blood to the liver from the intestines. This enables the liver to destroy
some of the toxins and regulate the concentrations of some nutrients that may have come with the food.
b) The liver
You may be wondering what the liver does with all that blood it receives, some of the functions of the
liver have been hinted when we discussed the hepatic portal vein.
Since the liver receives blood directly from the hepatic portal vein, it has to filter the blood and remove
toxins, so that the blood that returns to the general circulation is free from harmful substances. Doing
this is called detoxification.
The liver regulates the level of glucose in blood. If glucose level is high a hormone called insulin from
the pancrease stimulates liver cells to absorb excess glucose and convert it to glycogen. This lowers the
blood sugar level. If the glucose level in blood is low, a hormone called glucagon from the pancrease
stimulates the liver cells to break down the stored glycogen to release glucose into the blood. This
raises the blood sugar level.
The liver is also a storage organ; it stores vitamins A and K, iron, glycogen and fats. These fats can be
metabolised, and energy released from them.
The liver breaks down excess proteins to urea and glycogen. The liver also breaks down haemoglobin
from dead red blood cells to form bile salts, iron and bilirubin (a waste product). The bile salts are used
to emulsifies fats.
c) The ileum
This part of the small intestine is responsible for absorption of nutrients. It contains villi, which are
small finger-like protrusions, which increase the surface area for absorption.
d) The pancreas
This gland is responsible for the production of hormones; glucagon, insulin, amylase, trypsin and lipase
Glucagon triggers the liver cells to convert glycogen into glucose.
Insulin triggers the liver cells to convert glucose into glycogen.
3.3 The uses of glucose, amino acids and fatty acids
When broken down completely, carbohydrates give molecules of glucose, proteins give amino acids
and fats give fatty acids and glycogen. Study the table below, to get the uses of these end products.
59
Table 2.0: End products and their uses
End product Uses

Glucose Supplies energy to cells
Amino acids Builds muscles, proteins and enzymes
Fatty acids Makes cell linings and hormones. Extra is

stored in fat cells.
Summary
The food that we eat is broken down into smaller pieces by the body, so that the nutrients it contains
can be absorbed and used by our cells. Digestion happens in our digestive systems. The parts of the
digestive system are: Mouth, Salivary glands, Oesophagus (gullet), Stomach, Small intestines
(Duodenum and Ileum), Large intestines (Colon and Rectum)
Inside the digestive system the food gets ingested, digested, absorbed, assimilated then egested. The
food is moved along the digestive system through peristalsis.
In the digestive system, food is digested physically/ mechanically and chemically. When broken down
completely, carbohydrates give molecules of glucose, proteins give amino acids and fats give fatty
acids and glycogen.

1. Insert labels in the diagram of the human digestive system shown below (12)
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https://byjus.com/biology/alimentary-canal-anatomy/
1.7 Resources
1. https://www.niddk.nih.gov/-/media/Images/Health-Information/Digestive-
Diseases/The_Digestive_System_450x531.jpg?la=en&hash=F9F89B8C9B062082180327E2DDBC1F
BA
2. https://byjus.com/biology/alimentary-canal-anatomy/
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Lesson 4 Respiration
Introduction
Energy is required in all cellular reactions. The energy is obtained from carbohydrates, also called
energy giving foods. In this lesson you will learn about how energy is released from carbohydrates
through the processes of aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
Learning Objectives
At the end of this lesson you should be able to:
• Describe respiration
• List uses of energy in the body
• Describe anaerobic and aerobic respiration
• State the equation for aerobic respiration in plants and animals using words and symbols.
• State the equation for anaerobic respiration in plants and animals using words and symbols
Describe the production of lactic acid in muscles
• Describe fermentation
• Demonstrate anaerobic respiration using yeast
Social Context
You stayed the whole day without food and as the day went by you started feeling weak and dizzy and
you found it very difficult to concentrate, let alone do anything. You then decided to eat a piece of
bread and after a while you regained your strength. Do you know why you felt weak and dizzy? If your
answer was that before eating the bread you had no energy to do work, you are correct. Energy is
needed to perform any kind of work and it is obtained from the food we eat.
Key Issues
• When you did not have food, you felt weak and dizzy
• t was difficult to concentrate
• After eating bread, you regained your strength
When you stayed the whole day without eating anything, you felt weak and dizzy and you could not do
any work nor concentrate. Inability to concentrate or do work was due to lack of energy, therefore
energy can be defined as ability to do work. The major energy releasing food is called carbohydrates.
The body cells break down the carbohydrates in bread into glucose to release energy. Because you did
not eat anything the cells had little glucose to breakdown in order to release energy and as a result you
62
started feeling weak and fatigued or tired. Your cells use glucose to release energy through a process
known as RESPIRATION.
So, in this lesson we are going to learn about respiration in plants and animals, uses of energy, types of
respiration, their symbol and word equations.
4.1 Definition of Respiration

Learner, can you define respiration? Respiration is the process by which energy is generated from the
breaking down of carbohydrates in the mitochondria of living cells. Very good, you are correct!
Now what are the uses of energy in the body? Energy is used:
to maintain constant body temperature
For active transport in the selective re-absorption of important minerals
Synthesis of macro-molecules(big) from micro-molecules(small) e.g. protein synthesis
For mitotic cell division
During transmission of nerve impulses
Do you think cells respire the same way? Was your answer NO! You were right, the cells do not respire
in the same way. So, let us look at types of respiration.
4.2 Types of Respiration
Aerobic Respiration- occurs in the mitochondria in the presence of oxygen
WORD AND SYSMBOL EQUATION FOR RESPIRATION
Word equation: Glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water +energy
Symbol equation: C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION- occurs in the cytoplasm in the absence of oxygen.
WORD AND SYMBOL EQUATIONS
In animals
Glucose → lactic acid +energy
C6H12O6 2C3H6O3+ energy

63
In plants
Glucose ethanol + carbon dioxide +energy
C6H12O6 C2H5OH +CO2 +energy
Social Context
Remember that in the previous lesson you learn that energy is the ability to do work and that there are
two types of respiration. Were you able to come up with the differences between the two types of
respiration we learnt about in lesson 1? Very good! Because today we are going to compare anaerobic
and aerobic respiration, the production of lactic acid in muscles, fermentation as a form of anaerobic
respiration and also demonstrate anaerobic respiration using yeast.
Do you remember how you usually feel every time after running or walking a long distance? You feel
tired! Right? You may wonder why is like this. It is due to the production of lactic acid which is
produced when our cells respire anaerobically.
The body prefers to generate most of its energy using aerobic methods. Some circumstances, however,
such as running, walking or lifting heavy weights requires energy production faster than our bodies can
adequately deliver oxygen. In those cases, the working muscles generates energy anaerobically. In this
case glucose is broken down into lactic acid. The high levels of this acid increase the acidity of the
muscle cells and its build up is responsible for muscle fatigue you usually feel after any activity.
4.3 Fermentation
It is the form of an anaerobic respiration and it is releases of fairly small amounts of energy from
breaking down of glucose by extra- cellular enzymes of micro-organisms in the absence of oxygen
Word and Symbol Equation
The word and symbol equation for fermentation is the same as the one for anaerobic respiration in
plants.
Glucose ethanol + carbon dioxide +energy
C6H12O6 C2H5OH +CO2 +energy
Demonstration of Anaerobic Respiration in Yeast
Anaerobic respiration by yeast is used in brewing. Yeast is added to mixture of sugar solution and other
substances and it ferments the sugar to alcohol.
64
NB: layer of oil- to keep out oxygen
As the yeast respires, it produces carbon dioxide
The carbon dioxide bubbles through the clear limewater, turning it milky/white
Sample Questions
1. Define fermentation
2. What causes muscle fatigue during exercise?
Sample Answers
1. A form of anaerobic respiration in which fairly small amounts of energy is released.

2. Accumulation of lactic acid in the muscles
Summary
• Respiration is the process whereby cells release energy using glucose.

• The two types of respiration
• Anaerobic respiration which occurs in the absence of oxygen
• Aerobic which occurs in the presence of oxygen.
• Fermentation is the form of an anaerobic respiration and it releases fairly small amounts of energy.
A control experiment is an experiment used to minimize the effect of the variables which are not
the interest of the study.
1. Define respiration
65
Answer ___________________________________________________________________ (1)
2. State any two differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration?
Answer ______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________ (2)
3. Where in the cell does respiration occur?

Answer __________________________________________________________________ (1)
4. Write both word and symbol equation for anaerobic respiration in animals
Answer Word equation: _____________________________________________________ (2)
Symbol equation: __________________________________________________________ (2)
5. Compare anaerobic and aerobic respiration (3)
Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration
6. Thabo carried out an experiment using a mixture of yeast and glucose solution to investigate
anaerobic respiration as shown by the figure below.
a) Explain why it is important to have a layer of oil over the glucose and yeast mixture?
66
b) What observation will be made in the limewater after 15 minutes
c) Suggest a control experiment for this experiment
67
Lesson 5 Transport in Plants
Introduction
In this topic you will learn that plants like animals have a system of vessels to carry fluids from one
part to another. They have two separate transport systems or vascular tissues;
• Xylem vessel - moves water and minerals obtained from the soil to all other parts of the plants.
• Phloem vessel - transport products of photosynthesis from the leaves (where they are synthesized)
to other parts of the plant.
The roots have root hairs that increase the surface area of the root for the absorption of water and
mineral nutrients dissolved in water. The root hairs are in contact with the water present between the
soil particles.
Learning Objectives
• State the functions of xylem and phloem
• Identify the position of xylem and phloem as seen in sections of roots, stems and leaves,
limited to non-woody dicotyledonous plants
• Define transpiration as loss of water vapour from Stomata.
• Investigate the effect of temperature, humidity and wind on the rate of transpiration.
• Describe transpiration stream as a process of water movement through xylem vessels
• Define translocation as movement of organic materials through phloem.
• Describe absorption of mineral ions in terms of active transport.
Social Context (Everyday life experiences)
Learner, you must have seen that if crops do not receive water from the rainfall water, eventually they
dry up and die. This is also the case when vegetables grown in the backyard are not watered. They will
appear dull and droopy (as they are non-woody).
68
One other observation that you might have noticed with crops/vegetables is that during early morning,
their leaves appear very greenish and well spread out. On the contrary, at around mid-day when the sun
is very hot the leaves look dull and droopy (bending down).
Key issues
• Why do crops/vegetables eventually die when they do not receive water?
• Why do either vegetable and crop leaves appear healthy in the morning and during the
afternoon they look dull and droopy?
Water is absorbed through the root hairs of plants during the process of Osmosis. Water is also
absorbed by root hairs through transpiration pull. Mineral ions such a magnesium, nitrate enter into the
plant from the soil through the roots. They affect the water potential of the plant tissues.
They can enter via two ways:
• Diffusion (down concentration gradient)
• Active Transport (against concentration gradient)
Plants use water for the process of photosynthesis. The food made during photosynthesis helps the
plants to grow. Water is also important to support plants through turgidity.
Herbaceous (non-woody) plant stems and leaves rely on their cells being turgid to keep them rigid.
5.1 Transport Tissues in Plants
Plants, like animals have a system of vessels to carry fluids from one part to another. They have two
separate systems or vascular tissues;
Xylem vessels – carry water and inorganic ions from the roots to the leaves
Phloem sieve tubes – carry substances made by photosynthesis from the leaves to other parts of the
plant.
Water &Minerals = need to be transported from the ground, into the root cells and upwards to the
growing tip of the shoot
69
Sucrose (food) = produced by photosynthesis, need to
transport from the leaves to other parts of the plants
Xylem vessels = long hollow tubes made out of DEAD cells

containing no cytoplasm.
• Have small holes at their sides called pits in which

water can enter and move from one vessel to the
other
• It also helps to provide mechanical support to the plant
Phloem tubes = living cells, contains cytoplasm but no nucleus
• Long narrow tubes with perforated sieve plates
• Activities controlled by companion cells
• transport sugar from the Source where they are taken in or produced) to the Sink (where they
are used/stored)
• In spring, sucrose (sugar) is transported from the store in the root to leaves
• In summer, it is transported from photosynthesizing leaves to roots to be stored
Vascular bundles are arranged differently in the stem and in the root:
• for most effective

transport of materials
and most effective
support
• In the stem, vascular

bundles are arranged
in a ring to help
support the stem
• In the root, the

surrounding roots hairs
ensure larger surface
area for absorption of
water.
70
Learner let us now study how water and mineral nutrients absorbed through the roots and transported
up the plant.
Water Uptake
The root hairs are long and thin, enabling it to penetrate the soil
particles and for easy diffusion. The root hair increases the surface
area of the cell to make it more efficient in absorbing materials
5.2 Functions of root hair cells
• For absorption of water and mineral ions
• Provide anchorage for the plant.
Water is important to support plants through turgidity, substrate for photosynthesis, as a transport
medium & as a reagent for biochemical reactions, cool leaves via evaporation
Mineral ions such a magnesium, nitrate enter into the plant from the soil through the roots.
• Affect the water potential of the plant tissues
They can enter via two ways:
• Diffusion (down concentration gradient)
• Active Transport (against concentration gradient)
- needs Energy, so depends on respiration
- lack of oxygen or low temperature, respiration reduce, rate of ion uptake also reduces
Water pathway:
Root hair Root cortex cells Xylem of

Root Xylem of Stem Xylem of Leaves
Mesophyll Cells
71
• Water is drawn up through the xylem to replace water loss at leaves. This creates a transpiration
stream.
• Water enter into the root cell through osmosis (water diffusion) down concentration gradient as
the soil water has higher water potential compare to the root hair cell sap.
• Water crosses the living cells of cortex through:
1. Osmosis through the cells
2. “pulled” by transpiration through the freely permeable cell walls (in between cells)
• As it near the center of the root, a layer of cells with waxy cell wall prevents water moving
through the cell walls, forcing all water to go through the living cells to enter the xylem vessels.
• This allows the cell membrane to control substances that can enter into the xylem.
5.3 Transpiration
Transpiration is the loss of water vapour

from plant leaves by evaporation of water at
the surfaces of the mesophyll cells followed
by diffusion of water vapour through the
stomata
Function of stomata:
72
• Allow diffusion of gases (carbon dioxide and oxygen)
• Allow diffusion of water vapour
• Rate of diffusion are controlled by guard cells, which control the closing and opening of
stomata
• There are usually more stomata on the lower surface of the leaves compared to the upper
surface
• This is to prevent excess water loss due to evaporation as the lower surface is less exposed to
the sun.
Closing and Opening of the Stomata
• When lack of water, guard cells become

flaccid.
• When plenty of water, guard cells become

turgid.
• Because the inner layer is thicker and cannot

stretch as much as the outer surface, when the guard cells swell with water, they curve away
from each other, opening the stomata.
Transpiration Process
• Transpiration is the loss of water vapour from the leaf;
• Water in the mesophyll cells form a thin layer on their surfaces; (this helps with the diffusion of
carbon dioxide into the cells.
• The water evaporates from the large surface area of spongy mesophyll cells and into airspaces;
• This creates a high concentration of water molecules in the air spaces inside the leaf and low
concentration of water molecules outside the leaf.
• Water vapour diffuses down concentration gradient out of the leaf into the surrounding air,
through the opened stomata
• Water cannot diffuse into the leaves because the air spaces in the leaves are saturated with water
vapour. Thus, it must be absorbed from the soil and drawn up the plant.
73
Learner, let us now study how water moves upwards in the xylem:
Transpiration pull that draws up a column of water molecules, held together by cohesion
• Transpiration: Water evaporates from leaves and lowers the water potential in the leaf tissues
• Water moves from xylem to enter the leaves down water potential gradient
• Water uptake occurs by osmosis from the soil solution (high water potential) into the root cells
(lower water potential)
• Water moves up the stem in the xylem as a column of water due to the transpiration “pull”
(tension caused by water loss from the leaves) and the cohesion between the water molecules.
(ensures continuous, column of water won’t break).
• The incoming water in roots also provides root pressure.
98% of water uptake in plants is lost through

transpiration. To measure water uptake, a Bubble
Potometer is used:
Reservoir: prevent air bubble entering the plant and to

move bubble back along capillary tube
Capillary tube: to be kept horizontal to avoid bubble

moving
Air bubble: inserted by removal of tube from water.
Leafy shoot must be cut; apparatus filled and shoot fixed all under water to prevent air locks in
the system.
Rate of bubble movement = rate of water loss
How & Why Wilting occurs?
• Herbaceous plant stems and leaves rely on their cells being turgid to keep them rigid.
• If the amount of water lost from the leaves of a plant is more than the amount taken into the
roots,
• The plant cells become flaccid (soft) and will no longer press against each other.
• Stems and leaves lose their rigidity, and wilt
5.4 Factors affecting the rate of transpiration

74
Transpiration can be increased by the following factors:
• High temperature:
1. by increasing kinetic energy of water molecules (movement), so water diffuse faster.
2. Warmer air can also hold more water (increased water-holding capacity of air)
• High Humidity
1. Increases the steepness of water potential gradient between inside of leaf and
atmospheric air
• Wind
1. Moves humid air away from leaf surface and increase diffusion and water potential
gradient
• High light intensity
1. Causes stomata to open (to allow photosynthesis) which allows transpiration to occur
Some plants have adapted to survive at dry conditions

by reducing transpiration:
• Thick, waxy cuticle to reduce evaporation from

epidermis
• Leaves are needle shape to reduce surface area

for water loss
• Stomata may be sunken in pits with hairs to trap

a pocket of humid air
• Leaves may be rolled with stomata on inner surface, near trapped layer of humid air
• Cactus: swollen stem to store water,
• shallow widespread roots to absorb water from lightest rainfall & deep roots to tap groundwater
• Leaf fall and wilting: decrease water loss and plants can remove chlorophyll from leaves to be
stored before leaves fall
Translocation
Translocation is the movement of organic substances such as sucrose and amino acids in phloem:
75
– from regions of production (source)
– to regions of storage OR to regions where they are

used in respiration or growth (sink)
Carbohydrates are transported through a plant in the

form of sucrose, glucose, and proteins as amino acids.
Substances can be transported in any direction in

phloem:
• From photosynthesizing leaves down to roots for storage.
• upwards to growing buds, flowers, leaves and fruits for respiration and growth.
• from storage organs such as the root tubers to all parts of the plant.
Sucrose and amino acids are transported to every tissue of the plant; each cell use it in a different way.
• Root cells convert sucrose into glucose for respiration and store it.
• Growing cells make cellulose for cell walls from sucrose and use the amino acids to make
proteins for growth.
• And fruits use the sucrose to make the attractive scent and tasty nectar to attract insects.
Example: potato plants – in winter, leaves and plants die
Sourced from: http://biology-igcse.weebly.com/translocation-of-organic-foods-in-plants.html
76
Summary
In this lesson you have learnt that;
The plants like animals do have a transport system through which essential substances are transported.
The vascular bundle which consists of the xylem vessel and phloem tube form an integral part of the
plant’s system. The essential substances that are transported are water and mineral ions from the soil
via the xylem vessel to the aerial parts of the plant like leaves. The other essential substance that is
transported is glucose from the process of photosynthesis via phloem tubes during a process called
Translocation.
STUDENT TASK QUESTIONS
1. Which of these processes can cause a plant to wilt?
A. Photosynthesis
B. Respiration
C. Translocation
D. Transpiration
2. Which of the following environmental factors would increase the rate of transpiration?
A. High humidity
B. High temperature
C. Low light intensity
D. Low wind speed
3. Four similar leafy shoots were exposed to different environmental conditions.
The rate of water uptake and rate of water loss were measured for each shoot.
Which shoot is most likely to have wilted?
Shoot Rate of water uptake Rate of water loss (

(mm/minute) mm/minute)
A 5 2
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B 5 5
C 10 8
D 10 12
4. The diagram shows a cross section of the root of a dicotyledonous plant.
Which tissue transports sugars and amino acids?
5. The diagram shows a cross section of a dicotyledonous stem.
Which structure transports water?
6. Which tissue in plants transports mineral salts?
A. Epidermis
B. Palisade
C. Phloem
D. Xylem
7. The diagram shows a wilting plant.
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Why is the stem upright while the leaves are wilted?
A. Stem cells can absorb water very quickly from xylem
B. Stem cells do not lose water
C. The bark is strong enough to support the plant
D. The stem is supported by xylem vessel
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Lesson 6 Transport and Circulation in Animals
Introduction
In this topic you will learn about the heart and blood vessels, as well as the role of the circulatory
system and how it works. You are going learn about the components of the circulatory system and their
functions. You will also learn about blood, the fluid which flows in blood vessels, its components and
functions
Learning Objectives
• describe the circulatory system as a system of tubes (blood vessels) with a pump (heart) and
valves to ensure one-way flow of blood.
• describe the dual circulation as consisting of pulmonary and systemic circuits.
• name the main blood vessels to and from the heart, lungs, liver, and kidney.
• describe the structure and function of the heart.
• compare and contrast the structure and function of arteries, veins and capillaries.
• locate pulse points and count the pulse rate investigate the effect of physical activity on pulse
rate.
• describe coronary heart disease in terms of the occlusion of coronary arteries
• discuss possible causes of coronary heart diseases (diet, stress, smoking)
• discuss preventative measures of coronary heart diseases
• list the components of blood as red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma
• identify red and white blood cells as seen in diagrams and/or photomicrographs.
• describe the functions of blood: red blood cells - haemoglobin and oxygen transport; white
blood cells - phagocytosis, antibody formation and tissue rejection; platelets - fibrinogen to
fibrin causing clotting;
plasma - transport of blood cells, ions, end products of digestion, hormones, carbon dioxide,
urea, vitamins, plasma proteins.
• describe the transfer of materials between capillaries and tissue fluid.
Social Context/Everyday life experiences

Mothusi was in the kitchen cutting pieces of meat with a sharp knife, unfortunately he cut himself and
his blood poured for a few minutes and became a solid and covered the cut. This solid stopped
bleeding.
In a different situation, a football player during a game of soccer collapsed and was certified dead on at
the hospital.
Key issues
• Why did the blood flow out?

• Why the bleeding did stop?
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• Why did the footballer suddenly die?
Learner, please note that, the above scenarios are part and parcel of the circulatory system.
The human circulation is a closed system in which blood flows through the blood vessels. The knife
has cut a blood vessel and blood flowed out due to the pressure exerted by the heart (pump). The solid
part is called a blood clot which was caused by the action of platelets.
The unfortunate situation in which the football player collapsed and died was due to heart attack. This
heart attack was caused by the blockage of the coronary artery that supplies the heart muscle with
glucose and oxygen.
In this section we will look at the heart and blood vessels, as well as the role of the circulatory system
and how it works. We are going to look at the components of the circulatory
system and the function of each component.
6.1 The circulatory system
The circulatory system is made up of the heart (pump), blood vessels, valves (prevent back flow of
blood) and blood. We are going to look at the heart and blood vessels, as well as the role of the
circulatory system and how it works. We are going to look at the components of the circulatory system
and the function of each component.
Function of the Circulatory system
1. To transport oxygen from the lungs to body cells

2. To transport nutrients to body cells
3. To remove waste such as carbon dioxide
4. To provide an efficient gaseous exchange
The Human Double Circulation
It is called so because the blood needs to pass through the hearts twice in one complete circuit around
the body. As the blood flow out of the heart into the lungs, it gathers oxygen and flows back into the
heart where it is given an extra strong push by the heart to the rest of the body organs.
Two major Circulation:
1) Pulmonary Circulation – from heart to lungs

Deoxygenated blood from heart = pulmonary artery
Oxygenated blood to heart = pulmonary vein
2) Systemic Circulation – from heart to rest of the body
Deoxygenated blood to heart = Veins
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Oxygenated blood from heart = Arteries
Study the diagram of the circulatory system (human circulation) in figure 1, and make sure you know
all the indicated parts.
Figure 6.1. Diagram of human circulation
How the heart works:
1. Blood enters the atria
2. The walls of the atria contract, raising pressure and forcing open the bicuspid and tricuspid valves.
3. When the ventricles fill with blood, the ventricles contract, raising pressure and closing the valves.
4. The ventricles continue to contract raise pressure. This forces the semilunar valves (pulmonary valve
and aortic valve) to open.
5.Blood flows into the aorta which carries oxygenated blood to parts of the body and the pulmonary
artery which carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
6. High pressure in the aorta and pulmonary artery closes the semilunar valves and the process restarts.
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Figure 2. Diagram of the heart, vertical section
6.2 Blood vessels
A blood vessel is a tube through which blood

flows.
Figure 3. Diagram showing blood vessels
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Arteries
• Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to body tissues except pulmonary artery
• Small lumen (central cavity).
• Carries blood from heart to
• Blood at high pressure
• Rich in oxygen & nutrients, low in wastes & CO2 (except for pulmonary artery)
• Elastic wall expands and relax as blood is forced out of the heart (cause the pulse)
• Thick walls can withstand the high pressure of blood
• Ring of muscles widen or narrow to control the blood flow according to body’s needs
Veins
• Carry deoxygenated blood from body tissues to the heart except pulmonary vein
• Large lumen (central cavity).
• Thin wall with little muscle fibres and elastic tissue.
• Have valves which prevent the back flow of blood.
• Low in oxygen & nutrients, high in wastes & CO2 (except for pulmonary vein)
• Blood is at low pressure but skeletal muscle assist to squeeze the veins and help push blood
back towards heart
Capillaries
• Carry blood through organs and between cells.

• Capillary wall are one cell thick and allow substances to diffuse in or out.
• Only one cell thick - Substances easily diffuse across a short distance from blood vessels to
body tissues
• Very large surface area & highly branched – more area for efficient diffusion
• Extend through all tissues
• Constantly supplied with fresh blood to maintain concentration gradient of dissolved substances
Arteries Arterioles Capillaries Venules Veins
Learner refer to figure 3 above showing the blood vessels in which transfer of materials between
capillaries and tissues are taking place.
6.3 Transfer of materials between capillaries and tissues
The blood pressure in the capillaries forces part of the plasma fluids out through the capillary walls.
This fluid is known as tissue fluids. The tissue fluid is similar to plasma but has fewer proteins and it
supplies the cells with dissolved food substances and oxygen.
When the tissue fluid returns back to capillary it contains waste products e.g. carbon dioxide from
respiration. The deoxygenated blood then leaves the capillaries through the venules which recombine to
form veins.
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6.4 Coronary Heart diseases
Heart attacks are caused when the coronary artery is blocked completely meaning the heart muscles
will stop contracting. To keep pumping, your heart needs food and oxygen. Your heart gets these
substances from the coronary arteries that supply food and oxygen to the heart. This blockage is usually
caused by a build-up of fat called an atheroma. Many factors can make heart attacks more likely:
1. Heredity
2. Permanent high blood pressure/hypertension puts more strain on the heart muscles as it has to work
harder to pump blood.
3. Diet - a diet rich in fats raises cholesterol. High cholesterol and fats create the atheroma which can
block the coronary arteries.
4. Smoking - nicotine constricts blood vessels, raises blood pressure, speeds up the heart rate and
increases blood cholesterol.
5. Stress - hormones released during stress constricts blood vessels, raising blood pressure.
6. Lack of exercise- regular exercise reduces blood pressure and strengthens the heart.
Figure 3. Diagram of both a normal artery and a narrowed artery atheroma (fatty deposits)
Learner, we have just discussed causes of Coronary Heart Diseases above. Now, let us look how
preventing.
Preventative measures of the Coronary Heart Diseases.
1. One should avoid smoking as nicotine in cigarettes can damage blood vessels and increase blood
pressure.
2. One must eat diet that has less fat.
3. One should engage in more regular exercises as regular exercise reduces blood pressure and
strengthens the heart.
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4. One should seek professional counselling services if he/she is depressed in one or the other.
6.5 Components of blood
A. Red Blood Cells

transport oxygen from lungs to all respiring tissues
prepare carbon dioxide for
transportation from the respiring cells to
the lungs
o Contains haemoglobin (iron containing
pigment) that carries oxygen molecules
o Have no nucleus, leaving more space for
haemoglobin
o Cells are small and flexible to be able to
squeeze through capillaries
B. White Blood Cells

Two types:
(i) Phagocytes – remove any microorganism that

enters the body through phagocytosis (engulfing)
a. Irregular shaped nucleus allows cells to
squeeze through gaps in walls of capillaries
b. Enzymes in cytoplasmic vesicles digest
microorganisms
c. Have sensitive cell surface membrane receptors that can detect microorganisms
(ii) Lymphocytes – produce antibodies (proteins that helps in defence against diseases)
a. Large nucleus contains many copies of genes for the control of antibody protein
production
C. Platelets
These are cell fragments involved in blood clotting, can release blood-clotting enzymes
Blood Clotting: Important to prevent blood loss and entry of pathogen (organism that cause diseases)
1. Platelets activated by: torn

capillaries, Exposure to air,
Platelets gather and
temporarily plug wound
release enzyme
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2. Enzymes + Ca2+ (calcium ions) + clotting factors
Changes Fibrinogen (an inactive and soluble blood protein) Fibrin (activated insoluble blood
protein
Plasma
This is the watery pale-yellow liquid that transports blood cells, food molecules, ions, soluble nutrients,
hormones, waste products such as carbon dioxide and urea
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SAMPLE QUESTIONS
You have just finished learning about blood components. Please attempt the following questions to
check your understanding. Label the blood components as indicated by the letters.
A
C
B
1.
D E
2. What is the main job of the red blood cells in the blood?
A. To clot blood
B. To fight disease
C. To transport oxygen to the body’s cells and carry away carbon dioxide from the cells
D. To transport carbon dioxide to the body’s cells and carry oxygen from the cells
3. Which blood cell engulfs bacteria?
A. Phagocytes
B. Lymphocytes
C. Red blood cells
D. Platelets
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4. Which of the following is not actually a blood cell?
A. Platelets
B. Lymphocyte
C. Red blood cell
D. Phagocyte
5. Name four things transported in the liquid part of blood (excluding cells).
……………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………….
ANSWERS TO THE SAMPLE QUESTIONS
Learner, well done if you have provided these correct answers.
1. A –Platelets B – Red blood cells C- Lymphocyte D – Phagocyte E - Plasma
2. C 3.A 4.A
5. Mineral ions, glucose, Amnion acids, Vitamin, Urea, Hormones, Carbon dioxide
(Give any four)
6.6 Pulse
Pulse, in physiology, is the rhythmic expansion of the arteries resulting from passage of successive
surges of blood, produced by continuing contractions of the heart.
(Or simply the expansion and contraction of the arterial walls that can be felt in all the arteries near the
surface of the skin).
The pulse may be felt wherever an artery passes over a solid structure, such as a bone or cartilage. The
crest of the pulse wave represents the systolic pressure whilst the trough is the diastolic.
Pulse rate is the number of heart beats in a minute. The rate of the pulse varies from 150 beats per
minute in the embryo to about 60 in the aged; however, the average pulse rate measures 72 beats per
minute in a mature healthy person.
Physical activity e.g. taking an exercise increases the pulse rate. This is because the rate at which the
heart pumps blood is increased to supply the body with enough oxygen and glucose needed for muscle
activity as well as to remove the CO2 that is produced by respiring muscle cells in body.
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Summary
In this lesson you have learnt that:
• The circulatory system as consisting of the heart, blood vessels, blood and valves.
• The human circulatory system has a dual circulation as consisting of pulmonary and systemic
circuits
• The functions of the circulatory system
• The three blood vessels (arteries, veins and blood capillaries)
• The Coronary Heart Diseases (CHD)
• The components of blood (Red blood cells, White blood cells, Blood plasma and Platelets)
• Pulse, pulse rate and the effect of physical exercise on pulse rate
Student Task questions
1. Once the blood enters the right atrium, where does it go next?
A. Left Ventricle
B. Right Ventricle
C. Vena cava
D. Left atrium
2. Which of these blood vessels is the main artery of the body?
A. Aorta
B. Pulmonary artery
C. Vena cava
D. Hepatic artery
3.Why is the human circulation called a double circulation?
A. The blood takes twice as long as other circulations

B. The blood passes through each part of the body twice.
C. The blood passes through the heart twice
D. The blood travels twice as fast as other circulations
4. Which side of the heart receives oxygenated blood?
A. Left
B. Neither side
C. Right
D. Both sides
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5. Which of the following is not dissolved in plasma?
A. Hormones
B. Soluble food
C. Carbon dioxide
D. Oxygen
6. The diagram illustrates how a certain type of white blood cell fights against pathogen.
What is chemical X?
A. Antibiotics
B. Antibodies
C. Fibrinogen
D. Hormones
7. Which row correctly shows the contents of tissue fluid and blood?
Tissue fluid Blood
A Fibrinogen Carbon dioxide
B Red blood cells Fibrinogen
C Carbon dioxide Platelets
D Platelets Red blood cells
8. The diagram shows three types of blood vessels.
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What are X, Y and Z?
X Y Z
A Artery Capillary Vein
B Artery Vein Capillary
C Vein Artery Capillary
D Vein Capillary Artery
9. The diagram shows a section through a human heart.
Which valves are opened, and which are closed, when blood moves out of chambers X and Y?
Valves closed Valves opened

A 1 and 2 3 and 4
B 3 and 1 2 and 4
C 3 and 4 1 and 2
D 3 and 2 1 and 4
10. Some of the substances and components of blood involved in blood clotting are fibrin, fibrinogen,
platelets and red blood cells.
In which order would these substances and components of blood become involved in blood clotting?
First last
A Fibrin Platelets Red blood cells fibrinogen
B Fibrinogen Red blood cells Platelets fibrin
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C Platelets Fibrin Fibrinogen Red blood cells
D Platelets Fibrinogen Fibrin Red blood cells
11. The diagram shows how blood flows around the human body.
Which blood vessels have the highest concentration of carbon dioxide?
A 1 and 2
B 1 and 4
C 2 and 3
D 3 and 4
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UNIT 3: CONTROL OF THE INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
Introduction
The internal environment of the body cells is the tissue fluid around them. Components and
characteristics of this tissue fluid have to be controlled so that the chemical reactions taking place in the
body cells are not adversely affected. In this Unit you will:
• acquire knowledge and understanding of the importance of maintaining a constant internal

environment
• acquire knowledge and understanding of the importance of removing waste from the body
Unit Contents
This unit consists of two lesson and they are:
Lesson 1: Homeostasis
Lesson 2: Excretion
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Lesson 1 Homeostasis
Introduction
The tissue fluid around the body cells supplies them with nutrients, water and oxygen from the blood
and also collects waste. The concentrations of these substances and body temperature have to be at
correct levels so that the body cells are not affected. In this lesson you will learn about how the internal
environment is maintained constant.
Learning Objectives
At the end of the topic you should be able to:
• define homeostasis as the maintenance of a constant internal environment.

• identify and label on a diagram of the skin: hairs, sweat glands receptors and blood vessels.
• describe the maintenance of a constant body temperature in Man, in terms of role of
temperature receptors in the skin, shivering, sweating, blood vessels near the skin surface and
the coordinating role of the brain.
Social Context
Have you wondered why light skinned people’s (aka yellow bone) faces become reddish when it is hot
as they sweat while dark skinned people’s faces become more darker as they sweat? On the same note
during winter the light skinned people face turn pink as they feel cold and dark-skinned people’ faces
turn pale as they feel cold.
Key Issues
The reason why the faces of light and dark-skinned people change colour is a response of the body to
changes in the surrounding temperature in order to keep internal temperature stable or constant. So,
keeping the internal environment constant is called HOMEOSTASIS.
Examples of factors that are kept constant in the body are:
(i). Temperature by skin
(ii). Water content by skin and kidneys

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(iii) Glucose concentration by pancreas and liver.
The skin is the organ that regulates body temperature. Before you could learn about how the skin
control temperature it is important for you to learn about the structure of the skin.
1.1 Structure of The Skin
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Source: Biology in Diagrams
Now you are well positioned to learn on the response of the body to overheating and overcooling.
1.2 Response to Overheating
(i). Widening of arterioles/blood vessel: Refer to our text on the everyday life experiences above. The
reason why faces of light skinned turn reddish when it is hot is because under their skin surface are
blood vessels called arterioles. When body temperature rises the arterioles under the skin get wider
(increase in diameter) and they carry more blood to the skin surface hence heat from the blood will be
lost from the body through the skin hence the face become reddish, as a result the body temperature is
kept stable. This whole process is known as vasodilation.
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1.2 Response of skin to overheating and overcooling
Blood temperature
Temperature rise detected
increase
by heat receptors in the
skin
Temperature control centre in

the hypothalamus
Impulses sent to
Arteriole in skeletal
the skin erector muscles muscles Thyroid gland
of hairs
Sweat glands
Adrenal gland
A vasodilation
B Hairs
Flattened
C Sweating D Less E Less active

increases active F Less active
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Sample Questions
1. Fig.1.1 shows a section of the human skin.
Fig.1.1
(a) Identify the parts labelled R and S
R: hairs : arteriole/blood capillary
(b) Describe how S and T help in temperature regulation in hot conditions.
S: arteriole widens and more blood flows closer to the skin surface and more heat will be lost through
conduction, radiation and convection to cool the body. The body temperature returns to normal
T: sweat gland produce sweat and sweat carried to skin surface by sweat pore. sweat evaporate from
skin surface and take away heat from body. Body temperature returns to normal.
2. The human skin is involved in the process of maintaining a constant body temperature.
(a)(i) What is the name given to the process that maintain a constant internal environment within the
body?
Homeostasis [1]
(ii) The flow chart shows how impulses are transmitted from skin receptors to effectors when the
temperature is above normal body temperature.
Complete the flow chart to show how two effectors in the skin respond to those impulses.
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Effector1: sweat gland response: produce sweat [2]
Effector2: arteriole/capillary response: widens/vasodilation [2]
(b) Fig. 2.1 is a graph showing how a person’s body temperature changes over a period of time.
Explain the changes that are taking place in the body between P and Q. [3]
Body temperature drops below normal. The muscles involuntary contract and relax to generate heat to
raise the body temperature to normal. Vasoconstriction takes place. Arteriole narrows and less blood
flow near the skin and the body keeps more heat. Sweat production reduces or stop and cause less
evaporation of sweat from the skin surface and less heat is lost, as a result body temperature rises to
normal.
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Q 1.
Use the information in the diagram to complete the following:
(iii)When it is hot our skin acts to ………………………………. Heat loss.
(ii) The hair erector muscles ………………………………….. and make the hairs lie …………….
Against the skin. Less air is …………………… near the skin surface. …………… heat is lost by
radiation.
(iv) Sweat glands make ……………………….. This evaporates ………………………the skin

surface.
(v) Blood vessels near the skin surface………………………., so …………………… blood
gets near to the surface. This ……………………….. heat loss by radiation.
Q 2. Fig.2.1 shows blood vessels in the skin.
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Fig.2.1
When a person carries out vigorous exercises, there is a change in the capillary in the skin.
(vi) (i) On Fig.2.1, show how the capillary would change if vigorous exercise is carried out. [1]
(ii) Explain how the change you have shown helps in regulating body temperature.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………. [2]
(b) Describe the role of the following skin structures in cooling the body.
(i) hair………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(ii) sweat glands

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………...................................… [2]
(vii) receptors……...................................................……………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
[2]
Summary
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Lesson 2 Excretion
Introduction
Chemical waste is produced during metabolic reactions taking place in the cells. The waste is usually
toxic, and it would affect other chemical reactions in the cells. In this lesson you will learn about
excretion of the chemical waste and the organs that remove urea from the body.
Learning Objectives
By the end of the lesson you should be able to:
• Define excretion as the removal of toxic waste materials from organisms

• Identify parts of the urinary system
• Describe the functions of parts of the urinary system
• Draw and label the cross section of a mammalian kidney
• Describe dialysis in kidney machines as diffusion of waste products and salts through a
selectively permeable membrane
Social Context
One hot afternoon Tebogo drove the cattle he was herding to the dam to drink water. After all the cattle
had drunk water, he drove them back to the kraal. On the way some cows started to urinate. The urine
was yellowish and smelled a lot. Tebogo started to wonder why the cows started urinating after
drinking water and why the urine was yellowish.
Key Issues
• Chemical reactions taking place in animal cells produce metabolic waste products
• The metabolic waste products have to be removed or excreted out of the cells
4.2 Scientific Integration
After drinking, the water was absorbed into the blood stream of the cow and increased the amount of
water in the blood. The brain then instructed the kidney to remove the excess water from the blood. As
the water was removed in urine, some of the chemical waste like urea from body cells that is dissolved
in the blood passed out along with the water and the urine. The water and dissolved waste are now
called urine. The urine was stored in the bladder of the cow and passed out when the bladder was full.
When there is less water in the blood the cow will pass out small amount of urine and it will be
coloured yellow. What is the name of the process used to remove excess water and chemical waste at
the kidneys?
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2.1 Excretion
Excretion is defined as the removal of waste from metabolic reactions and toxic substances from the
body of organisms. Human beings also remove metabolic waste through excretion. The chemical waste
produced by the body cells is absorbed into the blood as it circulates around the body when the blood
passes through excretory organs. Excretory organs are those organs used to remove the metabolic
waste from the blood or the body.
4.4 SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. The table below has incomplete information about metabolic wastes, where it is produced and
their excretory organs. Please complete the missing information in the table.
Metabolic Waste Where waste is produced/process Excretory Organ/organs
Carbon dioxide (a)_____________________ (b)_______________
Urea Liver (Deamination) (c) ______________ and skin
Excess salts Body cells Kidneys and
(d)______________
Excess water Body cells (Respiration) Kidneys, (e)_____________,
skin
Bilrubin Liver (break down of haemoglobin) Liver
a) Body cells b) Lungs c) kidney d) skin e) Lungs
2.2 Urinary System
Urea is one of the metabolic wastes produced at the liver. It is produced when excess amino acids are
broken down in a process called Deamination. Urea is very toxic to the cells and has to be removed
from the body very quickly. The urea is carried by blood from the liver to the kidney where it is filtered
out of the blood. The body organs that are involved in the removal of urea from blood and its expulsion
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from the body make up the urinary system. The urinary system is made up of two kidneys, two ureters,
bladder and urethra and they are show in the diagram below.
Figure 4.1 Urinary system Source: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/695524736179782255/
2.2.1 Functions Parts of The Urinary System
Blood rich in urea, salts and other wastes is carried to the kidneys by the renal arteries which branches
of the aorta. After the waste has been filtered out, the blood with less waste is carried to the vena cava
through the renal veins. The roles of organs of the urinary system are outlined in the table below.
Organ Function
Kidneys - Filter(remove) out chemical waste from blood, e.g. urea,
excess salts, used hormones, drugs and produce urine
- Regulate (control)the amount of water in blood.
Ureter - Conducts (carries)or passage for urine from the kidneys to the
bladder
Bladder - Stores urine temporarily
Urethra - Passage for urine out of the body. Also, a passage for semen in
males
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2.3 Structure of the Mammalian Kidney
You have realized that kidneys play a very important role in removing metabolic waste from the body.
Let us now learn about the cross-sectional structure of a mammalian kidney to know the parts that
remove the waste from blood.
Figure 4.2 Cross sectional structure of the Kidney
Source: http://www.sci.utah.edu/~macleod/bioen/be6000/prevnotes/L18-kidney.pdf
Metabolic waste is filtered out of blood at the cortex of the kidney by structures called nephrons. The
medulla is where urine is formed. Water is reabsorbed from urine in this region. The urine formed
collects in the pelvis and then flows down the ureters to the bladder. Renal artery carries blood to the
kidney containing wastes (urea, drugs, used hormones, e.t.c.) and oxygen. Renal vein carry blood from
the kidney with no or little wastes(urea) and carbon dioxide.
2.4 Kidney Failure
Kidney failure is a condition when the kidneys cannot filter out metabolic waste from blood (total
kidney failure) or when the kidney cannot effectively filter out metabolic waste (partial kidney failure).
Do you know any causes of kidney failure?
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2.4.1 Causes of Kidney Failure
Some of the causes of kidney failure are listed in the table below together with methods of treating or
preventing kidney failure. Please match the cause of kidney failure with its appropriate treatment using
a line.
Causes of Kidney Failure Treatment
A Chronic high blood pressure P Kidney transplants
B Diabetes Q Transfuse compatible blood groups
C Kidney infections or diseases R Controlling high blood pressure
D Kidney injuries S Controlling diabetes
E Agglutination T Treating kidney infections and injuries
U Use of artificial kidney machines or

Dialysis machines
ANSWERS
A-R, B-S, C-T or U or P, D-T or U or P, E-Q
2.5
How The
Kidney
Machine
Works
Figure 4.3
Diagram of
a kidney
machine.
Source:
http://kesac
ademy.co.u
k/wp-
content/uploads/2015/10/GCSE-Science-Biology-3.pdf
108
The dialysis tank is filled with dialyzing solution. The solution is made of water containing glucose and
salts with a concentration equal to that of normal blood. Blood from a patient’s artery is pumped into
the dialysis tube that runs through the tank filled with dialyzing fluid. The dialysis tube is made of a
material that is selectively permeable. As blood passes through the dialysis tube all dissolved
substances that are absent in the dialyzing solution or have a concentration higher than that in the fluid
will diffuse out of the blood into the dialyzing fluid. The blood leaving the dialysis tank has less
metabolic waste and it is returned to the body of the patient through a vein. The removal of waste
through the dialysis tube is a slow process. The patient has to be connected to the kidney machine for
three to six hours and also visit the hospital two or three times a week for dialysis.
Sample Questions
a) State the method through which waste is removed from blood. (1)
________________________________________________________________________
b) State any two characteristics of the dialysis machine you have noticed that help it to filter
metabolic waste out of the blood? (2)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
c) Explain why blood cells do not pass out into the dialysis fluid. (1)
________________________________________________________________________
d) How is the loss of glucose in blood prevented in the dialysis machine? (1)
________________________________________________________________________
Sample Answers
a) Diffusion
b) Dialysis tube is long and coiled to increase surface area for diffusion of waste out of blood.
The dialysis tube is selectively permeable. Only small molecules pass out of blood.
c) Blood cells are large and cannot pass through the tiny pores of the dialysis tube
d) The concentration of glucose in the blood and dialysis fluid are equal so that no diffusion
takes.
Summary
• Excretion is the removal of metabolic waste ad toxic substances from the body of organisms
• Excretory organs remove the excretory waste from the body
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• Excretory waste includes urea, carbon dioxide, excess water, excess salts, used hormones,
drugs, toxins, etc.
• The urinary system removes urea, excess water and salts, drugs, used hormones e.t.c from the
body
• The urinary system is made up of the kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra.
• The kidney filters out metabolic waste from blood and also regulates the amount of blood in the
body
• The kidney machine is used to remove metabolic waste from the blood of patients with kidney
failure.
Question 1. Fig. 1 shows the urinary system and its blood supply.
Fig. 1 Urinary system
(a) (i) Identify the structures labelled X and Y on Fig. 1.
X .............................................. Y .............................................. [2]
(ii) A function of the kidney is to remove urea from the blood. State one other function of the kidney.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………....... [1]
Question 2. Figure 2.1 shows the urinary system of a human being.
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Figure 2.1
(a) Name the structure labelled A, B, E and F.
A ..............................................................................................................................................
B .............................................................................................................................................
E ............................................................................................................................................
F ....................................................................................................................................... [4]
(b) What is the function of structure C?
.......................................................................................................................................... [1]
(c) How does the function of structure D in a woman differ from that in a man?
......................................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................... [2]
(d) Suggest the medical assistance given to a person who has structure A failure.
......................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................... [1]
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UNIT 4: RESPONSE AND COORDINATION
Introduction
You have previously learned that one of the characteristics of life is sensitivity or irritability. In this
unit you will learn about how the human body detect and respond to changes in its environment
through the use of nervous and hormonal system. You will also learn about drugs, how they affect the
body and nervous system and the effects of their abuse.
Unit Content
This unit consists of the following lessons:
Lesson 1 Nervous System
Lesson 2 Hormonal Coordination
Lesson 3 Drugs and Drug Abuse
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Lesson 1 Nervous System
Introduction
The human body detects changes taking inside it or in the environment using sense organs and respond
to the changes through the effector organs. In this lesson you will learn about the component of the
nervous system and how the brain and spinal cord coordinates the activities of the nervous system.
Learning Objectives
Learner, by the end of this lesson you should be able to:
• Discuss the relationship of sensory (receptor) cells, sense organs and the effector organs.
• Describe the functions of a sensory neurone, a motor neurone and a relay neurone.
• Draw a labelled diagram of a sensory neurone, a motor neurone and a relay neurone.
• Demonstrate and describe a reflex action.
• Describe the functions of the pituitary gland and spinal cord.
Social Context
Laone was cooking when he accidentally touched hot pot, he quickly removed his hand from the pot
and screamed in pain.
Key Issues
• Laone touched the hot pot.

• He felt pain from touching the hot pot.
• He then quickly reacted by removing his hand from the pot.
The reason why Laone felt pain from touching the hot pot was because the sensory receptors in his skin
of the hand received information that the hot pot could harm his hand if he held them for too long. Our
senses do not only protect our bodies from harm, but they take all kinds of information from outside the
body and inside the body and process this information, allowing the body to react accordingly
Learner, did you know that the two systems which control, or coordinate activities taken by the body
are the endocrine system and the nervous system? In this lesson you are going to learn about the
human nervous system.
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1.1 The central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system
The nervous system allows the body to detect stimuli and respond with some actions. It is made up of
two parts, namely; the Central Nervous System (CNS) and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).
• The central nervous system is composed of the brain and the spinal cord; it also contains
specialised cells called relay neurones
• The peripheral nervous system is composed of the nerves; it contains specialised cells called
sensory neurones and motor neurones. Look at Figure 1.0 it shows the nervous system: -
Figure 1.0: The central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system
https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/courses-images-archive-read-only/wp-
content/uploads/sites/902/2015/02/23224551/CNX_Psych_03_03_NervSystem.jpg
In the nervous system sensory receptors detect stimuli and send the messages to the brain or the
central nervous system (brain/spinal cord), so as to enable the body to react. After messages have been
received, the effectors bring about responses. Your muscles and glands are these effectors that we are
talking about.
The table below shows each of the senses and the organs responsible for detecting the stimuli.
Sense Stimuli Sense organ

Touch Touch Skin
Taste Chemicals in what goes into the mouth Tongue
Smell Chemicals in the air Nose
Hearing Sound Ear
Sight Light Eye
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Learner, do you know what a stimulus is?
A stimulus is a change in your environment, which you need to respond to.
1.2 Neurones or Nerve Cells
Nerve cells are called neurones. They are specialised to carry messages called electrical impulses from
one place to another.
A group of neurones is called a nerve, and the human body has three main types of nerve cells or
neurones, these are called sensory neurones, motor neurones and relay neurones.
Shown below are labelled diagram of these neurones.
a) The sensory neurone
Figure 2.0 A sensory neurone

http://www.biologymad.com/nervoussystem/sensoryneurone.jpg
These neurones have long axons and transmit nerve impulses from sensory receptors all over the body
to the central nervous system.
b) The motor neurone
Figure 3.0 A motor neurone

http://www.biologymad.com/nervoussystem/motorneurone.jpg
These neurones also have long axons and transmit nerve impulses from the central nervous system to
effectors (muscles and glands) all over the body.
115
c) The relay neurone
Figure 4.0 A relay neurone

https://teaching.ncl.ac.uk/bms/wiki/images/2/26/Interneurone.jpg
These neurones are also called inter neurones or connector neurones, they are usually much smaller
cells, with many interconnections.
Did you note the differences between these three neurones? If you did not, here is how you can identify
these neurones. Look at the diagrams above to see some of the differences listed in the table below.
Sensory neurones Motor neurones Relay neurones

Long dendrites Short dendrites Very short dendrites
Short axons Long axons Very short axons
Cell body outside the spinal Cell body embedded in the Cell body in the spinal cord/
cord/cell body has no spinal cord/ cell body has cell body has dendrites
dendrites dendrites
Take nervous messages to Take nervous messages to Connects the sensory
the spinal cord the effector muscles neurone to the motor neurone
Function of Cell body, Dendrites and Axon
The job of the cell body is to control all of the functions of the cell.
Dendrites are the segments of the neuron that receive stimulation in order for the cell to become active.
They conduct electrical messages to the neuron cell body for the cell to function
An Axon or nerve fiber, is a long, slender projection of a nerve cell (neuron) that conducts electrical
impulses away from the nerve cell body. The nerve fibre that carries impulses from the sense organ
towards the cell body is called a Dendron.
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1.3 Reflex actions
Do you still remember what happened to Laone when he touched the hot pot? When he quickly
removed his hand from the pot he did not have to think about doing it, his body was just reacting
involuntarily. Reflex actions are responses to stimuli that are immediate and sudden; they do not
require any thinking.
Reflex actions are also called involuntary actions. They are made possible by pathways called reflex
arcs. Look at figure 5.0, it shows a reflex arc.
Figure 5.0 A reflex arc

https://www.toppr.com/guides/biology/neural-control-and-coordination/
Some of the examples of reflex actions are: -
• Pupils changing size in different amounts of light.

• Withdrawal of hand or foot when pricked by a pin
• Coughing or sneezing when foreign objects enter the nose
• Knee jerking when the bottom of the kneecap is hit by an object
• Sudden blinking when an object gets close to the eye
1.4 The spinal cord

The spinal cord is very important in coordination. It has three main functions, which are:
• To pass messages from the brain to different parts of the body so that the body will take
action.
• To pass along messages from sensory receptors to the brain
• To regulate involuntary actions
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1.5 The pituitary gland
Inside our brains, located just above the spinal cord is the pituitary gland or the master gland, it
produces some hormones that assist in coordination, and it also controls some hormones produced
elsewhere. Some of these hormones are:
a) The growth hormone
This is a hormone that regulates physical development of our bodies.
b) The thyroid stimulating hormone
It activates the thyroid, so that it can control our metabolism (e.g. Digestion)
c) The prolactin
It helps women who are breastfeeding, to produce milk.
d) Vasopressin or Anti Diuretic Hormone (ADH)
It helps our bodies in water conservation and prevention of dehydration.
Learner, study Figure 6.0 below, so that you can see where the pituitary gland is located in our brains.
You will also notice that it is a very small part.
Figure 6.0 The brain
http://tropicalspa.co/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/diagram-of-nephron-with-labelling-parts-the-brain-
quiz-sagittal-view.jpg
Summary
• The nervous system is made up of two parts called the Central Nervous System (CNS) and the
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).
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• The central nervous system is composed of the brain and the spinal cord as well as relay
neurones.
• The peripheral nervous system is composed of the nerves and cells called sensory neurones and
motor neurones.
• Sensory receptors detect stimuli and send the messages to the brain or the central nervous
system, effectors bring about responses.
• The senses are touch, taste, smell, hearing and sight
• The sense organs are skin, tongue, nose, ear and eye.
• The stimuli are any changes in the environment, which one needs to respond to.
• Nerve cells are called neurones.
• A group of neurones is called a nerve,
• There are three main types of nerve cells or neurones called sensory neurones, motor neurones
and relay neurones.
• Reflex actions /involuntary actions are responses to stimuli that are immediate and sudden.
• The spinal cord passes messages from the brain to different parts of the body so that the body
will take action, takes messages from sensory receptors to the brain and regulates involuntary
actions
• The pituitary gland/ master gland produces some hormones that assist in coordination and also
controls some hormones produced elsewhere.
Student Task questions

1. Insert labels on the diagram of the reflex arc shown below
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A …………………………………................………………………………………………..........
B ……………………………………………………...……………………………………………
C …………………………………………………………………………………………..…....
D ……………………………………………………………………………………………………
E ………………………………………………………………………………………..…...... (5)
1.7 Resources
1.https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/courses-images-archive-read-only/wp-
content/uploads/sites/902/2015/02/23224551/CNX_Psych_03_03_NervSystem.jpg
2. http://www.biologymad.com/nervoussystem/sensoryneurone.jpg
3. http://www.biologymad.com/nervoussystem/motorneurone.jpg
4. https://teaching.ncl.ac.uk/bms/wiki/images/2/26/Interneurone.jpg
5. https://www.toppr.com/guides/biology/neural-control-and-coordination/
6.http://tropicalspa.co/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/diagram-of-nephron-with-labelling-parts-the-
brain-quiz-sagittal-view.jpg
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Lesson 2 Hormonal Coordination
Introduction
One other way parts of the body communicate with each other is through the use of chemical
messengers called hormones. In this lesson you will about where these hormones are produced and
their functions. You will also learn the differences between how hormones work when compared to the
nerve impulses.
LESSON OJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson you should be able to;
• Define a hormone
• Identify and label on the diagram the endocrine glands in the body
• Discuss the main functions of hormones; insulin, glucagon and adrenaline
• Compare the nervous and endocrine systems
Social Context
Kgomotso was walking to the fields and suddenly a lion appeared, “Iyooo! Iyooo!” she shouted as loud
as she could as she climbed a nearby tree. Her heart was beating so fast and her breathing rate was also
faster than normal.
Key Issues
1., So why did Kgomotso’s heart start beating fast as soon as she saw the lion?
2. Why was her breathing rate faster than normal?
All these responses she experienced were due to chemical substances called HORMONES. The
hormone that made her to react this way is called adrenaline. Adrenaline is referred to as a flight or
fight hormone and it prepares the body for action. So, in the above scenario when Kgomotso saw the
lion there was an influx of adrenaline and that affected her body and made her to respond by running
away and also made her heart to beat faster.
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2.1 Hormones
A hormone therefore is described as a chemical substance, produced by an endocrine gland, carried by

the blood, which alters the activity of one or more specific target organs.
The human body produces different hormones at different times, and they affect your body differently.
We are going to discuss the main functions of hormones insulin, glucagon, adrenaline, testosterone,
progesterone and oestrogen. In this lesson we will be also looking at the gland that produces the
hormones and how the hormones affect the body.
2.2 Endocrine Glands and Hormones Produced
The table below summarizes the names of hormones, the glands that produce them, their function and
how they affect the body.
HORMONE GLAND FUNCTION HOW IT AFFECTS THE

BODY
Adrenaline Adrenal Prepares the body for action -It increases the rate and
depth of breathing
-It increases the rate of
heartbeat
-Constricts the blood
vessels carrying the blood
to the gut and skin hence
diverting more blood to the
muscles.
-Promotes the conversion of
the stored glycogen to
glucose to raise blood sugar
levels
Insulin Pancrease Reduces blood glucose level Stimulate liver cells to take
when its high up excess glucose and
convert it to glycogen
Glucagon Pancrease Raises blood glucose level Stimulate liver cells to
when it is low convert stored glycogen to
glucose
Testosterone Testis Controls the production of Growth of beard, muscle
and development of sperms enlargement, deepening of
Causes development of voice
male sexual characteristics
Oestrogen Ovary Development of sexual -Growth of hair under arm
characteristics in females. pits and pubic area
Prepares the uterus for -Growth of breasts,
implantation by making its -Widening of hips
Progesterone Ovary lining thicker and rich in
blood vessels
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Location of Glands in A Human Body
Figure2.2: Endocrine glands Source: https://www.pmfias.com/endocrine-glands-hormones-

hypothalamus-pituitary-gland-thyroid-gland-adrenal-gland-pancreas/
1.3 Comparison Between the Nervous and The Endocrine System
NERVOUS SYSTEM ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Information passes as electrical impulses Information passes as a chemical substance

Transmission is through the nerves Transmission is through blood
Rapid transmission and immediate response Slow transmission and usually slow response
e.g. blinking of the eye e.g. growth
Response short lived Response is long lasting
Response is exact since impulses are sent Response is usually widespread because
directly to target organs hormones are dispersed throughout the body
Sample Questions
1. Define a hormone
2. Which gland produces insulin
Sample Answers
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1. A chemical produced by a gland, carried by blood and have an effect on a specific organ
2. pancreas
1. Explain how a hormone produced by the adrenal gland may affect blood glucose level (3)
2.Explain how the body responds to a meal rich in carbohydrates after the digested food is absorbed
into the blood (4)
3. State two differences between the nervous and endocrine system
SUMMARY
• Hormones are chemicals that are produced by glands in our bodies and they have effect how our
bodies work
• Different glands produce different hormones e.g. insulin is produced by the pancreas, oestrogen
and progesterone produced by the ovaries, adrenal glands secrete adrenalin etc.
REFERENCES
1. 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica
124
Lesson 3 The Use and Abuse of Drugs
Introduction
In this topic you will learn about drugs and their effects on the body. Drugs used for medicinal
purposes to cure or to relieve mild pain, are very helpful to us. However, some people misuse and
abuse drugs, so that they cause harm to themselves and to others around them.
Lesson Objectives
• Define a drug as any substance taken in from an external source to affect or modify chemical
reactions in the body.
• Distinguish between medicinal and non-medicinal drugs.
• Describe the medicinal use of drugs including antibiotics, painkillers, antacids etc.
• Discuss dependence (emotional and physical) and tolerance of medicinal drugs.
• Discuss allergic reactions to drugs and other substances.
• Find out which drugs are commonly abused in the community e.g. dagga/marijuana,
• Describe non-medicinal (abusive) drugs according to their effect on the central nervous system:
depressants, stimulants, hallucinogens.
• Discuss the dangers of drug abuse such as dependence and body tissues damage.
• Classify a named drug of abuse e.g. dagga/marijuana: uses, dangers of taking the drug, signs of
dependence, withdrawal symptoms and popular names
• Describe the dangers of consumption of alcohol: reduced self-control, depressant, effect on
reaction time, damage to liver, social implications.
Social Context (Everyday life experiences)
Kagiso went to a bar to drink beer with his friends. After drinking he could not walk properly. He
tripped, fell and had a deep cut on his forehead. He was taken to the clinic where the nurse applied an
antiseptic on the wound and gave him painkillers and some antibiotics.
Key issues
• Why was walking difficult for Kagiso after drinking?
• Why did the nurse apply the antiseptic to the wound?
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Kagiso had difficulty in walking because beer contains a drug called alcohol which affected
coordination of his muscles. The nurse applied an antiseptic to the wound in order to kill germs that
may cause an infection.
Learner note that the example above captures different drugs. The alcohol is a drug and the antiseptic is
also a drug. There are different types of drugs, but before discussing the types, let us define a drug.
3.1 Definition of Drug
A drug is any substance taken in from an external source to affect or modify chemical reactions in the
body.
There are different types of drugs: medicinal and non-medicinal drugs.
3.2 Uses of Drugs
a) Medicinal drugs
These are drugs that are administered to cure diseases or stop/reduce pain. They are also used to correct
certain deficiencies in the body. These drugs can be helpful if used wisely and under medical
supervision.
Examples:
• Antibiotics – drugs that cure bacterial diseases. These are obtained from other organisms e.g.
Penicillin
• Anti-acids – these are drugs taken to neutralize excess stomach acid.
• Painkillers – these are drugs taken to alleviate pain or suppress the parts of the brain that sense
pain; e.g. aspirin, morphine.
• Sedatives – these are drugs used to calm down a person, or suppress their emotions
(tranquilizers)
b) Non- medicinal drugs

These are drugs that administered for trivial reasons like to induce feelings of excitement, calm or
dizziness. They may be extremely dangerous because they give the Central Nervous System false
impulses. They are also referred to as abusive drugs. Examples include alcohol, marijuana, heroin,
cocaine etc.
3.3 Effects of Drugs
Drugs may cause tolerance and dependence.
a) Tolerance
This is a situation where a drug user who has been taking the drug over a long period of time
has to keep on increasing the dosage so as to get the same effect, he/she had when they started
using the drug.
Example: people who keep on using sleeping pills for a long time may have to increase the dose
from one to two pills in order to get to sleep (i.e. have an effect).
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b) Dependence
This is a situation whereby the user cannot do without the substance. This is mostly common
with non-medicinal drugs (abusive drugs), but some people may become dependent on certain
medicinal drugs e.g. morphine (painkiller). Dependence could be either emotional or physical.
i) Emotional dependence- is when the user feels a strong craving (need) for the drug.
He/she may be bad-tempered, anxious or depressed without it. This is mostly common
amongst cigarette smokers.
ii) Physical dependence – involves the same experiences of emotional dependence plus
some physical symptoms known as withdrawal symptoms. These symptoms appear
when the drug is withheld. They include nausea, vomiting, muscular pains, diarrhoea,
uncontrollable shaking, hallucinations etc. Physical dependence is also known as
addiction.
3.4 Classification of Drugs
There are different types of drugs. They are classified according to their effect on the nervous system.
a) Stimulants
These are drugs that speed up the reactions of the nervous system & make the user more alert,
confident and they prevent sleep. They also reduce sensations of fatigue.
Examples include; nicotine, caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines.
You must have heard about performance-enhancing drugs that enhance sporting performance. In
competitive sports, these drugs are seen as unfair and are usually banned, with those using them
being disqualified. For example, anabolic steroids - anabolic steroids trigger the release of
hormones which promote muscle mass and strength. Different types of steroids target different
muscle groups. In 2018, the Russian Winter Olympic team was disqualified from competing for
taking anabolic steroids to enhance their performance.
b) Depressants / Sedative
These drugs slow down the actions of the nervous system & the brain and cause one to become
sleepy. They suppress the brain & cause relief from emotional tension & anxiety Example
include; alcohol, Valium etc.
c) Hallucinogens
These are drugs change one’s perception. They change the way one sees things and may make
one see imaginary things (hallucinations). One may also have a sense of well-being or may
become detached and seem lonely. Examples include; cannabis (marijuana), LSD (lysergic
acid diethylamide), ecstasy and inhalants like glue and benzene
127
Sample Questions
You have just finished learning about classification of drugs. Please attempt the following questions to
check your understanding. Choose just one answer, a, b, c or d.
1. Which part of the body do the drugs affect the most?

(a) Blood vessels
(b) Liver
(c) Brain
(d) Lungs
2. Sedatives are drugs that

(a) Slow reactions
(b) Give you energy
(c) Speed up reactions
(d) Cause hallucinations
3. Hallucinogens are drugs that

(a) Are used to treat stress and anxiety
(b) Are used as painkillers
(c) Are used as painkillers
(d) Cause hallucinations
4. Stimulants are drugs that

(a) Make you alert and awake
(b) Are used as painkillers
(c) Are not harmful
(d) Slow down your reactions
5. The effects of solvents are similar to which other drug?

(a) Sedatives
(b) Smoking
(c) Alcohol
(d) Stimulants
6. What is an effect of excessive consumption of alcohol in the body?

(a) Damage to the liver
(b) Increased transmission of nevous impulses
(c) Improved eyesight
(d) Increased self-control
Answers to The Sample Questions
1C 2A 3D 4A 5C 6A
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3.5 Dangers of Drug Abuse
Drugs are abused or misused when taken for the wrong reasons and taken in large quantities. The
dangers of drugs abuse on the human body are:
1. It affects excretion, renal vessels decline and as a result waste remains in the body for a long
time.
2. It affects circulation. Drug abuse can lead to low pressure, low heart rate, and hypertension
which can lead to heart failure.
3. Some drugs can cause chronic cough, inflamed throat.
4. Some drugs can cause cancer, bone marrow depression and a decline in RBC production.
3.6 Dangers of Excessive Alcohol Consumption
Alcohol as a depressant slows down the activities of the nervous system. Limited doses of the drug give
a sense of well-being with a relief of anxiety. High does induce sleepiness. Alcohol increases one’s
reaction time, i.e. it makes one react slowly.
3.6.1 Physical effects of alcoholism

• Brain and nerve damage
• Liver damage
• Heart disease
• Cancer of the mouth, throat and liver
• Stomach ulcers
• Obesity and vitamin deficiency
• Loss of muscle coordination
• Underweight babies who may be mentally retarded if taken by expectant mothers
• Miscarriage is also more likely
The picture/figure below demonstrates the effects of alcohol on the liver.
Source: https://www.quitalcohol.com/alcohol-abuse/what-alcohol-does-to-the-liver.html
3.6.2 Social effects of alcoholism
129
• Loss of jobs because people may not turn up for work
• Child and/or spouse abuse
• Theft to secure money for purchasing alcohol
• Rape due to loss of self-control
• Family break-ups due to continual misunderstandings
• Influences promiscuity and therefore spread of HIV/AIDS and other STDs
3.7 Allergies
Sometimes our bodies produce antibodies against harmless substances such as certain foods pollen,
dust, animal hair, clothing material and drugs. Contact may be through touch, swallowing or inhalation.
This is referred to as an allergic reaction (a condition in which the immune system responds to an
allergen). The presence of an allergen in the body stimulates the release of a substance called
histamine. This leads to inflammation and other characteristics of allergy.
3.7.1 Symptoms of an allergic reaction

• Uncontrollable sneezing
• Persistent headache
• Reddish watery eyes
• Nausea and/or vomiting
• Itching body rash
• Blisters
• Localised swelling or sores
Examples of diseases caused by allergies are asthma, hay-fever and eczema (dermatitis). One way of
treating allergies is to give the person an antihistamine drug.
Summary
In this lesson you have learnt that:
- A drug is a substance that, when taken into the body, has an effect on the chemical reactions
that take place. There are a variety of different drugs which are medicinal and non-medicinal.
- Medicinal drugs are used to cure diseases or stop/reduce pain and Non-medicinal drugs are used
for trivial reasons like to induce feelings of excitement, calm or dizziness.
- Drug use may cause dependence and tolerance over time.
- Dangers of drug abuse
- Dangers of excessive alcohol abuse – physical and social effects
- Allergies
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1. Which organ is most often damaged by regularly drinking too much alcohol?
A Heart
B Liver
C Pancreas
D Stomach
2. Which organ breaks down heroin and alcohol?
A Bladder
B Brain
C Kidney
D Liver
3. What is a result of the excessive intake of alcohol?
A Improved self-control
B Liver damage
C Reduced chance of HIV infection
D Shorter reaction time
Heroin is a drug that acts on the nervous system.
4. Define the term drug.
……………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………. (2)
5. Name any two medicinal drugs
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………………. (2)
6. Give two examples of allergens
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………… (2)
7. (a) Name any four examples of non-medical drugs that are abused in Botswana
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
131
……………………………………………………………………………………………… (4)
. Study the bar charts below on five different states showing the effects drunken driving.
b) Which State recorded the highest number of accidents?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (1)
132
UNIT 5: REPRODUCTION
Unit Introduction
Living things reproduce in various ways. Some reproduce sexually while others reproduce asexually. In
this unit you will learn about forms of reproduction, sexual reproduction in flowering plants and sexual
reproduction in mammals.
Unit Contents
Lesson 1 Forms of Reproduction
Lesson 2 Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
Lesson 3 Sexual Reproduction in Animals
133
Lesson 1 Forms of Reproduction
Introduction
In this lesson you will learn about sexual and asexual forms of reproduction. You will also learn about
the advantages and the commercial application of asexual reproduction.
Lesson Objectives
- describe asexual reproduction as the process resulting in the production of genetically identical
offspring from one parent.
- give examples of asexual reproduction in plants and animals.
- describe sexual reproduction as the process involving the fusion of nuclei from two different
gametes to form a zygote
- describe commercially important applications of asexual reproduction in flowering plants
[include stem cuttings in sweet potatoes and grapes, grafting in oranges].
Mpho visited her aunt and noticed that she has a beautiful tree suitable for a shade. She took time and
looked around the tree admiring its beauty. While she was busy moving around the tree her aunt saw
her and asked ‘Do you like the tree? Mpho said yes, my Aunt. Mpho’s aunt said, ‘let me give you a
trick’, cut the branch and go and plant it and make sure you water it daily so that you have the same
tree at your house.
Key Issues
Learner notice that Mpho is able to have a new plant from a cut of a branch without using seeds, this is
asexual reproduction and only one parent is involved to produce new individuals.
The process of reproduction involves making new individuals called off springs. There are two forms
of reproduction; these are Asexual and Sexual Reproduction. Asexual reproduction is the process
resulting in the production of genetically identical offspring from one parent. The offspring is formed
without fertilization.
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1.1 Asexual Reproduction
The examples of asexual reproduction are
1. Bacteria reproduce asexually by binary fission
Fig.1. Illustration of binary fission
Source: D.G Macken
2.Fungi can reproduce asexually by producing spores

3.Potatoes reproduce by making tubers.
4.Strawberry produces long side shoots called runners.
1.2 Artificial propagation
a) Layering
A branch which is still attached to the parent plant is to the pegged onto the ground. The part touching
the ground is covered with the soil, it develops roots and eventually become a new plant. The new plant
is then cut off from the parental. E.g. coffee and some vegetables.
Fig. 2. Illustration of layering
135
source:www.studyguide.pk
b) Cuttings
A short piece of stem with about three nodes and buds is cut and placed into the soil. It develops root
and a new plant is established. E.g. sugarcane, sweet potatoes.
Fig 3. Diagram of cuttings
Source:www.studyguide.pk
Advantages of cuttings
1. Many new plants can be grown in a limited space from a few stock plants
2. It is inexpensive and easy
3. No problem of incompatibility with root stocks or poor graft unions
c) Grafting
It involves uniting two cambium layers which give rise to a new plant with good qualities of the two
different parents. The two cambia have to be correctly attached and two related plants are used. E.g.
orange and lemon.
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Fig. 4 Illustration of grafting
In grafting
• Plants should be capable of uniting and producing a permanent successful union

• Usually confined to dicots; - successful graft union is the close matching of the callus-
producing tissues near the cambium layers
• Scion of one peach plant could be grafted successfully to another peach plant
Compatibility between species in the same genus depends upon the particular genotype combination of
stock and scion. Stock and scion should be of closely related plants as they readily unite and grow as
one plant
Reasons for grafting and budding
1. Obtaining the benefits of certain root stocks
2. Repairing damaged parts of trees
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Sample Questions
1. Fig. 1.1 shows commercial application of asexual reproduction.
Fig.1.1 Source: BGCSE
(a) Name this type of asexual reproduction.
Grafting
(b) Why is this method regarded as asexual reproduction?
There is no fusion of gametes/fertilisation
(c) Give two reasons why the bark around the cut surface is covered with grease.
1. To eliminate moisture that promotes fungal/ bacterial attack
2. To reduce water from the plant through the cut surface
(d) Why is it important for the woody parts of the scion to be in contact before tying the two together.
So that phloem and xylem vessels are in contact for transport of food and water between stock and
scion.
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Summary
Advantages of asexual reproduction
a. Offspring is provided with food by the parent

b. Offspring may develop where there are plenty of nutrients and good growing conditions
c. New variety of fruits may be developed
d. Desirable characteristics are maintained e.g. diseases resistance and high yields
Disadvantages of asexual reproduction
a) Diseases are more likely to spread from one generation to the other
b) Offspring competes for nutrients
c) Pests can easily establish themselves
NB: In vegetative propagation; parts used are leaf cuttings, root cuttings, shoot or twig, stem cuttings,
vegetative buds, plant cells / tissues / organs and storage organs (tubers, suckers, bulbs, corms,
rhizomes).
Plants propagated by cuttings are rose, sugar cane, cassava, tea, sweet potato, mulberry and hibiscus.
Comparing Asexual and Sexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

Produces genetically identical offspring Produces genetically dissimilar offspring
No fertilisation is involved Fertilisation is involved
No genetic variation There is genetic variation
One parent is involved Two parents are involved
1. (a) State two advantages of asexual reproduction.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(b) Complete Table 1.1 by filling in two named methods of asexual reproduction and examples of
plants where they can be applied.
Method example
1.
2.
[4]
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Lesson 2 Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
Introduction
Flowering plants reproduce sexually through formation of seeds in reproductive structures called
flowers. In this lesson you will acquire knowledge of reproductive parts of flowering plants. You will
also learn about the processes of pollination, fertilisation and seed dispersal.
Learning Objectives
- observe using a hand lens the sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels of the flower and draw the parts.
- describe types of pollination.
- compare functions of fruits and seeds in terms of dispersal and protection of seeds.
- describe the structure and function of parts of a non-endospermic seed in terms of embryo, (radicle
and plumule) cotyledons and Testa.
- investigate the environmental conditions (oxygen, water and temperature) which affect
germination of seeds.
- describe the growth of the pollen tube and its entry into the ovule followed by fertilisation.
- describe the role of amylase in seed germination.
Mpho is passionate with gardening. Interestingly Mpho noticed that the tomatoes in her garden made
flowers before they could make new tomatoes. Insects make frequent visits to the flowers.
Key Issues
Learner you should realise that tomato plant will be able to make a fruit after it had formed a flower. A
flower attracts insects e.g. bees by its coloured and scented petals. Insets visit flowers in search of
nectar and as they do this, they pick up pollen grains from the flower with hair on their body and
deposit it in another flower. A fruit will be formed after the male and female nuclei fuse (fertilisation).
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A flower is a reproductive structure of a plant. Most flowers produce the male and female sex cells that
fuse during fertilization to form a fruit and seed.
2.1 Structure of A Flower
Source: :BGCSE revision book
Part Structure Function
Sepals Are usually green, leaf-like Protect the flower at bud stage.
structures
They are green and can photosynthesis
(food for the flower)
Petals - Large, brightly colored and Attracts insects for pollination

scented (insect pollinated)
- no or dull colored petals, small

and some have bracts (wind
pollinated)
Stamen
- anther Oval structure at end of filament Produce and contain pollen grains
Stalk-like structure which bears

- filament anther
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Supports anther and hold it in position
Carpel or pistil
- stigma May be small & sticky OR large Receives pollen during pollination
& feathery
Connects stigma to the ovary
- style Stalk-like structure between
stigma and ovary
- ovary Round structure at base of style - Produce & contain ovules
- Where fertilization occurs
2.2 Pollination
It is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma.
2.2.1 Agents of pollination
a) Wind
b) Insects
Insect- pollinated flowers Wind- pollinated flowers
- Colorful, scented petals - dull coloured petals ,not scented
-large petals -small/not easily seen
-nectar produced -no nectar produced
- Anthers and stigma are within the petal - Anthers hang outside petal
- Produce small amounts of sticky pollen - Produce large amounts of smooth pollen
- Has small anther - Has large anther
- Has small lobed stigma - Has large feathery stigma
-small number of pollens produced -very large number of pollens produced
2.2.2 Types of pollination
There are two types: cross and self

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a) Cross pollination is where pollen from anther of a flower from one plant is transferred to the
stigma of a flower of another plant of the same species. It results in more variation.
b) Self-pollination is where pollen from anther lands onto the stigma of the same flower OR
where pollen from anther of one flower is transferred to the stigma of anther flower within the
same plant.
NB; Cross pollination is favoured by plants. It is used in the production of crops with combination of
desirable traits. It brings about variation in plants, prevents spread of genetically diseases and produces
healthier offspring.
2.3 Formation of fruit and seeds
After pollination, pollen grains germinate to form pollen tube. Petals and other parts that were
necessary for pollination dry out and fall. The carpel remains attached to the calyx.
It is worth noting that plants secrets different combinations of sugars at the stigma. These sugars are
used to identify members of the same species in order for the development of the pollen tube. If a
pollen grain of a totally different plant species falls on the stigma, no pollen tube develops.
The pollen tube grows down the style to the ovary. Pollen tube transports the pollen nucleus (haploid)
to the ovule (haploid). The pollen nucleus and the ovule carry half the total number of chromosomes
that is haploid in genetical terms. Enzymes at the tip of tube digest tissues on its way, allowing it to
grow towards the ovary.
Source: Complete Biology. W.R. Pickering
On reaching the ovary, the pollen tube enters the ovule through a micropyle passing the pollen nucleus
into the ovule. The pollen and ovule nuclei fuse forming a zygote (diploid). Diploid means a complete
(full) no. of chromosomes. The fertilized ovules form seeds and the ovary develops into a fruit.
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2.4 Seeds (Bean Seed)
Seed is the embryo of a plant.
It consists of a radicle, plumule, cotyledon and testa.
Source: Introduction to Biology. D.G. Mackean
a. Radicle (embryonic root); grows and develops into the root system.
b. Plumule (embryonic shoot); grows and develops into the shoot system.
c. Testa (tough hard seed coat); protects seed from attack and damage by fungi, bacteria and insects.
d. Cotyledon (food reserve); stores food for the embryo.
2.5 Seed Dispersal
It is the spread of seed away from the parent plants.
2.5.1 Advantages or importance of dispersal
a. Prevents overcrowding, reducing competition for space, nutrients and light
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b. Enables plants to colonize new areas, increasing chances of survival
c. Minimize the spread of diseases
d. Prevent establishment of pests.
e. New plants may grow in better growing conditions than the parent
2.5.2 Agents of dispersal
a) Wind
b) Animal
c) water
d) Self
Wind dispersed seeds or fruits
1. Seeds and fruits are small and light in weight, enable them to be blown away from the parent.
2. Seed have extended Testa and fruits have extended pericarp to provide large surface area. These
allow them to float in air / wind and carried a long distance.
Animal dispersed fruits or seeds
1. Fruits have coloured, sweet, juicy (succulent) and edible pericarp to attract animals.
2. Seeds and fruits have hooks or spines to attach to animal fur or clothing.
3. Some seeds have hard or enzyme resistant Testa which passes through the gut intact.
Water dispersed seeds or fruits
1. Fruits have thick, fibrous meso-carp with numerous air spaces. E.g. coconut fruit
2. Seeds have spongy Testa with air spaces in them. E.g. white mangrove seed
Self-dispersed fruits or seeds
1. Their pericarps dry at unequal rate causing tension which split open the fruit.
Seeds may fail to germinate after dispersal due to several factors such as rotting, damage to the
embryo, dormancy and conditions not favourable.
2.6 Germination
It is when the embryo begins to grow.
NB; cotyledon above the ground = epigeal
Cotyledon below the ground = hypogeal
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Source: GCSE Biology. D.G. Mackean
Seeds germinate when some conditions available and are favourable. Some environmental conditions
necessary for germination are oxygen, suitable temperature and water.
Conditions necessary for germination
Water
It is needed to soften the Testa. It enters through a micropyle, the seed swells and it burst open for easy
emergence of radicle. The process whereby an embryo takes in water through the micropyle is known
as imbibition. Water also activates enzymes within the seed which make it soluble for use by the
growing embryo.
Oxygen
It enters the seed through a micropyle or broken Testa. It is needed for respiration of the embryo which
releases energy for its proper growth and to break open the hard seed coat (Testa).
Suitable temperature
It is needed for effective functioning of the enzymes. It is also important for proper growth of the
embryo. If enzymes are exposed to extreme temperatures, they are denatured, and very low
temperatures deactivate them.
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Role of Amylase and other enzymes in germination
Enzymes digest the stored food making it soluble, so that the growing embryo can be able to use it. The
digested food is then transported in solution form to the growing regions of the embryo.
Amylase is an enzyme which digests starch into maltose. The maltose will be digested with the help of
maltase to glucose. Plants use glucose in respiration to release energy used in growth and to break open
the hard seed coat (Testa). Amino acids are used for making cytoplasm of new cells and proper growth.
Fatty acids and glycerol are used in making cell membranes and for energy.
Sample Questions
1. Fig.1.1 shows parts of a flower.
(a) (i) Name the agent of pollination for this flower. [1]
Wind
(ii) Give two reasons for your answer in a(i) [2]
1. feathery stigma
2. stamens are loosely hanging out of the petal/ long filament
(b)(ii) What does the ovule develop into after fertilisation? [1]
Seeds
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(c) Describe the path taken by the pollen grain nucleus from the stigma to the region where fertilisation
takes place. [3]
- pollen grain develop pollen tube
- pollen tube contain pollen grain nucleus
- pollen tube grows down the style and enter the ovule.
2. Fig. 2.1 shows longitudinal section of a bean seed.
Fig. 2.1 Source: Cambridge International Examinations
(a) Name the structures P and Q. [2]
P: plumule
Q: radicle
(b) Describe how you would show that the cotyledons contain protein. [3]
-cut/crush the cotyledon into smaller pieces and put the pieces into a boiling water. Add few drops of
water to the boiling tube and shake to make a solution of food sample. Then add few drops of Sodium
hydroxide solution and shake, then add few drops of Copper sulphate solution and shake. Observe the
colour change. If a purple/violet colour is observed protein is present, if a blue colour is observed
protein is absent.
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(c) Describe how structure P and Q are able to use the starch stored in the cotyledons.[3]
Amylase in cotyledon digest starch to maltose and further changed to glucose by maltase. Glucose is
then reacting with oxygen to release energy during respiration. Structure P and Q use the energy for
cell division.
(d) The seed in Fig.2.1 formed inside the ovary of a flower. As the seed develops in the flower, water is
withdrawn from it so that it becomes almost dry. Suggest why this is important.
-to stop the seed to germinate
-to prevent fungal and bacterial attack since they prefer a humid environment
-for seed dormancy.
3. Fig.3.1 shows changes in mass of sets of pea seeds as they germinate and grow into seedlings, after
germination set B was grown in the dark and set Q in the light.
Fig. 3.1 Changes in mass of a seed during germination
Source: Complete Biology.P.W. Pickering
i) Why is mass measured as dry mass? [1 mark]
Wet mass varies according to the amount of water absorbed of lost from the plant, or dry mass
represents the amount of cytoplasm.
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ii) Explain the changes in dry mass between days X and Y in both sets of
seedling. [4 marks]
- the dry mass drops between days X and Y for both sets of
seedlings
- food stored in the cotyledons
- is used to supply energy
- through respiration
- some food is converted into other materials
- for growth of the radical and plumule.
iii) Explain why there is a difference in the dry mass of set P and Q between day Y and Z. [4 marks]
- set Q increases in dry mass and st P decreases in mass

- set Q is in the light and can photosynthesise
- to make new cytoplasm
- set P is in the dark and cannot photosynthesise
- set P uses up remaining food stores through respiration.
SUMMARY
150
1. Fig.1.1 shows the female part of a flower after fertilisation.
151
(a) On Fig. 2.1, label structure P and Q. [2]
(b) On Fig.2.1, mark with an X the position where the female gamete is found.[1]
(c) Describe the process that occurs after pollination and finishes when fertilisation takes place. [3]
(d) What does Q become after fertilisation. [1]
2. (a) Fig. 2.1 shows a sugar cane flower that is wind pollinated.
Fig.3.1 Source: International Cambridge Examinations

152
(i) Name structures X and Y.
X ...............................................................................................................................
Y ...........................................................................................................................[2]
(ii) Explain how a feature, visible in Fig. 3.1, suggests that this flower is wind
pollinated.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................[2]
(iii) Suggest two other features in which the sugar cane flower might be different from
an insect-pollinated flower.
1. ...............................................................................................................................
2. ...........................................................................................................................[2]
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Lesson 3 Sexual Reproduction in Mammals
Introduction
Mammals reproduce sexually through fusion of gametes. In this lesson you will learn about human
reproductive parts and their functions. You will also learn about the menstrual cycle, fertilisation and
development of the zygote.
Learning Objectives:
- use a diagram of the male reproductive system to identify testes, scrotum, sperm ducts, prostate
gland, seminal vesicle, Cowper’s gland, urethra and penis.
- describe the functions of the testes, scrotum, sperm ducts, prostate gland, urethra and penis.
- use a diagram of the female reproductive system to identify ovaries, oviducts, uterus, cervix, vagina
and bladder.
- describe the functions of the ovaries, oviducts, uterus, cervix and vagina.
- discuss the menstrual cycle and factors affecting it.
- describe fertilisation and early development of the zygote in terms of the formation of a ball of cells
which becomes implanted in the wall of the uterus.
- discuss the functions of the placenta and umbilical cord in relation to exchange of dissolved nutrients,
gases and wastes
Social Context 1
At school and public places, a girl will not use the boy’s toilet and the same is for the boys. Why is that
so? I will agree with you that they are girls or boys and that is why they have to use their relevant
toilets. And how do you know they are boys or girls?
Key Issues
Learner you will agree with me that a girl or boy is identified by parts of female and male reproductive
system respectively. In this lesson you will learn about these parts and their functions.
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The pictures usually displayed in the public places usually infer to the gender of individuals which in
actually fact are informing us about their reproductive system orientation. The reproductive system is
used to classify human being as male or female.
3.1 The Male Reproductive System
Source: GCSE Biology. D.G. Mackean
Functions of Parts
1. Testes – they produce sperms & the hormone testosterone

2. Scrotum – a special sac outside the abdominal cavity containing testes. At this position testes
are kept at a temperature slightly below the body temperature. This is the best temperature for
sperm production
3. Sperm ducts – carry sperm from the testes to the urethra
4. Prostate gland – it secretes a fluid that activates & feed sperm.
5. Seminal vesicle – it secretes a fluid that activates and aids in sperm mobility
6. Urethra – it carries urine & semen (fluid containing sperms) out of the male’s body
7. Epididymis – A coiled tube that stores sperms
8. Penis – It is used to deposit sperms into the female’s vagina during sexual intercourse
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3.2 The Female Reproductive System
Source: GCSE Biology.D.G. Mackean
Functions of Parts
1. Ovaries – they produce ova (eggs) and the hormones Oestrogen & progesterone
2. Oviducts – the tube through which the ova pass when released from the ovary. It is also a region
where fertilization occurs.
3. Uterus – the region where the embryo is implanted after fertilization in the oviduct
4. Cervix – A ring of muscle closing the lower end of the uterus where it joins the vagina. It
dilates / widens during child birth.
5. Vagina – it accommodates (receives) the penis during sexual intercourse. It is where sperms are
deposited from the male and also serves as a birth canal.
Social Context 2
At school a guidance and counselling teacher had a girl talk. During the girl talk.
Naledi asks “what is puberty?” and the teacher asked if anyone can answer. Neo volunteered to answer.
Neo explained “puberty is when our bodies become sexually mature and certain changes begin to
appear like menstruation. In this state of our body we can fall pregnant when we indulge in unprotected
sex, forming a baby in the womb.
Key Issues
Learner realise that both boys and girls reach puberty. Menstruation begins in girls when they reach
puberty. In this lesson you will learn on the menstrual cycle. It is the fusion of male and female sex
cells that brings pregnancy, formation of a new baby.
156
3.3 Menstrual Cycle
- Usually, one egg is released from an ovary every month. Before the egg is released, the lining
of the uterus becomes thick and spongy to prepares for a fertilised egg. It is full of tiny blood
vessels, ready to supply the embryo with food and oxygen if it should arrive.
- If the egg is not fertilised, it is dead by the time it reaches the uterus.
- Is does not sink into the spongy wall, but continues onwards, down through the vagina.
- As the spongy lining is not needed now ---> it gradually disintegrates and is slowly lost through
the vagina.
- This is called menstruation, or period and it last for about 5 days.
The menstrual cycle in women is a recurring process in which the lining f

the uterus is prepared for pregnancy, and if pregnancy does not happen, the
lining is shed at menstruation. The cycle lasts about 28 days.The menstrual cycle is under the control of
several hormones, two of these hormones are from the ovaries, progesterone and Oestrogen. The
157
other two are from the pituitary gland and these are Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and
Luteinizing hormone (LH).
Menstrual cycle is affected by diet, stress, anxiety, excitement
158
3.4 Pregnancy
After implantation, the embryo develops supportive structures that help it to absorb nutrients from the
uterus. These structures are the:
Amnion
The amnion or amniotic sac is a membrane which encloses the embryo or foetus and is filled with
amniotic fluid.
Amniotic fluid serves the following functions:
- shock-absorber, protecting the foetus against injury or damage

- supports the foetus and allows it to move freely during growth
- lubricate the birth canal during birth
Placenta
It is the site for exchange of substances between the mother’s blood and the foetus
Blood from the foetus passes through the umbilical cord in the umbilical artery to the placenta.
Here it comes close to the mother's blood. Transport O2 + nutrients (amino acids, glucose…) from
mother to foetus
Transport CO2 + wastes (urea) from foetus to mother (through
umbilical vein).
Reasons for separating maternal and foetal blood;
• their blood groups may be different, so this prevent agglutination which is fatal
• Mother’s blood pressure is high and may burst the delicate fetal capillaries
• prevent some harmful substances to pass to the fetus
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SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1.Fig. 1.1 shows the male reproductive system.
Source: International Cambridge Examinations
(a) Name the parts labelled A, B and C. [3]

A penis
B sperm duct
C urethra
(b) What is the difference between structure B and C. [1]
Structure B carries semen from testis while Structure C passes semen and urine.
2. Fig.2.1 shows part of female reproductive system.
(a) (i) Name the parts labelled P and Q. [2]
160
P: uterus/womb
Q: vagina
(ii) Name the process occurring at region R. [1]
ovulation
(iii) Which hormone, secreted by structure S, influences the occurrence of the process in (a)(ii) [1]
oestrogen
3. A woman has a 28-day menstrual cycle. She starts her menstruation on 10th October. (a) On which
date is the woman most likely to fall pregnant?
10 + 14days= 24
24 October. NB. Ovulation occurs on 14th day of menstrual cycle.
(b) when is the next menstruation?
10 + 28 days = 38 days
Its 16 November (NB. Menstrual cycle has 28 days)
4. Fig. 2.1 shows the development of a zygote into a foetus.
Fig.2.1 BGCSE 2017
(a) (i) Name the process that results in the formation of a zygote.[1]
Fertilisation
(ii) ln which part of the female reproductive system is structure F found?

Fallopian tube/oviduct
161
(b) (i) State the name of the structure labelled J.
Umblical artery (not arrows of blood flow on the diagram)
(ii) A pregnant woman was found to have her foetus not growing well and the foetus
moving less than expected.
Suggest how the malfunctioning of structure J may have led to this.
Shortage of supply of oxygen and food. Inefficient removal of wastes from the fetus
5. Fig.3.1 shows a fetus developing in the uterus.
Source: BGCSE
(a) (i) Name parts labelled A and B. [2]

A: umbilical cord B: cervix
(ii) Outline three functions of the placenta. [3]

- transfers O2 from mother to foetus
- transfers nutrients (of named nutrients) from mother to foetus
- transfers CO2 from foetus to mother
- transfers wastes (or named wastes) from foetus to mother
- allows the transfer of antibodies from mother to foetus
- prevents mixing of the blood of mother and foetus.
(iii) The blood of the foetus and that of the mother flow close to each other in the placenta, but do not
mix. State two advantages to the foetus of having a separate blood system from that of the mother.
Helps prevent bacteria passing from mother to foetus, the blood group
of mother and foetus may be different.
162
STUDENT TASK QUESTIONS
1.Fig. 1.1 summarises the early stages of sexual reproduction in an animal.
Source: International Cambridge Examinations
(i) (ii)
Name the type of cells shown at R.
...................................................................
(ii) Name the process occurring at S. ............................................................................
(iii) Name the type of cell shown at T. .........................................................................[3]
(iii) Suggest what happens after stage W in Fig. 2.1 when two
genetically identical offspring
are produced.
.........................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................[1]
2. Match the following words: testis, oviduct, uterus, penis, semen, scrotum and ureter with the
phrases below. [5]
(a) where a fetus develops…………………………………………………………
(b) the liquid that contain sperms………………………………………………..
I produces sperms………………………………………………………………
(d) where fertilisation takes place………………………………………………
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I passes semen into female during sexual intercourse………………………
3 Fig. 2.1 shows the female reproductive system.
Fig.2.1Source: International Cambridge Examinations
(iv) Name the structures labelled A and B.

A .....................................................................................................................................
B ............................................................................................................................... [2]
(b) Label, on Fig. 2.1, with the appropriate letter, where

(i) fertilisation normally occurs – F. [1]
(ii) gametes are produced – G. [1]
(viii) oestrogen is produced – O. [1]
164
Lesson 4 Methods of Birth Control
Introduction
Sometimes engagement in sexual intercourse by couple result in unwanted or unplanned pregnancies.

In this lesson you acquire knowledge about the use of a variety of birth control methods.
Lesson Objectives
- discuss the following methods of birth control: natural, mechanical/physical, chemical/hormonal and
surgical.
- describe the causes, transmission, symptoms/signs, effects and treatment of gonorrhoea, syphilis and
HIV/AIDS.
- discuss the control of the spread of sexually transmitted diseases (gonorrhoea, syphilis and
HIV/AIDS)
Social Context
In an HIV and AIDS campaign learners were encouraged to abstain as number one priority or use
condoms lest they have children before the right time and contact STIs.
Key Issues
Birth control methods or contraceptives prevent pregnancy. There are a variety of methods of birth
control namely natural, physical, chemical and surgical.
They are grouped into 4 categories; natural, chemical, mechanical / barrier and surgical.
Most of these methods do not protect against sexually transmitted infections (STI).
4.1. Natural methods
a) Withdrawal: man removes his penis from the vagina before ejaculation
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The method is not good since pregnancy can occur. Some sperm are released early, and man may find
it difficult to stop in time.
b) Abstinence: Refraining from sex or not having sexual intercourse
The method is the best for preventing both pregnancy & STI.
c) Rhythm or safe period: Avoiding copulation around the time of ovulation.
This is a poor method because timing of ovulation can vary from month to month due to some factors.
4.2. Mechanical methods
a) Intra uterine device (IUD): A plastic coil or loop inserted into the uterus by a doctor or a nurse. It
prevents the fertilized egg from implanting in the uterus.
The method is usually recommended for women who already have children. It can cause uterine
infections, heavier periods and more period pain
b) Condoms:
(i) Male condom: A rubber sheath fitted over the erect penis. It traps sperm at its tip during ejaculation
preventing them getting into the woman’s body. It must be used with the spermicidal. It also protects
against STIs.
(ii) Female condom: A hollow sheath inserted into the vagina before copulation. It has to be inserted
correctly and during sex the woman directs the penis with her hand.
c) Diaphragm: A rubber cap fitted over the cervix before sexual intercourse. It prevents the sperm
from reaching the uterus. It must be used with the spermicidal and must be correctly inserted. It is left
in the body for a minimum of 4 hours after sex to allow more time for sperm to be killed.
4.3. Chemical Methods
a) Contraceptive pill: A pill with hormones similar to ones produced by the body. It stops ovulation.
It is taken by a woman every day and as prescribed by a doctor. The method is good and needs medical
supervision.
b) Spermicidal: A chemical that kill or immobilize sperm. It must be used with condom or diaphragm.
It is placed inside the vagina before copulation. It may be in the form of foam, cream or jelly.
c) Injection: A chemical / hormone injected into the woman every 6 months. It stops ovulation. It is
usually recommended to women who already have children because the chemical can stay longer in the
body. E.g.; Depo- Prover
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4.4. Surgical methods
a) Tubal ligation: Where oviducts are cut & tied so that sperm cannot reach the ovum for fertilization.
b) Vasectomy: Where a small incision or operation is made into the scrotum and sperm ducts are cut
and tied. This blocks pathway for sperm. The ejaculated fluid will be seminal fluid only.
The method is irreversible, and it is recommended for couples who do not want to have children or
have completed their families.
Sample Questions
1. Fig. 1.1 shows the male reproductive system.
(a) Name the structures labelled A and B. [2]

A: ureter B: urethra
(b) Label on Fig. 1.1, with the appropriate letter, where

(i) seminal fluid is produced – S. seminal vesicle [1]
(ii) gametes are formed – G. testis [1]
(iii) testosterone is produced – T. testis [1]
(c) Identify with an X, on Fig. 1.1, where surgery would normally be carried out to bring
about birth control. Sperm duct
2. Birth control methods can be classified as either; natural, chemical, mechanical or

surgical. Complete the boxes by stating the appropriate class of the methods in Fig. 2.1.
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Physical, chemical
4.5 Sexually Transmitted Infections
Some diseases are usually passed on from one person to another when couples engage in unprotected
sexual intercourse. Such diseases are called sexually transmitted infections. Some of the diseases, their
causes, transmission, symptoms and treatment are discussed below.
4.5.1 Gonorrhoea
Cause: bacterium, Neisseria gonorrhoea
Transmission; unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected person
Symptoms:
There is an incubation period of 9-10 days before the appearance of the first symptoms.
(i) Male; - burning sensation when passing urine due to inflammation of urethra
- greenish yellow discharge of pus from penis or difficulty in urination due to narrowing
of urethra
(ii) Female; - no obvious symptom but a greenish yellow discharge of pus from the vagina. In
later stages, infection may spread from vagina to uterus and oviducts.
Effects; Sterility and baby born blind
Treatment; Antibiotic penicillin
Control & Prevention: Abstinence, using condom every time during sexual intercourse, being
faithful and having one sexual partner, and early treatment of infected persons
4.5.2 Syphilis
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Cause: bacterium
Transmission: unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected person
Symptoms
Stage 1; painless sores appear on site of infection/entry (penis, vagina, cervix), 3 weeks after infection.
The sores disappear after few weeks with or without treatment.
Stage 2; 2-6 months after infection, non-itchy skin rash appears with sores on the mouth, throat and
genitals. Bald patches appear on the head and lymph glands become swollen. These symptoms
disappear after some time, but the bacteria remain dormant in the body.
Stage 3; The bacteria infect / damage internal (brain, liver, heart). Patient may suffer from heart failure
and blindness. Damage of the brain and spinal cord may result in paralysis, insanity or death.
Effects; Insanity, paralysis and death.
Treatment; penicillin
Control & Prevention: Abstinence, using condom every time during sexual intercourse, being faithful
and having one sexual partner, and early treatment of infected persons
4.5.3 Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
Cause: Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
Transmission; - unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected person
- sharing unsterilized sharp objects (razors, needles) with an infected person

- blood transfusion using infected blood
- mother-to-child during pregnancy, birth & breast feeding
Symptoms; chronic fever, severe diarrhoea lasting for months, pneumonia, brain infections,
tuberculosis, loss of weight.
Effect; insanity and death
Treatment; none or no cure
Control; ARV therapy
Prevention; Avoid sharing of sharp objects and sterilizing them before use etc.
HIV attacks the immune system making it weak. The body then fails to defend itself against infections
and opportunistic diseases attack. Weakening of immune system eventually leads to AIDS.
HIV – person has no virus in the blood. The person has to keep the status by living positively.
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HIV+ person has the virus in the body but does not show symptoms of the disease. The patient can live
longer, more than 10 years, if he/she lives positively by abstaining, using a condom every time and
eating well, balanced diet.
AIDS patient shows symptoms of the disease.
Sample Questions
1. Complete Table 1.1 on Sexual Transmitted Infections (STI’s)
STI CAUSE SIGN/SYMPTOM TREATMENT
(A)Gonorrhoea
(B)Syphilis
(C)HIV and AIDS
Answers to Sample Questions
1.(A) bacteria, burning urine, antibiotics
(B) bacteria, body rash to damaged nerves, antibiotics
(C) virus (HIV), weight loss/frequent diarrhoea, no treatment
Summary
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• Gonorrhoea and syphilis are caused by bacteria while hiv and aids is caused by a virus.
1.Describe two methods of birth control that can be used by a male person. [2]
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. (a) After fertilisation and implantation in mammals, the placenta and umbilical cord develop.
(i) What is the advantage of having a dense network of blood capillaries in the placenta?
…………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(ii) State the function of the umbilical cord.
………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(b) Describe a permanent method that can be used by a woman to prevent pregnancy.
…………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(c) Explain why this method cannot prevent HIV infection.
…………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(d) Give one way in which HIV can be transmitted other than sexual contact.
………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
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3. Complete the Table 3.1 on the methods of birth control.
METHOD OF BIRTH TYPE OF HOW DOES ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE

CONTROL METHOD OF IT WORK
BIRTH
CONTROL
Sperm cannot It is permanent
be passed out
through
urethra
(a)
(b) Chemical
(c)Injection
Prevents
pregnancy
(d)
Natural No sexual None
(e) contact
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UNIT 6: LIVING THINGS AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Unit Introduction
The ecosystems are made up of living and non-living things that live together or depend on each other.
In this unit acquire knowledge on how energy flows throughout the ecosystems. You will also learn
about how human activities affect the environment, how to conserve the natural resources in the
environment.
Unit Contents
This unit consists of two topics and three lessons developed from the topics.
Lesson 1 Ecology
Lesson 2 Effects of Human Activities on The Environment
Lesson 3 Conservation
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Lesson 1 Ecology
Introduction
Living organisms depend on their environment to obtain energy sources. The principal source of
energy for all living organisms is the Sun. In this lesson you will learn about how energy flows from
one organism to another in food chains or food webs.
Learning Objectives
- Describe the importance of the Sun as principal source of energy for biological systems
- Describe energy flow through an ecosystem
Social Context
Motheo is a maize farmer. He waits for the rains to fall in November to plant his maize crops. The
maize germinates and grows so well in summer. In autumn he harvests a lot of green mealies that he
sells at the market. At the same time his farm was attacked by a swarm of grasshoppers. He used a
pesticide to kill the grasshoppers. After controlling the grasshoppers his farm, he found many dead
doves and cats in his farm.
Key Issues
• Plants grow well in summer

• Plants produce food that is eaten by other living organisms
• Organisms reproduce in high numbers when there is plenty of food
• Chemicals can be used in farms to control pests
The sun is the main source of energy for all ecosystems. The light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll in
plants. The plants then convert the light energy into chemical energy during photosynthesis. Other
organisms get energy when they feed on plants either directly. Plants are therefore called producers
since they make their own food. Organisms such as grasshoppers that feed on plants are called
consumers. The grasshoppers were killed by the pesticide that was applied on the maize. The doves that
ate the dead grasshoppers also died. The pesticide in the dead doves also killed the cats that ate them.
Chemicals that are used to control pests in farms end up killing other organisms that were not targeted.
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1.1 Source of Energy to Biological Systems
Where does the energy in the food we eat come from? You are correct if you answered that the energy
comes from the sun. The sun is the principal source of energy to all biological systems.
How is the energy from the sun used by biological systems?
Light energy from the sun is converted to chemical by green plants so that it can be used by living
organisms. This energy conversion from light to chemical energy takes place through the process of
photosynthesis. Through photosynthesis green plants produce a sugar called glucose which contains
chemical potential energy. The glucose is used by plant cells as an energy source for activities like
growth and reproduction. The remaining glucose is stored in plant tissues in the form of carbohydrates
such as starch and cellulose.
1.2 Energy Flow Through Ecosystems
Green plants produce glucose and they use it to provide chemical energy for their cells. Where do other
living organisms that do not photosynthesize get the glucose they need for energy?
Answer: _____________________________________________
You are correct if you stated that the non-photosynthesizing organisms obtain the glucose through
feeding on plants and other organisms. The eaten plant material or meat are digested to get the glucose
as a final product. The glucose is then used by the non-photosynthesizing organisms to obtain energy.
For example.
When grasshoppers eat the leaves of maize crops and grass, they obtain glucose that is used for energy
production. Any excess glucose after energy production is converted to glycogen, fat or used to make
other parts of grasshopper cells. When the doves eat the grasshoppers, they obtain the glycogen and
other carbohydrates which they digest into glucose. The doves then use the glucose for energy
production.
Do you realize that energy that is contained in carbohydrate molecules is passed from one organism to
another during feeding? This is called energy flow. Green plants that manufacture glucose or
carbohydrates are called PRODUCERS. The other organisms that feed on the carbohydrates in the
plant tissues or meat from other organism are called CONSUMERS.
Consumers are ranked depending on how far they are from the producers in the feeding relay. The
primary consumer feeds on the producer. They are also called HERBIVORES. The organism that
feeds on the primary consumer is called the Secondary Consumer. The Tertiary Consumer feeds on the
secondary consumer. Secondary and tertiary consumers are mostly Carnivores and Omnivores. The last
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consumers in the feeding relay are usually decomposers, that is the bacteria and fungi that feed on the
dead remains of plants and animals.
A single path taken by energy as it flows from a producer through organism is an ecosystem is called a
FOOD CHAIN. A food chain can be represented through a flow diagram as shown in the example
below.
1._____________
2. _____________ 3. ____________ 4. _________
The arrows show the direction of energy flow and feeding levels. Food chains always start with a plant
or producer.
Activity 2.
(a) Please fill in the spaces 1,2, 3 and 4 under the food chain above with words Primary Consumer,
Tertiary Consumer, Secondary Consumer and Producer.
(b) Using organisms of your choice draw a food chain with three feeding levels in the space below.
Activity 2 answers
a) 1-Producer, 2-Primary Consumer, 3-Secondary Consumer, 4-Tertiary Consumer
There are many food chains in the existing ecosystems. A single organism can belong to many food
chains. This shows how organisms depend on many other organisms for food. The network of food
chains in an ecosystem is called a FOOD PYRAMID. Food webs start with a number of producers and
have many consumers belonging to the network of food chains. An example of a food web is shown in
the space below.
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The amount of energy, the number of organisms at each feeding level or their biomass reduces as one
goes up the food chain. When these parameters at each feeding level are represented by rectangles and
stacked above each other, they produce a pyramid. Examples of the food pyramids are shown below.
A pyramid of numbers is a made from the number of organisms at the feeding levels of a food chain. A
pyramid of biomass is produced when the biomass of organism at the feeding levels are used. The same
principle applies to the pyramid of energy.
Only about 10% of energy is passed on from one organism to another in a food chain. This causes
most food chains to have about five organisms so that organisms at the end of the food chain do not
receive very little energy. The little energy passed on also causes organisms to reproduce less. There
are lesser and lesser numbers of organisms up the food chain.
Nutrient Cycles
Energy cannot be recycled because it reduces when it flows up the food chains and food webs.
Elements in nutrients are not destroyed during feeding or assimilation into the bodies of organisms. As
such they are recycled or used over and over again by living organism. Some of the nutrient elements
that are recycled are Carbon which is found in carbohydrates and Nitrogen which is found in proteins.
The diagram below shows how Carbon is recycled in the ecosystems.
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Figure 6.1 Carbon cycle (Source: https://www.researchgate.net%2Ffigure%2FSimplified-schematic-
of-the-carbon-cycle)
Sample Questions
Q1. State the process that remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
Photosynthesis
Q2. How do animals obtain carbon from green plants?
Feeding
Q3. Which process adds the highest amount of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere?
Combustion
Q4. How will deforestation affect the carbon cycle?
There will be less photosynthesis and there will be more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
Q5. Give three examples of fossil fuels
Coal, oil, natural gas
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Sample Questions
(a) (i) Secondary consumer

(ii) Insects, worms and small animals
(iii) It has a wider variety of sources of food while the other toad feeds on two organisms only
Summary
• The Sun is the principal source of energy for all ecosystems.

• Light energy from the sun is converted to chemical energy in carbohydrates by green plants
through photosynthesis.
• Green plants are called producers of chemical energy.
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• The energy gathered by plants is passed to other organisms through feeding.
• All feeders are called consumers.
• Primary consumers feed on producers, secondary consumers feed on primary consumers, and
tertiary consumers feed on secondary consumers.
• Decomposers feed on the remains of dead producers and consumers.
• The linear path taken energy as it flows from a producer to the decomposer is called a food
chain.
• A network of food chains is called a food web.
• A food pyramid shows the numbers of organisms, their biomass or energy at each feeding level
in a food chain.
Question 1
Question 2
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Question 3
Q4 Fig. 4.0 shows a food web in an ecosystem.
(a) Define the following terms:
(i) ecosystem;
.......................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................[1]
(ii) food web.
.........................................................................................................................................................
181
.........................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................[2]
(b) (i) Name the herbivores shown in the food web.

.....................................................................................................................................................[1]
(ii) Draw two food chains from the food web.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………... [2]
(iii) In which of the two will the leopard receive the highest amount of energy?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Explain your answer above
……………………………………………………………………………………………………[2]
182
Lesson 2 Effects of Human Activities on The Environment
Introduction
Some human activities tend to harm the environment. The activities include bad agricultural practices
and pollution. In this lesson you will also learn about causes of famine.
Lesson Objectives.
- Describe how poor agricultural practices result in destruction of the ecosystem

- Describe Eutrophication
- Discuss problems that contribute to famine
- Describe the undesirable effects of air pollution, water pollution and land pollution
Social Context
Boiki planted maize and sorghum at his farm. The seedlings grew slowly. He applied some fertilizer
and they grew very fast. One day the farm was attacked by a swarm of locust. He sprayed his crops
with a pesticide and all the locusts were dead the following day. Several days later he discovered many
dead butterflies, doves and two cats he had brought to the farm. The lake next to his farm also grew a
lot of algae.
Key Issues
-Some human activities damage the environment, e.g. pollution, deforestation
- Fertilizers applied in farms end up in rivers, lakes, dams and oceans causing eutrophication
- Pesticides also kill harmless organisms, poisoning
-Pesticides end up food chains, killing more organisms, i.e. bio-accumulation
The fertilizer added gave more nutrients to the crops making them to grow faster. Pesticides are toxic to
most insects, when used in the farms they will also kill harmless insects like flies and butterflies that
are important in pollination. The doves at the farm ate the dead locust and were also killed by the pest.
The cats that ate the dead doves were also killed by the pesticide inside the doves.
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2.1 Poor Agricultural Practices
Some agricultural practices help farmers produce more food; they also have harmful effects on the
environment. These practices and their effects are discussed below.
a) Monoculture
Monoculture is the growing of one type of crop on the same piece of land over many years.
Environmental problems associated with monoculture are:
- Loss of biodiversity. The seeds of the crops not grown are lost in the long run the environment
ends up with a small variety of plants or field crops.
- Increase in Pests. Pests that depend on the single crop grown can increase to very high numbers
because they have plenty food. This makes it difficult to control them and pesticides would be
used.
- Loss of soil fertility. This happens when the crops grown do not add any nutrients to the soil.
The crops extract almost all nutrients from the soil leading to poor soil fertility. When mixed
cropping is practiced that include a legume, the legume will add nitrates to the soil, thus
improving its fertility.
b) Excessive Use of Fertilizers

Fertilizers improve soil fertility and more yield will be obtained by farmers. However, some of
the fertilizer will wash off from the farms to the lakes, rivers or dams during the rainy season
causing Eutrophication.
Steps Leading to Eutrophication
1. The phosphate and nitrate fertilizers cause overgrowth of ALGAE in the lakes, dams or
rivers.
2. The algae block the sunlight from reaching some plants growing under the water which then
die and decay under the water.
3. The bacteria that decays the dead plants uses all the dissolved oxygen in the water leaving
very little oxygen for the fish and other aquatic organisms.
4. The fish die because of the shortage of dissolved oxygen. This phenomenon is called
EUTROPHICATION.
c) Excessive use of Pesticides

Pesticides are chemicals used to kill pests that destroy crops in farms. The dangers of using
pesticides are:
184
• Pesticides also kill harmless and useful organisms in the environment. For example: bees,
butterflies that are needed for pollination of flowers.
• This leads to loss of insect diversity, low fertilization and low yield in crops.
Pesticides end up in the food chains and killing more organisms that are far from the activities at
the farms. The concentration of Pesticides tends to increase as one goes up the food chain or the last
organism in a food chain tends to have the highest concentration of the pesticide. This is called Bio-
magnification or Bio-accumulation.
d) Overstocking
This means keeping more animals in a small piece of land. This leads to overgrazing and soil
erosion.
e) Deforestation
Deforestation is the indiscriminate cutting down of trees to clear land for human settlement or
farm expansion. Trees are very important to the environment because they absorb the carbon
dioxide from the air during the process of photosynthesis. Deforestation causes accumulation of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere leading to global warming. Global warming causes floods in
some areas and severe drought in other areas.
2.2 Famine
Famine is the acute shortage of food that leads to massive starvation and death. Some of the causes of
famine are:
- Unequal distribution of food. This can be caused by poor economies of some countries or
political and economic sanctions to punish bad political leaders.
- Natural disasters that lead to massive crop failure, e.g. drought, pests’ outbreak, crop diseases,
floods, earth quakes and wars that make people abandon their field before harvesting
- Increase in population that outpace the level of food production
2.3 Pollution
Pollution is the introduction of harmful substances to the environment. The harmful substances are
called pollutants, e.g. poisonous gases like carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, sewage, crude oil, sewage,
crude oil, inorganic waste and litter. What are the effects of these pollutants on the environment?
a) Sewage.
Sewage is the human waste and wastewater discharged from homes and it is one of the major
causes of water pollution if it released into rivers without being treated first. Sewage has a
number of harmful effects on the environment and these are:
- It spreads human water borne diseases like diarrhoea, polio, cholera, dysentery, e.t.c
185
- Sewage contains nitrates and faecal matter. When released into the rivers, bacteria will start to
decay the faecal matter, bacteria use all the dissolved oxygen and cause eutrophication.
b) Inorganic Waste
These include heavy metals like Mercury, Lead and Arsenic which pollute water and the soil,
i.e. land pollution. These substances end up in food chains, especially fish and are harmful to
human beings as the cause diseases like cancer, poor brain development in babies and blood
poisoning leading to death.
c) Sulphur Dioxide
Sulphur dioxide is a harmful gas that causes air pollution. It is usually released during
combustion of coal at smelters and coal fired power stations. Once it is in the atmosphere it
dissolves in the rainwater resulting in acid rain. Acid rain corrodes roofs made from iron sheets,
metal statues and building decorations made from marble or plaster. Acid rain also damages
leaf cuticles of plants. It also causes soil acidity which leads to poor plant growth in the areas
affected.
d) Litter
Litter is solid waste that is produces from homes, workplaces or industries. The waste includes
among others paper, plastic, garden refuse, waste metals, glass, used tyres, fabric and old
clothes. When this waste is not properly disposed it litters and destroys the natural beauty of an
environment. Waste containers will collect water during the rains and become a breeding place
for mosquitoes that spread malaria. Litter can also become a breading place for mice and other
vectors that spread human diseases.
186
Sample Questions
Question 1

187
(a) (i) Deforestation
(ii) - Form human settlement, For firewood, For logging
(iii) the effects of clearing forests are
- Soil erosion. The will no trees to act as wind breakers. Wind will blow away top soil. There will
be less roots to hold the soil and stop soil erosion by runoff during the rains. Fertile soil
suitable for agriculture is lost during soil erosion.
- Global warming. There will be accumulation of carbon dioxide in the air causing global
warming that causes drought or floods in some areas.
- Loss of plant diversity. Some plant species die and are lost forever during deforestation. This
leaves a lesser variety of plant species in some areas.
- Loss of habitat. Some animals, birds and insects live in forests. When forests are destroyed, they
have nowhere to live.
Summary
• Poor agricultural practices result in destruction of the ecosystem

• The practices are monoculture, over stocking, use of pesticides and fertilizers
• Fertilizers cause Eutrophication in dams, rivers and oceans
• Problems causing famine are natural disasters like drought, floods, crop diseases, earthquakes
and wars and political sanctions
• Human activities also cause air pollution, water pollution and land pollution
188
Question 1
(a) Name a substance released from the town and power station that can affect the environment.
[2]
Power station___________________________________________
Town __________________________________________________
(b) Describe how fertilizers from the farm would affect the number of fish in the river. [4]
189
190
Lesson 3 Conservation
Introduction
If natural resources are not used sparingly, they will get finished at some point in time. There it is
important to use the wisely so that they do not become extinct. In this lesson you will learn about the
importance of conservation and methods of conserving natural resources.
Lesson Objectives
- Discuss the importance of plant and animal species conservation for food, medicine and tourist
attraction.
- Discuss conservation of species with reference to local plants e.g. mosukujane, sengaparile,
monepenepe, mowana and animals e.g. rhinos, wild dogs, cheetahs
- Discuss the reasons for recycling of materials including sewage water, paper, bottles and tins.
Social Context
Mr Modise lives at the cattle post. He took his son on the hunting trip with his friends. At the forest
they found many female impalas with young ones and his son was very excited to see the animals. Mr
Modise shot and killed an old male impala. On the way back home, they fetched some fire wood. They
only picked the dry trees. They also ate some wild berries and picked some herbs for the sick dog back
at home.
Key Issues
- The environment has many important natural resources

- The natural resources have to be conserved for future generation
The environment is a source of food for people. Mr Modise went hunting to get the meat and berries
from the forest. He killed an old male impala that does not reproduce. He left the young ones to grow
into adults and mothers to raise the young ones. This will ensure that the impala do not get finished.
They collected dead trees for firewood and there was no deforestation. Local people have indigenous
knowledge on which plants have medicinal properties. The natural medicines from plants are used to
produce modern drugs by pharmaceutical companies.
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3.1 Conservation
Conservation is the wise use and protection of natural resources so that they do not get finished and to
remain available for future generations.
Besides saving them for future benefit, natural resources also have a current importance where they
exist. Some of the uses of these resources are:
- They are a source of food for many communities. The food obtained from the environments
include game meat, fish, mushrooms and wild fruits, for example morula, moretlwa, mmilo,
mogwagwa, motsentsela
- They are a source of medicine. Most traditional and some modern medicines are extracted from
plants, e.g. monepenepe, sengaparile
- They are a source of raw materials. For example, grass, soil and timber used to build houses,
and wood for furniture, etc.
- They are a source of energy. Our environment provides people with firewood used for cooking
and warming homes
- Green plants absorb excess carbon dioxide from the soil, thus controlling global warming
- They are a source of tourist attraction and therefore bring income for countries from tourism.
3.2 Methods of Conserving Natural Resources
State the traditional methods used in your community to protect and conserve natural resources. Some
of the traditional methods used in Botswana for conservation are:
- Totems. These are animals’ tribes respect and do not kill or eat them. The totem for Barolong is
a Kudu (tholo), Duiker (phuti) for Bangwato, Buffalo (Nare) for Balete, Crocodile for Bakwena
and Bangwaketse, etc. This tradition conserves these animals in the totem territory as their
hunting is prohibited. State two more totems that you know from your community.
________________________, ____________________
- Taboos. These are restrictions on the killing of certain animals or cutting down certain trees
usually with very low populations. This gives a chance for the endangered plant or animals to
breed and repopulate environments. For example, it is taboo in Botswana to kill the bird called
Kori bastard (Kgori). It can only be killed by a Chief, but the Chief again never kills it. It also
taboos to cut down Mowana trees or use firewood from trees such as Mokgalo.?
State one more taboo on plants or animals that exists in your community.
________________________________________________________________________
- Prohibited killing of female wild animals that are raising young ones. This gives a chance for
young ones to grow. Hunting resumed when young ones were grown up and not dependent on
the mother’s milk and has high chances of survival if by any chance the mother is killed.
192
- Communal fighting of Veldt Fires. Communities cooperated in fighting veldt fires to protect the
plant and animal bio-diversities of their environments. People who start veldt fires are fined
stiff penalties.
Other modern ways of conserving natural resources are:
- Keeping wild animals in protected areas like game reserves and national parks. Hunting and
cutting down of trees are prohibited in those areas.
- Controlled hunting through issuing of hunting permits during specific seasons, at specific areas
and only for specific animals with high populations.
- Use of armed Anti-Poaching Units in the Police and Army to protect animals against poachers
- Stiff legal penalties for poaching
- Recycling used goods.
3.3 Recycling
Recycling is the use of old and used goods or materials to make new products. The old and used
materials that can be recycled include;
- Glass. Old or broken glass is melted and re-moulded to make new glass products
- Tins. Soft drink tins are molten and used to make new soft drink tins
- Scrap metal. E.g. steel, aluminium, copper is molten and used to make new metal products
- Old wood is used to make new furniture
- Used Plastic is also molten and used to make new plastic products
- Paper. Used paper e.g. old newspapers or magazines are meshed and used to make new paper
products like toilet paper, egg containers etc.
Sometimes the re-use of goods is also called recycling. For example,
- Used water from kitchens and bathrooms can be used for watering plants. Some countries are
able to purify sewage water and make it safe for drinking again.
- Old metal and plastic containers are used for storing products that are different from the ones
originally stored by the manufacturer. For example, liquid soap containers are cleaned and used
to store water, margarine tubs used to store cereals, etc.
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3.4 Importance of Recycling
Do you think recycling used goods is important to the environment? Yes, recycling is very important
for the following reasons:
- Recycling reduces the amount of waste that is released into the environment.
- Recycling conserves natural resources. This is because it stops extraction of new raw materials
from the environment. For example, when used paper is recycled to make new paper, no trees
are cut down and this conserves the trees whose wood is used for making paper.
- It is cheaper to recycle than to make a new product from scratch.
Sample Question
Question 1
Answers
1. Food
2. Medicines
3. Raw materials
4. Income through tourism
Summary
• Conservation is the wise use of natural resources so that they do not get finished and ensure
their availability in future
• Plant and animal species in the environment are a source of food, medicine, raw materials and
tourist attraction
• Natural resources traditionally conserved through totems and taboos. Modern methods of
conservation include use of national parks, game reserves, anti-poaching policies and recycling
• Waste is recycled to make new products to saw new raw materials
• Recyclable waste materials include sewage water, glass bottles, paper and tin
194
Q1. The table below shows the population of elephants and zebras at Matabe Forest reserve over a
period of 30 years.
Animal 1980 1990 2000 2010

Elephants 658 456 714 962
Zebras 1863 2531 2815 3429
(a) What was the population of Elephants and Zebras in 2000?

______________________________________________________________________ (1)
(b) Describe the change of population of elephants between 1980 and 1990
_______________________________________________________________________(1)
(c) State one factor that could have caused the change in population of elephants between 1980 and
1990.
_______________________________________________________________________(1)
(d) State two traditional and two modern ways used in Botswana to conserve wild animals.
_______________________________________________________________________(1)
Q2. State three reasons why natural resources have to be conserved.
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________(3)
Q3. Recycling is one way of conserving natural resources. Give three materials that can be recycled.
(3)
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
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UNIT 7: BIOTECHNOLOGY
Unit Introduction
Scientists are now turning to natural processes taking place in living things to find solutions to
challenges of food shortages, cure to diseases, pollution and climate change facing the world including
Botswana. In this unit you will learn about how biotechnology is used to solve daily problems like food
production, production of medicines and energy production.
Unit Content
This unit consists of one lesson.
Lesson 1 Biotechnology
.
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Lesson 1: Biotechnology
Introduction
Scientists are now turning to natural processes taking place in living things to find solutions to
challenges of food shortages, cure to diseases, pollution and climate change facing the world including
Botswana. In this unit you will learn about how biotechnology is used to solve daily problems like food
production, production of medicines and energy production.
Lesson Objectives
• Define biotechnology as the application of biological organisms, systems or processes to

manufacturing and service industries
• Discuss the role of living organisms in the production of medicine such as antibiotics and
vaccines
• Discuss how industry in Botswana can benefit from biotechnology e.g. bread, drugs madila,
Chibuku (bojalwa ja Setswana)
Social Context
When Lesedi prepares magwinya, she kneads dough using yeast, flour and sugar in a bowl. She then
leaves the dough covered in a warm place for some time. She then observes that the dough rises and
fills the bowl. Then she cooks the dough and ends with soft and tasty magwinya. When Lesedi prepares
magwinya, she kneads dough using yeast, flour and sugar in a bowl. She then leaves the dough covered
in a tight container and placed in warm place for some time. She then observes that the dough rises and
fills up the bowl. Then she cooks the dough and ends with soft and tasty magwinya
Key Issues
• Why did the dough rise and fill the bowl?

• Why did the bread become fluffy and soft?
Learner, did you notice that Lesedi used yeast? Are you aware that yeast is an organism? Yeast is a
fungus used in food production. In the example above, the yeast respires anaerobically to produce
carbon dioxide, which makes the dough to rise. The carbon dioxide is produced as a gas that creates air
pockets within the dough that ultimately makes the bread soft. This is one example of Biotechnology
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1.1 Biotechnology
Biotechnology is the application of biological organisms, systems or processes to manufacturing and
service industries. In simple terms we can say it is the use of technology in Biology. In this case, the
biological organism used is yeast.
Can you think of other examples of micro-organisms that are used in biotechnology?
Answer: Viruses, bacteria
Biotechnology has been practiced from a very long time ago; it is still all around us and is already a big
part of our lives. It uses whole organisms, organisms as cells or as tissues and puts them to work for us.
Here are some of the ways in which Biotechnology benefits Botswana:
• It provides products and technologies to combat diseases

• It reduces our impact on the environmental
• It helps us have a more abundant and sustainable food supply
• It helps us live longer and healthier lives
• It helps us use less and cleaner energy
• It enables us to have safer, cleaner and more efficient industrial manufacturing processes
• It helps to improve the way we live
Look at some of the earliest forms of Biotechnology: -
• Beer made by fermenting solutions of malt and hops

• Cheese making
• Baking soft spongy bread
• Fruit juices fermented into wine
• Milk converted to yoghurt, sour milk (madila)
• Breeding animals
These early forms of biotechnology often relied on fermentation, using yeasts and other micro-
organisms to enhance our food supply and make other lifestyle improvements.
1.2 Applications of Biotechnology

Biotechnology is applicable in Medicine, Agriculture, Food technology and Industries
1.2.1. In medicine living organisms can be used in the production of medicine such as antibiotics and
vaccines.
Learner, do you know what antibiotics are? Antibiotics are drugs used to treat bacterial infections.
Some of the commonly known antibiotics are penicillin, amoxicillin and doxycycline. You may have
been given one of these sometime when you visited the clinic with a bacterial infection.
In the production of Penicillin, a fungus called Penicillium is used. This is how the antibiotic called
penicillin is produced:
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Method
• Step 1
A fermenter is filled with nutrient broth (culture medium) containing lactose.
• Step 2
An organic nitrogen source e.g. corns steep liquor + mineral salts are added.
• Step 3
pH is adjusted to between pH5 and pH6.
• Step 4
Temperature is kept at 260C.
• Step 5
Air is blown into the mixture to supply oxygen.
• Step 6
The mixture is stirred constantly.
• Step 7
The relevant Penicillium strain is added and allowed to grow.
• Step 8
Filtration is done to obtain the antibiotic(penicillin).
.
• Step 9
Penicillin is purified and packaged as liquid medicine or in the form of tablets. The chart below
shows the making of Penicillin.
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http://ib.bioninja.com.au/_Media/penicillin-production-2_med.jpeg
State one benefit of Biotechnology in the medical field (1)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
You are correct if you said - It helps us live longer and healthier lives.
1.2.2 In food technology our national industries can benefit greatly from biotechnology, for instance,
the baking of bread, madila (sour milk) production, the brewing of beer and traditional alcoholic drinks
such as Chibuku.
Some of the benefits of production of these food items include:
1. Earning money from the sales.
2. Improving the quality of the food product.
3. Increasing the nutritional value of the food product.
4. Keeping the food product for a longer time or preservation of the item.
5. Removal of non-nutrient substances from food.
The method below shows how bread is made.

200
Method
• Flour (containing starch, proteins and amylase) is mixed with water, sugar and yeast to
form dough.
• Amylase digests the starch to sugar
• Anaerobic respiration (respiration in the absence of oxygen) takes place on the yeast.
This produces carbon dioxide; which causes the bread to rise and alcohol. The alcohol
evaporates during baking.
At the end we get nice fluffy and soft bread!
Learner, name the organism that is used in the production of bread (1)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
The organism that is used in bread production is a fungus called yeast.
The method below shows how madila is made.
Madila is a sour milk product. The making of madila is a slow process that requires patience.
Method
• Obtain fresh milk from a cow or goat

• Strain the milk using a clean cloth
• Keep the clean milk in a clean covered enamel pail to allow for fermentation for a
period of one day
• Pour the fermented milk into a cotton sack (lekuka) and then hang on a tree.
Note that, as the milk ferments, it separates into curd and whey. The lekuka allows whey to
drain out and lekuka sac is selectively permeable. What is left behind would be the thick
sour cream. The sour taste of madila is due to production of lactic acid as fermentation was
taking place.
The method below shows how Bojalwa jwa Setswana (traditional beer) is made.
• The first step in traditional sorghum beer production is malt production
- In malt production sorghum grain are added to water, soaked overnight, and drained.
201
- The grain is then spread on grass mats, kept moist, and allowed to germinate. During
germination starch is coveted into sugars
- The resulting malt is then dried to stop enzyme activities.
- The malt is then ground by hand to produce a rough powder providing a large surface area.
• The malt and grain mixture are soaked overnight in warm water (this overnight fermentation
produces lactic acid and the sour taste)
• The mixture is then cooked, cooled, vigorously mixed, and placed in larger containers.
• The containers are kept in a warm place to encourage further fermentation for several days.
Note that, natural yeasts present on the grain, malt, and brewing vessels are responsible for the
alcohol production and higher pH levels produce a pink colour.
Traditional sorghum beer is consumed in an active state of fermentation, usually within a day or two of
production.
Almost the same method is applied for Chibuku production, except that yeast and millet are added in
the commercially produced brew.
Summary
• Biotechnology is the application of biological organisms, systems or processes to

manufacturing and service industries. Biotechnological methods have been done for a very long
time, even though back then they were not as refined as now. It enhances people’s lives through
the use of whole organisms, tissues or cells. Biotechnology benefits Botswana in medicine,
agriculture, food technology and manufacturing industries, employment generation.
Industry Product Mic-roorganism used

Bakery Bread Fungus(yeast)
Brewery Chibuku Fungus(yeast)
Medicine Antibiotic(Pennicilin) Fungus(yeast)
Dairy Madila Bacteria
These early forms of Biotechnology often relied on fermentation, but it is still used even to date, like in
the production of antibiotics such as Penicillin.

1. Define Biotechnology (1)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………...............
202
2. Explain fermentation in terms of respiration (4)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………..................................................
.................................................................................................................................
1.8 RESOURCES
1. http://ib.bioninja.com.au/_Media/penicillin-production-2_med.jpeg
203
204
TASK QUESTION ANSWERS
Unit 1
Lesson 1 Answers
Q1. A
Q2. D
Q3.
4.
205
Lesson 2 Answers
Q1 (a) (i) B –cell membrane, C-cytoplasm, E-nucleus (ii) Chloroplast
(b) Red Blood cell: function – transport oxygen from the lungs to body cells
Adaptation – Haemoglobin to trap oxygen, Bi-concave shape for large surface area collect more
oxygen
Root hair cell: function –to absorb water and dissolved mineral salts from the soil
Adaptation: Finger-like projection to increase surface area for absorption of more water
Q2. 2(ciliated cells) – move dust up the bronchi of mammals
3 (Root Hair Cell) – absorb water from the soil
4 (Xylem Cell) – transport water and dissolved mineral salts
5 (Muscle cell) – contracts to cause movement within animals
Lesson 3 Answers
Q1. Sugar, into, turgid, same, flaccid, low, out, cytoplasm, plasmolysed
Q2. Turgid, Normal, Flaccid, Plasmolysed
Q3. A
Q4. A
Unit 2 Task Question Answers
Lesson 1 Answers
Q1. Carbon dioxide, water and sunlight
Q2. Chlorophyll
Lesson 2 Answers
Q1.
Test Use heat Use biuret Use Boil with a A positive A

substance reagent Benedict’s dilute acid result will positive
solution show a test is an
blue-black emulsion
colour
Fats X X X X X
206
Proteins X X X X X
Starch X X X X X
Reducing X X X X
sugars
Q2. They are substrate specific, they are temperature specific and they are pH specific.
Q3. Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen
Lesson 3 Answers
1. Mouth
2. Teeth
3. Salivary glands
4. Pharynx
5. Oesophagus
6. Liver
7. Stomach
8. Pancreas
9. Colon
10. Ileum
11. Rectum
12 Anus
Lesson 4 Answers
1. Respiration is the process whereby cells release energy
2.
Uses oxygen Doesn’t use oxygen
Releases carbon dioxide and water as by Releases ethanol and lactic acid as by product
product
207
3. Mitochondrion
4. Word equation: Glucose → lactic acid +energy
Symbol equation: C6H12O6 2C3H6O3 + energy
5.
Energy is released in small amount

Release energy in large amount
Cytoplasm
Occurs in mitochondria
Occurs in the absence of oxygen
Occurs in the presence of oxygen
6. Respiration is the process whereby cells release energy from food in living cells
a) To block the entry of oxygen
b) It turns milky/white
c) Boiled yeast
Lesson 5 Answers
1. D 2. B 3. D 4. A 5. D 6. D 7. D
Lesson 6 Answers
1. B 2.A 3.C 4.A 5.D 6.B 7.D 8.B 9.C 10.D 11. C
Unit 3
Lesson 1 Answers
1 (i) increase
(ii) relax, flat, trapped, more
(iii) sweat, on
208
(iv) widen, more, increase
2 (a)(i) capillary widens
(ii) capillary widens and carry more blood closer to skin surface and more heat is lost from the body.
(b)(i) lie flat as hair erector muscles relax and traps less heat as a result there is less insulation against
heat loss and more heat is lost to cool the body.
(ii) sweat glands produce sweat, sweat evaporate from the skin surface taking away heat and the body
become cool.
(iii) receptors detect changes in temperature in the surroundings
Lesson 2 Answers
Q1. (a) Ureter, Bladder
(b) Regulate the amount of water in blood
Q2. (a)
A – Kidney
B – Ureter
E – Renal artery
F – Renal vein
(b) Store urine temporarily
(c) It is a passage for both urine and semen in man and it’s a passage for urine only in females
(d) Kidney transplant, use of a dialysis machine
Unit 4
Lesson 1 Answers
A Sensory receptor.
B Sensory neurone
C Relay neurone
D Motor neurone
209
E Effector organ (muscles)
Lesson 2 Answers
1.The level of glucose in the blood increase as the adrenalin; promotes/stimulate the breaking down of
glycogen to glucose; by the liver; and the muscles
2.The pancreas releases the hormone insulin since there is more sugar/glucose in the blood; insulin
stimulates liver cells to convert excess glucose to glycogen and store it in its cells.
3.
NERVOUS SYSTEM ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Transmission is through the nerves Transmission is through blood

Rapid transmission and immediate response Slow transmission and usually slow response
e.g. blinking of the eye e.g. growth
Response short lived Response is long lasting
Lesson 3 Answers
Q1 B
Q2 D
Q3 B
Q4. A drug is a chemical substance obtained from an external source that modifies chemical reactions
in the body
Q5. Painkillers, Antibiotics, Anti-acids
Q6. Allergens: Food (milk, peanuts, fish), drugs, dust, fur, insect stings, temperature
Q7. (a) Marijuana, alcohol, glue, tobacco
(b) Uttar Pradesh
210
Unit 5
Lesson 1 Answers
1. New variety of fruits may be developed

Desirable characteristics are maintained e.g. diseases resistance and high yields
2. cutting- mulberry
Grafting – lemon and orange
Lesson 2 Answers
1.(a) P: stigma Q: ovary
(b) place x in the ovule
(c) Pollen grain obtains water and sugars from the stigma and it develops a pollen tube. Pollen tube
grows down the style to the ovule. Pollen tube carry male nuclei to the female nuclei in the ovule. The
male and female nuclei fuse (fertilisation) in the ovule to form a zygote. The ovule develops into a seed
and ovary into fruit.
2. (i) X: stigma Y: anther
(ii) anther hangs outside the petals and wind will easily carry pollen grains from the anther
(iii) 1.feathery stigma
2.Small petals
Lesson 3 Answers
1.(a) uterus (b) semen (c) testis (d) oviduct (e) penis
2. (a) A: cervix B: vagina
(b)(i) oviduct with letter F
(ii) ovary with letter G
(iii) ovary with letter O
3.(a)(i) R: ovary (ii) S: fertilisation (iii) zygote
211
(b) formation of identical twins
Lesson 4 Answers
1. condom: prevents sperm to enter vagina
Abstain: not engage in sexual intercourse
2.(a)(i) increase surface area to supply more blood to placenta with nutrients
(ii) carry nutrients and gases between the mother and the foetus
(b) tubal ligation: oviducts are cut and tied
(c) contact of fluids between the male and female
(d) sharing unsterilized needles
3.(a) surgical method, stops sperm to enter vagina
(b) spermicide, kills sperm, helps when using diaphragm, uncomfortable
(c) chemical, stops ovulation, lasts for 3 months, may cause hypertension
(d) physical, prevents implantation, may cause cramps, bleeding in the uterus
(e) abstain, 100% effective in preventing pregnancy
Unit 6
Lesson 1 Answers
Q1 B
Q2 A
Q3 B
Q4 (a) (i) Ecosystem
(i) Ecosystem
(ii) Food web
(b) (i) Grasshopper, Impala
(ii) Grass –Grasshopper-Scorpion – Baboon – Leopard
Grass – Impala – Leopard

212
(iii) Grass – Impala – Leopard
10% of energy received from the Impala is higher than the 10% received from the Baboon
Lesson 2 Answers
Q1
a) Power station : Carbon dioxide or Sulphur dioxide gas into the air
Town: sewage released into the river
b) The number of fish will reduce because the fertilizer will cause algae to increase leading to aquatic
plants dying and bacteria using all the oxygen during decomposition of the dead aquatic plants. The
fish will die when there is insufficient oxygen dissolved in the water.
c) Fertilizers – to improve soil fertility
Herbicides – to kill weeds
Insecticides – to kill pests
d) 1. Sewage, heavy metals, radioactive waste
2. Oil or fossil fuels, plastic
Lesson 3 Answers
Q1. (a) Elephants – 714, Zebras – 2815
(b) The population of animals elephants reduced
(c) Poaching, Drought, Diseases
(d) Traditional methods –taboos, totems
Modern ways – Game reserves, National Parks, Licenced hunting, Stiff penalties for poaching
Q2. Natural resources are a source of food, raw materials, income through tourism, source of medicines
Q3. Glass, plastic, wood, metals, water
UNIT 7
Lesson 1 Answers
Q1. Biotechnology is the use of organisms, their processes and products in manufacturing and service
industries.
213
Q2. Fermentation is the release of small amounts of energy from breaking down of glucose by living
cells in the absence of oxygen. The glucose is broken down by intracellular enzymes and the process
takes place in the cytoplasm of the cells.
214
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Active Transport is the process that occurs when molecules are from their low concentration area to
their high concentration area using energy from energy.
Addiction–is the inability of the body to function well without taking a drug
Aerobic means in the presence of oxygen
Allergies are a condition in which an individual may be particularly sensitive to substances which are
harmless to others.
Amylase an enzyme that digests the starch into simpler sugars.
Anaerobic means in absence of Oxygen
Anaerobic respiration is the respiration that takes place in the absence of oxygen or in very little
amounts of oxygen.
Anti-acids are drugs taken to neutralize excess stomach acid.
Antibiotics are drugs that are used to treat or cure bacterial diseases.
Asexual reproduction is a method of reproduction where new individuals are formed from one parent
and they are genetically identical.
Autotrophs are organisms which manufacture their own food from various energy sources.
Biotechnology is the use of organisms and their processes in manufacturing and service industries
Carnivore is an organism that feeds on meat
Cell is a basic unit of life
Chlorophyll is a green pigment inside chloroplasts, which absorbs light
Chloroplasts are organelles inside plant cells, where photosynthesis takes place.
Concentrated solution is a solution that contains more dissolved substances and less solvent
Concentration gradient is the difference in the concentration of molecules between their area of
higher concentration and their area of lower concentration.
Conservation – the wise use of natural resources so that they do not get finished and ensure their
availability in future
Consumer is an organism that feeds on plants or other animals
Control experiment is an experiment used to minimize the effect of the variables which are not the
interest of the study.
Deforestation is the large scale cutting of trees in a forest
215
Diffusion is the movement of molecules from their area of high concentration to their area low
concentration until they are evenly distributed
Diffusion the movement of molecules from their region of high concentration to their region of lower
concentration until they are evenly distributed
Dilute solution is a solution that contains more solvent and less dissolved substances.
Drug Dependence the inability of the body systems to function normally without the use of a certain
drug.
Drug is a chemical substance that creates physical, mental, emotional or behavioural change in the
user.
Drug Tolerance is the use of increased dosages of a particular drug to get desired effects.
Ecosystem is the living and non-living things that make up an environment
Eutrophication is the use of all oxygen dissolved in water by bacteria causing fish to die
Famine is the severe shortage of food leading to massive starvation and death
Fermentation is the release of small amounts of energy from breaking down of glucose by extra-
cellular enzymes of micro-organisms in the absence of oxygen
Fermentation means the chemical conversion into simpler substances or the breakdown of
carbohydrates by micro-organisms.
Fertilisation is fusion of the male and female sex cells to form a zygote
Flaccid state when plant cells are soft, weak and lacking turgidity due to loss of water
Habitat is a place where organisms live.
Hallucinogens are drugs change one’s perception.
Herbivore is an animal that feeds on plants only
Heterotrophs or consumers are organisms that are not self-nourishing; they feed on autotrophs.
Homeostasis is keeping internal environment constant.
Menstruation is passing of blood from the uterus lining
Monoculture is the growing or planting one crop in an area over a long period of time
Oestrogen is hormone that promote ovulation

Omnivore is an organism that feeds on both plant material and meat
Organ is a group of different tissues working together to perform a particular function
Organism is a group of systems working together to form the body of a living thing.
Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from their area of high-water concentration to their area
of low water concentration through a partially permeable membrane
216
Osmosis the movement of water molecules from their region of higher concentration to their region of
lower concentration through a selectively permeable membrane until they are evenly distributed.
Overstocking is the keeping of more animals than an area can support
Ovulation is release of mature egg from the ovary

Painkillers are drugs taken to alleviate pain or suppress the parts of the brain that sense.
Pesticide is a chemical used to kill crop pest at the farms
Photosynthesis is a chemical reaction which takes place in green plants to produce a source of food.
Plasmolysis is the shrinking of the cytoplasm from the cell wall due excessive loss of water
Pollution is the introduction of harmful substances to the environment, e.g. plastic, toxic gases
Potometer is apparatus is an apparatus that is used to measure transpiration rate under different
environmental conditions
Predator is an organism that kills and feeds on other animals

Prey is an organism that is killed by another for food
Producer is a plant or organism that produces carbohydrates through photosynthesis
Progesterone is hormone that promote thickening of the uterus wall
Recycling is the use of used materials or waste materials to make new products
Regulation is to control the level of conditions or substances in the body
Reproduction is process of making new individuals
Respiration is the process whereby cells release energy using food
Sedatives are drugs used to calm down a person or suppress their emotions.
Sexual reproduction is a method of reproduction that form genetically different offspring through
fertilisation to form a zygote.
Stimulants are drugs that speed up the reactions of the nervous system & make the user more alert,
confident and they prevent sleep.
System is a group of different organs working together to perform a particular function
Tissue is a group of similar cells working together to perform a particular function
Translocation is the movement of organic substances such as sucrose (sugars in plants) through the
phloem vessels after the process of photosynthesis.
Transpiration is the process by which plants lose water through the stomata found on their leaves.
Transpiration pull is the force that results in the upward movement of water in a plant, which is
caused by transpiration by transpiration of water through the plant’s leaves
217
Turgid means full of water
Turgid state when plat cells are swollen, puffed up or bloated with water in their vacuoles
Vasoconstriction is narrowing of the arteriole
Vasodilation is widening of the arteriole
Wilting happens when to a plant when it loses too much water and its cell lose turgidity
Yeast is a small single celled fungus that ferments carbohydrates
218

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BOTSWANA OPENUNIVERSITY

Inspire Tomorrow, Today

COLLEGE OF OPEN SCHOOLING

Botswana General Certificate of Secondary Education

SEDIRENG MOMPATI NDOLO, Subject Specialist Programme Developer

Salani Amos Khutjwe is a Biology Teacher employed by the Ministry of Basic

Lazarus Timothy is currently a Biology teacher at Shashe River School

Segakolodi Moothai is currently a Biology teacher at Mogoditshane

The structure of the Lesson will be as follows:

After completion of this unit you should be able to:

• acquire knowledge and understanding of plant and animal cells

Lesson 1: Plant and Animal Cells

Lesson 2: Cell Specialization and Organization

Lesson 3: Diffusion and Osmosis

By the end of this lesson you should be able to

• identify different parts of plant and animal cells

• All objects are made of blocks of matter.

1.1 Plant and Animal Cells

What is the scientific description of a cell?

1.2 Parts of a Cell

Figure 1.3 (a) Animal cell (b) Plant cell

1.3 Sample Questions

Plant Cell Animal Cell

1.4 Sample Question Answers

(a) Cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, mitochondrion, ribosomes

1.5 Functions of parts of a cell

• A cell is a building block of life

1.7 STUDENT TASK QUESTIONS

Multiple Choice Questions

Questions 1 and 2 refer to the diagram of the cell shown.

Q1. Which structures identify it as a plant cell?

By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

- Bodies of organisms are made up of many different parts

- the body parts do not look the same

- The different body parts have different functions the body

2.1 Cell Specialization

What is cell specialization?

2.2 How Cells Become Specialised

• The cell stops dividing

2.3 Relationship Between Structure and Function of Specialised Cells

Specialized Cell Adaptations Function

Root Hair Cell - It has a finger-like projection Absorb water and

Step 1. Take a been seed and soak it in water over night.

Step 2. Fill a cup with wet soil

You have learned that cells that make

Fig 2.1 (a) Animal tissues

Figure 2.2 (a) Animal organs (b) Plant organs

A system is a group of organs working together to perform a particular function.

Figure 2.4 Urinary system Table 2.1. Animal system

• As organisms develop some of their cells become specialized cells

Student task question

Name of structure ................................................................................

Name of structure .......... .................................................................. [2]

(ii) Root hair cell.

By the end of this lesson you have to be able:

- substances move across the cell membranes in and out of cells

3.1.1 Importance of Diffusion

Diffusion is very important to living things because:

3.2.1 Types of solutions and their properties

Dilute Solution Direction of Concentrated Solution Direction of

3.3 Effect of concentration gradient on water uptake by plants

3.4.1 Osmosis on plant tissues

Figure 3.1 Effect of a dilute solution on plant tissues

• The mass of the tissue increases