01 PROT4xx PowerSystemFaults r4

Power System Faults
Technical literature supporting this section:
J.L. Blackburn, Symmetrical Components for Power Systems Engineering. New York-Basel:
Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1993.
E.O. Schweitzer, III and S.E. Zocholl, “Introduction to Symmetrical Components.” Available at
www.selinc.com.
W.D. Stevenson, Elements of Power System Analysis, Third Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill,
Inc., 1975.
S.E. Zocholl, “Symmetrical Components: Line Transposition.” Available at www.selinc.com.
PROT4xx_PowerSystemFaults_r4 1
Power System Faults
Power System Faults
Power System Faults
Power System Faults
Power system calculations can be done in terms of volts, amperes, watts, VARs, and ohmic
quantities. These calculations can also be done using per-unit and percent representations of the
voltage, current, power, and impedance quantities. As we progress through this section, it will
become more apparent that per-unit and percent analysis methods are simpler and computationally
more efficient with which to work.
It is essential to note that a factor of 100 differentiates the per-unit value of any quantity from its
percent value. Making the mistake of entering percent values into a short-circuit analysis software
(ASPEN, CAPE, etc.) instead of per-unit values would result in erroneously increasing the
impedance 100 times, thus reducing the short-circuit current and ultimately causing relay
coordination errors.
Also, when you are working with percent values, use care with the multiplication. For example:
• In per unit: 0.04 pu • 0.99 pu = 0.0396 pu
• In percent: 4(%) • 99(%) = 3.96% or 0.0396 pu; not 396(%) or 3.96 pu
Forgetting that this product should be done with percentage values would result in a product of larger
numbers and a much larger result—ultimately causing errors in whatever study is being done.
Power System Faults
The base quantity allows for the expression of different phase quantities as decimal fractions of a
fixed phase quantity. Generally the MVA base is universally applied throughout the entire network,
while the voltage base would vary with the transformer side.
Power System Faults
Often, we must convert an impedance to a different base. For example, if a transformer impedance is
given on a 20 MVA base, it may need to be converted to a 100 MVA base to match the base of a
system model. If the voltage base is not being changed, that portion of the equation becomes equal to
one and can be ignored.
Power System Faults
Power System Faults
Power System Faults
For example, the per-unit values of transformers with similar MVA ratings and that share a similar
voltage class fall within a small per-unit range. For example, if a transformer’s actual impedance is
unknown or unavailable at the time of a preliminary short-circuit study, a near-accurate per-unit
approximation can be made if the MVA rating of the transformer is known.
Power System Faults
Power System Faults
We can classify power system faults as shunt faults and series faults. Short circuits are the most
destructive type of shunt fault; system protection must include a tripping action to protect against
short circuits.
A fallen conductor in an isolated-neutral or in a high-impedance-grounded system is a shunt fault that

shifts the system neutral without large fault currents. The system may continue to operate for a short
time in this condition. The protection system should issue only an alarm signal. Ground fault
detection in these systems requires very sensitive relays.
Open phases are series faults. Broken conductors and blown fuses are the most common causes of
open-phase conditions. Series faults do not produce high currents. They do, however, create system
unbalance. Negative-sequence currents may overheat and damage the rotors of generators and motors
in the system. Although tripping a line as a result of an open phase is not necessary, providing
protection against unbalanced operation in rotating machines is required.
Power System Faults
Power System Faults
This slide summarizes the ten possible types of short circuits. Four faults involve only the phase
conductors (the three-phase fault and three phase-to-phase faults). The other six faults also involve
ground (three single-phase-to-ground faults and three phase-to-phase-to-ground faults).
Power System Faults
Most short circuits involve ground. We use separate ground fault protection in the power system. The
highly dangerous three-phase fault is the least frequent fault. A three-phase fault that presents special
protection problems is that created by maintenance personnel leaving grounding switches or
grounding equipment connected after line maintenance.
About 80 percent of short circuits in overhead transmission lines are temporary. Automatic reclosing
reconnects the line when protection trips the breaker and the fault disappears.
Many faults evolve. These faults may begin as single-phase-to-ground faults, evolve into phase-to-
phase-to-ground faults, and eventually become three-phase faults. There are also combined faults. A
broken conductor can touch a line tower or ground on one side only, for example, creating a
combination of open phase and ground fault at the same point.
Power System Faults
Power System Faults
To understand the nature of short circuits, we must perform an analysis of a short circuit at the
terminals of a simplified generator. The simplified generator can be used to represent, as an
equivalent, the behavior of almost any type of system during fault conditions.
The simplified generator consists of an ideal three-phase voltage source with series branches. Each of
these branches has a self-impedance and a mutual inductance with the other two branches. For
simplicity, we assume that the mutual coupling between phases is constant. That is, it is the same
between any two phases.
Power System Faults
The general equations for the simplified generator are shown.
The voltage at the generator is equal to the sum of the voltage drops in the loop. The voltage drops
include the phase current times its self-impedance and the other phase current times the mutual
impedance. Additionally, the voltage at the terminal and the voltage of the grounding impedance are
added in.
Notice that the equations are coupled; they are not independent. The coupling is a result of the mutual
impedance that exists between the phases.
Power System Faults
The short circuit creates boundary conditions that can be used to simplify the equations.
Because the fault is balanced, the sum of the phase currents equals zero. If the sum is zero, then
Ib  Ic   I a
Because there is no ground current, the voltage drop across the grounding impedance equals zero.
By definition, a bolted fault is placed at the terminals. Therefore,
Va  Vb  Vc  0
Power System Faults
By applying the boundary conditions, the equations are simplified so that the generator voltage for
any phase is now independent of the current in the other phases. This means that during a perfectly
balanced short circuit, the simplified generator can be represented by an even simpler model in which
the three phases are not magnetically coupled.
Power System Faults
As with any other balanced condition, we can analyze the fault by examining only one of the phases.
The impedance is the impedance found for one of the phases with the procedure previously
described.
Power System Faults
The simplified calculations assume the fault current is perfectly sinusoidal (symmetric) and perfectly
balanced. As a result, the Phase A current is equal to the calculated current. The currents for the other
phases are equal in magnitude to the calculated current but are shifted by 120 degrees.
Because the voltages are commonly specified as rms (root-mean-square), the resulting current is an
rms value.
Power System Faults
The method commonly used to determine system currents and voltages for a three-phase short circuit
at any point of the network is derived from Thévenin’s theorem.
The first step is to find the Thévenin equivalent circuit. The Thévenin equivalent is simply a three-
phase generator such as the one described earlier. The second step is to use the equations for the
simple generator to determine the fault current. Finally, use network solution techniques to calculate
the voltages and currents along the network.
It can be shown that for a balanced three-phase condition, each phase of each element of the network
can be modeled by a simple impedance. This implies that the currents and voltages can be calculated
for a single phase. The resulting phasor solution can be rotated by 120 degrees to obtain the results
for the other phases. In other words, the problem becomes a classic single-phase ac network problem.
Power System Faults
The Thévenin equivalent that is applied to one phase is actually a three-phase equivalent generator
that uses the simplified model shown earlier.
Power System Faults
In this example, all of the element impedances are shown in per unit.
The following assumptions apply to the respective source circuits:
G1: ZG1 = j0.4 pu
G2: ZG2 = j0.2 pu
T1: ZT1 = j0.4 pu
T2: ZT2 = j0.2 pu
L1: ZL1 = 0.032 + j0.158
L2: ZL2 = 0.042 + j0.210
T3, T4: ZT3 = ZT4 = j0.5
Power System Faults
The Thévenin equivalent is found by simple parallel and series impedance combinations. Since the source
electromotive forces (emfs) have the same magnitudes and are in phase, the circuit branches, including the
generators, transformers, and lines, are effectively in parallel.
Fault current magnitude in pu:

1
I   1.605 pu
0.021  j 0.623
Base current:
100,000
I base   4,183.7 A
3 13.8 
Fault current magnitude in amperes:
I  1.605  4,183.7   6,715 A
Power System Faults
To this point, the discussion has assumed the fault to be a bolted fault. That is, the fault resistance has
been equal to zero. However, it is easy enough to consider the effect of fault resistance. To consider
the effect of fault resistance, simply add it to the Thévenin equivalent impedance before calculating
the fault current.
Power System Faults
Overhead lines are the most exposed system elements. Most faults occur on overhead transmission
and distribution lines. It is very important to know how to calculate and analyze the system during
line fault conditions to properly design the protective system.
Two cases are presented in the figure: the first is a fault on a radial line, and the second is a fault on a
transmission line that is part of a looped system.
Power System Faults
For a radial line, if the effect of load is not considered (a usual assumption), the circuit is a very
simple series circuit. The circuit consists of an equivalent source impedance connected in series with
the impedance of the line.
If we define m as the per-unit impedance to the fault, then the equivalent circuit line impedance is
equal to m times the total line impedance. To calculate m, divide the distance to the fault by the total
length of the line.
Power System Faults
If the line is not radial, then two equivalent sources are needed, one for each line end. The total fault
current, I, is calculated by solving the resulting equivalent circuit. The contribution from each line
end is calculated through the use of current dividers and other network techniques.
Power System Faults
For a balanced, three-phase fault, a symmetrical line can be represented as a line, with decoupled
phases, of impedance ZL.
The transmission line is then represented by three lines of impedance ZL, completely decoupled. This
is how the calculations are simplified for three-phase short circuits.
Power System Faults
To this point, the calculated fault current has been treated as if it were a steady-state phenomenon.
There is a period of time following fault initiation where the steady-state fault current does not
accurately represent the actual fault current. We will examine this transient portion of the fault
current.
Circuit analysis teaches us that the source voltage is equal to the voltage drop of the loop. For a
resistor, the voltage drop is equal to the resistance times the current. For an inductor, the voltage drop
is equal to the inductance times the first derivative of the current.
The equation can be manipulated and solved for the fault current, i(t). Assuming that there was no
current flowing before the fault inception, we can solve the differential equation.
Power System Faults
The solution indicates that the fault current has a sinusoidal part (ac component) and an exponentially
decaying part (dc component). The magnitude, phase angles, and time constant depend on the circuit
parameters (resistance and inductance). The magnitude of the offset is determined by the angle of the
voltage at the fault inception. The time constant, or the decay rate, is determined by the L/R ratio of
the circuit.
Power System Faults
The fault current wave shape exhibits asymmetry following the fault inception. The asymmetry is
due to the dc component of the fault current. The effect disappears as the offset disappears. The time
it takes the offset to disappear depends on the time constant of the circuit. This time constant is
directly related to the L/R ratio of the circuit.
Power System Faults
When a short circuit takes place on the terminals of a synchronous generator, the current wave shape
is not the same as for a simple generator with only simple R-L elements.
The synchronous generator is a very complex device whose transient behavior during a short circuit
requires the solution of more than ten differential equations.
Power System Faults
In practice, the short-circuit current of generators is measured, and a relatively simple model is used
to represent the short-circuit current, which not only has several time constants and dc offset, but also
some double-frequency components.
Power System Faults
The first step in approximating the generator current consists of extracting the symmetrical
component of the measured short-circuit current.
Power System Faults
Subtransient, transient, and synchronous reactances are definitions commonly used in power systems.
Typically:
Xd″ ~ 0.10 pu (2 cycles)
Xd′ ~ 0.18 pu (10 to 20 cycles)
Xd ~ 1.70 pu (1 to 2 seconds)
Note that Id″, Id′, and Id are phasor-like magnitudes; in reality, definitions for these terms are drawn
from instantaneous values.
Power System Faults
The slide shows the contributions of different elements to a short-circuit current.
Notice that the contribution of induction motors lasts less than two cycles.
Power System Faults
Power System Faults
Power System Faults
Throughout the course, the following references are used interchangeably:
• Balanced system and symmetrical system
• Unbalanced system and unsymmetrical system
• Balanced fault and symmetrical fault
• Unbalanced fault and unsymmetrical fault
Power System Faults
The symmetrical components method is used to analyze unbalances in power systems.
When you are applying the symmetrical components method to three-phase systems, any unbalanced
set of three phasors can be decomposed into three subsets of phasors, namely:
• A set of three phasors that are in phase and of equal magnitude, called the zero-sequence set
• A balanced set of three phasors called the positive-sequence set
• A balanced set of three phasors called the negative-sequence set
For a set of three-phase voltage or current phasors with abc phase sequence or rotation order, the
positive-sequence set will typically have an a1b1c1 rotation order. If the phase sequence nomenclature
is acb, the sequence nomenclature of the positive-sequence set will have an a1c1b1 rotation order.
Power System Faults
These are the basic relations between the different phasors in each of the sequences. They become
compact due to the use of the complex number a.
Power System Faults
If we add the three sequences, we find the original unbalanced quantities. The relationships using
a = 1 120° can be used to write the three currents of the original system as functions of the Phase a
components only.
We drop the Subindex a from the expressions, since it is normal to use Phase a reference.
The symmetrical component equations can be applied to voltages and currents.
Power System Faults
When we solve for the sequence components, the equations give the sequence currents in terms of
the phase currents.
Power System Faults
The current equations can be written in compact matrix notation. Matrix A is sometimes called the
symmetrical components transformation matrix.
Power System Faults
The inverse transformation is easily obtained, as shown above.
Power System Faults
Power System Faults
The figure shows the original phase equations for a perfectly symmetrical transmission line:
Z1  Z 2  Z S  Z M
Z0  Z S  2Z M
Note the magnetic coupling among the phases.
Power System Faults
The results obtained in the preceding slides suggest that the line can be represented by three circuits
that are not magnetically coupled. The three circuits are called the line positive-, negative-, and zero-
sequence networks.
For nonsymmetrical lines, the circuits can have certain mutual couplings, but these effects can be
neglected in many practical applications.
Power System Faults
The figure shows the representation of a simplified generator, which is widely used not only to model
real generators, but also as an equivalent source of interconnected power systems.
The procedure described earlier can be applied to find the three sequence networks for this
equipment.
Power System Faults
The three sequence networks of the simplified generator are shown in the figure. Note the following:
• There is no magnetic coupling.
• There is a source in the positive-sequence network. This source is the original “natural”
positive-sequence source present in the three-phase model.
• There is no source in the negative- or the zero-sequence networks, as expected, since a

generator is supposed to produce only positive-sequence voltages.
• The neutral grounding impedance appears in the zero-sequence network. This is due to the
fact that unlike the cases of positive- and negative-sequence tests, for the zero-sequence test
there is a current flowing through this impedance.
Power System Faults
The figure shows a simplified diagram of a wye-wye-connected transformer.
Power System Faults
After we apply the short-circuit tests for different sequences as indicated earlier, we obtain the
resulting sequence networks of a wye-wye transformer as shown above. The impedance shown is the
short-circuit impedance of the transformer in per unit, as obtained in the normal transformer short-
circuit test. This impedance came from the transformer test report. Detailed information can be found
in the transformer’s test protocol sheets.
The zero-sequence impedance is dependent on the transformer construction. The zero-sequence

impedance will be equal to the positive-sequence impedance if the unit is three single-phase banks or
if the unit is a three-phase shell-type transformer. For the three-phase core-type transformers, the
zero-sequence impedance will range from 0.9 to 1.0 times the positive-sequence impedance.
Power System Faults
The figure shows a simplified diagram of a delta-wye-connected transformer.
Power System Faults
The resulting networks are shown in the figure for the delta-wye transformer.
The impedances shown are the short-circuit impedance of the transformer in per unit, as obtained in
the normal transformer short-circuit test. The zero-sequence impedance will exhibit the same
properties as described for the wye-wye transformer.
Observe that the zero-sequence network has a special connection.
The zero-sequence impedance varies with the transformer construction, identical to the wye-wye
transformer connection.
Power System Faults
A set of three single-phase currents, or zero-sequence currents, cannot flow in a circuit that ends in a
delta. In the case of a transformer with zero-sequence currents flowing through the wye side, the
currents are reflected to the other side but circulate within the delta, as shown above.
Alternatively, this can be shown using symmetrical components. For the transformer shown above,
the high-side line current is:
(Īa – Īb) (N2 / N1)
Because the turns ratio impacts only the magnitude of the line current, we can ignore it for the
purposes of this discussion:
I a  I b   I a 0  I a1  I a 2    I b 0  I b1  I b 2 
  I a 0  I b 0    I a1  I b1    I a 2  I b 2 
  I a1  I b1    I a 2  I b 2  since I a 0  I b 0
Therefore, there is no zero-sequence current at the delta side, outside of the delta connective.
Power System Faults
The slide shows the three sequence networks for a radial system composed of a generator, a
transformer, and a line.
• The generator is modeled with sequence impedances ZG1, ZG2, and ZG0. In many cases, the
generator is an equivalent used to represent the transmission network “behind” a distribution
substation. The equivalent is calculated so that it produces, in the substation, the same short-
circuit current as the transmission system.
• The transformer is modeled by its three sequence impedances, ZT1, ZT2, and ZT0. Except for a
few cases, these three impedances are assumed to be equal to the short-circuit impedance of
the transformer provided by the manufacturer on the transformer’s nameplate.
• The sequence impedances of a line (overhead or underground) ZL1, ZL2, and ZL0 depend on
the conductor and the geometric arrangement used. These impedances are calculated using
formulas and tables.
Once the networks are determined, they can be reduced to a simple network as shown in the figure
on the right. The simplified networks correspond to the Thévenin equivalent of the system at the
faulted bus.
Note the connection of the delta-wye transformer in the zero-sequence network. The open connection
is due to the fact that the delta winding traps the zero-sequence current, as previously discussed.
Power System Faults
Here is another example, a line with two wye-grounded equivalent sources connected at the ends.
Power System Faults
Power System Faults
Method for calculating unbalanced short circuits:
1. Determine the point (node or bus) of the system where the short circuit will be simulated.
2. Find the sequence networks (positive, negative, and zero) of the system.
3. Find the Thévenin equivalent at that point. The three-phase Thévenin equivalent is a
simplified generator, which has positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence networks.
4. Connect the sequence networks depending on the type of fault, and calculate the sequence
fault current.
5. Using network techniques, calculate the sequence voltages and currents along the system.
6. Use the symmetrical components transformation to find the phase quantities.
Power System Faults
The three-phase fault is straightforward. The fault boundary conditions are introduced to the original
generator’s equations. The result is that there are no negative- and zero-sequence currents, and the
positive-sequence network responds to a simple equation:
E  Z1 I1
Power System Faults
The results obtained in the previous slide suggest that the generator’s sequence networks must be
connected as shown on this slide.
For this particular case, the A-phase fault current is equal to the positive-sequence current. The
B-phase and C-phase fault currents are equal in magnitude to the A-phase, but they are rotated
240 degrees and 120 degrees, respectively.
Power System Faults
Using A-phase as the reference, the classic analysis examines a B-phase-to-C-phase fault.
Again, the fault boundary conditions are introduced to the original generator’s equations. The result
is that there is no zero-sequence current and that the positive- and negative-sequence networks
respond in the equation in a way that suggests they must be in parallel.
Power System Faults
The results obtained in the previous slide suggest that the generator’s sequence networks must be
connected as shown on this slide.
The fault current is found by applying the original symmetrical components equations.
Note that the fault voltage is 1.73 times larger than the positive-sequence voltage.
Also, note that when Z 1  Z 2 (which is very frequent), the fault current magnitude is 86.7 percent of
the magnitude of the three-phase fault current.
Power System Faults
This is the case of a solid Phase-A-to-ground fault.
After introducing the fault conditions to the original generator’s equations, the result is that there are
positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence currents and that they are equal in magnitude and phase.
Power System Faults
The result is, for this particular fault, that the sequence networks are connected in series. The fault
current, obtained with the symmetrical component transformation, is three times the sequence
current.
Note the presence of the neutral grounding impedance. This impedance limits the fault current.
Power System Faults
The analysis for the phase-to-phase-to-ground short circuit is similar to the one performed for the
other three cases.
Power System Faults
The network connection for a phase-to-phase-to-ground fault is similar to the connection for a phase-
to-phase fault. The difference is the addition of the zero-sequence network in parallel with the
negative-sequence network.
Power System Faults
The procedure will be illustrated by solving a numerical example.
The simple subtransmission network (69 kV) feeds a distribution substation (13.8 kV) through two
transformers in parallel. A single-phase-to-ground fault occurs close to the distribution (13.8 kV) bus.
We must calculate the fault currents at the fault point.
In this example, we are expressing all the sequence impedances of the elements in per unit.
Furthermore, we made the following assumptions for the respective circuits:
Gen.1: Z Gen1,1  j 0.4; Z Gen1,2  j 0.5

Gen.2: Z Gen 2,1  j 0.2; Z Gen 2,2  j 0.4
Trfr.1: ZTrfr1,0  ZTrfr1,1  ZTrfr1,2  j 0.4
Trfr.2: ZTrfr 2,0  ZTrfr 2,1  ZTrfr 2,2  j 0.2
Power System Faults
The Thévenin equivalent is found by simple parallel and series impedance combinations. The student
must work this example and find the currents and voltages at the fault point. Note that we assume
that both generators are at 1.0 pu (zero degrees). This simplifies the problem. In more precise
calculations, the actual bus voltages are considered in finding the Thévenin voltage.
Power System Faults
The same procedure is performed over the negative-sequence network. In this case, no voltage source
is involved. Why?
Power System Faults
The zero-sequence current considers the delta-wye connection of the step-up transformers in the
power plants.
Power System Faults
For a single-phase-to-ground fault, the sequence networks are connected in series. Finding the
sequence current at the fault point is straightforward.
Power System Faults
The phase fault current is found through the use of symmetrical components equations.
I a  I1  I 2  I 0  3I1
Power System Faults
During normal operation, the currents will either lag or lead the voltages by the power factor angle.
During a three-phase fault, the phase current magnitudes increase and the voltage magnitudes
decrease. If the fault is perfectly balanced, the faulted quantities remain separated by 120 degrees.
During the fault, the currents will lag the voltages by the line impedance angle. For the case shown
above, the line impedance angle is 90 degrees, or a purely reactive line.
Power System Faults
The slide shows at the left the phase voltages and currents for a single-phase-to-ground fault and, at
the right, the voltages and currents for a line-to-line fault.
Power System Faults
The slide shows the phase voltages and currents for a phase-to-phase-to-ground fault.
It is very important in protective relaying to know the behavior of voltages and currents for different
fault conditions.
These quantities are the inputs to the relays. The relays make decisions based on these quantities.
Power System Faults
Power System Faults
Power System Faults
In transmission systems, two events can occur that demonstrate the effect of having one phase open:
• When a double dead-end tower jumper is lost
• During a single-pole-open operation
The figure shows the latter situation.
Power System Faults
The sequence networks are connected as shown in the diagram. The sequence currents and voltages
are calculated with the expression shown below. First, define the auxiliary impedances Zk1, Zk2, and
Zk0:
Z k1  Z S1  Z L1  Z R1
Z k 2  Z S 2  Z L1  Z R 2
Z k 0  Z S 0  Z L0  Z R 0
E
I1 
Z k1  Z k 2 • Z k 0 / ( Z k 2  Z k 0 )
I 2   I1 • Z k 0 / ( Z k 2  Z k 0 )
I 0   I1  I 2
I a  I 0  I1  I 2
I b  I 0  a 2 I1  aI 2
I c  I 0  aI1  a 2 I 2
Power System Faults

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Power System Faults

Technical literature supporting this section:

S.E. Zocholl, “Symmetrical Components: Line Transposition.” Available at www.selinc.com.

• In per unit: 0.04 pu • 0.99 pu = 0.0396 pu

• In percent: 4(%) • 99(%) = 3.96% or 0.0396 pu; not 396(%) or 3.96 pu

A fallen conductor in an isolated-neutral or in a high-impedance-grounded system is a shunt fault that

The general equations for the simplified generator are shown.

By definition, a bolted fault is placed at the terminals. Therefore,

The following assumptions apply to the respective source circuits:

G1: ZG1 = j0.4 pu

G2: ZG2 = j0.2 pu

T1: ZT1 = j0.4 pu

T2: ZT2 = j0.2 pu

L1: ZL1 = 0.032 + j0.158

L2: ZL2 = 0.042 + j0.210

T3, T4: ZT3 = ZT4 = j0.5

Fault current magnitude in pu:

Fault current magnitude in amperes:

I  1.605  4,183.7   6,715 A

Xd″ ~ 0.10 pu (2 cycles)

Xd′ ~ 0.18 pu (10 to 20 cycles)

The slide shows the contributions of different elements to a short-circuit current.

Throughout the course, the following references are used interchangeably:

• Balanced system and symmetrical system

• Unbalanced system and unsymmetrical system

• Balanced fault and symmetrical fault

• Unbalanced fault and unsymmetrical fault

The symmetrical components method is used to analyze unbalances in power systems.

• A balanced set of three phasors called the positive-sequence set

• A balanced set of three phasors called the negative-sequence set

The symmetrical component equations can be applied to voltages and currents.

The inverse transformation is easily obtained, as shown above.

Note the magnetic coupling among the phases.

• There is no magnetic coupling.

• There is no source in the negative- or the zero-sequence networks, as expected, since a

The figure shows a simplified diagram of a wye-wye-connected transformer.

The zero-sequence impedance is dependent on the transformer construction. The zero-sequence

The figure shows a simplified diagram of a delta-wye-connected transformer.

Observe that the zero-sequence network has a special connection.

(Īa – Īb) (N2 / N1)

Method for calculating unbalanced short circuits:

6. Use the symmetrical components transformation to find the phase quantities.

This is the case of a solid Phase-A-to-ground fault.

The procedure will be illustrated by solving a numerical example.

We must calculate the fault currents at the fault point.

Gen.1: Z Gen1,1  j 0.4; Z Gen1,2  j 0.5

• When a double dead-end tower jumper is lost

• During a single-pole-open operation

The figure shows the latter situation.

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