Matrices 2

Content
1 Why
2 Matrix arithmetic
1 Transpose
2 Addition
3 Multiplication
4 Determinant
5 Inverse
6 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
Grace K. Goka 1 / 65
Why?
Graph theory
1 communications network
2 transportation systems
Graphic software
Cryptography
Matrices
Definition
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers. A matrix with m rows and n
columns where m and n are positive integers is called an m × n matrix.
 
a11 a12 · · · a1n
 a21 a22 · · · a2n 
Am,n =  .
 
.. .. .. 
 .. . . . 
am1 am2 · · · amn
Rows are counted from the top to down and columns from the left to right.
 
1 1
The matrix 0 2
1 3
is a 3 × 2 matrix(dimension of the matrix).
Types of Matrices
Some matrices have special names because of what they look like.
Row Matrix or Row Vector

A matrix withone row and of the form 1 × n
A= 1 2 3
Column Matrix or Column Vector

 with one column and of the form m × 1
A matrix
1
A = 2

3
Square Matrix
 
0 2 5
1 1 1 3 7
0 2
1 2 3
Zero Matrix
A matrix in which each entry
 iszero is calleda zero-matrix,
 denoted O.
0 0 0 0 0
0 0
A= , B = 0 0 , B = 0 0 0
0 0
0 0 0 0 0
Identity Matrix or Unit Matrix

A square matrix A = diag[1,. . . ,1] is called the identity matrix, denoted In ,
or in short I .  
1 0 0
1 0
A= , B = 0 1 0 
0 1
0 0 1
Diagonal Matrix
A square matrix in whichthe entriesoutside the main diagonal are all zero
1 0 0
a 0
A= , B = 0 −5 0
0 b
0 0 8
Lower Triangular Matrix
A square matrix is called lower triangular if all the entries above the main
diagonal are zero.  
1 0 0
a 0
A= , B = 6 −5 0
c b
3 2 8
Upper Triangular Matrix

A square matrix is called upper triangular if all the entries below the main
diagonal are zero  
1 2 3
a b
A= , B = 0 −5 9
0 c
0 0 8
Non-negative Matrix
A rectangular matrix A is called nonnegative if aij ≥ 0 for all i, j
Positive Matrix
A rectangular matrix A is called Positive if aij > 0 for all i, j
Equal matrices
Two matrices are equal if they have the same size and their corresponding
entries
are equal.

1 2 1 2
A= ,B=
3 4 3 4
A= B
1 2 2 1
A= ,B=
3 4 3 4
A 6= B  
1 2
1 2
A= , B = 3 4
3 4
a b
A 6= B
Matrix Arithmetic
Transpose
Transpose of m × n matrix A, denoted AT , is n × m matrix with
(AT )ij = Aji
rows and columns of A are transposed in AT
Example
If    
1 1 1 1
T 1 0 1
A = 0 2 , then A = and (AT )T = 0 2
1 2 3
1 3 1 3
   
a b c a d g
If A = d e f  then AT b e h
g h k c f k
Matrix Arithmetic
symmetric and skew-symmetric

For some matrix A,

1 2
A is symmetric if AT = A. e.g.
2 5
Laws of Transpose
1 (AT )T = A
2 (A ± B)T = AT ± B T
3 (cA)T = cAT
4 (AB)T = B T AT
5 If A is symmetric then A = AT
6 If A is symmetric then A2 and An are also symmetric
Matrix Arithmetic
symmetric and skew-symmetric

For some matrix A,
A is skew-symmetric if AT = −A.
example

0 3 0 −3
The matrix A = is skew-symmetric because AT =
−3 0 3 0
example
   
1 1 0 1 1 0
The matrix A = 1 0 1 is symmetric because AT = 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 0
Matrix Arithmetic
Laws of Transpose- Skew Symmetric

1 If A is skew symmetric, then A is a square matrix and aii = 0 for
i = 1, ..., n
2 For any square matrix A, A − AT is a skew symmetric matrix while
A + AT is symmetric
3 Every square matrix can be uniquely written as the sum of a
symmetric and skew symmetric matrix A = 21 (A + AT ) + 12 (A + AT )
4 (AB)T = B T AT
5 If A is symmetric then A = AT
6 If A is symmetric then A2 and An are also symmetric
Matrices
Exercises
Find the transpose of the following matrices and determine which ones are
symmetric.    
2 3 0 2 3 0
1 5 2
A= B = 3 2 7  C = 1 8 7
3 0 7
0 7 2 0 1 5
Show that (AT )T = A
Matrix Arithmetic
Addition
Let A = [aij ] and B = [bij ] be m × n matrices. The sum of A and B,
denoted by A + B, is the m × n matrix that has aij + bij as its (i, j)th
element. In other words, A + B = [aij + bij ].
1 The sum of two matrices of the same size is obtained by adding

elements in the corresponding positions.
2 Matrices of different sizes cannot be added, because the sum of two
matrices is defined only when both matrices have the same number of
rows and the same number of columns.
Examples
     
1 0 −1 3 4 −1 4 4 −2
2 2 −3 +  1 −3 0  = 3 −1 −3
3 4 0 −1 1 2 2 5 2
Matrices
Exercises
Let    
1 2 7 2 8
1 1
A= , B = 3 4, C = 1 4 3 
0 1
5 6 7 8 0
   
−8 0 0 0 5
5 −1
D =  5 7, E = , F = −1 1 −1
−1 5
−1 6 5 1 0
Find (if possible)
1 A+B
2 A+E
3 B+F
4 C+F
5 B+D
6 C+B
Matrix
Theorem -Addition
If A, B, C are matrices and α, β ∈ R then
1 A + B = B + A Commutativity
2 A + (B + C ) = (A + B) + C Associativity
3 α(A + B) = αA + αB
4 If B = 0 then A + B = A + 0 = A
Matrix Multiplication
Scalar Multiplication
Suppose that the matrix
   
a11 a12 · · · a1n ca11 ca12 · · · ca1n
 a21 a22 · · · a2n   ca21 ca22 · · · ca2n 
A= . .. , then cA =  ..
   
.. .. .. .. .. 
 .. . . .   . . . . 
am1 am2 · · · amn cam1 cam2 · · · camn
where c ∈ R
Example
Let      
7 2 8 5×7 5×2 5×8 35 10 40
A = 1 4 3, then 5A = 5 × 1 5 × 4 5 × 3 =  5 20 15
7 8 0 5×7 5×8 5×0 35 40 0
Matrix
Theorem -Addition
If A, B are matrices and α, β ∈ R then
1 α(βA) = (αβ)A
2 0A = 0
3 α0 = 0
Matrix arithmetic
A product of two matrices is defined only when the number of columns in

the first matrix equals the number of rows of the second matrix.
Definition
Let A be an m × k matrix and B be a k × n matrix. The product of A and
B, denoted by AB, is the m × n matrix with its (i, j )th entry equal to the
sum of the products of the corresponding elements from the ith row of A
and the j th column of B.
Matrix multiplication is not commutative (it is not necessarily true that

AB=BA).
matrix arithmetic
example
Let  
1 0 4  
2 1 1  2 4
A= 3 1 0, B = 1 1 .Find AB and BA if they are defined.
  
3 0
0 2 2
solution: Because A is a 4 × 3 matrix and B is a 3 × 2 matrix, the
productAB is defined and is a 4 × 2 matrix. 
(1 × 2) + (0 × 1) + (4 × 3) (1 × 4) + (0 × 1) + (4 × 0)
(2 × 2) + (1 × 1) + (1 × 3) (2 × 4) + (1 × 1) + (1 × 0)
AB =  (3 × 2) + (1 × 1) + (0 × 3) (3 × 4) + (1 × 1) + (0 × 0) =

(0 × 2) + (2 × 1) + (2 × 3) (0 × 4) + (2 × 1) + (2 × 0)
 
14 4
8 9
 7 13.
 
8 2
If both A and B are bit matrices, then × = ∧ and + = ∨ in their boolean
product Grace K. Goka 19 / 65
Matrices
Exercises
Let    
1 2 7 2 8
1 1
A= , B = 3 4, C = 1 4 3 
0 1
5 6 7 8 0
   
−8 0 0 0 5
5 −1
D =  5 7, E = , F = −1 1 −1
−1 5
−1 6 5 1 0
Find (if possible)
1 AB and BA
2 AE and EA
3 BF and FA
4 CF and FC
5 BD and BD
6 CB and BC
Matrix Multiplication
Theorem -Multiplication
If A, B, C are matrices and α, β ∈ R then
1 A(BC ) = (AB)C
2 A(B ± C ) = AB ± AC
3 AI = IA = A
4 c(AB) = (cA)B
5 α(βA) = αβA
6 0A = 0
7 For a square matrix A, Ar As = As Ar , r , s ≥ 1
Definition
The identity matrix of order n is the n × n matrix In = [δij ], where δij = 1
if i = j and δij = 0 if i 6= j.
examples
 
  1 0 0 0
1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0
I2 = , I3 = 0 1 0, I4 =  
0 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 0 1
Multiplying a matrix by an appropriately sized identity matrix does not

change this matrix (AI=A).
example

5 3 1 0 5 3 1 0 5 3
= =
−2 1 0 1 −2 1 0 1 −2 1
matrix arithmetic
Definition
The inverse of a matrix A is A−1 such that AA−1 = I
1 A square matrix that has an inverse is said to be invertible or

non-singular.
2 If the determinant of a square matrix is zero (det(A) = 0), then the
matrix is said to be noninvertible or singular. Non-square matrices
have no inverse.
2 × 2matrix

a b d −b
A= ,then A−1 = det(A)
1
adj(A) = 1
|A| =
c d −c a
d −b
1 d −b ad−bc ad−bc
ad−bc −c = −c a
a ad−bc ad−bc
adj(Aij ) = (−1)i+j det(Aji )
matrix arithmetic
Exercises
Let
1 1 1 2 5 7 5 −1
A= , B= D= , E=
0 1 3 4 −1 6 −1 5
Find (if possible)
A−1 , B −1 , D −1 , E −1
solution:
det(A) =(1 × 1) − (1 × 0) = 1 − 0 = 1
1 −1
adj(A)=
0 1
Hence
−1 1 1 −1 1 −1
A =1 =
0 1 0 1
matrix arithmetic
Exercises
solution:
det(B) = (1 × 4) −
(2 × 3) = 4 − 6 = −2
4 −2
adj(B) =
−3 1
1 1
4 −2 4 × −2 −2 × −2 −2 1
B −1 = −2
1
= 1 1 = 3 1
−3 1 −3 × −2 1 × −2 2 −2
Theorem Let A and B be two invertible matrices. Then

(A−1 )−1 = A.
(AB)−1 = B −1 A−1 .
Determinant
Rules of Determinant
1 If any two rows of A are interchanged to obtain B, then
det(B) = −det(A)
2 If any row is multiplied by a constant c, the resulting matrix B has
determinant det(B) = cdet(A)
3 If any two rows of A are equal, det(A) = 0
4 detAB = (detA)(detB)
Determinant
The determinant of a matrix is a special number that can be calculated

from a square matrix.
1 helps us find the inverse of a matrix
Determinant of a 3 × 3
 the determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix:
To work out

a b c
d e f 
g h i
1 Multiply a by the determinant of the 2 × 2 matrix that is not in a’s
row or column.
2 Likewise for b, and for c
3 Add them up, but remember that b has a negative sign
Determinant of 3 × 3 (Laplace expansion)
As a formula
a b c
e f d f d e
det(A) or |A| = d e f = a −b +c
h i g i g h
g h i
|A| = a(ei − fh) − b(di − fg ) + c(dh − eg )
Any matrix has a unique inverse if its determinant is nonzero (Non-
singular or invertible) and singular or nonivertible if the determinant is
zero.
Find the det of the matrices

     
1 0 4 −1 3 5 4 7 6
A = −1 2 2 , B= 2 2 −3 C = −2 4 0 
0 −2 −3 2 −3 0 5 7 −4
Determinant of 3 × 3 matrices
A shortcut to finding the determinant of 3 × 3 is

-duplicate the first two columns of the matrix
-sum the product of the entries on the principal diagonal (red arrow)- A
-sum the product of the entries on the other diagonal (blue arrow)-B
- find A-B
Inverse of Matrix
Minors, Cofactors and Adjugate

1 find its determinant
2 Compute the Matrix of Minors,
3 turn that into the Matrix of Cofactors by applying a ”checker board”
to the Matrix of Minors ,
4 Find the adjoint by transposing the cofactor matrix.
1
5 multiply the adjoint by det .
example
Find 
the inverse of the
 matrix
1 0 4
A = −1 2 2
0 −2 −3
Inverse of a matrix
Determinant
2 2 −1 2 −1 2
|A| = 1 −0 +4
−2 −3 0 −3 0 −2
|A| = 1(−6 + 4) + 4(2 − 0) = −2 + 8 = 6
Matrix of Minors
1 ignore the values on the current row and column
calculate the determinant of the remaining values

2
2 2 −1 2 −1 2
 
−2 −3 = −2 0 −3 = 3 0 −2 = 2
0 4 1 4 = −3 1 0 = −2
−2 −3 = 8 0 −3 0 −2

0 4 = −8 1 4 =6 1 0 =2
22 −1 2  −1 2 
−2 3 2
Hence the matrix of minors is  8 −3 −2
−8 6 2
Inverse of matrix
Cofactor matrix
 
+−+
Apply a ”checkerboard” of pluses and minuses− + − to the matrix of
+−+
minors to get the cofactor matrix.
So the cofactor
  matrix for the matrix is
−2 −3 2
−8 −3 2
−8 −6 2
Adjugate
Transpose 
the cofactor matrix
 to get the adjoint of the matrix.
−2 −8 −8
Adj(A) = −3 −3 −6
2 2 2
Inverse of a matrix
Inverse
Multiply the inverse of the determinant by the adjoint to obtain the
inverse of the matrix  
−2 −8 −8
A−1 = |A|1
adj(A) = 61 −3 −3 −6
2 2 2
Leavingyour answer in this form makes  it incomplete.
1 1 1
−2 × 6 −8 × 6 −8 × 6
A−1 = −3 × 61 −3 × 16 −6 × 16 
2 × 16 2 × 61 2 × 16
 1
− 3 − 43 − 43

= − 1 − 1 −1 
2 2
1 1 1
3 3 3
Inverse of matrix
Conclusion
1 find the determinant of the matrix
2 For each element, calculate the determinant of the values not on the
row or column, to get the Matrix of Minors
3 Apply a ”checkerboard” of minuses to make the Matrix of Cofactors
4 Transpose to obtain the adjoint
5 Multiply by 1/Determinant to get the inverse
Tryout
Find 
the inverse of the
 followingmatrices   
1 0 4 −1 3 5 4 7 6
A = −1 2 2 , B= 2 2 −3 C = −2 4 0 
0 −2 −3 2 −3 0 5 7 −4
System of linear equations
A system of linear equations is a set of linear equations with the same
variables.
system of two equations with two unknowns

x −y =3
x +y =7
system of three equations with three unknowns

x − y + 2z = 3
x +y −z =7
3x − 2y + 5z = 9
Solution of system of linear equations

A solution of a linear system is an assignment of values to the
variables such that each of the equations is satisfied.
The set of all possible solutions is called the solution set.
The solution set for the lines
x −y =3
x +y =7
is the single point (5, 2),
Algorithm
There are several algorithms for solving a system of linear equations.
1 Substitution
2 Graphing
3 Inverse of matrix
4 Row Reduction (Gaussian elimination): the linear system is
represented as an augmented matrix which is then modified using
elementary row operation to obtain echelon form.
example
Find the solution set for the system
x −y =3 (1)
x +y =7 (2)
   
  x1 b1
a11 · · · a1n  x2   b2 
 .. .. ..  ×   =   The system can also be represented in
 . . .   .   . 
 ..   .. 
am1 · · · amn
xm bm
the form
A~x = ~b
where A is a matrix whose components are the coefficients of the system,

~x is a vector containing the unknowns,
~b is a vector containing the constant terms
To find the unknowns,
~x = A−1 ~b
Find the solution set
x −y = 3
x +y = 7
This can be represented as

1 −1 x 3
=
1 1 y 7
−1
x 1 −1 3
=
y 1 1 7
1 1

x 2 2 3
= 1 1
y − 7
2 2
x 5
=
y 2
System of Linear Equations
Solve the system of equations
x + 2y + z = 1 (3)
2x + 3y + z = 4
3x + 4y + 2z = 4
This system can be put in the form Ax = b
    
1 2 1 x 1
2 3 1 y  = 4
3 4 2 z 4
   −1  
x 1 2 1 1
y  = 2 3 1 4
z 3 4 2 4
      
x −2 0 1 1 2
y  =  1 1 −1 4 =  1 
z 1 −2 1 4 −3
We could equally use python to solve this system by using the function
linalg .solve(A, b) where A is the coefficient matrix and b is the output
vector
x = 2, y = 1, z = −3
3x + 2y + z = 7 (4)
x − 2y − z = 1
x + 3z = 11
Solution: This system can be put in the form Ax = b
    
3 2 1 x 7
1 −2 −1 y  =  1 
1 0 3 z 11
x + 3y + 2z = 14 (5)
2x + y + z =
3x + 2y − z = 7
Solution: This system can be put in the form Ax = b
    
1 3 2 x 14
2 1 1  y  =  7 
3 2 −1 z 7
Grace K. Goka
x = 1, y = 3, z =2 44 / 65
Assiggnment
Eigenvalue and Eigenvector
A matrix is an example of linear transform : transforms one vector
”linearly” into another. A~x = λ~x
The eigenvector of a square matrix is non-zero vector ~x that points in

a direction which is invariant under the associated transformation.
each eigenvector has a number associated with it called eigenvalue λ.

- This is the factor whose magnitude indicates how much eigenvector
is ”pulled or stretched”.
- (+ve means ”direction is unchanged, -ve means direction is
reversed”)
A set of all the eigenvectors of A corresponding to the eigenvalue λ is

called eigenspace
A set of all the eigenvalue of A is called spectrum of A. All n × n
matrices have n eigenvalues which are not necessarily distinct
If ~x is an eigenvector of matrix A then
A~x = λ~x
A~x − λ~x = 0
(A − λI )~x = 0
Since ~x 6= 0, it implies that
|A − λI | = 0 = P(λ) (6)
This is know as the characteristic polynomial of A

Solving for λ gives the eigenvalues of A.
Note: I is an identity matrix which takes the dimension of matrix A
Find the
P(λ) - characteristic polynomial
spectrum of the matrices below
 
3 6 −8
1 1 1 5
case I: A = case II: B = case III:C = 0 0 6 
3 −1 3 3
0 0 2
Soln:
P(λ) = |A − λI |

1 1 1 0
= −λ
3 −1 0 1

1 1 λ 0
= −
3 −1 0 λ

1−λ 1
=
3 −1 − λ
P(λ) = (1 − λ)(−1 − λ) − (1)(3)

= −1 − λ + λ2 − 3
= λ2 − 4
To find the eigenvalues, equate the characteristic polynomial to zero

P(λ = 0)
P(λ) = 0
2
λ −4 = 0
λ2 = 4
λ = ±2
Spectrum of matrix A is {2, −2}
To find the characteristic polynomial of matrix B
P(λ) = |B − λI |

1 5 1 0
= −λ
3 3 0 1

1 5 λ 0
= −
3 3 0 λ

1−λ 5
=
3 3−λ
= (1 − λ)(3 − λ) − (3)(5)
= 3 − λ − 3λ + λ2 − 15
= λ2 − 4λ − 12
To find the spectrum of matrix B, equate its characteristic polynomial to

zero and solve for λ
P(λ) = 0
2
λ − 4λ − 12 = 0
(λ + 2)(λ − 6) = 0
λ = −2, 6
Spectrum of matrix A is {6, −2}
To find the characteristic polynomial of matrix C
P(λ) = |C − λI |
   
3 6 −8 1 0 0
=  0 0 6 −λ 0 1
  0
0 0 2 0 0 1
   
3 6 −8 λ 0 0
= 0 0 6  − 0 λ 0
0 0 2 0 0 λ
 
3−λ 6 −8
=  0 −λ 6 
0 0 2−λ
P(λ) = (3 − λ)(−λ)(2 − λ) + (6)(6)(0) + (−8)(0)(0) − (−8)(−λ)(0) −
(3 − λ)(6)(0) − (6)(0)(2 − λ)
P(λ) = −λ(2 − λ)(3 − λ)
To find the spectrum of matrix C,
P(λ) = 0
−λ(2 − λ)(3 − λ) = 0
λ = 0, 2, 3
The spectrum of C is {0, 2, 3}
-Once the eigenvalues of the matrix (A) have been found,their

corresponding eigenvectors can be deduced from it.
- For each eigenvalue λ ,
(A − λI )~x = 0
where ~x is the eigenvector associated with eigenvalue λ
Case I:
when λ = 2
(A − 2I )~x = 0

1 1 1 0 x1 0
−2 =
3 −1 0 1 x2 0

1 1 2 0 x1 0
− =
3 −1 0 2 x2 0

−1 1 x1 0
=
3 −3 x2 0
using row 1,
−x1 + x2 = 0
1 × x1 = 1 × x2
x1 = 1, x2 = 1,

1
~xλ=2 =
Grace K. Goka
1 56 / 65
Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
when λ = −2
(A − (−2)I )~x = 0

1 1 1 0 x1 0
− (−2) =
3 −1 0 1 x2 0

1 1 −2 0 x1 0
− =
3 −1 0 −2 x2 0

3 1 x1 0
=
3 1 x2 0
using row 1,
3x1 + x2 = 0
3 × x1 = −1 × x2
x1 = −1, x2 = 3,

−1
~xλ=−2 =
3
Case II:
when λ = 6
(A − 6I )~x = 0

1 5 1 0 x1 0
−6 =
3 3 0 1 x2 0

1 5 6 0 x1 0
− =
3 3 0 6 x2 0

−5 5 x1 0
=
3 −3 x2 0
using row 1,
−5x1 + 5x2 = 0
1 × x1 = 1 × x2
x1 = 1, x2 = 1,

1
~xλ=6 =
Grace K. Goka
1 59 / 65
when λ = −2
(A − (−2)I )~x = 0

1 5 1 0 x1 0
− (−2) =
3 3 0 1 x2 0

1 5 −2 0 x1 0
− =
3 3 0 −2 x2 0

3 5 x1 0
=
3 5 x2 0
using row 1,
3x1 + 5x2 = 0
3 × x1 = −5 × x2
x1 = −5, x2 = 3,

−5
~xλ=−2 =
3
Case III:
when λ = 0
(A − 0I )~x = 0
       
3 6 −8 1 0 0 x1 0
0 0 6  − 0 0 1 0   x2  =  0
0 0 2 0 0 1 x3 0
       
3 6 −8 0 0 0 x1 0
0 0 6  − 0 0 0   x2  =  0
0 0 2 0 0 0 x3 0
    
3 6 −8 x1 0
0 0 6  x2  =  0
0 0 2 x3 0
using row 3,
2x3 = 0
x3 = 0
using row 1,
3x1 + 6x2 − 8x3 = 0

3x1 + 6x2 = 0
3x1 = −6x2
x1 = −2x2
1 × x1 = −2 × x2
x1 = −2, x2 = 1
 
−2
~xλ=0 =  1
0
when λ = 2
(A − 0I )~x = 2
       
3 6 −8 1 0 0 x1 0
0 0 6  − 2 0 1 0 x2  = 0
0 0 2 0 0 1 x3 0
       
3 6 −8 2 0 0 x1 0
0 0 6  − 0 2 0 x2  = 0
0 0 2 0 0 2 x3 0
    
1 6 −8 x1 0
0 −2 6  x2  = 0
0 0 0 x3 0
using row 2,
−2x2 + 6x3 = 0
−2x2 = −6x3
x2 = 3x3
1 × x2 = 3 × x3
x2 = 3, x3 = 1
using row 1,
x1 + 6x2 − 8x3 = 0
3x1 + 6(3) − 8(1) = 0
x1 + 18 − 8 = 0
x1 = −10
 
−10
~xλ=2 =  3 
1
when λ = 3 is left as an exercise


Matrices 2

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Matrices 2

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Row Matrix or Row Vector

Column Matrix or Column Vector

Identity Matrix or Unit Matrix

Upper Triangular Matrix

(AT )ij = Aji

rows and columns of A are transposed in AT

symmetric and skew-symmetric

symmetric and skew-symmetric

Laws of Transpose- Skew Symmetric

1 The sum of two matrices of the same size is obtained by adding

A product of two matrices is defined only when the number of columns in

Matrix multiplication is not commutative (it is not necessarily true that

Multiplying a matrix by an appropriately sized identity matrix does not

1 A square matrix that has an inverse is said to be invertible or

Theorem Let A and B be two invertible matrices. Then

The determinant of a matrix is a special number that can be calculated

Find the det of the matrices

A shortcut to finding the determinant of 3 × 3 is

Minors, Cofactors and Adjugate

calculate the determinant of the remaining values

system of two equations with two unknowns

system of three equations with three unknowns

Solution of system of linear equations

where A is a matrix whose components are the coefficients of the system,

This can be represented as

The eigenvector of a square matrix is non-zero vector ~x that points in

each eigenvector has a number associated with it called eigenvalue λ.

A set of all the eigenvectors of A corresponding to the eigenvalue λ is

If ~x is an eigenvector of matrix A then

Since ~x 6= 0, it implies that

This is know as the characteristic polynomial of A

P(λ) = (1 − λ)(−1 − λ) − (1)(3)

To find the eigenvalues, equate the characteristic polynomial to zero

Spectrum of matrix A is {2, −2}

To find the characteristic polynomial of matrix B

To find the spectrum of matrix B, equate its characteristic polynomial to

Spectrum of matrix A is {6, −2}

To find the spectrum of matrix C,

The spectrum of C is {0, 2, 3}

-Once the eigenvalues of the matrix (A) have been found,their

where ~x is the eigenvector associated with eigenvalue λ

3x1 + 6x2 − 8x3 = 0

when λ = 3 is left as an exercise

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