Musically Gifted and Musically Talented

UNIVERSITY OF ALBERTA

SOCIAL, GENETIC AND PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE

MUSICALLY GIFTED AND MUSICALLY TALENTED CHILDREN

BY

MELANIE DODERAI

This Capping Course Document is Submitted in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

MASTER OF EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF ALBERTA

EDMONTON, ALBERTA

SPRING 2013
 Table of Contents

Introduction.......................................................................................................................5

Definitions and Traits of Musically Gifted and Musically Talented Children.....................6

Musical Giftedness.................................................................................................6

Musical Talent........................................................................................................7

Prominent Theories on Talent Development..................................................................10

Benjamin Bloom...................................................................................................10

Francoys Gagne..................................................................................................11

The Role of Genetics On Musical Ability........................................................................11

The Role of Environmental And Social Influences On Musical Ability............................12

Motivation and Passion........................................................................................13

Commitment and Focus.......................................................................................13

Goal Setting.........................................................................................................15

Cultural Values....................................................................................................16

Creativity, Risk Taking and Musicality.................................................................16

Musical Exposure and Opportunities...................................................................17

Parental, Peer and Teacher Influences...............................................................18

Parents................................................................................................................18
Peers...................................................................................................................19
Teachers..............................................................................................................19
Chance.................................................................................................................20
Social Skills and Personality Traits of Musically Gifted Children and Musically Talented

Children..........................................................................................................................21

Unique Musical Giftedness.............................................................................................22

2
How To Teach Musically Gifted and Musically Talented Children..................................23

Proposed Further Areas of Research.............................................................................25

Conclusion......................................................................................................................25

References.....................................................................................................................26

3
 Abstract

This paper provides a literature review of the characteristics that differentiate musically

gifted from musically talented children. It also discusses the genetic, social, and

environmental influences which affect musical ability as well as prominent theories of

talent development. Included in this analysis are individual characteristics exhibited by

musically talented children such as motivation, passion, goal setting, commitment and

focus, cultural values, creativity, risk taking, musicality, musical experience and

opportunities, parental, peer and teacher influences, social skills, personality traits and

the role of chance. The conclusions of this paper include recommendations on how to

differentiate instruction depending on musical ability.

4
 Music is my passion and teaching music is my privilege. My belief is that a well-

rounded music program in the hands of a skilled and dedicated teacher will foster an

enduring love of music in all students.

My career has been dedicated to teaching Alberta's elementary music curriculum

in the Edmonton Public School system and to teaching private violin lessons. My

students have ranged from children as young as two to adults as old as seventy-eight,

and within this group, there have been remarkable differences in levels of musical

giftedness and musical talent. One four-year-old violin student was so passionate about

classical music that she was able to play Vivaldi violin concertos. Other violin students

have had physical limitations that required the violin to be played backwards or the bow

to be held in non-standard positions. Still other students suffered from dyslexia or

attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) that challenged their process of learning.

My experience has shown that musical giftedness and musical talent fall upon different

points on a continuum.

Parents continually ask, "Is my child musically gifted?" "Does my child have

musical talent?" In my literature review, I will highlight the distinction between

giftedness and talent, and will identify the characteristics of each of these. I believe

that this literature review and its conclusions will assist parents in developing their

child's musical talents and will educate the students themselves on the most effective

strategies to bring out their musical giftedness or musical talent.

5
Key Questions To Be Addressed in this Paper:

What definitions have been given for musical giftedness and musical talent?

What role do genetics play in one's musical success? What social and psychological

influences shape musically gifted and musically talented children? Should all children

ranging from musically gifted children to children with no musical background be taught

in the same way? How can music educators use this information to encourage the

highest level of musical development for all students?

Definitions and Traits of Musically Gifted and Musically Talented Children

Researchers have made a clear distinction between musically gifted and

musically talented students.

Musical giftedness

Françoys Gagne is a professor at the Université du Québec à Montréal, Canada.

Gagne defines giftedness as the "possession and use of untrained and spontaneously

expressed natural abilities (called aptitudes or gifts) in at least one ability domain, to a

degree that places an individual at least among the top 10% of age peers" (Ho &

Chong, 2010, p. 8). In the world of music composers and performers, there are

acknowledged music geniuses such as Mozart, Bach and Beethoven (Ruthsatz,

Detterman, Griscom, & Cirullo, 2008, p. 311). Looking at the attributes of these

composers, it is readily apparent that they combined "precocity, high abilities and

creative capacities, a combination which entitles them to be considered geniuses"

(Pereira-Fradin & Dubois, 2007, p. 106).

Given this background definition of giftedness, what can music educators and

parents look for when assessing the giftedness of each student? Judge (2009)
6
observes that "Being in love with music is common in gifted children" ( p. 15) and other

researchers have shown that gifted students approach music with a passionate longing

(Pereira-Fradin & Dubois, 2007). They observed that individual differences in

motivational issues such as perseverance or self-efficacy in exceptionally gifted children

appear during the first stages of training (Pereira-Fradin & Dubois, 2007). Early

intense interest in "musical and environmental sounds and a sophisticated sense of

goodness in timbre and tone" are common in gifted children (Judge, 2009, p. 15). It is

interesting to note that hypersensitivity to sound has been found to be another indication

of a child prodigy in progress. Interestingly, Mozart was "physically ill when exposed to

loud sounds" and Yehudi Menuhin, a violin virtuoso, at age 4, "broke his violin because

it would not sing" (Judge, 2009, p. 15).

Even when children meet these giftedness characteristics, "many child prodigies

never attain expert levels of performance due to underachievement or in cases of

professionally trained musicians, do not sustain their commitment in the pursuit of

excellence" (Gagne, 2004, p. 8). Clearly, motivation is essential to the success of a

musically gifted child. Research has shown that motivation to succeed plays a major

role in musical excellence. Two critical motivational factors are interest in music and

perseverance. Pereira-Fradin & Dubois (2007) assert that "These variables can make

the difference between a gifted child with no confidence of success and a less gifted

child sure of succeeding" ( p. 107).

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Musical talent

The research on musical giftedness has raised a number of questions for music

educators and parents to consider when assessing a child who does not meet the top

10% criteria. How then do we determine what traits of the remaining 90% of children

would classify them within the category of musically talented? If you achieve musically,

are you talented? What roles do genetics, environmental influences, motivation,

commitment, practice, goal setting, cultural values, creativity, musical exposure,

influences of peers, teachers and parents and chance play? What are distinctive social

skills and personality traits of musically gifted and musically talented children? How can

students be instructed and motivated to achieve their personal best?

Colvin (2008) defines talent as "the ability to achieve more easily" (p.19) and "a

natural ability to do something better than most people do it" (p. 20). Talent has also

been defined as the ability to learn quickly and show a great deal of physical ease on an

instrument (Haroutounian, n.d., p.3). A talented student's personal reaction to music is

considered to be a further indication of talent. A musically talented student

demonstrates "creative interpretation, enjoys extending, manipulating and

experimenting with sounds, shows an eagerness to express ideas through music

spontaneously, and sings and moves to music" (Haroutounian, n.d., p.3). He or she also

shows physical and technical ability based on prior training and displays creative and

expressive involvement with music (Pereira-Fradin & Dubois, 2007). In general terms,

people also use talent to mean excellent performance or to describe excellent

performers (Colvin, 2008).

8
 While talent can be considered to be a natural ability, the commonly held view is

that practice is the main factor that predicts how musically accomplished music students

become (Colvin, 2008). In fact, given a sufficient amount of excellent practice or the

10,000 hour rule, innate talent becomes indistinguishable from acquired talent

(Kutnowski, 2012, p. 23). For example, a student may have an hour lesson each week

with his or her music teacher, but ultimately it is both the time and quality of practice the

student does in the remaining 167 hours of the week that will determine the amount of

learning that takes place (Kutnowski, 2012, p. 3). In fact, Colvin (2008) cited a study in

which it was found that it took an average of twelve hundred hours of practice to reach a

Grade 5 Conservatory level of playing. This study also found that the music school

students participating in this study reached grade levels at earlier ages than did

recreational music students for the simple reason that they practiced more each day.

According to Maxwell (2007), there are "many talented people who start with an

advantage over others but lose that advantage" by resting on their talent instead of

strengthening it through deliberate practice (p.6). This implies that the key choices

students make, apart from the natural talent they already possess, distinguish them

from others who have talent alone (Maxwell, 2007). In other words, "a passionate

person with limited talent will outperform a passive person who possesses greater

talent" (Maxwell, 2007, p. 35). Suffice to say, great performance requires deliberate

practice. "More deliberate practice equals better performance. Tons of it equals great

performance" (Colvin, 2008, p. 7).

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Prominent Theories on Talent Development

Knowing that musical talent needs to be developed, researchers have proposed

various theories outlining how this development occurs. The following models are

frequently cited as foundational tools in research studies.

Benjamin Bloom

In his research, Bloom identified Psychological Characteristics of Developing

Excellence in music (PCDE's). He categorized these characteristics as goal setting,

realistic performance evaluations, imagery, commitment, quality practice, coping with

pressure and motivation. He argued that these characteristics "play a significant role in

the realisation of potential by equipping developing musicians with the necessary skills

to cope with the inevitable changes of the development pathway " (Orlic & Partington,

1998, p. 378). There is "strong evidence to suggest that PCDE's are either innately

present or simply develop out of necessity during the talent development process,

despite the absence of a structured system of training and instruction" (Kamin,

Richards, & Collins, 2007, p. 460).

Research has also shown that PCDE's begin as instructional requirements in the

early years when students have formal instruction but that they become an internalized,

independent guidance system in the later stages of development (Macnamara & Collins,

2009). Bloom's research identified a number of broad stages through which aspiring

musicians must pass on their journey from novice to elite performers. Within these

broad stages, he has also identified a number of challenges and developmental

transitions that musicians encounter. These include such issues as dealing with

injuries, technique modifications and teacher changes. Bloom concluded that the

transitions described above are just as significant as the broad stages themselves, and
10
must be successfully negotiated to maintain progress in musicianship (Macnamara &

Collins, 2009).

Francoys Gagne

Gagne (2004) created a Differentiated Model of Giftedness and Talent (DMGT)

that provides a framework of four different areas in which individuals can be considered

to be gifted. These areas are: intellectual, creative, socioaffective, and sensorimotor.

Gagne's most important contribution to the analysis of musical ability lies in the

distinctions he has made between musical gifts and talents. His DGMT characterization

illustrates the "transformation of gifts to talents through the continual process of talent

development in a particular occupational domain" (Ho & Chong, 2010, p. 7). Gagne

holds the view that natural abilities may only develop if a suitable environment exists

that allows this to take place (Freeman, 2000). This developmental process is the core

of the DMGT, "without which gifts cannot be systematically developed into expert skills"

(Ho & Chong, 2010, p. 8).

The Role of Genetics On Musical Ability

Whether musical ability is predominantly genetic or environmental has been the

subject of heated debate in the academic community since the 1920's (Gagne, 2001).

In the late 19th century, Francois Galton promoted a view, unopposed until the 1920's,

that musical ability was the result of "hereditary genius" (Coon & Carey, 1989, p. 184).

Today, the research on musical abilities spans the continuum between genetic and

environmental influences, with most of the literature promoting a combination of both

elements.

11
 Gagne's research suggests that "genetic and hereditary influences" are the

primary indicators of giftedness in music (Ho & Chong, 2010, p. 7). Gagne maintains

that natural abilities act as raw materials for talent (Gagne, 2004). Simply put, his view

is that natural abilities arise from a genetic base and allow musicians to progress quickly

and with ease. Colvin (2008) on the other hand, holds that there are" no specific genes

identifying particular talents" (p. 24) and argues that the "extreme cases in top levels of

performance over the past century have happened far too fast to be connected to

genetic changes" which ordinarily require thousands of years (p. 24).

The Role of Environmental And Social Influences On Musical Ability

Moving towards a greater emphasis of environmental influences on musical

abilities and talent are researchers Ericsson (1993), Bloom (1985), Freeman (2000),

Soniak (1990), Manturzewska (1990) and Csiksentmilyi (1993). Ericson's research

focuses specifically on an individual's acquisition of skill (Moore, Burland, & Davidson,

2003, p. 529) and musical training and practice (Ho & Chong, 2010). Motivation is the

main environmental characteristic identified in Bloom's research (Bloom, 1985). Soniak

(1990) examines the influence of peer role models in the development in one's musical

training. Freeman, Manturzewska and Csiksentmilyi have all conducted research that

shows the influence of teachers as role models and the importance of a teacher's warm

personality as determinants of musical success (Moore, et al., 2003, p. 530).

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Motivation and Passion

Research studies have often grouped motivation and passion together because

they are so closely linked in the development of musical ability. Research has shown

that passion, motivation and volition for pursuing music play a crucial role in the long-

term development of a musician (Ho & Chong, 2010). Gifted musicians have been

identified as being "extremely ambitious and motivated in the pursuit of their craft"

(Macnamara & Collins, 2009, p. 383). Csikszentmihalyi has described the passion that

is part of music as being " a self sustaining state labelled as flow" which occurs when an

individual is so immersed in an activity that no concept of time exists (Moore, Burland, &

Davidson, 2003, p. 545). In fact, research by Moore et al, (2003) supports the theory

that the ability to "engage in and sustain practice and focus completely on the task has

been assumed by some to be a constituent factor of successful individuals" (p. 545).

While passion is important in musical development, motivation is critical. The

research of Rowley (1998) has shown that "performers who wish to rise to the top of

their chosen profession" need to combine both internal and external motivation in order

to be successful (p.185). It is interesting to note that as musicians became more

proficient, they also became more internally motivated (Macnamara & Collins, 2009).

This research challenges teachers to be sensitive to the type of motivation required by

each child at various ages. This research also suggests that gifted children require less

extrinsic motivation because their passion propels their dedication to their musical craft.

Commitment and Focus

Research has categorized students into "four different learner profiles: The

Obligation Profile, The Passion Profile, The Leisure Profile, and The Obligatory Activity
13
Profile" (Pereira-Fradin & Dubois, 2007, p. 111). These research findings suggested

that gifted pupils tended to operate in a context close to the Passion Principle. This

implies that," for a child to be considered gifted in music, the child's motivation and

passion are primary indicators" (Pereira-Fradin & Dubois, 2007, p. 111). Having said

this, "beyond ability, development of musical competence requires effort and hard work

for a prolonged period of time" (Dai & Schader, 2002, p. 136). In short, nothing beats

practice, and the "amount of individual practice has been shown to be a good predictor

of musical success" (Moore, et al., 2003, p. 529). Diligent, sustained practice and

longer lessons also mark the difference between successful and average musicians

(Moore, et al., 2003, p. 540). Research has also shown that "children's initial levels of

practice and their sustained practice into their fourth year of playing their instrument

were important in discriminating between more and less successful childhood

musicians, with more successful childhood musicians having engaged in more initial

and sustained practice than other children" (Moore, et al., 2003, p. 545).

While one would think that quantity of practice is sufficient to attain musical

excellence, research has shown that this is not enough. Quality of practice is also

critical, and successful musicians have innate capacities for focusing on a task (Moore,

et al., 2003, p. 529). For example, it has been "suggested that 10,000 hours of practice

is needed before a professional career in music can be undertaken" (Judge, 2009, p.

16). However, "successful musicians have also identified the importance of quality

practice... and maximizing this time rather than merely getting through the practice"

(Macnamara & Collins, 2009, p. 388). In addition to the research related to quantity and

quality of practice, the use of imagery in practice has been shown as a successful way

of augmenting physical practice. Ho & Chong (2010) have shown that "musicians used
14
mental practice to prepare for lessons and performances.... and as a source of

confidence prior to important performances" (p. 387).

From the perspective of teachers, researchers have confirmed that "all teachers

agreed that technical proficiency is important and that it is essential to acquire it early"

(Jarvin & Subotnik, 2010, p. 81). Having said this, teachers also must keep in mind

research that has shown that "the best form of motivation is one that encourages the

child to practice only at modest levels at the beginning but to also take part in group

activities which in turn may provide the social context in which self motivation may be

fostered" (Moore, et al., 2003, p. 546). Gifted children who find practice easier because

of their natural abilities may be able to practice less and achieve the same results as

less gifted children who must practice for a much longer period. Interestingly, studies

suggest that young children "regard training as an obligation irrespective of the facilities

available or degree of talent that they could present" (Pereira-Fradin & Dubois, 2007, p.

113).

Goal Setting

Research has shown that in early years, "musicians follow teacher set targets"

(Macnamara & Collins, 2009, p. 386). However, as musicians progress, they prefer

independence and autonomy with respect to the goals they wish to follow and actively

dislike being told what to do and how to do it. This research suggests that teachers

must be prepared to set goals for young children, while at the same time enabling their

older and more experienced students to develop strategies for their own future goal

setting. The research examined in this literature review did not identify any studies

suggesting that different goals should be set for gifted or musically talented students.
15
Cultural Values

The influence of cultural values on musical development is a relatively untapped

area of research. Initial research has indicated that "the richness of one's cultural origins

and contexts can be conducive to talent development" (Ho & Chong, 2010, p. 7) and

that "cultural attitudes and values have a profound impact on the way the parents

perceive and practice talent development" (Ho & Chong, 2010, p. 15).

These findings encourage teachers to be cognizant of their students' cultural

backgrounds and attendant goals of students' parents throughout their musical

endeavours. To date, I am unaware of research studies that have examined cultural

values against the backdrop of musical giftedness.

Creativity, Risk Taking and Musicality

Creativity, risk taking and musicality are all elements of one's musical personality.

Haroutounian (n.d) defines musical creativity as "realizing sounds internally and

communicating them to others in a unique way" (p. 10). According to Rowley (1998), it

difficult to measure creativity through current assessment tools which measure musical

capacity rather than musical creativity. For example, norm reference tests often require

students to have an expertise in scales and ear training but do not require students to

improvise or interpret musical compositions (Rowley, 1998).

How, then, do researchers look at the issue of musical creativity? In terms of

creative musical thinking, the "environment must be singled out as a major factor"

(Rowley, 1998, p. 185). It is therefore necessary to foster musical creativity through an

environment that encourages risk taking. In fact, researchers agree on the "vital

importance of risk taking which they see as the key to true artistry" (Jarvin & Subotnik,
16
2010, p. 84). In a musical context, risk taking means incorporating one's unique

perspective on the unwritten nuances of a composition. Musicality is the result of

creativity, risk taking and technique combined, and researchers have described this as

"the ability to truly communicate through music as opposed to physical dexterity" (Jarvin

& Subotnik, 2010, p. 85).

Development of creativity, risk taking and musicality requires teachers to have

great flexibility in encouraging and supporting their students' unique interpretations of

music. It requires teachers to put aside their preconceived notions about a certain piece

of music and to listen to a new interpretation in an unbiased and non-judgemental way.

There is scant research dealing with the level of musical creativity specifically with

respect to gifted children.

Musical Exposure and Opportunities

Studies have shown that having access to centers of culture, music, art and

invention, and having the ability to travel, being acquainted with educated people,

enjoying reading and having adequate habits of research all "enable students to learn a

great deal more with much less effort than less fortunately situated persons" (Faris,

1936, p. 543). While "genes are not unimportant, they often play a role secondary to

family environment" (Coon & Carey, 1989, p. 191). It has been shown that early

exposure to music familiarizes students with a perception of rhythm, melody and tonal

color and that this knowledge has facilitated their later training. Parents who love music

contribute to the musical success of their children as much parents who are good

musicians (Pereira-Fradin & Dubois, 2007).

17
 Teachers have an important role in providing these cultural opportunities to their

students and can do so by recommending musical events, encouraging participation in

group music activities, providing a cross-cultural musical curriculum, and providing

additional reading material to better educate parents and students. After extensive

research I have not found research studies published regarding gifted children

benefiting more from cultural experiences than less gifted children. This would imply

that all children benefit from exposure to music.

Parental, Peer and Teacher Influences

Parents

The role of parents in their child's musical journey has received significant

attention in the professional literature. The general consensus is that parental support

is necessary during the initial learning years but may not be a critical factor in

determining later success (Moore, et al., 2003) or progress (Pereira-Fradin & Dubois,

2007). Parents' interest in music and involvement in their child's musical training have

been shown to determine "whether or not their child continues with music lessons and

practice" (Dai & Schader, 2002, p. 135). Parents' perceptions of potential musical

success, including ability and motivation, seem critical for continuing support of their

children's musical endeavours (Dai & Schader, 2002). Parents' expectancy beliefs,

their levels of involvement and motivation can also influence their children's self-

perceptions of musical competence (Dai & Schader, 2002). Research by Judge (2009)

has shown that the ideal parents are those who "emphasize intrinsic values such as

appreciation and aesthetic enrichment" (p. 15), "holistic development, self discipline and

academic achievement" (p. 16).

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Peers

The role of peers has been shown to be particularly important in "sustaining a

child's interest in music during adolescence when the child's sense of self is developing"

(Moore, et al., 2003, p. 545). Younger learners are especially influenced by slightly older

students who are peer role models (Moore, et al., 2003, p. 546). In light of this research,

it is clear that teachers can add greatly to a child's musical experience when they

provide and promote group music making opportunities.

Teachers

Bloom, one of the leading researchers in the field of music development , has

identified three critically important phases in the relationships between the pupil and the

teacher (Moore, et al., 2003, p. 531):

 (Stage 1) Early Stages: Having fun is important and the teachers of more able

children are remembered as being enthusiastic and generous - rewarding any

small interest or involvement in the particular talent area.

 (Stage 2) Mid Stage: Learning of precise skills and the development of an

objective sense of achievement are the main goals. Children in this phase value

constructive criticism from their teachers who now demonstrate their own

professional skills while still encouraging the child to participate in musical

activities.

 (Stage 3) Proficiency Stage: The student/teacher relationship no longer relies on

a good personal relationship bond but focuses on shared dedication to the

domain.

19
 Csikszentmihalyi considers the warmth of the teacher's personality as being

critically important to a child's musical development (Moore, et al., 2003, p. 530), and

Subotniuk finds that at the outset of musical training, the quality of this relationship is

a more important factor for the development of the child than the teacher's technical

skills (Pereira-Fradin & Dubois, 2007). The "choice of a music teacher who suits a

child's particular learning style contributes towards success" (Judge, 2009, p. 16).

The teacher's pivotal role in a child's musical development is further demonstrated by

Subotniuk's research findings that "the teacher/pupil relationship is vital enough to

determine the choice of whether or not to pursue a professional career" (Pereira-

Fradin & Dubois, 2007, p. 108). As well, "parents regard the teacher's contribution

as the principle factor" in their child's musical success (Pereira-Fradin & Dubois,

2007, p. 112). The work of these researchers shows unequivocally that the

teacher/child relationship is at the heart of the child's musical journey.

Chance

Chance as a factor in talent development is frequently misunderstood and

overlooked. Within the field of gifted education, there has been occasional mention of

the role of chance. Tannenbaum in Gagne & Schader (2006), explicitly included chance

as a significant contributor to talent development (Gagne & Schader, 2006, p.88). To my

knowledge, Gagne is the only other scholar to have given chance a prominent role in

his theoretical thinking by including this concept in his evolving model of talent

development (Gagne & Schader, 2006, p.89).

20
 The most extensive exploration of chance beliefs as a causal factor in human

affairs is associated with the attribution theory which refers to the way people perceive

why events happened as they did (Gagne & Schader, 2006, p.88).The four causal

attribution factors most commonly linked to achievement outcomes were identified as

ability, effort, task difficulty, and luck (chance). Interestingly, while good luck has been

found not to be important in success attributions, bad luck has been more often invoked

in failure attributions (Gagne & Schader, 2006, p.88). Chance can also involve the

capacity and openness to take advantage of opportunities that arise. Maxwell (2007) is

passionate about this topic and says "the reality is that there never has been nor never

will there ever be a talent shortage. Talent is God given. What is missing is people who

have made the choices necessary to maximize their talent.....The key choices we make

apart from the natural talent we already possess, set us apart from others who have

talent alone" (p. 273)

Social Skills and Personality Traits of Musically Gifted Children and Musically

Talented Children

With rare exceptions such as the reclusive Canadian pianist Glenn Gould, the

majority of studies have proven that "social skills will not trump talent, but if two equally

talented individuals are being considered, the one with the good social skills will get the

job" (Jarvin & Subotnik, 2010, p. 84). Gatekeepers who audition musicians "do not view

social skills as merely etiquette or social graces but rather as a form of professionalism"

(Jarvin & Subotnik, 2010, p. 84). How then do these social skills develop in young

musicians?

21
 Musical development relies on a process of receiving and reflecting upon critical

feedback, and students develop social skills by learning how to cope with critical

analysis of their playing and using "this feedback effectively to improve future

performances" (Macnamara & Collins, 2009, p. 390). While young musicians require

feedback from others to evaluate their own playing and progress, older students are

encouraged by their teachers to independently assess and evaluate their own playing

(Macnamara & Collins, 2009).

While musically inclined children tended "to be introverted" (Dai & Schader,

2002, p. 136), research also has shown that children with a potential for musical

development may have personality traits that are heightened in the following areas:

"psychomotor, emotional, intellectual, sensual, and imaginative" (Judge, 2009, p. 16).

Unique Musical Giftedness

One of the newest areas of research has centered on advances in neurology.

Neurological studies have revealed a fascinating connection between brain

development and the musical abilities of unusually gifted individuals who suffer from

brain disorders.

Miller (1989) defines a musical savant as an individual of "low cognitive

intelligence whose musical accomplishments resemble those of musical prodigies" (p.

4). He also comments that musical savants tend to display their abilities at an early age

by replicating tunes after a single hearing, singing in tune and having an exceptional

memory, with most having perfect pitch. Interestingly, "they are typically blind, mentally

handicapped, show autistic characteristics and.... are all pianists" (Haroutounian, n.d. p,

14). Research conducted by Miller (1989) found that musical savants have a sense of
22
musical syntax where the ease of memorization depend on the structural aspects of

music. According to Haroutounian ( n.d), the piano would be the ideal instrument choice

for music savants since" its spatial organization of keys is similar to the musical

alphabet" (p.15).

Levitin (1998) has also conducted some interesting research into a chromosomal

disorder called Williams Syndrome which is a form of mild to moderate retardation

characterized by a pixie like facial appearance and an assortment of of physical, motor

and heart problems (p. 358). Individuals with Williams Syndrome are known to have

exceptional tonal memory and an unusual hypersensitivity to sound, a condition known

as "hyperacusis" (p. 359). They are also known to display high levels of rhythmic

engagement or "rhythmicity" which allows them to offer provide creative rhythmic

responses rather than mimicked clap-back responses (p. 373). Levitin (1998) is able

to attribute these findings to an area of the brain known as the planum temporale, which

is often enlarged in musicians with perfect pitch. While individuals with Williams

Syndrome are known to have a brain size smaller than normal, their planum temporale

appears to make up a higher portion of their overall brain. It will be interesting to see

how this analysis of unique musical giftedness develops as medical science opens up

the doors to even more neurological data.

How To Teach Musically Gifted and Musically Talented Children

In addition to fostering the student teacher relationship as outlined earlier in the

paper, it is equally important for teachers to understand the scope of musical giftedness

and musical talent. Colvin (2008) observes that if teachers believe "that people without

a particular natural talent for some activity will never be any good at it, or at least will
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never be competitive with those who possess talent, then we'll direct them away from

that activity" ( p. 20). Thus, "our views about talent, which are extremely deeply held,

are extraordinarily important for the future of our lives, our children's lives, and the

people in them. Understanding the reality of talent is worth a great deal" (Colvin, 2008,

p. 20).

With this in mind, it is extremely important for teachers to have a vision of

success which is attainable for every student regardless of talent. Teachers must be

cognizant not to allow their preconceptions as to their students' innate abilities to

influence the opportunities provided to them - a tendency which might force children

into or prevent them from entering into a particular musical path. This process requires

the teacher to balance the freedom given to each child's musical development with the

need for a disciplined and effective practice regimen.

While the same level of teacher enthusiasm and music curriculum can be utilized

for both gifted and musically talented students, teachers must be aware that gifted

students learn more quickly, tend to be more passionate in their love of music and have

a greater facility with technique. Accordingly, teachers will need to make adjustments to

their teaching and to consider giving additional work and or move through the

curriculum at a speed that will continually challenge musically gifted students. By

making these adjustments, teachers will be able to encourage the highest level of

musical development for all their students.

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Proposed Further Areas of Research

A number of unanswered questions have arisen from this literature review.

There is little research on musical giftedness and talent for individuals who are middle

aged or older. Since musical ability is not confined to children and young adults alone,

it would be interesting to research the following questions:

1. Do the research findings about musical ability apply only to children and

young adults?

2. Are the same influences applicable for individuals who are middle aged or

senior citizens?

3. Is there an age where no matter what genetics you are born with, the

environmental impact from your lived experience negates this?

Conclusion

Through my review of research, I have realized that whether a child is classified

as musically gifted or musically talented may not ultimately determine the end goal of

their musical journey. In fact, the research suggests that passion, perseverance and

effective practice are the ultimate indicators of how far a child will progress with his or

her music. It was suggested that musically gifted children appear to be born with a

vision of their musical ability. Talented musicians, who developed into equally good

musicians, appeared to have had less internal vision and more assisted vision. It is

therefore the teacher's role to recognize students' natural abilities and to develop an

ethos of excellence that encourages all students to develop their own unique abilities for

music through passion and effective practice.

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