UNIT- I

Review of Semiconductors: Intrinsic semiconductors, Doped Semiconductors, Current

Flow in Semiconductors, PN Junction with Open Circuit, PN Junction with Applied
Voltage, Capacitive Effects in PN Junction.

Diodes: Introduction, The Ideal Diode – current voltage characteristic, rectifier, diode logic
gates, Terminal Characteristics of Junction Diodes– forward bias, reverse bias, and
breakdown regions, Modeling the Diode Forward Characteristics- exponential model,
graphical analysis and Iterative analysis using the exponential model, constant voltage drop
model, the small signal model
 PART-A
Review of Semiconductors

Electronics:
Electronics deals with electrons (or) Electronics deals with electronic devices (or) it
is a branch of engineering which deals with current conduction through a semi conductor.
The three important properties of an electron are
(1) Charge of an electron is 1.602X10-19 Coulombs
(2) Mass of an electron is 9.1X10-31 Kg
(3) Radius of an electron is 1.9X10-15 m

Energy bands:
The important energy bands are
(a) Valence band
(b) Conduction band
(c) Forbidden energy gap

Figure: Energy band digaram

The range of energies possessed by valence electrons is called valence band. The
valance electrons are loosely attached to the nucleus. At ordinary temperatures some of the
valence electrons detached and becomes free electrons, causes current conduction in the
material.
The range of energies possessed by conduction of electrons is called conduction
band.
The distance between valence and conduction band is called is called forbidden
energy gap.
Classification of materials:
Depending up on the electrical conductivity of free electrons, there are three types of
materials, they are
1. Conductors
2. Insulators
3. Semiconductors
These materials are classified based on energy band diagrams.
 Figure: Energy band diagram for Conductor
Examples for conductor is Copper, Aluminum

Figure: Energy band diagram for Insulator

Examples for insulator is wood, paper, glass, plastic

Figure: Energy band diagram for Semiconductor

Examples for semiconductor is silicon, germanium

Classification of semiconductors:
The material, which allows the current partially or moderately through it is
called semiconductor.
Semiconductors are classified into two types. They are
1. Intrinsic semiconductors.
2. Extrinsic semiconductors.

Intrinsic semiconductors:
If the semiconductor is in pure form then it is known as intrinsic semiconductor.
Example: Silicon, germanium.
 Both silicon and Germanium are tetravalent (having 4 valence electrons). Each atom
forms a covalent bond or electron pair bond with the electrons of neighboring atom. The
structure is shown below.

Fig: Covalent bond structure of silicon

At absolute zero temperature intrinsic semiconductor therefore behaves as an
Insulator. At room temperature, some of the valence electrons gain enough thermal energy
to break up the covalent bonds. This breaking up of covalent bonds sets the electrons free
and is available for conduction. When an electron escapes from a covalent bond and
becomes free electrons a vacancy is created in a covalent bond as shown in figure above.
Such a vacancy is called Hole. It carries positive charge and moves under the influence of
an electric field in the direction of the electric field applied. Numbers of holes are equal to
the number of electrons since; a hole is nothing but an absence of electrons.
The Free electrons and holes are generated in pairs. The generation of electron hole
pairs due to thermal generation is called thermal generation.
Conduction in Intrinsic semiconductors:

Drift Current: The current produced due to drifting of free electrons is called drift current
and the velocity with which electrons drift is called drift velocity.

Recombination: The merging of free electron and a hole is called Recombination. If

recombination rate increases, number of charge carriers decreases. As a result current
conduction decreases.

Mean life time of a charge carrier: The time gap between thermal generation and
recombination is called mean life time of a charge carrier.
Conductivity in Intrinsic semiconductor:
Current density (J): It is defined as current per unit area.
𝐼
∴𝐽= 𝐴𝑚𝑝/𝑚2
𝐴
In semiconductor, current is defined as total charge per unit time.
𝑁𝑒
𝐼=
𝑇
𝑁𝑒
𝐽=
𝐴𝑇
Where I=Current flowing in the semiconductor
A=Area of the semi conductor
e=Charge of an electron
N=Number of charge carriers
T=Time required for the charge carrier to travel along length l in the semi
conductor
𝑙
We know that 𝑇= where v is the velocity of the charge carrier
𝑣
𝑁
∴𝐽=( ) 𝑒𝑣
𝐴𝑙
∴ 𝐽 = 𝑛𝑒𝑣 𝐴𝑚𝑝/𝑚2
𝑁
Where 𝑛 = 𝐴𝑙
which is the concentration of charge carriers per unit volume.
Mobility of the charge carriers:
Mobility of the charge carriers is directly proportional to applied electric field.
∴𝑣∝𝐸
𝑣 = µ𝐸 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑣 𝑚2
µ=
𝐸 𝑣 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐
We know that 𝐽 = 𝑛𝑒𝑣,
𝐽 = 𝑛𝑒µ𝐸 𝐴𝑚𝑝/𝑚2
The current density due to both free electrons and holes is given by
𝐽 = 𝑛𝑒𝜇𝑛 𝐸 + 𝑝𝑒𝜇𝑝 𝐸
𝐽 = (𝑛𝜇𝑛 + 𝑝𝜇𝑝 )𝑒𝐸 𝐴𝑚𝑝/𝑚2
Conductivity:
It is defined as the ratio of current density to applied electric field.
𝐽 (𝑛𝜇𝑛 + 𝑝𝜇𝑝 )𝑒𝐸
𝜎= =
𝐸 𝐸
𝜎 = (𝑛𝜇𝑛 + 𝑝𝜇𝑝 )𝑒 𝑚ℎ𝑜/𝑚
Resistivity:
It is the reciprocal of conductivity.
1 1
𝜌= = 𝑜ℎ𝑚 − 𝑚
𝜎 (𝑛𝜇𝑛 + 𝑝𝜇𝑝 )𝑒
In an Intrinsic semiconductor,
n=p=ni
𝐽𝑖 = (𝜇𝑛 + 𝜇𝑝 )𝑛𝑖 𝑒𝐸 𝐴𝑚𝑝/𝑚2
𝜎𝑖 = (𝜇𝑛 + 𝜇𝑝 )𝑛𝑖 𝑒 𝑚ℎ𝑜/𝑚
 1
𝜌𝑖 = 𝑜ℎ𝑚 − 𝑚
(𝜇𝑛 + 𝜇𝑝 )𝑛𝑖 𝑒

Law of mass action:

Law of mass action defined as the product of free electrons and holes is always
constant at a fixed temperature.
𝑛𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖2

Fermi level in an intrinsic semi conductor:

Fermi level indicates the highest occupied energy level in the energy band. In an
intrinsic semi conductor, the number of free electrons and holes are equal in amount and
hence Fermi level lies exactly between valance and conduction band.

𝐸𝐶 + 𝐸𝑉
𝐸𝐹 =
2
Extrinsic semi conductor:
If the impurities are added to a pure semi conductor, then the resulting material is
extrinsic semi conductor. The adding of impurities to a pure semi conductor is called
doping. The impurity may be a trivalent or pentavalent. Based on the type of impurity
added to a pure semi conductor, there are two types of extrinsic semi conductors, they are
1. n-type semi conductor
2. p-type semi conductor
1. n-type semi conductor:
If pentavalent impurities are added to a pure semi conductor, then the resulting is a
n-type semi conductor. Examples for pentavalent impurities are Arsenic, Bismuth, and
Phosphorous.
Let us consider Arsenic with atomic number 33.
1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P6 3d10 4S2 4P3
Number of valance electrons are 5, hence it is a pentavalent impurity.
Conduction in n-type semiconductor:
In n-type semi conductor majority charge carriers are free electrons and minority
charge carriers are holes. Conduction in n-type semiconductor is because of free electrons.

Because of adding an additional free electrons (pentavalent impurities/donors),

Fermi energy level in n-type semiconductor moves close to conduction band.

2. p-type semi conductor:

If trivalent impurities are added to a pure semi conductor, then the resulting is a p-
type semi conductor. Examples for pentavalent impurities are Gallium, Indium, and Boron.
Let us consider Gallium (Ga) with atomic number 31.
1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P6 3d10 4S2 4P1
Number of valance electrons are 3, hence it is a trivalent impurity.

Conduction in p-type semiconductor:

In p-type semi conductor majority charge carriers are holes and minority charge
carriers are free electrons. Conduction in p-type semiconductor is because of holes.
 Because of adding an additional holes (trivalent impurities/acceptors), Fermi energy
level in p-type semiconductor moves close to valance band.
Law of Electrical Neutrality:
Law of electrical neutrality defined as the total positive charge is equal to total
negative charge.
𝑛 + 𝑁𝐴 = 𝑝 + 𝑁𝐷
Where n is the concentration of electrons, p is the concentration of holes,
𝑁𝐴 is acceptor concentration and 𝑁𝐷 is donor concentration.
Law of mass action for extrinsic semi conductor:
We know the law of mass action in an intrinsic semi conductor is
𝑛𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖2
The law of mass action in an extrinsic semi conductor is given by,
(i) In n-type semi conductor
𝑛𝑛 𝑝𝑛 = 𝑛𝑖2
𝑛𝑛 ≈ 𝑁𝐷
𝑁𝐷 𝑝𝑛 = 𝑛𝑖2
𝑛𝑖2
𝑝𝑛 =
𝑁𝐷

(ii) In p-type semi conductor

𝑛𝑝 𝑝𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖2
𝑝𝑝 ≈ 𝑁𝐴
𝑛𝑝 𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛𝑖2
𝑛𝑖2
𝑛𝑝 =
𝑁𝐴
Conductivity in extrinsic semi conductor:
The conductivity equation for an intrinsic semi conductor is given by,
𝜎 = (𝑛𝜇𝑛 + 𝑝𝜇𝑝 )𝑒 𝑚ℎ𝑜/𝑚
(i) In n-type semi conductor
Concentration of electrons is very much predominant compared with concentration
of holes.
Means n>>p, hence 𝜎𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛 𝜇𝑛 𝑒
𝜎𝑛 = 𝑁𝐷 𝜇𝑛 𝑒 𝑚ℎ𝑜/𝑚 ; Since, 𝑛𝑛 ≈ 𝑁𝐷

(ii) In p-type semi conductor

Concentration of holes is very much predominant compared with concentration of
electrons.
Means p>>n, hence 𝜎𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝 𝜇𝑝 𝑒
𝜎𝑝 = 𝑁𝐴 𝜇𝑝 𝑒 𝑚ℎ𝑜/𝑚 ; Since, 𝑛𝑛 ≈ 𝑁𝐷
currents in semiconductors
there are two types of currents flowing into the semiconductors
Diffusion:
 The current due to the transport of the charge carriers in a semi conductor due to
non-uniform concentration of charged particles is called diffusion current.
Consider a p-type semi conductor,

From the above figure, the current density of p-type is given by,
𝑑𝑝
𝐽𝑝 ∝
𝑑𝑥
Where 𝐽𝑝 = current density of holes
𝑝 = concentration of holes and x = distance.
The current density because of diffusion in n-type and p-type is given by,
𝑑𝑝
𝐽𝑝 = −𝑞 𝐷𝑝 𝐴𝑚𝑝/𝑚2
𝑑𝑥
Where 𝐷𝑝 is the diffusion constant of holes in 𝑚2 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑑𝑛
𝐽𝑛 = 𝑞 𝐷𝑛 𝐴𝑚𝑝/𝑚2
𝑑𝑥
Where 𝐷𝑛 is the diffusion constant of electrons in 𝑚2 /𝑠𝑒𝑐

Drift : when apply the external potential to the semiconductor, there exist
electric field, due to this carrier moment will generate.

Depending on electric field velocity also changes i.e

𝑣∝𝐸

v-velocity of carriers and E is electric field

velocity of electrons and holes are given bye

→ →
𝑣𝑒 = −𝜇𝑛 𝐸
 → →
𝑣𝑝 = 𝜇𝑝 𝐸

Current generated by the electrons

𝐼 = −𝑣 ⋅ 𝑊 ⋅ ℎ ⋅ 𝑛 ⋅ 𝑞

Current density of electrons

𝐽𝑛 = 𝜇𝑛 𝐸 ⋅ 𝑛 ⋅ 𝑞

𝐽𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝜇𝑛 𝐸 ⋅ 𝑛 ⋅ 𝑞 + 𝜇𝑝 𝐸 ⋅ 𝑝 ⋅ 𝑞

𝐽𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 = 𝑞(𝜇𝑛 𝑛 + 𝜇𝑝 𝑝)𝐸

The current density because of drift is given by,

𝐽𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝 𝜇𝑝 𝑒𝐸 𝐴𝑚𝑝/𝑚2
𝐽𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛 𝜇𝑛 𝑒𝐸 𝐴𝑚𝑝/𝑚2
Total current density is the sum of drift and diffusion current densities.
In n-type semi conductor,
𝑑𝑛
𝐽𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛 𝜇𝑛 𝑒𝐸 + 𝑞 𝐷𝑛 𝐴𝑚𝑝/𝑚2
𝑑𝑥
In p-type semi conductor,
𝑑𝑝
𝐽𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝 𝜇𝑝 𝑒𝐸 − 𝑞 𝐷𝑝 𝐴𝑚𝑝/𝑚2
𝑑𝑥

Einstein’s Relationship:
It gives the relationship between mobility and diffusion constants.
𝐷𝑝 𝐷𝑛
= = 𝑉𝑇
𝜇𝑝 𝜇𝑛
Where 𝑉𝑇 is the voltage equivalent of temperature and is given by
𝐾𝑇
𝑉𝑇 =
𝑞
Where K is a Boltzmann constant = 8.62X10-5 eV/K,
T is the temperature in Kelvin and q is the charge of an electron.
At room temperature, 𝑉𝑇 is given by,
𝑉𝑇 = 26𝑚𝑉; ( q=1.602X10-19 and T=300)
Formula for 𝑉𝑇 at any given temperature is given by
𝑇
𝑉𝑇 =
11600
PN Junction with Open Circuit terminals (PN junction under un biasing
or PN junction in equilibrium ):
the pn junction is formed within a single silicon crystal by creating regions of
different dopings (p and n regions)

The diffusion current ID because the concentration of holes is high in the p region and low
in the n region, holes diffuse across the junction from the p side to the n side. Similarly, electrons
diffuse across the junction from the n side to the p side. These two current components add together
to form the diffusion current ID, whose direction is from the p side to the n side.
The Depletion Region:
The holes that diffuse across the junction into the n region quickly recombine with some of
the majority electrons present there and thus disappear from the scene. This recombination process
results also in the disappearance of some free electrons from the n-type material. Thus some of the
bound positive charge will no longer be neutralized by free electrons, and this charge is said to have
been uncovered. Since recombination takes place close to the junction, there will be a region close
to the junction that is depleted of free electrons and contains uncovered bound positive charge.

Thickness of the depletion region is around 10-4cm=1 micron. The charge density and the
electric field intensity is shown in the above figure.
Energy band diagram for open circuited PN junction:
When P and N type semi conductors are connected, the Fermi level must be constant
throughout the specimen at equilibrium. Here transfer of energy and electrons takes place until the
Fermi level in the two sides comes at the same position.
P-N Junction as a Diode:
DIODE: di –means two and ode means electrode i.e two electrodes
Diode is a two terminal electronic device, which allows the current only in one direction and blocks
in another direction.
Working PN Junction Diode:
Pn junction diode is an electronic device, which has the junction in between p and n type material is
called pn junction diode.
A pn junction is a boundary or an interface between two types of semiconductor
materials, p-type and n-type, inside a single crystal of semiconductor. The "p" (positive) side
contains an excess of holes, while the "n" (negative) side contains an excess of electrons.
When the n-type semiconductor and p-type semiconductor materials are first joined together
a very large density gradient exists between both sides of the PN junction. The result is that some
of the free electrons from the donor impurity atoms begin to migrate across this newly formed
junction to fill up the holes in the p-type material producing negative ions. However, because the
electrons have moved across the PN junction from the n-type silicon to the P-type silicon, they
leave behind positively charged donor ions on the negative side and now the holes from the
acceptor impurity migrate across the junction in the opposite direction into the region where there
are large numbers of free electrons.

Figure: Semiconductor representation of PN diode

Figure: Symbolic representation of PN diode

Figure: Unbiased PN diode

Forward bias:
 Figure: PN diode under forward bias

If the anode the diode is connected to the positive terminal of the battery with respect
to cathode then it is called forward bias. When the diode is forward biased, the potential
barrier that exits. If this external voltage becomes greater than the value of the potential
barrier, approx. 0.7 volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for germanium, the potential barriers
opposition will overcome and current will start to flow. This is because the negative voltage
pushes or repels electrons towards the junction giving them the energy to cross over and
combine with the holes being pushed in the opposite direction towards the junction by the
positive voltage. This results in a characteristics curve of zero current flowing up to this
voltage point, called the "knee" on the static curves and then a high current flow through the
diode with little increase in the external voltage as shown below. For an ideal diode, the
forward resistance is RF=0 and the forward current is in the order of few mA.

Figure: Forward Bias characteristics

Reverse bias:

Figure: PN diode under forward bias

When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive voltage is applied

to the N-type material and a negative voltage is applied to the P-type material. The positive
voltage applied to the N-type material attracts electrons towards the positive electrode and
away from the junction, while the holes in the P-type end are also attracted away from the
junction towards the negative electrode. The net result is that the depletion layer grows
wider due to a lack of electrons and holes and presents a high impedance path, almost an
insulator. The result is that a high potential barrier is created thus preventing current from
flowing through the semiconductor material. Reverse bias characteristics of PN diode is
shown in the following figure.

Figure: Reverse Bias characteristics

BREAK DOWN MECHANISMs:
The critical value of the voltage, at which the breakdown of a P-N junction diode occurs is
called the breakdown voltage. The breakdown voltage depends on the width of the
depletion region, which, in turn, depends on the doping level. The junction offers almost
zero resistance at the breakdown point.
There are two mechanisms by which breakdown can occur at a reverse biased P-N junction
1. Avalanche breakdown
2. Zener breakdown.
Avalanche breakdown is because of avalanche multiplication and zener breakdown is
because of direct rupture of covalent bonds.
1. Avalanche breakdown (it occurs in lightly doped diodes):

The minority carriers, under reverse biased conditions, flowing through the junction
acquire a kinetic energy which increases with the increase in reverse voltage. At a
sufficiently high reverse voltage, the kinetic energy of minority carriers becomes so large
that they knock out electrons from the covalent bonds of the semiconductor material. As a
result of collision, the liberated electrons in turn liberate more electrons and the current
becomes very large leading to the breakdown of the crystal structure itself. This
phenomenon is called the avalanche breakdown. The breakdown region is the knee of the
characteristic curve. Now the current is not controlled by the junction voltage but rather by
the external circuit.
2. Zener breakdown : (it occurs in heavily doped diodes)

Under a very high reverse voltage, the depletion region expands and the potential barrier
increases leading to a very high electric field across the junction. The electric field will
break some of the covalent bonds of the semiconductor atoms leading to a large number of
free minority carriers, which suddenly increase the reverse current. This is called the Zener
effect. The breakdown occurs at a particular and constant value of reverse voltage called the
breakdown voltage, it is found that Zener breakdown occurs at electric field intensity of
about 3 x 10^7 V/m.
Volt-Ampere characteristics of p-n diode (or)
Terminal Characteristics of Junction Diode:
The V-I characteristics of PN diode is shown in the following figure.

Figure: V-I characteristics of PN diode

Forward bias Resistance:
Static resistance (RF):
𝑉𝐹
𝑅𝐹 =
𝐼𝐹
Dynamic resistance (rf):
∆𝑉𝐹
𝑟𝑓 =
∆𝐼𝐹
rf is very small and it is in the order of few ohms.
𝜂𝑉𝑇
𝑟𝑓 ≅
𝐼
Reverse bias Resistance:
Static resistance (RR):
𝑉𝑅
𝑅𝑅 =
𝐼𝑅
Dynamic resistance (rr):
∆𝑉𝑅
𝑟𝑟 =
∆𝐼𝑅
Reverse bias resistance is very high and is in the order of few hundreds of kilo ohms.

Applications of PN diode:
PN diode finds a number of applications as follows
1. Rectifiers in DC power supplies.
2. Switch in digital logic circuits used in computers.
3. Used in clamping circuits which are used in TV receivers.
4. Used in clipping circuits which are used in Computer, RADARs and TV
receivers.
5. Demodulation of modulated signal.

Diode Current Equation:

To derive the diode current equation, let us consider the law of junction.
Law of Junction:
 The effective barrier potential VB=Vo – V.
We have two boundary conditions, they are
(i) Applied voltage V=0 and
(ii) Distance x=0
The relation between holes in n-side and p-side is given by
𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑛 𝑒 𝑉𝐵 /𝑉𝑇
𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑃𝑂, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑛 = 𝑝𝑛𝑜
𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑛 𝑒 (𝑉𝑜−𝑉)/𝑉𝑇
Applying Boundary condition (i), we get
V=0; we know that, 𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑃𝑂, 𝑝𝑛 = 𝑝𝑛𝑜
𝑝𝑝𝑜 = 𝑝𝑛𝑜 𝑒 𝑉𝑜/𝑉𝑇 ----------(1)
Applying Boundary condition (ii), we get
x=0; we know that, 𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑃𝑂,
𝑝𝑝𝑜 = 𝑝𝑛 (0)𝑒 (𝑉𝑜−𝑉)/𝑉𝑇 -------(2)
From equations (1) & (2),
𝑝𝑛 (0)𝑒 (𝑉𝑜−𝑉)/𝑉𝑇 = 𝑝𝑛𝑜 𝑒 𝑉𝑜 /𝑉𝑇
𝑝𝑛 (0) = 𝑝𝑛𝑜 𝑒 𝑉/𝑉𝑇 --------(3)

From the above figure, 𝑝𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑝𝑛𝑜 + 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥)

Where, 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥 ) = 𝑃𝑛 (0)𝑒 −𝑥/𝐿𝑝
𝑝𝑛 (𝑥 ) = 𝑝𝑛𝑜 + 𝑃𝑛 (0)𝑒 −𝑥/𝐿𝑝
Where Lp is the mean length of the charge carrier
When x=0; 𝑝𝑛 (0) = 𝑝𝑛𝑜 + 𝑃𝑛 (0)
Substituting eq.3 in the above equation, we get
𝑝𝑛𝑜 𝑒 𝑉/𝑉𝑇 = 𝑝𝑛𝑜 + 𝑃𝑛 (0)
𝑃𝑛 (0) = 𝑝𝑛𝑜 ( 𝑒 𝑉/𝑉𝑇 − 1) ----------(4)
𝑑𝑝𝑛 (𝑥)
We know that 𝐼𝑝𝑛 (𝑥 ) = −𝐴𝑞𝐷𝑝 𝑑𝑥
But, 𝑝𝑛 (𝑥 ) = 𝑝𝑛𝑜 + 𝑃𝑛 (0)𝑒 −𝑥/𝐿𝑝
𝑥
𝑑𝑝𝑛 (𝑥) −
𝐿𝑝
1
= 0 + 𝑃𝑛 (0)𝑒 (− )
𝑑𝑥 𝐿𝑝
𝑥
1 −
=− 𝐿𝑝
𝑃𝑛 (0)𝑒 𝐿𝑝

𝑥
𝐴𝑞𝐷𝑝 −
𝐿𝑝
𝐼𝑝𝑛 (𝑥 ) = 𝑃𝑛 (0)𝑒
𝐿𝑝
At x=0;
 𝐴𝑞𝐷𝑝
𝐼𝑝𝑛 (0) = 𝑃 (0)
𝐿𝑝 𝑛
Substituting eq.4 in the above equation, we get

𝐴𝑞𝐷𝑝
𝐼𝑝𝑛 (0) = 𝑝 ( 𝑒 𝑉/𝑉𝑇 − 1)
𝐿𝑝 𝑛𝑜
Similarly,
𝐴𝑞𝐷𝑛
𝐼𝑛𝑝 (0) = 𝑛 ( 𝑒 𝑉/𝑉𝑇 − 1)
𝐿𝑛 𝑝𝑜
Total current 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑝𝑛 (0) + 𝐼𝑛𝑝 (0)
𝐴𝑞𝐷𝑝 𝐴𝑞𝐷𝑛 𝑉
𝐼=( 𝑝𝑛𝑜 + 𝑛𝑝𝑜 ) ( 𝑒 𝑉𝑇 − 1)
𝐿𝑝 𝐿𝑛
𝑉
𝐼 = 𝐼0 ( 𝑉
𝑒 𝑇 − 1)
𝐴𝑞𝐷𝑝 𝐴𝑞𝐷𝑛
Where, 𝐼0 = ( 𝐿𝑝
𝑝𝑛𝑜 + 𝐿𝑛
𝑛𝑝𝑜 ) , 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑉
𝐼 = 𝐼0 ( 𝜂𝑉
𝑒 𝑇 − 1)

Where 𝜂 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐺𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑖

Reverse Saturation Current:

The diode current equation is given by
𝑉
𝐼 = 𝐼0 ( 𝑒 𝜂𝑉𝑇 − 1)

I0 is the reverse saturation current or also called as leakage current. Under reverse
𝑉 𝑉
− −
bias condition, if reverse voltage is increased, 𝑒 𝜂𝑉𝑇 decreases and 𝑒 𝜂𝑉𝑇 ≪ 1 , then the
diode current equation becomes as
𝐼 = − 𝐼0

We know the equation for reverse saturation current,

𝐴𝑞𝐷𝑝 𝐴𝑞𝐷𝑛
𝐼0 = ( 𝑝𝑛𝑜 + 𝑛 )
𝐿𝑝 𝐿𝑛 𝑝𝑜
𝑛𝑖2 𝑛𝑖2
Where 𝑝𝑛 = 𝑝𝑛𝑜 = 𝑁𝐷
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑝 = 𝑛𝑝𝑜 = 𝑁𝐴
𝐴𝑞𝐷𝑝 𝑛𝑖2 𝐴𝑞𝐷𝑛 𝑛𝑖2
∴ 𝐼0 = ( + )
𝐿𝑝 𝑁𝐷 𝐿𝑛 𝑁𝐴
𝐷𝑝 𝐷𝑛
𝐼0 = 𝐴𝑞𝑛𝑖2 ( + )
𝐿𝑝 𝑁𝐷 𝐿𝑛 𝑁𝐴

Where 𝑛𝑖2 = 𝐴𝑜 𝑇 3 𝑒 −𝐸𝐺𝑜/𝐾𝑇

= 𝐴𝑜 𝑇 3 𝑒 −𝑉𝐺𝑜/𝑉𝑇
For germanium material, Dn and Dp varies inversely with temperature,
i.e., Dn & Dp 1/T
1 1 1 1
𝐼0 = 𝐴𝑞𝐴𝑜 𝑇 3 𝑒 −𝑉𝐺𝑜/𝑉𝑇 ( + )
𝐿𝑝 𝑁𝐷 𝑇 𝐿𝑛 𝑁𝐴 𝑇
𝐼0 = 𝐾1 𝑇 2 𝑒 −𝑉𝐺𝑜/𝑉𝑇

For silicon material, Io is proportional to ni instead of ni2

𝐷𝑝 𝐷𝑛
𝐼0 = 𝐴𝑞𝑛𝑖 ( + )
𝐿𝑝 𝑁𝐷 𝐿𝑛 𝑁𝐴
𝐷𝑝 𝐷𝑛 1/2
𝐼0 = 𝐴𝑞 ( + ) 𝐴𝑜 𝑇 3/2 𝑒 −𝑉𝐺𝑜 /2𝑉𝑇
𝐿𝑝 𝑁𝐷 𝐿𝑛 𝑁𝐴
𝐼0 = 𝐾2 𝑇 3/2 𝑒 −𝑉𝐺𝑜/2𝑉𝑇
The general expression is
𝐼0 = 𝐾𝑇 𝑚 𝑒 −𝑉𝐺𝑜/𝜂𝑉𝑇
Where η=1(Ge) and 2(Si) and m=2(Ge) and 3/2 (Si)

Temperature dependence of p-n diode characteristics:

The temperature has following effects on the diode parameters,
1. The cut-in voltage decreases as the temperature increases. The diode conducts at
smaller voltage at large temperature.
2. The reverse saturation current increases as temperature increases.
We know the diode current equation,
𝑉
𝐼 = 𝐼0 ( 𝑒 𝜂𝑉𝑇 − 1) --------(1)

For both Si and Ge commonly, for an increase in 10oC temperature, bias voltage
decreases by 2.2mV.

Figure: Temperature dependent V-I Characteristics of a PN diode

Diode Resistances:
There are two diode resistances they are
1. D.C Resistance or static resistance:
 𝑉
𝑅𝐹 =
𝐼
2. A.C Resistance or dynamic resistance:
∆𝑉 𝑑𝑉
𝑟𝑓 = =
∆𝐼 𝑑𝐼
𝑉
𝐼 = 𝐼0 ( 𝑒 𝜂𝑉𝑇 − 1)

𝑑𝐼 𝑉 1
= 𝐼0 ( 𝑒 𝜂𝑉𝑇 ) ( )
𝑑𝑉 𝜂𝑉𝑇
𝑑𝑉 𝜂𝑉𝑇
= 𝑉
𝑑𝐼 𝜂𝑉
𝐼0 𝑒 𝑇
𝑉
We know that 𝐼 + 𝐼0 = 𝐼0 𝑒 𝜂𝑉𝑇

𝑑𝑉 𝜂𝑉𝑇
=
𝑑𝐼 𝐼 + 𝐼0
𝐼 ≫ 𝐼0 , 𝐼 + 𝐼0 ≈ 𝐼
𝑑𝑉 𝜂𝑉𝑇
= 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
𝑑𝐼 𝐼

Qualitative treatment of Transition and Diffusion capacitances

Diode Capacitances:
A p-n junction diode has 2 types of capacitance.

1) Transition Capacitance (CT) or junction capacitance(Cj):

The depletion region is made of immobile positive and negative ions. In a reverse
biased p-n junction diode, the p-type and n-type regions have low resistance. Hence, p-type
and n-type regions act like the electrodes or conducting plates of the capacitor. The
depletion region of the p-n junction diode has high resistance. Hence, the depletion region
acts like the dielectric or insulating material. Thus, p-n junction diode can be considered as
a parallel plate capacitor.

In depletion region, the electric charges (positive and negative ions) do not move
from one place to another place. However, they exert electric field or electric force.
Therefore, charge is stored at the depletion region in the form of electric field. The ability of
a material to store electric charge is called capacitance. Thus, there exists a capacitance at
the depletion region.
 𝛆𝐀
Basic capacitance of the capacitor is C=
𝒅
𝛆𝐀
From the above figure we can write as 𝑪𝑻 = -------------------(1)
𝑾

Here, x=W depletion width;

A=Area and ε is the permittivity of the dielectric material

We know the depletion width i.e

2𝜀 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐷
𝑊=√ ( ) (𝑉0 − 𝑉𝑓 )
𝑞 𝑁𝐴 + 𝑁𝐷

NA ND is the concentration of the charge carriers and Vf applied voltage V0 is barrier

potential

W value Sub in equation 1

𝛆𝐀
𝑪𝑻 =
2𝜀 𝑁 𝑁𝐷
√ 𝑞 (𝑁 𝐴+ 𝑁 ) (𝑉0 − 𝑉𝑓 )
𝐴 𝐷

𝑨 𝑞𝜀 𝑁𝐴 + 𝑁𝐷 1
𝑪𝑻 = √ ( )
𝟐 2 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐷 (𝑉0 − 𝑉𝑓 )

𝑨 𝑞𝜀 𝑁 +𝑁 1 1
𝑪𝑻 = 𝟐 √ 2 ( 𝑁𝐴 𝑁 𝐷 ) 𝑉 ( 𝑉𝑓 ) ----------(2)
𝐴 𝐷 0 1−
𝑉0

When the diode is under unbiasing (equilibrium), the capacitance is given by

𝑨 𝑞𝜀 𝑁𝐴 + 𝑁𝐷 1
𝑪 𝑻𝟎 = √ ( )
𝟐 2 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐷 𝑉0

From eqtn.2

𝟏
𝐂𝐓 = 𝐂𝐓𝟎 ( 𝐕
) OR
√𝟏−(𝐕 𝐟 )
𝟎

𝟏
𝐂𝐓 = 𝐂𝐓𝟎 𝟏
𝟐
𝐕
(𝟏 − (𝐕𝐟 ))
𝟎
2) Diffusion Capacitance (CD):

Diffusion capacitance occurs in a forward biased p-n junction diode. Diffusion

capacitance is also sometimes referred as storage capacitance. In a forward biased diode,
diffusion capacitance is much larger than the transition capacitance. Hence, diffusion
capacitance is considered in forward biased diode. The diffusion capacitance occurs due to
stored charge of minority electrons and minority holes near the depletion region. Diffusion
capacitance is directly proportional to the electric current or applied voltage. If large electric
current flows through the diode, a large amount of

charge is accumulated near the depletion layer. As a result, large diffusion

capacitance occurs.

Figure: Equivalent circuit

The diffusion capacitance CD id given by

𝑄 𝑑𝑄
𝐶𝐷 = =
𝑉 𝑑𝑉
We know that I=Q/τ
Q=I τ
𝑉
𝐼 = 𝐼0 ( 𝜂𝑉
𝑒 𝑇 − 1)
𝑉
𝑄 = 𝐼0 ( 𝑒 𝜂𝑉𝑇 − 1) τ

𝑑𝑄 𝑉 1
= 𝐼0 τ ( 𝑒 𝜂𝑉𝑇 )
𝑑𝑉 𝜂𝑉𝑇
𝑉
But, 𝐼0 𝑒 𝜂𝑉𝑇 = 𝐼 + 𝐼0
𝑑𝑄 τ(𝐼 + 𝐼0 )
=
𝑑𝑉 𝜂𝑉𝑇
Since 𝐼 ≫ 𝐼0 , 𝐼 + 𝐼0 = 𝐼
𝑑𝑄 τI
𝐶𝐷 = =
𝑑𝑉 𝜂𝑉𝑇
Another eqtn. is
𝟏
𝐂𝐓 = 𝐂𝐓𝟎 𝟏
𝟐
𝐕𝐑
(𝟏 + ( ))
𝐕𝟎
THE DIODE MODELS:

1. The Exponential Model:

The most accurate description of the diode operation in the forward region is provided by
the exponential model. However, its severely nonlinear nature makes this model the most
difficult to use. Assuming that VDD > 0.5V, the diode current will be much greater than I S,
and we can represent the diode i-v characteristic by the exponential relationship, resulting
in:

𝒊𝑫 = 𝒊𝑺 (𝒆𝒗𝑫 /𝜼𝑽𝑻 − 𝟏)

𝒊𝑫 = 𝒊𝑺 𝒆𝒗𝑫 /𝜼𝑽𝑻 − 𝒊𝑺 𝟏 (here 𝒊𝑺 ≪ 𝟏 𝐬𝐨 𝐰𝐞 𝐜𝐚𝐧 𝐧𝐞𝐠𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐬)

𝒊𝑫 = 𝒊𝑺 𝒆𝒗𝑫 /𝜼𝑽𝑻 ………………..(1)

from the circuit, by applying KCL we get the equation is

(𝑉𝐷𝐷 − 𝑉𝐷 )
𝑖𝐷 = … … … … . (ii)
𝑅

2. The ideal diode model

the first diode model or the model of the ideal diode is the simplest. It only contains an ideal
switch. This switch is closed at forward bias: The current is positive, and the voltage across
the diode is 0 V. At reverse bias, the switch is open. There is no current flowing through the
diode, and the voltage is negative.
 3. Constant voltage drop model
In this model, the ideal switch is put in series with a voltage source, of which the value
corresponds to the knee voltage. For Silicon diodes, this value is 0.7V. So, when the diode
conducts a current, it has to be positive (ID > 0 A) and the voltage equals the knee voltage
(VD = 0.7 V for Silicon diodes). When the diode is off, there is no current (ID = 0 A) and the
voltage is below the knee voltage (VD < 0.7 V for Silicon diodes). The second diode model
is used in applications where the voltages are relatively low, say a few V.

Applications of the diode

1.RECTIFIER:
Rectifier is an electronic circuit which convert ac into pulsating dc.
By using the diodes we can implement the rectifier circuit. There are two types of rectifiers.
i. Half wave rectifier
ii. Full wave rectifier
i. Half wave rectifier: the rectifier which can rectify the half wave or half
cycle of the input signal is called half wave rectifier. In half wave rectifier
uses only one diode as shown in the below figure.
ii. Full wave rectifier: the rectifier which can rectify the full wave or full
cycle of the input signal is called full wave rectifier. In full wave rectifier
uses two or more diode as shown in the below figure.

2.Diode logic gates:

Diodes together with resistors can be used to implement digital logic functions.
Below fig. shows two diode logic gates. To see how these circuits function, consider
a positive-logic system in which voltage values close to 0 V correspond to logic 0 (or
 low) and voltage values close to +5 V correspond to logic 1 (or high). The circuit in
Fig. 4.5(a) has three inputs, vA, vB, and vC. It is easy to see that diodes connected to
+5-V inputs will conduct, thus clamping the output vY to a value equal to +5 V. This
positive voltage at the output will keep the diodes whose inputs are low (around 0 V)
cut off. Thus the output will be high if one ormore of the inputs are high. The circuit
therefore implements the logic OR function, which in Boolean notation is expressed
as

Y=A+B+C

Similarly, the same logic system mentioned above, the circuit of Fig. implements
the logic AND function

Y = A .B . C

Diode analysis model:

To find the values of VD and ID in DIODE circuit, we are introduces three
methods. That are exact analysis, graphical analysis and iterative analysis.
By using any one of the method we can solve the VD and ID of the given
circuit. Here considering the diode circuit as shown in below figure (same
for graphical and iterative analysis).

we can represent the diode i-v characteristic by the exponential relationship, resulting in:
𝒊𝑫 = 𝒊𝑺 (𝒆𝒗𝑫 /𝜼𝑽𝑻 ) − − − −(𝐢)
from the circuit, by applying KCL we get the equation is
(𝑉𝐷𝐷 − 𝑉𝐷 )
𝑖𝐷 = … … … … . (ii)
𝑅
1. Graphical analysis using exponential model:
Graphical analysis is performed by plotting the relationships of equations (i) and (ii) on
the i-v plane. The solution can then be obtained as the coordinates of the point of
intersection of the two graphs. A sketch of the graphical construction is shown
alongside. The curve represents the exponential diode equation and the straight line
represents the load line. The load line intersect the diode curve at point Q which
represents the operation point of the circuit. Its coordinates give the value of ID and VD.
(𝑉𝐷𝐷 )
(if VD =0V, then 𝑖𝐷 = and if VD=VDD then 𝑖𝐷 = 0 plot on graph then the line
𝑅
is called load line).

The line drawn in between maximum current to maximum voltage is called load line.
Where the load line touches the output curve of the diode that point is called Q point and
at Q point will get the ID and VD.

2. Iterative analysis using the exponential model:

We calculated the ID and VD by using graphical method. Now calculate the same values
by using the iterative method.
 In this method, procedure begins with initial guess of VD.
 from the above diode circuit we have two equations, i and ii.
 initially substitute the guessing value of VD in both equations.
 The resultant value of both equations must be or nearly equal. Other wise
change the guessing value of VD and repeat the values until get both equations
equal or nearly equal.
By the following example we will find the VD and ID with different iterations. Consider
same diode circuit as used in graphical model that is shown in below
(VDD=5V , R=220, Is=10−12 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠 and 𝑉𝑇 = 26𝑚𝑣)

We have a diode forward current equation as follows :

𝒊𝑫 = 𝒊𝑺 (𝒆𝒗𝑫 /𝜼𝑽𝑻 − 𝟏) − − − −(𝐢)

from the circuit, by applying KCL we get the equation is

(𝑉𝐷𝐷 − 𝑉𝐷 )
𝑖𝐷 = … … … … . (ii)
𝑅
Step i: guess the value VD i.e VD = 0.6v substitute the value in eqtn i and ii

Iteration 1: VD = 0.6v

Both are not equal so guess another VD and substitute in above eqtns.

Again both are not equal so substitute another VD

Above equations are nearly equal so stop the iterations and write the values. Otherwise
Repeat the values until get the equation 1and 2 equal.

VD=0.618V

ID=21mA
The small signal model:
When a small amount of an ac signal superimposed on dc, then do the
analysis for separately for both ac and dc as shown in below figure.
 Consider a dc source with diode as shown in below and draw the v-I
characteristic graph with load line as shown in below fig.

(𝑉𝐷𝐶 −𝑉𝐷 )
𝑖𝐷𝐶 =
𝑅
V
If VD=0: 𝑖𝐷𝐶 = DC and VD=VDC then 𝑖𝐷𝐶 = 0 draw the load line with above values
𝑅
on V-I graph shown in below fig.

If a small signal is superimposed on dc source simply circuit is shown in below

Draw the tangent by touching the characteristic curve shown in below on dc graph

When ac changes (Δ𝑉𝐷 ) and current also changed by maximum (Δ𝑉𝐼𝐷 )

Δ𝐼𝐷
Slope of the graph is ratio of output change to input change i.e
Δ𝑉𝐷

Δ𝐼𝐷 ∂𝐼𝐷
− − − −→ -----------(1)
Δ𝑉𝐷 𝜕𝑉𝐷

We know 𝑖𝐷 = 𝑖𝑆 (𝑒 𝑣𝐷 /𝑉𝑇 − 1)
𝑉𝐷
for smaller signal ≫ 1 then
𝑉𝑇
VD
𝑖𝐷 = 𝑖𝑆 𝑒 ----------(2)
VT

Substitute eqtn2 in 1
∂𝐼𝐷 ∂ VD
= (𝑖𝑆 𝑒 VT )
𝜕𝑉𝐷 𝜕𝑉𝐷
 VD
∂𝐼𝐷 1
∴ diode conductance is 𝑔𝑑 = = 𝑖𝑆 𝑒 .
VT
𝜕𝑉𝐷 𝑉𝑇

1 𝐼𝐷
𝑔𝑑 = ID . =
𝑉𝑇 𝑉𝑇

If small inout changes maximum current flowing through the diode changes so there is
small resistance so find that small ac resistance
1 𝑉𝑇
𝑟𝑑 = =
𝑔𝑑 𝐼𝐷

𝒓𝒅 is diode small signal resistance