Ijaz Paper Perovskite

NeuroQuantology| | July 2023 | Volume 21 | Issue 6 |Page 1315-1327| doi: 10.48047/nq.2023.21.6.
NQ23134
Uswah Yasin et al/Exploring the efficiency and sustainability of perovskite-based photovoltaics in the context of renewable energy
Exploring the efficiency and sustainability of

perovskite-based photovoltaics in the
context of renewable energy
1- Uswah Yasin
Department of Physics, University of Agriculture Faisalabad
uswahyasin19@gmail.com
2-Muhammad Awais
Department of Physics, University of Agriculture Faisalabad
awaisuaf27@gmail.com
3- Ijaz Khan
Master in Chemistry, Comsats University Islamabad
kijaz689@yahoo.com
4-Ifra Saeed
Centre of Excellence in Solid State Physics University of Punjab Lahore
ifrasaeed1998@gmail.com
5-Qaisra
MS Architecture, Department of Architecture, Tianjin University China
qaisra0294@gmail.com
6-Hafiz Muhibb Ullah Zulkafal
PhD in Physics, Islamia University Bahawalpur, Pakistan
muhibbiub@yahoo.com
Abstract
Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have dominated commercialization discussion in the past. The
spectacular efficiency of over 25% has enticed scientists to investigate this topic. Due to perovskite
material's unique optical and electrical features, low cost, and large-area device processability, PSCs
are a leading contender to replace silicon solar cells. However, device degradation, hysteresis, film
quality, and others are preventing PSC from industrializing. This review examines how several
factors affect PSC stability. As scalable device fabrication improves, high-quality films evolve.
Summarized degradation pathways help explain PSC instability. This PSC state-of-the-art study will
open new avenues for device performance improvement to sustain industrial exploration.
DOI Number: 10.48047/nq.2023.21.6.NQ23134 NeuroQuantology2023;21(6): 1315-1327
Introduction to year-round sunlight, this is the finest spot for

Electricity is needed to power commodities as solar energy. The sun provides more energy
population and living standards rise. Water, each day than the global population consumes
wind, and solar power are the best ways to in a year [1]. The sun is one of our biggest
alleviate pollution and global warming. Clean sources of energy until we find a more effective
energy (solar, wind, hydroelectric, biomass, and way to generate electricity from fusion or
geothermal power) requires a specific location fission. Several solar energy gathering methods
to produce energy, unlike gas, coal, and oil. The are efficient. like solar cells that immediately
equator is fortunate since the greatest power is generate power. Silicon solar cells, the most
needed to improve living standards there. Due widely used, have increased their power
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NeuroQuantology| | July 2023 | Volume 21 | Issue 6 |Page 1315-1327| doi: 10.48047/nq.2023.21.6.NQ23134
conversion efficiency (PCE) from 12% to 25% in PV uses the energy in the sun to turn sunlight
40 years [2]. Due to bulk production by huge into power. Solar cells follow this rule. Either
enterprises, silicon solar cells last 20 years and photovoltaics or photochemistry can be used to
cost less. However, making crystalline silicon turn light into power in a solar cell.
structures demands a lot of heat energy [3]. It The photovoltaic effect happens when photons
also uses rare, poisonous elements including with more energy than the energy gap of the
cadmium telluride, copper indium selenide, semiconducting material shine light on it. All
cadmium indium gallium di-selenide, and silicon semiconducting materials have a change in
tetrachloride [4, 5]. Thus, scientists seek dye- energy level between the valence band and the
sensitized, organic, and perovskite solar cells conduction band. The energy level of the
(PSC) made from abundant organic materials. electrons in the outermost shell around the
PSCs showed the biggest PCE development center of an atom is the valence band. Since the
from 9.7% [6] to 22% [2] during 5 years. This cell conduction band is empty in the atom's ground
loses efficiency during operation [6], therefore state, moving electrons there makes the
unless that issue is resolved, it cannot compete material conduct electricity. The HOMO-LUMO
with silicon solar cells. Due to its low thermal gap is the difference in energy between the
energy requirements, ease of layering, and highest filled molecular orbital (HOMO) and the
ability to be applied to flexible surfaces like lowest unoccupied orbital (LUMO) in an organic
plastic, it remains an important research field. semiconductor. The energy of the material is
Perovskite material needed to move an electron from the valence
CaTiO3 that is the same in every other way The band (HOMO) to the conduction band (LUMO).
first structure of this kind was ABX3. If X is an The amount of energy carried by
anion that is covalently bound to both A and B, electromagnetic radiation (photons) is related
then A and B can be different in terms of how to their length. Light can be used to power up
many electrons they have and how big they are. semiconductors. Photons with more energy
If you want your crystal to have cubic symmetry, than the material's energy gap can move
atom A needs to be bigger and have fewer electrons from the valence band to the
electrons than atom B. A perovskite can be conduction band, leaving holes. The excited
made from any material with the right crystal electron tries to get back together with the
structure. Superconductivity, ionic conductivity, resulting hole, but the electric field between the
high heat power, and other things can't happen electrodes spreads the charge carriers. The
without cations and anions. In 1978 [7], Weber voltage comes from the material's band gap,
found organometallic halides in perovskite that and the current comes from the charge carriers.
could be used in solar cells. It has metallic Henri Becquerel found the "Becquerel effect,"
elements like lead (Pb) or tin (Sn), halides like which is now called the "photovoltaic effect," in
bromide (Br3), iodide (I3), or chloride (Cl) (X3), 1839.
and organic elements like methyl ammonium History
(MA) or formamidinium (FA) (A). Because it has In 2009, Kojima et al. did the first DSC with
a low band gap, this perovskite can capture perovskite light emitters and 3.8%
more light. This is because photons with enough perchloroethylene (PCE). The organometal
energy to excite exitons are found in a wider halide perovskite material CH3NH3PbX3 had
range of light. It can handle structural defects good hole and electron conductivities and was
well and has shallow point defects. It also has a very good at absorbing light [11–14]. This
low rate of surface recombination and grain groundbreaking discovery led to perovskite
boundaries that don't encourage recombination. solar cells (PSCs), which are one of the most
All of these things contribute to its high charge studied types of solar cells. In 2019, PSCs
carrier mobility, which makes it easy for generate energy with a 25.2% efficiency. In
electrons and holes to move through the 2009, that number was only 3.8%. [15] PSCs
material. [8, 9] have a lot of promise as BIPVs because they are
Photovoltaic effect both colored and see-through [16, 17]. They are
also easy to make. [18] At 25.2%, the
partnership between the Korean Research even more stable than this.. Under 1 sun and
Institute of Chemical Technology (KRICT) and short circuit conditions, the module maintained
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) efficiency for almost a year. Despite PSC's
had the best PCE in 2019. [18] No one knows impressive power conversion efficiencies,
yet how this certified perovskite gadget is built moisture and oxygen sensitivity, which
or how it is put together. degrades the perovskite absorber, and lead (Pb)
Yoo et al. [19] used perovskite made of N- in the most efficient absorbers are still
hexylammonium bromide (C6Br)(3D/LP), and it preventing its commercialization [22-24]. These
worked 23.4% of the time. By adding 2% FA major issues are driving research into hermetic
formate to the precursor solution (called encapsulating systems and lead-free absorbers.
formate-doped FAPbI3), Jeong et al. were able Structure for PSC
to control anion-vacancy flaws in -phase FAPbI3 Figure depicts PSC layer structure. The
perovskite and reach a maximum efficiency of transparent electrode is indium tin oxide (ITO)
25.6% in 2021. or fluorine doped tin oxide (FTO) on a glass
The highest PCE in a scientific study was 22.7%, surface with an electron transporting layer (ETL).
which was written by Jung et al. When using The perovskite layer absorbs light photons and
P3HT without dopants in a wide-bandgap halide excites electron-hole pairs (exiton) on top of the
[20], 95% of the original PCE was still there after ETL. The perovskite, hole transporting layer
1390 hours of exposure to 1 sun at room (HTL), and metallic electrode are on top. The
temperature (encapsulated device). Grancini et translucent and metallic electrodes form a
al. [21] built a 2D/3D perovskite module (10 x closed circuit cell.
10 cm2) with a carbon back contact that was
Figure 1: Schematic structure for a perovskite solar cell, the sun is the source of illumination.
Aim of Study Synthesis of perovskites
This study seeks to understand PSC operations. Micro-structured perovskite materials are
It examines how new perovskite solar cell synthesized using several processes. Perovskite
materials and fabrication processes affect oxides can be substituted to change their
device conversion efficiency and stability. The composition. Table 1 summarizes each
primary problems and tandem solar cell technique's synthesis parameters, starting
solutions are also highlighted. ingredients, and final product size distribution.
Table 1 Common characteristic of approaches for perovskite synthesis.
Technique Starting material Temperature Quality Nature of Particle size Comments Ref
range (◦C) material (nm)
Solid state Inorganic salts, oxides, 950–1350 Poor Less <1000 Lengthy mechanical [25, 26]
Reaction carbonates & agglomerated milling and mixing of
hydroxides the precursors required
Co-precipitationNitrates, organic salts 500–800 Good Highly <10 Washing steps may [27-29]
& Alkoxides agglomerated cause deficiency of
specific cations
Sol-gel (Pechini Nitrates, orgarnic 800–1000 High Porous <10

Excellent control of [30, 31]
method) components & Metal physical properties of
oxides the final material
composition
Solvo/ Anhydrous oxides, Below 300 Very high Loose <100 Reactions occurs above [32, 33]
Hydrothermal hydroxides & salts the ambient
temperature and
pressure in a sealed
vesse
Solid state synthesis most typical issue that arises during this process
Solid-state reaction is the most common is cracking of the gel when it dries.
perovskite synthesis. This approach yields solid Hydrothermal synthesis
results from equal amounts of solid starting The hydrothermal method is used to make
elements. Heat treating all chemicals at 1200 °C perovskite materials by heating water solutions
forms perovskite structures. This approach is to temperatures and pressures that are higher
useful for making perovskite catalysts due to its than those found in nature. In theory, it works
simplicity and reproducibility [34-36]. This by causing metal salts to turn into metal oxides
approach includes numerous characteristics when water is present at higher temperatures
that must be regulated during synthesis to and pressures. Compared to the other methods,
avoid affecting perovskite use [36]. Time and this one has a lot going for it. First of all, the
calcination temperature affect material method is safe for the environment because it
properties [35, 36]. Thus, surface area and pore only needs one step and works at low
size can be changed, which are effective for temperatures (300 OC) [42-44]. Also, by
high energy density applications [37, 25]. changing things like pH, temperature,
Co-precipitation reaction detergents, and time, this method can make
This supersaturated chemical synthesis process nanostructures that are very crystallized, small,
of co-precipitation blends precipitation agent and have a specific shape.
with soluble metal cations. Athayde et al. [38] Factors Affecting the Perovskite's Stability
found that calcination temperature, solvent, In spite of the astonishing progresses reached in
and precursor can produce complex perovskite the last ten years in terms of power conversion
with desired physical properties. Co- efficiency, PSC devices still present a lack of
precipitation yields high-purity multi- stability.
component materials and reduces calcination 1. Presence of moisture
temperature and time [26, 38, 39]. Tang et al. Organometal halide perovskite's crystallinity
[39] examined low-temperature Pb(Fe1/2 can be damaged by moisture. Few degradation
Nb1/2)O3 morphologies. At 500 OC, aggregated mechanisms have been identified, but some
particles had a grain size of 100 nm, while pure writers claim that a certain humidity level helps
perovskite powders had a cubic-like form at 800 perovskite synthesis. The perovskite hydrolyzes
OC [26, 39]. in moisture and decomposes under oxygen or
Sol-gel method UV radiation. PSC manufacture should be done
Sol-gel synthesis, of which the Pechini, alkoxide, in a glove box with inert gas (usually N2) to
and alkoxide-salts procedures are examples [29, prevent perovskite hydrolysis.
40], is used to create perovskites. Nano- After studying the hydration mechanism of
crystalline powders of oxide ceramics can be CH3NH3PbI3, Leguy et al. [45] found that only
made using the sol-gel method, which allows long-term exposure can irreversibly decompose
for significantly reduced calcination perovskite.
temperatures and very short annealing times. Some protocols address this issue. Pre-heating
Advantages of the sol gel approach include substrates before PbI2 deposition increases
improved homogeneity, lower costs, and more efficiency at higher moisture contents,
precise control over stoichiometry [40, 41]. The according to Ko et al. [46]. The PSC device was
constructed in a 50% humidity environment
with substrates pre-heated at 50 °C. The PCE spectrum sunlight for over 1000 h. Bera et al.
was 15.76%. Pre-heating improves perovskite [53] used Zn2SnO4 as an electron transporting
pore filling and surface coverage in mesoporous layer to improve perovskite layer crystallization
TiO2. and prevent UV-based deactivation. Their PSC
Cronin et al. [47] discovered a trade-off device had a 13.3% PCE, negligible electrical
between relative humidity and annealing time: hysteresis, and exceptional stability without
for low humidities (0 %, 15%, and 20%), encapsulation for over a month. A strontium
perovskite conversion takes 45 min, whereas oxide (SrO) interlayer was suggested to improve
for humidities above 20%, it should take less UV stability of a mesoporous CH3NH3PbI3
than 30 min. Chemical deterioration occurs with device. Although the devices showed a PCE of
prolonged high humidity. Throughton et al. [48] 17.6%, the stability increased since they
enhanced perovskite deposition using ethyl demonstrated 60% of the initial PCE, compared
acetate as anti-solvent. Ethyl acetate sequesters to 34% for devices without interlayer between
airborne moisture and protects the perovskite TiO2 and perovskite film [54].
intermediate phase, allowing deposition 3. Thermal stability
without ambient control. CH3NH3PbI3 with Temperature, like moisture, degrades PSC
15% PCE was generated at 75% RH. devices in two ways: perovskite material and
Hydrophobic oleylammonium polysulfides were HEL behavior. Metal halide perovskite materials
suggested. An ultrathin coating atop perovskite are stable beyond 300 °C, while some studies
could passivate surface chemical activity and showed that organic components decompose
improve moisture stability. A device without below 140 °C. [55] At 80 °C, PbI2 and CH3NH3I
encapsulation retained more than 70% of its completely change into CH3NH3PbI3.
initial PCE after 14 days of exposure to a Perovskite material is usually annealed at low
relative humidity of (40 ± 10) %.[49] Despite temperatures. [56] Tan et al. [57] found the
these well-established degradation mechanisms, following when heating CH3NH3PbI3-xClx to
some writers disagree on how humidity affects 100 °C in N2 atmosphere at 1 °C•min-1: 2) the
perovskite crystallization. Zhou et al. found that deterioration of the perovskite at 100 °C.
humidity below 30% during cell production Misra et al. [58] compared two inorganic
increases crystal morphology and device precursors for perovskite material, PbI2 and
performance. PbBr2. After accelerated aging tests in sealed
2. Presence of oxygen and UV light effect PSCs, they found that CH3NH3PbI3 device
UV radiation severely affects PSC performance, degrades after 60 min at 44 °C - 55 °C, while
notably in TiO2 mesoporous devices. It is CH3NH3PbBr3 device did not show photo-
generally known that TiO2 is a good bleaching or decomposition. Pb-Br has shorter
photocatalyst for oxidizing water and organic and stronger bonds than Pb-I, explaining this.
molecules due to its 3.2 eV band gap and UV [59] However, both organic and inorganic
absorption. Thus, UV photoactivity of TiO2 has precursors increase thermal stability. Eperon et
led to different degradation mechanisms. al. [60] and Aharon et al. [61] found that
Mesoporous TiO2 has trapping sites and formamidinium (FA) lead trihalide
electron-donating surface imperfections. [50] (HC(NH2)2PbI3)-based PSC devices have
Electrons in these trapping states bind oxygen improved thermal stability. At 290 °C,
and produce O2 [51]. The hole recombines with (HC(NH2)2PbI3) perovskite disintegrated, while
the electron at the oxygen adsorption site after CH3NH3PbI3 commenced at ~230 °C. [61] MA
UV light illuminates TiO2. The oxygen desorbs, stabilized FA perovskite's black phase. Even in
leaving a site that could capture photo-induced high-efficiency devices, remnants of yellow
electrons from sensitizers. Holes in HEL may phase inhibited charge collection. [62, 63] Saliba
recombine with trapped electrons. et al. [64] suggested adding small amounts of
Chander et al. [52] suggested a UV filter to inorganic cations like Cs and Rb to improve
stabilize the UV-illuminated TiO2 layer. Leijtens thermal stability and robustness to fluctuating
et al. substituted TiO2 for an insulating-Al2O3 factors like temperature, solvent vapours, and
scaffold to maintain photocurrents in full heating protocols. Caffeine in the MAPbI3
perovskite was discovered by Wang et al. [65] application method substantially influence
recently. Carboxyl groups strongly interact with perovskite morphology.
Pb2+ ions, delaying crystal formation and Jeon et al. [71] suggested using an anti-solvent
permitting a lower defect density film with approach to limit crystal development. Similar
better vertical charge transmission. Caffeine to one-step deposition, an anti-solvent like
improves perovskite thermal stability during toluene is sprayed onto the substrate during
deterioration. Caffeine-based devices had a precursor spinning.
champion PCE of 20.25 % and stability for 1300 Two-Steps Deposition
h at 85 °C (loss < 15% of original PCE). Burschka et al. [72] proposed a two-step
4. Hysteresis effect deposition to control perovskite crystal
Perovskite solar cells have hysteresis in the I-V development. The TiO2 layer is spin-coated
curve at common voltage sweep rates using a DMF-based PbI2 solution and dried.
(generally 100–1 mV•s-1). [66] Hysteresis After dipping the substrate in CH3NH3I solution
results from the I-V curve's irreproducibility. (e.g., 2-propanol), the perovskite is spun and
Forward scan and backward bias usually annealed. PbI2 with CH3NH3I produce
improve performance and fill factor. In these perovskite crystals. PbI2 can be deposited at
instances, the I-V characteristic curve cannot higher concentrations than in the one-step
offer a valid PCE value, so identifying the technique, resulting in a more compact,
hysteresis source is crucial to minimize absorbent, and reproducible coating. The
ambiguity in PSC device characterization and mesoporous TiO2 film confines PbI2, creating a
improve device stability. Dualeh et al. [67] layered crystalline structure that allows
discovered a high hysteresis in I-V curves under CH3NH3I precursors to be inserted to form
lead iodide PSC illumination. Hysteresis also CH3NH3PbI3 nanocrystals. After Burschka et al.
relies on whether a forward or reverse scan is published this new method, several variations
done first. The forward scan is much more rate were explored, such as using warm substrates
dependent than the reverse scan, implying slow to improve pore filling and surface coverage of
charged carriers generate current and the perovskite layer [73], pre-wetting in 2-
voltage.Several studies suggested that propanol to improve conversion of PbI2 to
hysteresis may be caused by trapping electronic CH3NH3PbI3 [74], or DMSO to create a more
carriers at the perovskite interface(s), stable, uniform, and smooth amorphous layer
ferroelectric effects, ionic displacement, or a of PbI2.
combination of these. [70] Van Reenen et al.'s Dual-Source Vapour Deposition
theoretical analysis [70] found that hysteresis is Since dipping the CH3NH3PbI3 film in CH3NH3I
caused by ion movement through the solution makes it easy to take it off or dissolve it,
perovskite and charge carrier entrapment at its vapour deposition is the best way to make a
interfaces. These two actions increase charge high-quality, uniform perovskite layer for flat
densities at the perovskite interface. structures. Liu et al. [75] were the first to talk
5. Perovskite layer deposition method effect about DSVD in 2013. In a high vacuum,
The perovskite deposition process impacts the CH3NH3I and PbCl2 are used to produce TiO2 at
film's surface coverage, crystallinity, thickness, temperatures of 120 and 325 degrees Celsius,
and quality, which affects its morphological and respectively. Precursors might be in different
transport properties.. places. The end is a perovskite film that doesn't
One-Step Deposition have any flaws, like tiny holes. In a solution
Solution processes require spin-coating. One- setup, the maximum PCE for DSVD devices was
step deposition involves dispensing perovskite 15%, while the maximum PCE for PSC devices
solution at a particular spinning velocity on the was 12%.
substrate. Perovskite crystallizes when the Vapour Assisted Solution Process
solvent evaporates after spinning off surplus Vapour-assisted solution is another way to
solution. Substrate, precursor solution, sublimate with the help of a fluid. It is similar to
processing environment (air or N2), and the two-step deposition method, but instead of
dipping the PbI2 film in CH3NH3I, the
intercalation process is sped up by exposing it then the mixed solution of FAI/MABr/MACl was
to a vapour at low temperatures. This makes cast and annealed at 150 OC. Optimizing die
CH3NH3PbI3 crystals. [76] Less pressure and coating and solution concentration controlled
heat are needed for this method. thickness. For improved devices, they stressed
The Vacuum Flash-Assisted Solution Process blended solvent (9:1 DMF/DMSO) and additives
Li et al. [77] came up with the vacuum flash (FA/MA/Cs). Blending solvent reduced solvent
assisted solution method, which gets rid of evaporation and generated an intermediate
dangerous anti-solvents and makes large-area phase or Lewis acid-base adduct, improving film
cells. After the perovskite precursor solution uniformity. Additives improved crystallization
(FA0.81MA0.15Pb2.51Br0.45) was coated on and growth by increasing perovskite film
the film with a spin coating method, the film absorbance [79].
was quickly vacuumed at 20 Pa for a few Spray coating
seconds. Getting rid of the solvents (GBL and This method blows perovskite precursor
DMF) speeds up the formation of the perovskite material via a nozzle to produce droplets.
intermediate phase. The DMSO is taken out of Spraying perfume or spray painting is
the intermediate perovskite by heating it to comparable. Blowing evaporates the solvent
100 °C for 30 minutes. This turns the and deposits precursor material on the
nanofibrous clusters into a smooth, solid layer substrate. Open conditions induce
with no pinholes. This method kept 90% of PCE, environmental damage with this strategy. Cai et
while the anti-solvent method only kept 70% of al. were 20% efficient. Anti-solvent extraction
PCE in devices with the same perovskite improved spray-coated perovskite nucleation.
makeup. An ultrasonic spraying system under optimum
Large Scale Fabrication of PSCs production conditions controlled defect density
Although the majority of the deposition and thickness to optimize parameters. Most
methods referred above allow good studies spin coat ETL and HTL.
performances, they are difficult to implement at Ink-jet printing
large scale mainly due to the use of spin-coating Like spray coating, but more precise. Controlling
technique. Therefore, other techniques start the nozzle or printing head with a pressure
now to emerge as an option pulse. Heating the ink reservoir or piezoelectric
Blade coating transducers can generate the pressure pulse.
Dye-sensitized solar cells use this coating Continuous inkjet and drop-on-demand printing
technique. For a uniform film, a bar coats the are the most common. In the electronic sector,
substrate with solution. Ambient deterioration drop-on-demand is more material-efficient and
during PSC deposition is a key concern. Ambient higher-resolution. Spray printing and other
circumstances make blade coating difficult. Kim manufacturing procedures give them a uniform
et al. [78] spin coated and doctor bladed film. Wei et al. [80] made devices with TiO2
MAPbI3-xClx-based cells in ambient conditions. compact layer, carbon HTM, and MAI absorber.
Nucleation or solvent drying gives larger, denser Carbon, perovskite, and MAI bath devices were
grains more time to self-assemble, improving produced. Interpenetrating nanostructures
performance. Crystal size is important in blade between MAPbI3 and carbon interface reduced
coating process, as films exposed to air for 5 charge recombination and improved charge
days showed higher XRD pattern stability. flow. PCE values were 11%, lower than state-of-
Slot-die coating the-art gadgets. Schackmar et al. [81] found
Doctor blading and slot die coating differ only in 17% efficiency in entirely inkjet-printed devices.
casting technology. Slot die coating uses a They employed NiOx and PCBM layer as charge
printing head to precisely apply the solution to transport materials and blended cation and
the substrate, unlike blading, which uses a bar. anion engineering to produce
In 40% humid circumstances, Gao et al. made ((Cs:FA:MA)Pb(I:Br)3) absorber layer
devices with PCEs over 14%. The PbI2 precursor composition.
solution was coated and annealed at 75 OC,
Table 2 Advantages and disadvantages of possible large-scale perovskite deposition processes with
reference to the best PCE obtained for small PSC and modules.
Deposition Process Advantages Disadvantages η/%
Spray coating - easily scalable; - perovskite crystallinity affected by 18.3 %
- low material waste. several variables that need optimization
Slot-die and blade well-established industrial deposition - wet and slow drying step; Slot-die
coating techniques; - use of gas flow to dry the coated 18.0 %
- can operate at very high deposition solution. 13.8 %
rates; Blade
- good to encapsulate; - low investment 20.2 %
cost; 14.6 %
- flexible.
Inkjet printing - flexibility of printed shapes and - hard to apply anti-solvent techniques 22.7%
thickness; to control crystallization; 17.7%
- substrate independence; - printing speed limited by the numbers
- low material waste. of nozzles and typically slower than
other coating methods.
Conclusion from raw material acquisition through

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