Shankland 2017 Bried PPI

Review of Brief School-Based Positive Psychological Interventions: a Taster for Teachers
and Educators
Author(s): Rébecca Shankland and Evelyn Rosset
Source: Educational Psychology Review, Vol. 29, No. 2, Special Issue: Student Learning in
Higher Education: Theoretical Connections, Directions and Cul-de-Sacs (June 2017), pp. 363-
392
Published by: Springer
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Educ Psychol Rev (20 1 7) 29:363-392 rmccM ,
DOI 1 0. 1 007/s 1 0648-01 6-9357-3 ^
REVIEW ARTICLE
Review of Brief School-Based Positive Psychologi

Interventions: a Taster for Teachers and Educators
Rebecca Shankland 1 • Evelyn Rosset 1
Published online: 29 January 2016

O Springer Scicnce+ Business Media New York 2016
Abstract Research studies looking into the effects of positive psychology interventions
implemented in classrooms have yielded promising results, not only in terms of student
being but also in terms of academic outcomes, school climate, and teacher well-b
However, a number of PPIs require relatively high levels of commitment from sch
administrators and teachers to put into place. This may result in many teachers dismis
PPIs across the board as too complicated to implement. The goal of the present article is thu
present a review of brief PPIs (BPPIs) based on positive psychology research in ord
encourage involvement in such interventions at school. The BPPIs presented here have
categorized into four sections according to established areas of research in positive psy
ogy, mindfulness, gratitude, strengths, and positive relationships, with precise exampl
practices which have been successfully implemented and have demonstrated diverse ben
on student learning and well-being. The potential limitations of such interventions are
highlighted in order to foster best practices and cross-cultural adaptations of such projec
Keywords Positive psychology interventions • Mindfulness • Gratitude • Character strength

Schools
School-based psychological interventions have existed since the early 1930s. During the
second half of the twentieth century, prevention programs predominated in the school-based
mental health promotion literature (for a review, see Dawood 2013). More recently, the
development of positive psychology has yielded new intervention models aiming at fostering
mental health and promoting well-being in education. This represents a shift in the research
focus within the psychological sciences where previous progress had led to major advances in
understanding human disorders, impaired functioning, and the prevention of disease, while
Ê3 Rebecca Shankland
rebecca.shankland@upmf-grenoble.fr
1 Laboratoire Interuniversitaire de Psychologie: Personnalité, Cognition et Changement Social (LIP/

PC2S), Université Grenoble Alpes, EA4145, 1251, Avenue Centrale, 38000 Grenoble, France
ô Springer
364 Educ Psychol Rev (2017) 29:363-392
largely leaving aside the development of h

(Simonton and Baumeister 2005). At the tum
Seligman became president of the American P
this imbalance and called for more research and
Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi's (2000) semina
studies and positive psychological interven
signed to promote global well-being and foster
on fixing weaknesses (Parks and Biswas-Dien
In their meta-analysis. Sin and Lyubomirsky (
positive feelings, cognitions, and behaviors. Alth
ed within the school context, these PPIs have b
varying degrees of success in terms of effective
to apply positive psychology to education and t
tions in schools is a fast-developing area of r
between the fields of psychology and educati
psychology may be important for several reaso
being, the role of schools in educating outside
teachers' knowledge about the links between we
Research looking at the effects of both individu
et al. 2008; Marques et al. 201 1 ), as well as whole-
et al. 2009; Shoshani and Steinmetz 2014), has yield
well-being but also in terms of academic outcom
Although many of the interventions hold cons
certain level of expertise. Hence, PPIs are frequ
costly for the schools involved. This means tha
better off are those that can afford to implem
degree of commitment from school administ
reorganizing the curriculum, carving out extr
sessions, doing "homework" to prepare for cl
material. This may result in teachers in many
logical interventions across the board as too com
article is thus to present a review of brief PPIs
less familiar with positive psychology to dip th
in tum may help to spur future research in bo
Outlining PPIs in schools is important for variou
review papers of multi-week interventions, who
chology frameworks within schools (e.g., Noble
201 1), to our knowledge, a review of brief int
review may spur more hesitant teachers and schoo
especially true for settings in which social emo
character development are less established in publ
getting more teachers on board, this in turn will
applied - as collaborations with educators and ps
Following George Miller's APA presidentia
"giving psychology away" to refer to providin
public at no charge, it is important to rememb
to education is not intended for a select few (w
£) Springer
Educ Psychol Rev (20 1 7) 29:363-392 365
but rather it is to be integrated into the curric

our goal is for positive education to be more un
must be relatively easy to implement for tea
present 1 6 PPIs that have been described in th
sake of this article, we will refer to these inte
logical interventions (BPPIs), to emphasize t
classroom setting without extensive need for t
In sum, the aim of the present article is three
and potential implementation of BPPIs; (2) to
school psychologists, healthcare workers) in p
schools where such practices have not yet bee
(3) to discuss the limits and potential counterpr
intervention is implemented.
The first section will highlight the rationale
within four domains - mindfulness, character
and how they relate to well-being and achieve
brief theoretical introduction to the area of rese
order to foster well-being and learning. The seco
BPPIs in educational settings. The final section
well as concluding remarks and recommendatio
School-Based Positive Psychology Int
In several countries, twenty-first century schooli

approach, where education is oriented towards
ment (Cain and Carnellor 2008; McCombs 2004
increasing interest among educators of being tr
However, many teachers remain uncertain as
in their classroom. PPIs may become a means
they enhance both well-being and learning a
defined positive education as interventions th
with abilities to develop sustainable well-bein
well-being is positively related to academic p
involving 270,034 students from kindergarte
enrolled in a social and emotional learning pr
achievement tests than students who were not
In order to fit the specific school needs and con
selected according to their documented impact o
subjective and/or psychosocial well-being. Subjec
of high levels of positive emotions, low levels of
with life (Diener 1984; Diener et al. 1999), w
existential dimensions such as self-acceptance, p
mastery, autonomy, and positive relationships
assessed through the research studies are achievem
on the different conceptualizations of engagemen
being has been both measured using subjective a
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366 Educ Psychol Rev (2017) 29:363-392
How Do PPIs Relate to Student Well-Be
Perhaps one of the most useful models for un

achievement is the Broaden and Build Theory
(1998, 2001). This theory suggests that posit
example, after eliciting positive emotions in
less time in solving a problem and found mo
the other group (Estrada et al. 1997). Resear
how positive emotions broaden the scope o
develop greater creativity, although attenti
academic performance (for more details, see
suggests that the new competencies devel
solving, enable to better adapt to stressful sit
levels of sustainable well-being (Fredrickson
The second model which may be particu
of PPIs in school settings is Deci and Rya
suggests that people are more intrinsicall
of well-being when they have feelings of
fostering an autonomy-supportive envir
practices proposed, they decide which st
kindness they choose to perform, etc.), b
strength-spotting practices for example),
(by focusing on group practices and coop
environments that are beneficial to both
Although recent literature reviews underline
promotion in educational settings remains sc
people and adults suggest that PPIs can yi
(Dawood 2013; Tessier and Shankland, subm
PPI domains relate to these outcomes, namely
positive relationships.
Mindfulness in School Settings
The term mindfulness refers to the awareness

moment, deliberately and without judgme
immediate experience, one can gain insight i
This allows seeing thoughts and emotions a
works to shift mental habits that encourage st
mindfulness originally comes from Buddh
secularized in recent years, in large part
University of Massachusetts Medical Center.
In the West, mindfulness has been studied as
since the 1970s, when Kabat-Zinn began te
university hospital. The program, called M
since been widely implemented in different
shown for a variety of psychological and ph
eating disorders, and substance abuse (Grossm
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Educ Psychol Rev (201 7) 29:363-392 367
finding that the various benefits gained from m

over time, with effects maintained up to 3 year
It is not insignificant that in schools and els
attention but give them no instruction as to
programs work by directing attention to the
instance, is often taught by paying attention
passing through the body and released. Even for
that comes from discovering the power of ch
practitioner stated, children learn that: "They ca
place their attention in their feet, or in their
usually do it, but it interests them that they ca
Preliminary studies have also shown its effe
school setting (e.g., Burke 2010; Garrison Insti
et al. 2013; Thompson and Gauntlett-Gilber
effectiveness of mindfulness towards many of
as attention, concentration, and self-regulatio
Mayer and Salovey 1997), new programs look
emerging, studying young people across a rang
adolescents in secondary school (for a revie
university settings (Lynch et al. 2011; Shankla
One of the challenges facing integrating m
involved in traditional MBSR and MBSR-inspir
mindfulness is that it lends itself relatively easil
the opportunity to have a sense that mindfu
actually direct their attention and integrate
knowledge the question has not yet been addre
that that giving students a taste, however cur
worth the drawbacks of not delving fully into a
Several programs have been developed within
MindUP Curriculum, 2011; implemented in
Greenland 2010; implemented in the USA),
implemented in the USA), the .b Mindf
implemented in the UK), The Still Quiet Plac
and Mindfulness Matters (Snel 2013, 2015; imp
These programs are often quite creative in fin
people. The curriculum of the .b program for in
from more than 200 teachers and over 2000 stud
programs lend themselves easily to classroom
We will thus present four examples of BPPIs
moment experience with open-mindedness.
increase awareness of their present state and o
non-reactivity towards what they experience: to
in automatic responses. These practices also re
have been reported to reduce well-being (e.g
uncomfortable emotions, situations, or though
as research on thought suppression has highlig
and emotions, the more they may come back
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368 Educ Psychol Rev (2017) 29:363-392
Mindfulness practices have also been shown t

levels of emotion regulation, empathy, and
Ryan 2003; Dekeyser et al. 2008; Jones et al.
Recent research in cognitive neuroscience an
cultivating caring mindfulness by practicing c
prosocial behaviors (McCall et al. 2014). Henc
to be lifelong useful prosocial behavior elicit
school curriculum.
Recent advances in neuroscience have shed

mindfulness practice. Neuro-imaging studies
can "reliably and profoundly alter the struc
their examination of the effects of mindfuln
evidence of increased blood flow to key area
and emotional integration in people practici
lead to the conclusion that mindfulness pra
higher levels of social and emotional skills a
In terms of academic performance, a recent
(n = 1 797 participants) carried out on medit
practices) found seven studies (n = 1 2 1 0) ass
three studies had measured achievement outc
dental meditation) provided the most eviden
(2006) study showed self-reported improvem
Nidich et al. (201 1), the results showed that t
in language and study skills, while ninth to
courses and thinking skills which were meas
Despite the scarcity of studies measuring
attention and emotion regulation remain c
in this field. Indeed, in the Waters et al.
well-being, emotion regulation, and socia
interest is the fact that interventions del
consistent effects compared with other in
(more than once per day) generated mo
variables, and these results were more consistent with senior school students in
comparison to middle school and K-12 schools.
In what concerns social competence, the meta-analysis showed significant, although
predominantly small, positive effects of meditation. For emotion regulation, the analyses
carried out on the combined sample size of 698 participants showed that meditation had a
significant effect on emotional regulation in 4 1 % of the results. This result is encouraging fo
school-based interventions as emotion regulation has been related to individual well-being
social competencies, and academic achievement in kindergarten (Graziano et al. 2007), middl
school (Gumora and Arsenio 2002), and university students (MacCann et al. 201 1 ), even whe
controlling for IQ and cognition-related skills.
Waters et al. (2015) report that the ability to self-regulate (attention or emotion regulation
assists students in becoming more disciplined with their learning habits and in managing th
stress of academic demands (Wang et al. 1997; Zins et al. 2004). Emotion regulation may al
be helpful within examination contexts (MacCann et al. 2011). Hence, mindfulness practice
may help develop attitudes and abilities that appear to be particularly useful in school settings
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Educ Psychol Rev (2017) 29:363-392 369
Character Strengths in School Settings
Strengths have been defined as intrinsically

which promote well-being, positive relation
and Seligman 2004; Linley and Harrington 2
been carried out on adult populations, we ca
the lens to look out for them and the langu
than developing new strengths, positive psy
existing strengths in a new way is an effec
et al. 2012; Madden et al. 2011; Mongrain
2005).
Recent research has found that when people work from their strengths - as opposed to their
weaknesses - both their learning curve and their performance are improved at work (Clifton
and Harter 2003). In other words, they leam faster and perform better; they are also more
motivated and have a higher level of satisfaction, feelings of mastery, and competence (Linley
and Harrington 2006; Peterson and Seligman 2004), which then can impact self-efficacy
beliefs (Bandura 1997).
Authors have argued that the link between well-being and the use of signature strengths
may be explained by the fact that these practices help meet basic psychological needs for
autonomy, competence, and social relatedness (Linley et al. 2010a). Feelings of autonomy may
be enhanced by the fact that strengths use is based on intrinsic motivation and self-determined
actions, while feelings of competence are increased through strength development. Strengths
use may also enhance positive relationships in the classroom which can lead to a more positive
classroom climate. For example, in a correlational study carried out by Wagner and Ruch
(201 5), the strongest correlations between positive classroom behaviors and character strengths
were found for perseverance, self-regulation, prudence, social intelligence, and hope. As
shown by research studies based on the prosocial classroom theoretical model (Jennings and
Greenberg 2009), classroom climate is closely related to student well-being and academic
outcomes.
Since Seligman and colleagues' initial Internet study in 2005, numerous strengths-
studies have been carried out, including some in school settings. For example, the Po
Psychology for Youth Program is a curriculum for teenagers (14-15 years old), focu
using and developing character strengths. In a randomized controlled trial, it was found t
program improved social skills and engagement in school. Furthermore, these result
maintained 2 years later (Gillham et al. 2013; Seligman et al. 2009). Among youth
signature strengths in novel ways along with personally meaningful goal setting has a
shown to lead to increased student engagement and hope (Madden et al. 201 1). Linle
further posits that the effects of strengths interventions on well-being include a fe
validation and appreciation, which increase self-esteem and self-efficacy beliefs (Austi
Based on these positive, although preliminary, research results in youth, Linkins
(2014) have outlined several practices to help cultivate strengths in children, many of
inspired the BPPls described later in this paper.
Gratitude in School Settings
Gratitude has been defined as "a sense of thankfulness and joy in response to receiving a
whether the gift be a tangible benefit from a specific other or a moment of peacef
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370 Educ Psychol Rev (2017) 29:363-392
evoked by natural beauty" (Emmons 2004, p

therefore be identified: gratitude towards the
"targeted gratitude") and gratitude that so
gratitude," McAleer 2012). Although the firs
studied in positive psychology, both have bee
well-being (e.g., Adler and Fagley 2005; Wa
gratitude, the literature suggests that people fe
intentional act of kindness from a benefacto
they experience gratitude in response to benefi
were provided intentionally and altruistically (r
to the benefactor (Tesser et al. 1968; Wood et
Grateful individuals report experiencing hig
vitality, while also reporting less depression
studies looking at the potential benefits of a de
number of positive outcomes on individual a
Seligman et al. 2005; Wood et al. 2009, 201
variables such as school satisfaction (Froh et
2011). It has been shown to be particularly
positive affect, while a ceiling effect may be
et al. 2009).
Gratitude also plays a unique role in social bonding and relationship maintenance (e.g.,
Algoe et al. 2008; Froh et al. 2010). The find-remind-and-bind theory of gratitude (Algoe
2012) posits that this positive emotion serves an evolutionary function in strengthening a
relationship through reciprocal responsiveness (Algoe et al. 2008). This theory highlights the
role of gratitude in ( 1 ) facilitating initiation of new relationships as expressing gratitude may
serve to alert previously unacquainted peers to the potential for a high-quality social bond
(finding dimension; Williams and Bartlett 2015); (2) orienting attention towards existing
relationships (reminding dimension; Algoe et al. 2013); and (3) maintaining these relationships
(binding dimension; McCullough et al. 2008). As strong social ties are critical for youth
adjustment, bonding to school, and achievement (Huebner et al. 2006), gratitude interventions
may be particularly useful in schools.
Through practices such as counting blessings, students leam to shift attention towards what
they have rather than what they do not have and get better at appreciating and noticing people's
intentions and how they benefit from them. This ability to shift attention towards positive
aspects of everyday life counterbalances the tendency of the human mind to pay more attention
to potentially negative stimuli in the environment, which has been labelled the "negativity
bias" (Baumeister et al. 2001). This bias is robust and has been found in multiple domains,
from greater physiological arousal and greater recall and attention for negative stimuli than
positive or neutral stimuli. This "bad is stronger than good" bias results in our being exquisite
detectors of the bad while often overlooking the good. As attention is selective, we tend to
focus on one aspect (for example a word of criticism) while forgetting the larger picture
(overall the homework handed in was good). Similar to developing deliberate strategies to
overcome our natural cravings for fat, sugar, and salt (natural tendencies no longer as adaptive
as they once were), we must also develop deliberate strategies to overcome our natural
tendency to focus on the bad. The practice of gratitude serves as a deliberate reminder to shift
our attention to something positive in our lives. However, it should be mentioned that this
attentional shift may be more difficult for certain students and may require additional time or
£) Springer
Educ Psychol Rev (2017) 29:363-392 371
help. For example, specific attractive ways of

might be to suggest taking daily photograph
currently carrying out a randomized control
through which gratitude may lead to well-be
of positive emotions on creativity and prob
broaden and build theory, 1998 2001).
Although research studies have demonstrat
social benefits associated with the practice o
gratitude, Morgan et al. (2015) argue that suc
in that the former implies a more direct an
However, as research studies have shown t
levels of altruism (e.g., Shankland 2012). In
consider gratitude as a moral emotion which c
plays the role of a moral barometer, gauging
moral action. Secondly, gratitude may serve
motivated to help others, even if unrelated to
a moral "reinforcer," whereby the prosocial
the expression of gratitude from the benef
potential danger of implementing gratitude
mensions of the practices. These aspects will b
practical issues are discussed.
Positive Relationships in School Settings
Positive relationships are here defined as

both teachers and students. They appe
(Baumeister and Leary 1995) and in sch
and Diener (1995) found that the only fa
across widely differing cultures was the
carried out by Diener and Seligman (2002
period showed that happiness levels in st
coping with stressful situations, which w
behaviors have been shown to increase we
social support (reciprocal altruism theo
factors (e.g., Grube and Piliavin 2000).
shown to increase altruistic behaviors
increase happiness (e.g., Otake et al. 20
1998). Positive social relationships thus c
collective well-being within schools, both
solving and learning (e.g., Isen et al. 19
Well-being theories can shed light on the com
self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan 20
it follows an intrinsic motivation (Weinstein
to personal values. Carrying out altruistic
(Antonovsky 1996) and is correlated with hi
1994). Self-determination theory also posits th
three fundamental psychological needs: auto
Springer
372 Educ Psychol Rev (20 1 7) 29:363-392
engagement such as acts of kindness (descr

fundamental needs as an act of kindness is sel
which he or she may help another student), c
necessary competence to do so, and the outco
The situation of relationships within schools
students are taught on an explicit level that coop
of school and grades implicitly teaches them t
mixed messages in school about relationships
tition. Although the emphasis on cooperation
dependent, students nonetheless come to unde
better they may find themselves in the ranking
With the advent of the jigsaw classroom in
201 1), cooperative learning techniques have be
extensively studied. Indeed, more than 1000 r
cooperative educational techniques in schools (
such practices help promote acceptance of ot
cooperation and prosocial behavior (Choi et
Lazarowitz et al. 1980).
Cooperative learning differs from traditional
particular concept to all, by engaging the studen
cooperation instead of competition. Research has
learning but also lead to more positive relation
competition is associated with negative outc
(Johnson and Johnson 1987). Hence, a change of
both in terms of academic success as well as p
In classes where relationships appear to be pa
feel more comfortable working first on indivi
supportive interactions with the students. Re
collective well-being tends to feed into one an
carried out as part of a survey in which the p
experimenter then suggested the participants g
survey to a non-profit oiganization. The result
more money they donated (Shankland 2012). H
prosocial behaviors, which in tum increase pos
Brief Positive Psychological Interventi
The BPPIs presented in this paper have been se

criteria:
• Can be put into place by individual teachers

• Can be carried out by one teacher or several in the school
• Can be integrated into the existing curriculum
• Can be put into place without administrative red tape
• Do not require extensive time to put into place
• Do not require special training to put into place
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Educ Psychol Rev (201 7) 29:363-392 373
• Do not require special materials to put int

• Can be used/adapted with students of diffe
• Can be used with students in different sch
• Are aimed at increasing the positive inste
Lyubomirsky's (2009) characterization of P
The interventions presented have been main

Europe, and Australia, in both state-funded
students of all ages.
A Teacher-Based Approach
The BPPIs are designed to be implemented

psychologists or specialized professionals).
introduced by the teachers is enhanced effec
relationship with their students and can cont
curriculum has been completed (Waters 201 1
A Cross-Cultural Approach
It is noteworthy that a disproportionate am

PPIs in schools has been done within a
USA, Canada, Australia, and England.
differences in the school systems across
they also share certain broad educational p
school plays in cultivating emotional an
Seligman et al. (2009, p. 295) noted that
encourage character education, and many
tional learning (Cohen 2006; CASEL 201
includes the promotion of moral and c
(Arthur 2005)," his emphasis is not nec
the world nor all educational policies. Fur
terms of constraints on teachers' time an
the curriculum. If we hope to spread
psychology in schools, it is crucial that w
More recently, programs have been deve
such as China (Tian et al. 2014), Spain (A
et al. 2011), The Netherlands (Snel 2013, 2015), and France (Shankland and Rosset
2015). Programs will no doubt spread to a larger number of countries in the future,
but to do so, this requires specific research into cross-cultural adaptation of interven-
tions. Indeed, similar concepts are considered differently according to the culture. For
instance, Peterson and Seligman 's (2004) work on character strengths and virtues
highlighted the universality of valuing these specific attitudes and behaviors.
However, there is also research underlining various differences in how values, virtues,
and character strengths are understood and experienced across cultures. For example,
several studies focusing on gratitude - which has been identified as one of the 24
character strengths - have shown distinct ways of considering gratitude in lay people
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374 Educ Psychol Rev (2017) 29:363-392
(Morgan et al. 2014), distinct outcomes f

vignettes; Naito et al. 2005) and different
and gratitude; Layous et al. 2013).
Implementing Brief Positive Psychology
Following what has just been said, how sh

classroom? We suggest three key elements to
work on the concepts as well as the prac
personality traits (i.e., which students may
or let students invent various options of prac
the appropriate dose of exercise necessary fo
The first step of a BPP1 has been suggest
research studies: to start interventions by c
account possible relevant cultural and norm
showed cross-cultural differences between th
of gratitude. In the UK, it was more frequent
although gratitude is considered as a unive
2004), its conceptualization is influenced by s
working on gratitude enhancement.
Working on the concepts should also preven
motions of an intervention without underst
practices. By enhancing meaning, the teach
Ryan 2002). Furthermore, as a specific applic
only be focused on helping young people be
when and why one should experience and/o
appropriateness depends on cultural norms
gratitude which comprises being grateful
opportunity to develop abilities such as p
Gulliford et al. 2013).
The idea of starting by discussing the concep
unconditionally appreciative orientation. Mo
youth to become "indiscriminately forgivin
benefit mental health in several studies (e.g.,
contexts and can even be detrimental to ind
2008). Morgan et al. (2015) extend this argum
experience could also entail indiscriminate re
also be tailored according to age and cultural
A further reason why an initial reflection o
one defines the concept may also impact the
has been widely defined as a positive emotio
cultural differences in lay person's self-repor
Morgan et al. 2014). In the UK, gratitude app
emotions such as guilt, embarrassment, inde
American sample (Morgan et al. 2014).
Hence, working on the concept of gratitude
fact that less agreeable emotions can co-occur
Ô Springer
Educ Psychol Rev (201 7) 29:363-392 375
experience (Arthur et al. 2015). Morgan et

experiencing gratitude may be part of the e
others and that if this aspect is not considered
students might be surprised by the less agreea
might tum them off
The second key element to bear in mind wh
the concept as being a personality trait (even
literature on mindfulness, character strength
traits are considered as stable and may ind
Dweck 1999) representation of strengths o
mindset, they believe their basic abilities, in
growth mindset, they understand that their t
and persistence. While praise for ability is c
tion, research studies have demonstrated tha
quences as it reduces students' effortful act
research studies have shown that brief inte
Kamins and Dweck 1999). For example, Mue
students' positive traits or talents could under
and motivated to carry out effortful actions.
counterproductive.
While most strength-based interventions
strengths, less attention is devoted to en
carried out a study comparing "talent ide
development" (malleable approach). In the
shift towards more fixist self-theories c
condition. Teachers should thus remain ca
practices and rather focus on how it is po
and effort, in order to avoid possible detr
same way as Louis (2011), Biswas-Diener e
approach ("identify your strengths an
("develop strengths through practicing
considered as potentials "that can be cult
bility, and effort" (Biswas-Diener et al. 2
The third key element for BPPI impl
Lyubomirsky's meta-analysis (2009): it appea
domain (for example, trying out the four
highlighted a dose-effect relationship: in on
individuals carried out one act of kindness per
when carrying out five acts of kindness on 1
In the following section, we will pre
presented in the first section, all of whic
which have the potential to both increase
strengths, (3) gratitude, and (4) positiv
specified for each practice presented, the
ship practices have been used from kinder
interventions have recently been adapted
and Shankland 2015).
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376 Educ Psychol Rev (2017) 29:363-392
Mindfulness BPPIs
It is important to note that the four examples of "easy-to-implement" practices given b

have only been assessed when part of a larger program. Further research examining spe
effect sizes is encouraged, but the aim and competence developed by these practices
similar: focusing on the present moment and training one's mind to come back to the objec
focus each time it wanders away.
Mindfulness No. 1: Mindful Bell
Students can be introduced to mindfulness practice by paying attention to present-mom

experience with a simple bell reminder. The mindful bell can also be used as a mea
training attention to focus on sound as long as possible. When the mind wanders, one tri
refocus it on the sound. The teacher can say: "Let's all be quiet so we can hear the bell. I'll r
the bell, and you can try to listen until you can't hear the sound anymore." The mindfu
bell has been shown to be effective in quieting the classroom within 1 week's time (Kabat-Z
201 3). Children can also be told to "put on their mindfulness bodies" in which they know t
silent sitting up straight. This technique has been used in at-risk schools in New York City
in Oakland, California, in classes where a significant number of children have ADHD
other learning and behavioral issues (Kabat-Zinn 2013).
Mindfulness No. 2: Brief Body Scan
The body scan is one of the classic mindfulness practices. It involves inviting stud
to focus selectively on different parts of their body, making their way up from
bottom of their feet to the top of their heads. It can be done lying down but al
seated. For obvious reasons, staying seated may be more suitable to many classro
and the .b program (Burnett 2013) has come up with an appealing brief body sca
practice called the "FOFBOC," which stands for "Feet On Floor, Bum On Chair." I
this 8-min practice, students are instructed to close their eyes and focus their atten
on the sensation of their feet on the floor, continuing up the body and feeling th
weight on the chair. Research examining the .b program in its entirety found pro
ising results in terms of decreasing symptoms of depression and stress and increa
in well-being (Kuyken et al. 2013).
Many resources are available online to assist in guiding such exercises. Other resources
be found in books for teachers and educators (e.g., Froh and Parks 2013; Jennings 2
Kaiser Greenland 2010; Parks 2013; Parks and Schueller 2014; Snel 2013, 2015).
Mindfulness No. 3: Mindful Breathing
Mindful breathing is another classic practice that has found creative interpretation
students, again via the .b program. Called "7/11," this practice involves asking student
count to "7" on the in-breath and to "11" on the out-breath (Burnett 2013). Note that
counting is not necessarily in seconds; it can simply be counting beats and can even inc
towards the end. The point is to increase awareness of the breath and the present mom
Again, when used as part of the entire .b program, students showed marked decreas
depressive symptoms and stress and increases in well-being (Kuyken et al. 2013).
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Educ Psychol Rev (201 7) 29:363-392 377
Mindfulness No. 4: Caring Mindfulness
Although this practice is not usually part of m

response to growing concern regarding the la
within classical mindfiilness-based intervent
sufficient in ensuring ethical behaviors. In ord
sionate mindsets, the term "caring mindfuln
The following practice is based on Cognitive
(CBCT-C, Ozawa-de and Dodson-Lavelle 20 1 1
present state and on their aspiration to feel
children and classmates and to consider that th
are then encouraged to wish others to be f
committing to assist classmates to feel hap
compassion (Jazaieri et al. 2012), which lead
Although it may be considered as useful to
youth, research studies underline that the e
related to practice time (e.g., Huppert and J
once a week and students do not practice at any
benefits of these practices may be lackluster.
Characters Strengths BPPIs
Character Strength No. 1 : Identifying Stren
Introducing the idea of strengths can be don

uncommon to directly address strengths by
admire and noting down why (Linkins et al.
courageous; she perseveres despite setbacks
feel. . ."), the teacher can then list the differe
many different ways there are to highlight p
then present different taxonomies of strength
2004; CAPP's Realise2, see Linley et al. 201
sections can be done largely independent of
point for the other strength-based interventio
effective in increasing sustainable well-being
et al. 2005). Conversely, as highlighted above, i
can be detrimental to both aspects. This is why
means of raising awareness of potential devel
effortful actions (see "Character Strength No
Character Strength No. 2: Strengths 360°
It is important to remember that thinking

difficult for certain students and in certain cu
own strengths with the help of outside observ
given a standard strengths list by the teacher
different contexts (for instance a teacher, a
Ô Springer
378 Educ Psychol Rev (20 1 7) 29:363-392
strengths. Teachers should, however, remain caut

biases or pigeon-holing whereby students becom
those identified by their entourage. One way to a
down different strengths than those given by th
explicitly tell their parents the strengths they have
can figure out other ones.
One study with over 500 students found t
strength-based program which involved find
completing strengths diaries showed sign
control group on academic expectations, sel
ceptions of ability (Austin 2005). However
(2005) comparing the efficacy of five PPIs sh
only short-term effects with adults, wherea
during 1 week (often referred to as labelled
below) increased well-being up to 6 months
Character Strength No. 3: Cultivating Streng
According to Peterson and Seligman (2004), "sig

strengths. Their research suggests that using at
way during 1 week leads to enhanced subjecti
exercise, students are asked to choose one of their
find out how to use this strength in the classr
some examples to stimulate finding and nove
strengths is "curiosity," the suggestion may be t
each day such as "Eating an apple is more effici
In order to avoid falling into the trap of socia
yours" or "I'm stronger on that than you are"), s
on one strength they wish to develop (all the m
strength during the week). This is one way to en
find ideas that will fuel their practice. It may als
as they see others doing so.
Another way to go about cultivating streng
working on specific strengths that have bee
to positive academic and well-being outco
shown that this strength was related to stu
(Pekrun et al. 2002), predicted academic ach
college students (reported in Park and Peters
ing, and increased satisfaction with life (M
have been related to achievement are curiosit
(for more details, see Park and Peterson 200
When Haidt (2002) carried out a study o
students, he suggested a list of five to eigh
strengths. This list could be adapted to sc
different ways of going about how to use s
For example, if one chooses to work on per
be adapted to school-aged groups:
Ô Springer
Educ Psychol Rev (2017) 29:363-392 379
Finish work ahead of time.
- Notice your thoughts about stopping a tas

Set a goal (e.g., for exercise or studying) an
When you wake up in the morning, think o
though it could be put off until the next da
Suggestions on curiosity development are
Ask question in class.

Explore the stacks in the library, browse w
day and spend 20 min skimming it.
- Eat something new that you never other
If one focuses on hope in younger groups,

are a few (although they have not yet been
- Set goals that will impact your life and th

daily in order to enhance feelings of master
- Keep ajournai and, every night, record a d
life in the long run.
Identify how other people help you work
Character Strength No. 4: Secret Strength
The "secret strengths spotting" exercise a

and has significant potential for impr
2014). In this practice, each student is
observes this secret partner for 1 week a
they were used. A list of the differen
classroom can help remind students of th
week, the partners reveal their identities
helps students identify their strength
creating social relationships.
In line with the preceding exercises, Linkin
signature strengths (a practice they name
completed the VIA Survey, they determine
the VIA data. Then they work to identify va
strengths and how it could be possible to us
enhance well-being and achievement. It co
strengths are complementary to other student
tarity can be developed in the classroom. Th
classrooms in which social comparison appea
A further avenue of research on school-base
Australia (White and Waters 2014), by integr
and experiences (sports, counseling). These typ
to assess their specific impact.
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380 Educ Psychol Rev (2017) 29:363-392
Gratitude BPPIs
Gratitude No. 1: the Gratitude Journal
One of the most widely studied gratitude practices is the gratitude journal whereby a person
notes things in their life that they feel grateful for (e.g., Emmons and McCullough 2003). This
can be easily adapted to the classroom environment, where teachers can propose that students
note three things they are grateful for before class begins. Froh et al. (2008) found that students
who noted up to five things they were grateful on daily basis for 2 weeks showed increases in
optimism, life satisfaction, and satisfaction with the school experience as compared to a hassles
condition and no-treatment control. There are many variants of this practice, including: "Three
Good Things" (Lyubomirsky 2008), "Three things I'm lucky for" (Shankland and Rosset
2015), "Three funny things" (Gander et al. 2012), and "What went well today" (Grenville-
Cleave 2012).
Gratitude No. 2: the Gratitude Letter
A second frequently used gratitude practice in research studies is the gratitude letter (e.g.,
Seligman et al. 2005; Froh et al. 2009). Students are asked to write a letter to someone
significant to them. Writing about how this person has been supportive or has been a role
model has been shown to enhance feelings of social relatedness. Although this exercise is not
time consuming, some students may find it hard to write such a personal letter in the
classroom. It could, however, be integrated into specific language lessons to be proposed as
a written exercise as well as a BPPI as suggested by White and Waters (2014) for strength
interventions.
Gratitude No. 3: the Gratitude Graph
Another intervention that is easily integrated into many different subjects and students of all
ages is the gratitude graph (Zakrzewski 2013). Students are given sticky notes and asked to
write one (or more) things that they are grateful for on each note. The students can then plot the
sticky notes on a classroom graph, with different categories, such as people, places, events,
food, accomplishments, etc. This serves as a reminder of all the different things one may feel
grateful for. It also lends itself well to being both an individual and group activity and can be
changed every week, every month, or every season, depending on the classroom. This is also
an activity that lends itself easily to being school-wide and thus also encouraging shared
identity and shared goals.
Gratitude No. 4: the Gratitude Box
Similar to the gratitude graph is the gratitude box (O'Grady 2013). Teachers give students
strips of paper or simply small pieces of paper, and each student writes something that they are
grateful for. At the end of the week, the pieces of paper are read aloud (though anonymously).
Like the gratitude graph, this practice serves as a helpful reminder for students of all the things
people can feel grateful for and has been found to improve the atmosphere of the classroom
(O'Grady 2013). Variants on this activity can be having different students read the tags each
week and encouraging discussion around different ideas the students come up with.
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Educ Psychol Rev (2017) 29:363-392 381
Although these last two BPPls have not been

been hypothesized to contribute to the deve
thus be used within a broader curriculum aim
lends itself easily to students of different age
is: "Where did that come from?" (Elias 2014
objects and asks the students, either individ
came from or the related question: "How di
pencil comes from, students work backward
arriving in their classrooms. They can use t
Internet or the library - to expand the activ
sweater, the window, a pair of glasses...) b
appreciation not only of all that is at their di
made it possible. This could then lead to the
human beings and towards other self- transce
Other gratitude interventions for youth e
2014) but have not been detailed here as the
intervention (five sessions in the case of Fro
Froh and his colleagues was to work on the so
increasing their understanding of intentions,
program reported increases in benefit apprais
you cards to their teacher-parent associati
condition.
Positive Relationship BPPIs
Positive Relationship No. 1 : Cooperative
Cooperative learning is an instructional te

together on a task and then each group teac
the necessary information, they then proce
Students are told that part of their respons
understand that their grasp of the material an
fellow students (not the reverse as is often th
can noticeably improve classroom climate and
with kindness (Johnson and Johnson 1987).
Positive Relationship No. 2: Active Constr
This BPPI is based on research on active c

Peterson's suggestion for a "But Free Day
patterns has found that the way in which w
news can greatly influence the quality of ou
(Gable et al. 2004; Gottman 1994). Gable et
responses to a colleague/spouse/classmate's g
passive manner and in a constructive or destru
telling us they have a lead role in the school
way ("Are you kidding? Well, that will mak
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382 Educ Psychol Rev (2017) 29:363-392
difficult"); a passive destructive way ("Uh-

passive constructive way ("Uh-huh, good f
("Really? Wow, you must be proud. You rea
What's the play? What part did you get?").
Active constructive responding has been s
relevance to the school environment should
thinking in school can carry over to our rela
easily thinking of what is wrong with someo
therefore provides a helpful way to see that
what is right. This relates to Peterson's (2013
good news without immediately pointing out
Peterson's examples was announcing to colle
Mexico, only to be met with "buts" ("But y
crime. . . "). This type of practice could be prop
teachers (as teachers are also often involved in
Active constructive responding may be diffic
to secondary students. Within this group, we
the context of friendships and romantic relatio
this area; our intention including it here is to e
a more positive, less critical-by-default, mode o
Positive Relationship No. 3: Supportive Stic
The following BPPI stems from research in g

given a series of sticky notes and asked to w
person. The other person could be a classmate, a
school community more broadly (Random A
reduce the potential risk of reinforcing cliques
students, one idea is that the teacher randomly
to write a sticky note. The students then plac
person's desk or locker, a cleaning cart or blac
with the strengths spotting practice, in that st
which will give ideas to write on the sticky no
Positive Relationship No. 4: Secret Acts of
The following practice has been used in alter

classroom climate. It has been labelled in the pr
1 week or even 1 month, each student is rando
or she is asked to be more caring. Taking care o
needs, their projects, their habits, and trying
helping out with homework, or helping to fin
observed that the student is missing one. Res
well-being (Lyubomirsky et al. 2005). Further
cultivating kindness in schools have been show
(Clark and Marinak 2012). Acts of kindness n
individual well-being. However, as evoked earlie
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Educ Psychol Rev (201 7) 29:363-392 383
(2005), a dose-effect was highlighted: five ac

being while one act per day during 5 days di
carrying out five acts of kindness might modi
not be sufficient in changing one's impressio
General Discussion and Perspectives
The present review of BPPIs focused on high

setting, making teachers and educators more
emerging, experimental studies on mindfuln
that they highlight effects on social compet
been shown to yield long-term positive interpe
and behavioral adjustments, and even academ
2006; Robinson et al. 2013). Academic achie
mindfulness practices as it develops attentional
However, further research should look more
and the mechanisms by which they lead to pos
using certain practices rather than other in th
While working on gratitude has the potential
and feelings of relatedness, more research is
impact how students understand and experienc
may eventually backfire (for more details see
strengths, they have the potential to increase se
are beneficial to well-being and academic ach
on group signature strengths in order to r
climate. This may constitute a further research
With regards to cooperation and positive rel
to be most important as school climate and stu
four domains of BPPI have been presented
example in working on group signature stren
training in order to help articulate various co
combination may serve specific goals in term
The domains and interventions described
empirical work supporting PPIs in other domai
although many involve hour-long sessions ove
the original goal of PPIs in the classroom set
well-being and learning. If practices are not
argue that their value is diminished to a cons
There is clearly a need for more studies exa
more to be validated through randomized contr
interventions carried out have been pilot stu
are needed to eventually validate these interv
this review will encourage teachers not only
collaborate with researchers to carry out fur
improve student and teacher well-being. The
between individual and collective well-being
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384 Educ Psychol Rev (20 1 7) 29:363-392
the recent research in positive psychology sh

feed each other.
BPPI Limitations and Potential Pitfalls
As mentioned in the second section, some key recommendations can be put forward
reduce potential detrimental effects of BPPIs. For each domain, we will sugges
particular cautions and reflections. Recent research into mindfulness practices has
highlighted potential detrimental effects such as increased false memories (Wilson
et al. 2015), which might interfere with learning. While this phenomenon is supposed
linked to judgment-free thoughts and feeling that arise through mindfulness practice
in the mindfulness BPPIs presented above, the exercises rather focus on presen
moment attentional training which should lead to benefits for attentional processe
However, it is essential that teachers remain informed of research results through
mindfulness networks in order to adapt practices according to most recent findings.
Until recently, strength-based research focused on working on "signature strengths" (to
five character strengths), with some scholars arguing that it was more efficient and energizi
to work on top strengths rather than on less developed strengths (see, for instanc
Buckingham and Clifton 2001). However, evidence suggests that both types of intervention
are effective. In a study, 375 adults were randomly assigned to either using their top fiv
strengths or five lesser strengths in a new way or to a placebo control condition (i.e., earl
memories). The results showed that both interventions led to increased happiness up t
3 months post-intervention and decreased depressive symptoms. Furthermore, contrary to pa
assumptions, participants found working with strengths equally rewarding (enjoyment a
benefit) in both conditions. In addition, it is noteworthy that participants who reported high
levels of strengths at the beginning of the study benefitted more from working on less
strengths rather than on their signature strengths, while those with lower levels of strength
tended to benefit more from working on their signature strengths (Proyer et al. 2015).
These findings lead the way to possible combinations of interventions (which have
been tested in pilot studies previously, see for example Haidt 2002). It also highlights
that no matter which strength is chosen (as suggested in the character strengths
BPPIs), as long as it is not presented as a trait (see second section), it may lead
positive outcomes (see first section). Another debate, however, has emerged regardin
what can be called strengths exaggeration, which can, in some instances, be consid-
ered as a disorder (Peterson 2006). Similarly, Linley (2008) suggested that strength
overuse may yield negative consequences. For example, excess of honesty can b
hurtful to others and harmful for relationships (for more details, see Bègue 2015).
Investigation in this field would be useful for ensuring how strengths-based interve
tions may consistently remain beneficial.
With regards to gratitude, a recent critique has been raised as to how PPIs tend to focus on
the effects (the aim being to enhance student well-being; e.g., Froh et al. 2014) rather than on
the intrinsic value of gratitude. Following Kristjansson's (2013a) suggestion that students b
led to conceive virtue as its own reward rather than as a mere means to some other en
Morgan et al. (2015) call for caution in programs that exclusively look for the positive (e.g
positive intentions and positive affect) with a potential risk of blinding them to the negati
aspects (or "bogus benefaction"). The educational task they propose is to provide students with
opportunities to reflect on the complexities of gratitude, for example through the use of stori
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Educ Psychol Rev (201 7) 29:363-392 385
drawn from literature or real life. Morgan et

implement these types of interventions in order
In terms of positive relationships, we sugges
reduce the critical-by-default mode in students,
been shown in studies on couples (Gable et al
encouraged to practice at home with a close fr
students expressed qualms about lack of ingenuit
reminded that the goal is not to recognize only
but rather to be less blind-sided by potential
actively and constructively to positive news as
As any exercise, in order to maintain sustain
regularly. In order to maintain student motiva
practice. Numerous books and websites may in
extensive research into these practices.
Conclusion
The aim of the present review was to make positive psychological interventions more widel
available in schools where it has tended to be dominated by specialist training programs and to
encourage further research in this field. The BPPI domains presented in this article have bee
linked to student achievement, as well as to psychological and social well-being.
Teachers and researchers in positive psychology are natural allies. At its core, education is
about nurturing strengths, about growth and learning. Furthermore, psychological and soci
well-being are key concerns for teachers and other educators and for people working in th
field of positive psychology. We hope the work emerging in positive education is just the
beginning, and we hope that the research and interventions presented in this review help mov
both fields forward.
Acknowledgments Wc particularly wish to thank the reviewers for their comments and encouragements whic
have helped improve the quality of this review of brief positive psychology interventions in schools. The detail
and depth of all the reviews was sincerely appreciated.
Wc would like to acknowledge, with appreciation, funding from Institut National de Prevention et d'Education
pour la Santé (INPES) that supported the Positive Psychology Interventions in Schools Review, on which th
manuscript is based (grant no. 040/1 4-DAS).
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Review of Brief School-Based Positive Psychological Interventions: a Taster for Teachers

Review of Brief School-Based Positive Psychologi

Rebecca Shankland 1 • Evelyn Rosset 1

Published online: 29 January 2016

Keywords Positive psychology interventions • Mindfulness • Gratitude • Character strength

1 Laboratoire Interuniversitaire de Psychologie: Personnalité, Cognition et Changement Social (LIP/

largely leaving aside the development of h

but rather it is to be integrated into the curric

School-Based Positive Psychology Int

In several countries, twenty-first century schooli

How Do PPIs Relate to Student Well-Be

Perhaps one of the most useful models for un

Mindfulness in School Settings

The term mindfulness refers to the awareness

finding that the various benefits gained from m

Mindfulness practices have also been shown t

Recent advances in neuroscience have shed

Character Strengths in School Settings

Strengths have been defined as intrinsically

Gratitude in School Settings

evoked by natural beauty" (Emmons 2004, p

help. For example, specific attractive ways of

Positive Relationships in School Settings

Positive relationships are here defined as

engagement such as acts of kindness (descr

Brief Positive Psychological Interventi

The BPPIs presented in this paper have been se

• Can be put into place by individual teachers

• Do not require special materials to put int

The interventions presented have been main

The BPPIs are designed to be implemented

It is noteworthy that a disproportionate am

(Morgan et al. 2014), distinct outcomes f

Implementing Brief Positive Psychology

Following what has just been said, how sh

experience (Arthur et al. 2015). Morgan et

It is important to note that the four examples of "easy-to-implement" practices given b

Mindfulness No. 1: Mindful Bell

Students can be introduced to mindfulness practice by paying attention to present-mom

Mindfulness No. 2: Brief Body Scan

Mindfulness No. 3: Mindful Breathing

Mindfulness No. 4: Caring Mindfulness

Although this practice is not usually part of m

Characters Strengths BPPIs

Character Strength No. 1 : Identifying Stren

Introducing the idea of strengths can be don

Character Strength No. 2: Strengths 360°

It is important to remember that thinking

strengths. Teachers should, however, remain caut

Character Strength No. 3: Cultivating Streng

According to Peterson and Seligman (2004), "sig

Finish work ahead of time.

- Notice your thoughts about stopping a tas

Suggestions on curiosity development are

Ask question in class.

If one focuses on hope in younger groups,

- Set goals that will impact your life and th

Character Strength No. 4: Secret Strength

The "secret strengths spotting" exercise a

Gratitude No. 1: the Gratitude Journal

Gratitude No. 2: the Gratitude Letter

Gratitude No. 3: the Gratitude Graph

Gratitude No. 4: the Gratitude Box