Lecture 2

Solution of simultaneous equations

Reduce the matrix of coefficients of 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 into echelon form by elementary
transformations. When the row transformation is done, the values of 𝑧 is calculated from
the last equation and the values of 𝑦 and 𝑥 are calculated by backward substitution.
This method of solving simultaneous equations is known as Gauss elimination Method.
Example 1
Solve the system of equations
𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 3
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 5
3𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 5𝑧 = −13
In matrix form, we have;
1 −1 2 𝑥 3
[1 2 3 ] [𝑦 ] = [ 5 ]
3 −4 −5 𝑧 −13
For convenience, it is sufficient to work with the Augmented matrix when applying the
row transformations. i.e.
1 −1 2 3
[1 2 3 5 ] is the augmented matrix in this case.
3 −4 −5 −13
Therefore, we have;
1 −1 2 3 1 −1 2 3 𝑅2 − 𝑅1
[1 2 3 5 ] ~ [0 3 1 2 ] 𝑅 − 3𝑅
3 1
3 −4 −5 −13 0 −1 −11 −22

1 −1 2 3
~ [0 3 1
32
5 ] 𝑅3 + 1 𝑅2
64 3
0 0 − −
3 3

Thus, we have;
𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 3
3𝑦 + 𝑧 = 2
32 64
− 𝑧=− ⟹𝑧=2
3 3

Lecture notes by A. Zulu/@cbu/2019 1

 ∴ 3𝑦 + 2 = 2 and 𝑥 − 0 + 2(2) = 3 ∴ 𝑥 = −1, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑧 = 2
𝑦=0 𝑥 = −1
Example 2
Find all the solutions of the system of equations:
𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 1, 3𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 + 2𝑥3 = 2 , 7𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 = 5
Augmented matrix:
1 2 −1 1 1 2 −1 1 𝑅 − 3𝑅 1 2 −1 1
[3 −2 2 2 ] ~ [0 −8 5 −1 ] 𝑅2 − 7𝑅1 ~ [0 −8 5 −1 ] 𝑅3 − 2𝑅2
3 1
7 −2 3 5 0 −16 10 −2 0 0 0 0

∴ 𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 1
−8𝑥2 + 5𝑥3 = −1
Let 𝑥3 = 𝑘
⟹ −8𝑥2 + 5𝑥3 = −1
1 1
𝑥2 = 8 (5𝑘 + 1) and 𝑥1 + 4 (5𝑘 + 1) − 𝑘 = 1
𝑘 3
⟹ 𝑥1 = − 4 + 4 (this equation has infinity solutions).

Example 3
Solve the following equations by using Gauss-Elimination method.
2𝑥1 + 4𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 1, 3𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 − 2𝑥3 = −2 , 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 6.
2 4 1 3 1 −1 1 6 1 −1 1 6 𝑅 − 3𝑅
[3 2 −2 −2 ] ~ [2 4 1 3 ] 𝑅1 ↔ 𝑅3 ~ [0 6 −1 −9 ] 𝑅2 − 7𝑅1
3 1
1 −1 1 6 3 2 −2 −2 0 5 −5 −20

1 −1 1 6
[0 6 −1 −9 ] 𝑅 − 5 𝑅
20 25 3 6 2
0 0 −6 −
2
20 25
∴ − 𝑥3 = − , 6𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = −9 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 6
6 2
25 6
𝑥3 = − ∙ − 25 , 6𝑥2 − 3 = −9 𝑥1 − (−1) + 3 = 6
2

𝑥3 = 3 , 𝑥2 = −1 𝑥1 = 2

Lecture notes by A. Zulu/@cbu/2019 2

Types of Linear Equations
1) Consistent: when a system of equation has one or more solutions
e.g.
𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 4
} has a unique solution
3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 12

Intersect
𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 4
} This has infinite solutions
3𝑥 + 6𝑦 = 12
y

●
● ●

One line
2) Inconsistent: When a system of equations has no solution
e.g.
𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 4
} This has no solution, hence it is inconsistent.
3𝑥 − 6𝑦 = 5
y

Parallel lines

Lecture notes by A. Zulu/@cbu/2019 3

Consider the matrix equation 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵
Where A is a (m×m) matrix, X is (m×1) and B=(m×1).
Let 𝐶 = [𝐴 𝐵] be the augmented matrix. Then;
a) Consistent equations: if Rank A= Rank C
We have the following possible cases:
i) Unique solution: Rank A= Rank C = n
ii) Infinite solution: Rank A= Rank C = 𝑟 , 𝑟 < 𝑛.
b) Inconsistent equations: if Rank A≠Rank C

Example 1
Show that the equations
2𝑥 + 6𝑦 = −1, 6𝑥 + 20𝑦 − 6𝑧 = −3, 6𝑦 − 18𝑧 = −1
Are not consistent.
Augmented matrix 𝐶 = [𝐴 𝐵]

2 6 0 −1 2 6 0 −11
[6 20 −6 −3 ] ~ [0 2 −6 30 ] 𝑅2 − 3𝑅1
0 6 −18 −1 0 6 −18 −1

2 6 0 −11
~ [0 2 −6 30 ] 𝑅3 − 3𝑅1
0 0 0 −91
∴ The rank of 𝐶 = 3 and the rank of 𝐴 = 2
Rank A≠Rank C, thus the equations are not consistent.
Example 2
Test the consistency and solve;

5𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 7𝑧 = 4, 3𝑥 + 26𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 9, 7𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 10𝑧 = 5

3 7 4
5 3 7 4 1
𝐶 = [𝐴 𝐵] ⟹ [3 26 2 9 ] ~ [3
5
26
5
2
5 1
9 ] 5 𝑅1
7 2 10 5 7 2 10 5

Lecture notes by A. Zulu/@cbu/2019 4

 3 7 4
1 1
3 7 4
5 5 5
33 𝑅2 − 3𝑅1 5 5 5
~ 0
121
5
−
11
5 5 𝑅3 − 7𝑅1
~ [0 121
−
11 33
1
] 𝑅3 + 11 𝑅2
11 1 3 5 5 5
[0 − 5 5
−5 ] 0 0 0 0

Thus, the rank of 𝐴 = 2 = rank 𝐶

The equations are consistent, but the rank is less than 3, i.e.,
The number of unknowns. So, its solutions are infinite.
Solving we have;
3 7 4
1 5 5 5
3 7 4
[0 121
−
11 33 ]⟹ 𝑥+ 𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 5
5
5 5 5
0 0 0 0
121 11 33
𝑦− 𝑧=
5 5 5

Let 𝑧 = 𝑘
3 1 7 4
Then 11𝑦 − 𝑘 = 3 and 𝑥 + 5 ∙ 11 (3 + 𝑘) + 5 𝑘 = 5 𝑧
1 16 7
𝑦= (3 + 𝑘) ⟹𝑥=− 𝑘+
11 11 11

Exercise
Discuss the consistency of the following system of equations;
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 11 , 𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 7𝑧 = 15 , 3𝑥 + 11𝑦 + 13𝑧 = 25
Ans: Rank of 𝐶 = 3 = Rank of A
Hence, consistent with a unique solution.
Characteristic roots or Eigen values
a) For a given square matrix 𝐴, 𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 matrix is called the characteristic matrix,
where 𝜆 is a scalar and 𝐼 is the unit matrix.
2 2 1
Let 𝐴 = [1 3 1]
1 2 2

2 2 1 1 0 0 2−𝜆 2 1
𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 = [1 3 1] − 𝜆 [0 1 0] = [ 1 3−𝜆 1 ]
1 2 2 0 0 1 1 2 2−𝜆
Lecture notes by A. Zulu/@cbu/2019 5
 b) Characteristic polynomial
The determinant |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| when expanded will give a polynomial, which we call
as characteristic polynomial of matrix A.
2−𝜆 2 1
e.g. | 1 3−𝜆 1 | = (2 − 𝜆)(6 − 5𝜆 + 𝜆2 − 2) − 2(2 − 𝜆 − 1) + 1(2 − 3 + 𝜆)
1 2 2−𝜆
= −𝜆3 + 7𝜆2 − 11𝜆 + 5
c) Characteristic equation
The equation |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0 is called the characteristic equation of matrix A.
e.g. 𝜆3 − 7𝜆2 + 11𝜆 − 5 = 0

d) Characteristic roots or eigen values

The roots of the characteristic equation
|𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0
are called characteristic roots of matrix A.
e.g.
𝜆3 − 7𝜆2 + 11𝜆 − 5 = 0
(𝜆 − 1)(𝜆 − 1)(𝜆 − 5) = 0 ,
∴ 𝜆 = 1 , 1 , 5 are the characteristic roots.

Properties of Eigenvalues
1) If A is any matrix and 𝐴′ is its transport, then A and 𝐴′ have the same eigen
values.
The sum of elements on the principle diagonal of a matrix is called the trace
of a matrix.

2) The sum of the eigen values is equal to the trace of the matrix.

3) The product of the eigen values of a matrix A is equal to the determinant of A

4) If 𝜆1 , 𝜆2 , … , 𝜆𝑛 are the eigenvalues of A, then the eigenvalues of

i) 𝑘𝐴 are 𝑘𝜆1 , 𝑘𝜆2 , … , 𝑘 𝜆𝑛

ii) 𝐴𝑚 are 𝜆1𝑚 , 𝜆𝑚 𝑚

2 , … , 𝜆𝑛

1 1 1
iii) 𝐴−1 are , ,… ,
𝜆1 𝜆2 𝜆𝑛

Lecture notes by A. Zulu/@cbu/2019 6

Example 1
Find the characteristic roots of the matrix
6 −2 2
[−2 3 −1]
2 −1 3
Solution
6−𝜆 −2 2
|𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0 ⟹ [ −2 3−𝜆 −1 ] = 0
2 −1 3−𝜆

−𝜆3 + 12𝜆2 − 36𝜆 + 32 = 0

(𝜆 − 2)(𝜆 − 2)(𝜆 − 8) = 0 ,
𝜆 = 2 , 2 , 8 are the roots or Eigenvalues.

Example 2
1 2 −3
If 𝐴 = |0 3 2 | , find the eigen values of 3𝐴3 + 5𝐴2 − 6𝐴 + 2𝐼
0 0 −2

1−𝜆 2 3
|𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0 ⟹ [ 0 3−𝜆 2 ]=0
0 0 −2 − 𝜆

(1 − 𝜆)(8 − 𝜆)(−2 − 𝜆) = 0 ,
𝜆 = 1 , 3 , −2
Eigenvalues of
𝐴3 = 1 , 27, − 8
Eigenvalues of
𝐴2 = 1 , 9, 4
Eigenvalues of
𝐴 =1, 3, − 2
Eigenvalues of
𝐼 =1, 1, 1

Lecture notes by A. Zulu/@cbu/2019 7

∴ The eigenvalues of 3𝐴3 + 5𝐴2 − 6𝐴 + 2𝐼 will be;
1𝑠𝑡 Eigenvalue 3(1) + 5(1) − 6(1) + 2(1) = 4
2𝑛𝑑 Eigenvalue 3(27) + 5(9) − 6(3) + 2(1) = 110
3𝑟𝑑 Eigenvalue 3(−8) + 5(4) − 6(−2) + 2(1) = 10
∴ 4, 110 , 10 are the required eigenvalues.

Lecture notes by A. Zulu/@cbu/2019 8