FOCUSED REVIEW
published: 27 October 2015
Edited by:
Jeffrey Woods,
University of Illinois at Urbana
Champaign, USA
Reviewed by:
Stephen Seiler,
University of Agder, Norway
Niels H. Secher,
University of Copenhagen, Denmark
*Correspondence:
Thomas L. Stöggl, Born 1. May
1977 in Saalfelden, Austria. Associate
Professor at the University of
Salzburg, Department of Sport
Science and Kinesiology since 2011.
Research Focus: Integrative
biomechanics and physiology in elite
sports, with a special focus on
endurance and strength training.
Personal elite sport history: 14 times
Austrian Champion in cross-country
skiing; Austrian Champion inline speed
skating Marathon 2013; member of
the Austrian cross-country skiing
national team from 1993 to 2008.
Responsible for the coaches
education in cross-country skiing and
inline speed skating in the field of
biomechanics and training science.
thomas.stoeggl@sbg.ac.at
Received: 21 March 2015
Accepted: 05 October 2015
Published: 27 October 2015
Citation:
Stöggl TL and Sperlich B (2015) The
training intensity distribution among
well-trained and elite endurance
athletes. Front. Physiol. 6:295.
doi: 10.3389/fphys.2015.00295
Frontiers in Physiology | www.frontiersin.org
doi: 10.3389/fphys.2015.00295
The training intensity distribution
among well-trained and elite
endurance athletes
Thomas L. Stöggl 1* and Billy Sperlich 2
1
Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria, 2 Integrative and Experimental
Training Science, Department of Sport Science, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
Researchers have retrospectively analyzed the training intensity distribution (TID) of
nationally and internationally competitive athletes in different endurance disciplines to
determine the optimal volume and intensity for maximal adaptation. The majority of
studies present a “pyramidal” TID with a high proportion of high volume, low intensity
training (HVLIT). Some world-class athletes appear to adopt a so-called “polarized”
TID (i.e., significant % of HVLIT and high-intensity training) during certain phases
of the season. However, emerging prospective randomized controlled studies have
demonstrated superior responses of variables related to endurance when applying a
polarized TID in well-trained and recreational individuals when compared with a TID
that emphasizes HVLIT or threshold training. The aims of the present review are to:
(1) summarize the main responses of retrospective and prospective studies exploring
TID; (2) provide a systematic overview on TIDs during preparation, pre-competition, and
competition phases in different endurance disciplines and performance levels; (3) address
whether one TID has demonstrated greater efficacy than another; and (4) highlight
research gaps in an effort to direct future scientific studies.
Keywords: high intensity training, high volume, low intensity, polarized training, prospective, pyramidal,
retrospective, threshold training
INTRODUCTION
The intensity and duration of work as well as recovery periods define overload and adaptations
in athletes (Faulkner, 1968). While there appears to be consensus regarding the factors that
limit endurance performance (Joyner, 1991; Coyle, 1995; Hawley and Stepto, 2001), agreement
regarding the optimal volume and training-intensity distribution (TID) among elite athletes
remains elusive. Achieving such consensus is important in order to maximize training adaptations
and translate them into performance gains while avoiding overtraining.
Researchers have generally employed retrospective designs to analyze the TID of nationally or
internationally competitive athletes in different endurance disciplines. In contrast, the number of
prospective quasi-experimental or experimental studies investigating athlete responses to different
TID’s are small, with only limited studies examining well-trained or elite endurance athletes
(Evertsen et al., 1997, 1999, 2001; Billat et al., 1999; Ingham et al., 2008, 2012; Yu et al., 2012; Stöggl
and Sperlich, 2014). Articles reviewing the training intensity and duration of endurance athletes
(Seiler and Tonnessen, 2009; Seiler, 2010) conclude that: (1) elite endurance athletes perform
approximately 80% of their training at low intensity (<2 mM blood lactate) with about 20%
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Stöggl and Sperlich
KEY CONCEPT 1 | Training-intensity distribution
The intensity of exercise and its distribution over time is one essential variable
for prescribing the training stimulus. The training intensity is typically divided into
zones on the basis of parameters such as heart rate, blood levels of lactate, gas
exchange, power output or velocity, and/or perceived exertion.
high-intensity work, (2) two high-intensity training (HIT)
sessions per week suffice to induce adaptations for performance,
and (3) the emphasis of HIT in highly trained athletes revealed
equivocal results.
KEY CONCEPT 2 | High intensity training
High-intensity or “zone-3” training (e.g., >4 mmol lactate/L blood, >90%
maximal heart rate) involves mainly interval training, intermittent intervals, or
burst-training (short, high-intensity sprints).
The percentage time spent in zones based on physiological
benchmarks [derived from either heart rate (HR), gas exchange
or blood lactate measurements], the session goal approach, and
the session rating of perceived exertion (RPE) method have been
applied to quantify the TID among endurance athletes (Seiler
and Kjerland, 2006). Athletes may principally choose from one
to four TIDs to induce endurance-related adaptations: (1) high-
volume, low-intensity exercise (HVLIT), usually performed
KEY CONCEPT 3 | High volume low intensity training
Low-intensity training (e.g., below the first ventilatory threshold or at stable
lactate concentrations <2 mM) of longer duration, also referred to as long slow
distance training or “zone-1” training.
below the first ventilatory threshold (VT1 ) or at stable lactate
concentrations of ≤2 mM and referred to as “zone 1” intensity;
(2) “threshold” training (THR) performed at or near the lactate
KEY CONCEPT 4 | Threshold training
Training performed mainly at an exercise intensity corresponding to the lactate
threshold (e.g., 4 mM blood lactate) or second ventilatory threshold, involves
primarily continuous or intervals of moderate-intensity exercise and is often
defined as “zone-2” training.
threshold (LT ∼4 mM) or second ventilatory threshold (VT2 )
and designated as “zone 2” intensity; (3) HIT in “zone
3” (≥4 mM) (Seiler, 2010); or (4) a combination of the
aforementioned concepts. Based on training analysis in elite
rowers and cross-country skiers, a so called “polarized” TID has
KEY CONCEPT 5 | Polarized training
The polarized training consists of significant proportions of both high- and
low-intensity training and only a small proportion of threshold training. The
distribution between low and high intensity training is often quantified as
80:20%, or 75–80% with low intensity, 5% threshold intensity, and 15–20%
as high intensity training.
been proposed (Fiskerstrand and Seiler, 2004; Seiler and
Kjerland, 2006). The polarized TID comprises significant %
HVLIT time (i.e., “zone 1”) and HIT time (i.e., “zone 3”)
compared to a low % THR time (“zone 2”). Some investigators
have separated the TID into five zones (Tonnessen et al.,
2014). In contrast, the traditional TID used in the bulk of
previous investigations has been composed of a “pyramidal”
Frontiers in Physiology | www.frontiersin.org
Intensity distribution in endurance athletes
KEY CONCEPT 6 | Pyramidal training intensity distribution
With the pyramidal distribution, most training is at low intensity, with decreasing
proportions of threshold and high-intensity training.
structure (Holmberg, 1996), in which the majority of training
time is spent in HVLIT (“zone 1”), and a decreasing proportion
of training time in zones 2 and 3.
Since nearly all studies dealing with TID were based on
retrospective analysis, we recently employed a randomized
controlled design to investigate which TID (HVLIT vs. THR
vs. HIT vs. polarized) provided the greatest response on key
components of endurance performance among well-trained
KEY CONCEPT 7 | Key components of endurance performance
In connection with many endurance sports five key parameters are utilized
for comparison of performance: (1) peak oxygen uptake; (2) velocity or power
output at the lactate threshold; (3) work economy; (4) peak running velocity or
peak power output, and (5) time to exhaustion.
athletes (Stöggl and Sperlich, 2014). We concluded that the
polarized TID resulted in the greatest improvements in the
majority of key endurance performance variables assessed, and
THR or HVLIT did not lead to further improvements in
performance. However, as numerous retrospective reports have
shown conflicting results, the question regarding which TID
represents the “best-practice” model for inducing performance
gains—while avoiding overtraining—remains open to debate.
Therefore, the aims of the present review were to: (1) summarize
the main responses of different retrospective and prospective
studies exploring TID; (2) provide a systematic overview of TIDs
during preparation, pre-competition, and competition phases
in different endurance disciplines and performance levels; (3)
address whether one TID has demonstrated enhanced efficacy
over another; and (4) highlight research gaps in an effort to direct
future scientific studies.
INTENSITY DISTRIBUTION OF
ENDURANCE PERFORMANCE
Retrospective Studies
One major problem in TID investigations lies in the difficulty
of involving elite athletes in a scientific experiment. Given their
already high fitness levels, introducing certain novel training
programs among elite performers may not result in performance
enhancement and can even lead to overtraining symptoms.
Therefore, the majority of studies dealing with TID in well-
trained to elite endurance athletes are based on retrospective
analyses of their training (Tables 1, 2, Figure 1).
Exercise-intensity Distribution during the Preparation
Period
From 1990 to 2014, the TID of elite, nationally ranked to world-
class athletes who were training in their preparation phase were
reported. These athletes competed in rowing (Hartmann et al.,
1990; Guellich et al., 2009), running (Robinson et al., 1991),
cycling (Lucia et al., 2000), and cross-country skiing (Sandbakk
et al., 2011; Tonnessen et al., 2014). Findings indicate that elite
endurance athletes spend a high percentage of their TID in a
2 October 2015 | Volume 6 | Article 295
 TABLE 1 | Retrospective analysis of intensity-distribution during selected phases (e.g., preparation, pre-competition, competition phase) within a training year in well-trained to elite endurance
athletes.

References Sport Subject characteristics Research design Intensity classification Intensity zones Intensity distribution

Robinson et al., 1991 Running 13 national-ranked male New 6–8 weeks (591 sessions) during the HR during training converted <LT (4 mM) 96%
Stöggl and Sperlich

Zealand, distances 1500 m to build-up phase, with most of the training to equivalent treadmill speeds >LT (4 mM) 4%
marathon; VO2peak = as steady-state running. Racing and and VO2
66.3 ml·min−1 ·kg−1 (61.3–70.1) interval sessions were excluded from
analysis (<4% of all sessions)

Steinacker et al., 1998 Rowing German, Danish, Dutch and Analysis of the preparation for World Based on blood lactate 1.5 mM 75%
Norwegian elite junior rowers Championships ≥6.5 mM 25%

Frontiers in Physiology | www.frontiersin.org

Steinacker et al., 2000 Rowing German junior national team rowers Analysis of 6 weeks before the World Based on blood lactate <4 mM 90%
of the coxed eight Championships 1995 ≥4 mM 10%

Billat et al., 2001 Running 11 Portuguese and 9 French national 8 weeks before Olympic trials Training classified according >marathon velocity 78%
team runners. Top-class (marathon to duration and velocity =marathon velocity 4%
time <2:12 h men; <2:31 h women) <marathon velocity 18%
vs. high-class (between 2:12 and
2:16 h). VO2peak : men
79.6 ml·min−1 ·kg−1 , women
67.1 ml·min−1 ·kg−1

Billat et al., 2003 Running Top-class male and female Kenyan Training logs of the final 8 weeks before Training classified according HS LS

3
long-distance runners (10 k: male the 10 k Kenyan Cross-Country to duration and velocity >90 min <vLT 83.8% 84.2%
28:36, female 32:32, VO2peak : Male Championships in 2002, separated into a
=vLT 6.9% 14.4%
78.4 ml·min−1 ·kg−1 , Female high speed (HS) and low speed (LS)
=v150%-vLT to vVO2max 4.3% 1.4%
68.6 ml·min−1 ·kg−1 ) training group
=vVO2max 0.0% 0%

Seiler and Kjerland, Cross-country Norwegian junior level cross-country Retrospective analysis of a 32 d period HR time-in-zone; Zone1: RPE≤4, ≤2 mM, ≤VT1 ∼75%
2006 skiing skiers. VO2max = 72.6 ml·min−1 · during pre-competition phase Session RPE; Zone2: RPE 4–7, 2–4 mM, 5–10%
kg−1 . 10–12 h·wk−1 training (October–November) VT1 –VT2
Blood lactate Zone3: RPE ≥7, ≥4 mM, ≥VT2 15–20%

Sandbakk et al., 2011 Cross-country Eight world class and eight national Retrospective analysis over 6 months Session goal approach Elite vs. National Class
skiing class Norwegian sprint skiers during preparation phase (May–October) Zone 1: 1.5–2.5 mM, 60–81% 84% 86%
(VO2max : 70.6 vs. HRmax
65.8 ml·min−1 ·kg−1 ) Zone2, 2.5–4 mM, 82–87% 7% 4.8%
HRmax
Zone 3 > 4 mM, >88% HRmax 8.7% 8.8%

Plews et al., 2014 Rowing 9 heavy weight elite rowers (4 Retrospective analysis during the 26 Training time in lactate zones <LT1 77.3%
women, 5 men) weeks build-up to the 2012 Olympic LT1 –LT2 16.9%
Games
>LT2 5.8%

HR, heart rate; LT, lactate threshold; vLT, velocity at lactate threshold; VT1 , first ventilatory threshold; VT2 , second ventilatory threshold; RPE, ratings of perceived exertion; HS, high speed; LS, low speed training group.
Intensity distribution in endurance athletes

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 TABLE 2 | Retrospective analysis of intensity-distribution (>6 months up to several years) in well-trained to elite endurance athletes.

References Sport Subject characteristics Research design Intensity Intensity zones Intensity distribution
classification

Hartmann et al., 1990 Rowing German elite rowers Analysis between 1985 and 1988 Sessions within blood Prep. Comp.
Stöggl and Sperlich

during preparation and lactate zones <2 mM 86–94% 70–77%

competition phase
2–4 mM 5–9% 15–22%
4–8 mM 1–4% 6%
>8 mM 0–3% 2%

Mujika et al., 1995 Swimming 18 national and international Analysis over one season Swimming speed 2 mM ∼77%

Frontiers in Physiology | www.frontiersin.org

class swimmers based on blood lactate 4 mM ∼12%
6 mM ∼6%
10 mM ∼4%
Maximal sprint ∼1%

Lucia et al., 2000 Cycling 13 professional cyclists 7 months comparing active rest, HR time-in-zone Rest Pre-Comp. Comp.
VO2max = pre-competition and competition <VT1 88% 78% 77%
74 ml·min−1 ·kg−1 period
VT1 and VT2 11% 17% 15%
>VT2 2% 5% 8%

Schumacher and Team pursuit Seven cyclists of the Analysis of the training year in Based on blood lactate <IaT 94%
Mueller, 2002 cycling German national pursuit preparation for the Olympic games =IaT 4%

4
team. VO2peak : in 2000 (March–September) >IaT 2%
65–73 ml·min−1 ·kg−1 .
4000 m individual time:
4:18.8–4:33.6

Fiskerstrand and Seiler, Rowing 28 Norwegian international Analysis between 1970 and 2001. Described intensity Long distance training 70 s: 50%: 50%
2004 medal winners. VO2max : Test results of physiological testing zones (1–2.5 mM lactate) 80 s: ∼68%:32%
5.8–6.5 L·min−1 (n = 28) and response to a detailed
high intensity training 90 s: ∼69%:31%
questionnaire via Email regarding
training during their internationally
competitive years (n = 21)

Esteve-Lanao et al., 2005 Running Regional and national class Retrospective analysis of a 6 HR time-in-zone <VT1 71%
Spanish distance runners. month period with 4–5 h·wk−1 VT1 and VT2 21%
VO2max = training (late August to
>VT2 8%
70 ml·min−1 ·kg−1 mid-February)

Zapico et al., 2007 Cycling 14 elite U23 cyclists Analysis over one season split into HR time-in-zone Winter Spring
(VO2max = winter period (volume oriented) and <VT1 78% 70%
78 ml·min−1 ·kg−1 ) spring period (intensity oriented)
VT1 and VT2 20% 22%
>VT2 2% 8%

(Continued)
Intensity distribution in endurance athletes

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 TABLE 2 | Continued

References Sport Subject characteristics Research design Intensity Intensity zones Intensity distribution
classification

Guellich et al., 2009 Rowing 36 young German male 37 weeks divided into basic HR control based on <2 mM 95%
Stöggl and Sperlich

juniors from national rowing preparation, specific preparation, lactate 2–4 mM 2%

squad (31 international, 5
national junior finalists)
and early competition period.
>4 mM 3%
Comparison between national and
international successful athletes 3
years later

Orie et al., 2014 Speed Successful Dutch Olympic Analysis over 4 Olympic seasons Training time in lactate 1972: 2010:
skaters speed skaters and (1972–2010). Trainers, coaches, zones

Frontiers in Physiology | www.frontiersin.org

<2 mM 40% 80%
long-track, middle and and athletes were interviewed and
2–4 mM 40% 12%
long-distance training diaries analyzed
>4 mM 20% 12%

Tonnessen et al., 2014 Cross- 11 Norwegian elite Analysis using day-to-day Time in training zone Prep. Pre- Comp Overall
country cross-country skiers and recordings of training diaries in the session goal comp
skiing biathletes (4 male: year leading up to their most Zone 1 < 1.2 mM, 54–73% HRmax 87% 88% 84% 86%
VO2max = successful competition in their
Zone2 1.3–2.0 mM, 74–83 HRmax 5.4% 3.8% 3.6% 5.3%
85.1 ml·min−1 ·kg−1 and 7 career
female VO2max = Zone 3 2.1–3.6, 84–88 HRmax 3.6% 3.1% 3.6% 3.3%
72.9 ml·min−1 ·kg−1 ). All Zone 4 3.7–5.7 mM, 89–93 HRmax 3% 2.5% 4.5% 3.3%
winners of at least one Zone 5 >5.8, >94% HRmax 1.2% 2.5% 4.5% 2.1%
individual Olympic or World

5
Championship senior gold
medal from 1985 to 2011

HR, heart rate; IaT, individual anaerobic threshold; VT1 , first ventilatory threshold; VT2 , second ventilatory threshold; Prep, preparation phase; Comp, competition phase; Pre-Comp, pre-competition phase.
Intensity distribution in endurance athletes

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Stöggl and Sperlich Intensity distribution in endurance athletes

FIGURE 1 | The training-intensity distribution (i.e., percentage time spent in zone 1: <first ventilatory threshold or steady-state lactate at ∼2 mM; zone
2: at or near lactate threshold (∼4 mM) or second ventilatory threshold; zone 3: high-intensity training above lactate or second ventilatory threshold) in
well-trained to elite endurance athletes in retrospective analyses during (A) preparation phase, (B) pre-competition phase, (C) competition phase, and
(D) seasonal analysis.

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Stöggl and Sperlich Intensity distribution in endurance athletes

pyramid shape—that is, great portions of HVLIT with 84–95% 810 km·wk−1 (May) with a TID of 77/15/8%, while elite cross-
in zone 1, 2–11% in zone 2, and 2–9% in zone 3 (Tables 1, 2, country skiers and biathletes (Tonnessen et al., 2014) showed
Figure 1A). a higher proportion of HVLIT compared with THR and HIT
(∼87.5% zone 1–2 vs. ∼12.5% zone 3–5) when compared with
Exercise-intensity Distribution before the the cyclists (Figure 1C).
Competition Phase
Exercise-intensity Distribution based on Seasonal
Depending on the competition calendar the TID during the pre-
Analysis (up to 1 Year) (Table 2, Figure 1D)
competition phase, may vary between endurance disciplines. The
The TID covering a period of several months up to 1 year
TID during pre-competition was analyzed in rowing (Hartmann
was reported in cycling (Lucia et al., 2000; Schumacher and
et al., 1990; Steinacker et al., 2000; Guellich et al., 2009; Plews
Mueller, 2002; Zapico et al., 2007), swimming (Mujika et al.,
et al., 2014), running (Billat et al., 2001), cycling (Lucia et al.,
1995), running (Esteve-Lanao et al., 2005), and cross-country
2000), junior cross-country skiers (Seiler and Kjerland, 2006),
skiing (Seiler and Kjerland, 2006; Tonnessen et al., 2014). Athletes
and senior elite cross-country skiers and biathletes (Tonnessen
from the different studies incorporated a high amount of HVLIT
et al., 2014) (Tables 1, 2, Figure 1B).
(70–94%), with variations in the amount of THR (4–22%) and
In elite rowers the TID during the pre-competition is
HIT (2–11%), either as pyramidal or polarized TID.
inconclusive: in two studies the successful rowers decreased the
In elite cyclists a trend from a nearly complete HVLIT
proportion of HVLIT to 70–77% with increasing proportions of
(preparation period) toward pyramidal TID (pre-competition,
zone 2 up to 15–22%, and 5.8–6% in zone 3 (Hartmann et al.,
competition period) can be observed. In a 7 month longitudinal
1990; Plews et al., 2014). In contrast, two studies (Steinacker et al.,
study, professional cyclists (Lucia et al., 2000) increased both
2000; Guellich et al., 2009) reported very high proportions of
the training volume (267 vs. 713 vs. 810 km·wk−1 , 15,000 total
HVLIT (90–95%) during the pre-competition phase (i.e., 6 weeks
km) and intensity from active rest (88/11/2%) to pre-competition
before the 1995 World Championships).
(78/17/5%) and competition phases (77/15/8%). Comparable
In professional cyclists (Lucia et al., 2000) and top-class
findings were reported in U23 elite cyclists with a 78/20/2% TID
runners (Billat et al., 2001) engaged in pre-competition training,
during the winter (“volume mesocycle”) and 70/22/8% during
similar proportions of HVLIT were reported (78%). The
the spring (“intensity mesocycle”) (Zapico et al., 2007). The
distribution of zones 2 and 3 were however, polarized (4 and 18%)
recordings (29,000–35,000 km·yr−1 ) for the 4000 m team pursuit
in the runners and pyramidal (17 and 5%) in the cyclists.
cycling world record in the year 2000 (excluding stage racing and
Comparable with the findings in several studies with rowers
track competitions), showed a main training focus on HVLIT
(Steinacker et al., 2000; Guellich et al., 2009), elite cross-country
with 94% < LT, 4% around LT, and 2% > LT (Schumacher and
skiers and biathletes focus on HVLIT during the pre-competition
Mueller, 2002).
phase (∼91.8% zone 1–2 and 8.2% zone 3–5) (Tonnessen et al.,
Comparable with the TID in the cycling studies during
2014). However, the competitive junior cross-country skiers in
the pre-competition phase, regional- and national-class Spanish
the study of Seiler and Kjerland (2006) reported a polarized TID
runners (4–5 h·wk−1 ) demonstrated a pyramidal TID of
of 75, 5–10, and 15–20% in zones 1, 2, and 3, respectively, over a
71 (<VT1 ), 21 (VT1 –VT2 ), and 8% (>VT2 ) (Esteve-Lanao
32 days period during the pre-competition phase (End October,
et al., 2005) over a 6 month period. The TID of national
November).
and international-level swimmers revealed a pyramidal TID
Summarized, elite athletes in rowing (Hartmann et al., 1990;
(although the athletes spent almost the same time in zone
Steinacker et al., 2000; Guellich et al., 2009; Plews et al., 2014)
2 and 3) over an entire season (77/12/11%) (Mujika et al.,
and cycling (Lucia et al., 2000) reported pyramidal TID with
1995). The Norwegian elite cross-country skiers and biathletes
HVLIT ranging from 78% in cycling up to 90–95% in some
analyzed during the year leading to their most successful career
rowers, cross-country skiers, and biathletes. Billat et al. (2001)
competition (1985–2011) (Tonnessen et al., 2014) spent 91% of
and Seiler and Kjerland (2006) reported a polarized TID with
their training time in zones 1–2 and 9% in zones 3–5 or 77
a greater proportion of zone 1 (75–78%) and zone 3 (15–20%)
vs. 23% when applying the session goal approach. The monthly
compared to zone 2 (4–10%).
frequency of HIT sessions and “zone 5” sessions increased from
the general to the specific preparation period and remained
Exercise-intensity Distribution during the unchanged within the competition period. From the end of the
Competition Phase general preparation to the peaking phase, the amount of HVLIT
Documentation of the TID during the competition period is decreased by 21%, and HIT—especially zone 5—increased
rare since (a) technical equipment may not be applied during by 40%. Therefore, the TID changed from an emphasis on
competition, (b) the TID largely depends on the amount and HVLIT during preparation, toward a pyramidal TID during pre-
type of competitions (e.g., single races vs. stage races), and (c) the competition, and a polarized TID during the competition phase.
strategies for tapering for competitions vary widely across sports.
Lucia et al. (1999) reported a pyramidal TID (70/23/7%) during Exercise-intensity Distribution during Long-term
the Tour de France based on the “HR time in zone” method Analysis (>1 Year) (Table 2)
over 22 competition days. The exercise intensity was particularly The TID across several decades was reported in rowers
high during the time trials and high mountain stages. Also Lucia (Fiskerstrand and Seiler, 2004) and speed skaters (Orie et al.,
et al. (2000) reported that elite cyclists performed approximately 2014). During the 1970s, the training volume of elite rowers

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Stöggl and Sperlich
was almost equally divided between HVLIT and HIT sessions
(Fiskerstrand and Seiler, 2004). Then two major changes across
time were identified: (1) training with low blood lactate (<2 mM)
increased from 30 to 50 h·month−1 and race pace and supra-
maximal intensity training (8–14 mM) decreased from 23 to 7
h·month−1 , and (2) total training volume increased from 924
(600–1020) h·yr−1 during the 1970s to 966 (840–1140) h·yr−1 in
the 1980s, and to 1128 (1104–1200) h·yr−1 in the 1990s (∼20%
increase). Further increase in total training volume in the 1990s
did not lead to further improvement in physical capacity.
Similar to the findings by Fiskerstrand and Seiler (2004),
the TID of successful male Dutch Olympic speed skaters (Orie
et al., 2014) in four Olympic seasons (1972–2010; assessed by
interviewing the coaches and athletes) was based on THR in
1972 (40/40/20%), whereas the more recent TID was pyramidal
(∼80/∼12/∼8%) in 2010.
Prospective Studies Investigating TID
Single Case or Quasi-experimental Longitudinal
Studies without Control Groups (Table 3)
Based on three studies, we conclude that an increase in HVLIT at
the expense of THR leads to performance enhancements, while
the exaggerated increase in HIT at the expense of HVLIT might
be applied with caution.
Billat et al. (1999) examined whether one HIT session
compared to three HIT sessions·wk−1 is sufficient to
improve performance in four middle-distance runners. The
implementation of four HVLIT, one HIT, and one THR session
over 4 weeks resulted in improved running speed at maximal
oxygen uptake (VO2max ) and running economy. A further 4
weeks intensification, including two HVLIT, three HIT, and
one THR session each week, showed no additional performance
benefit, but increased subjective muscle stress, reduced sleep
quality, and increased plasma epinephrine, all indicators of
impending overtraining.
Altering TID from a THR-emphasis toward a more polarized
or pyramidal TID showed improvements in competition
performance and physiological capability. In the case study of
a male international 1500 m runner (PB 3:38.9 min:s), HVLIT
was performed within the first year above the coach’s prescribed
level and “tempo” training at an excessively high intensity.
In the second year, HVLIT (<80% VO2max ) increased from
20 to 55% and intense training at 80–90% VO2max and 90–
100% VO2max was reduced from approximately 42 to 20% and
20 to 10%, respectively. Furthermore, a concomitant increase
in the proportion of HIT (100–130% vVO2max ) from 7 to
10% was observed. This training modification coincided with
improvements in physiological capability (increase in VO2max
from 72 to 79 ml·min−1 ·kg−1 ) and performance improvements
(3:38.9 to 3:32.4 over 1500 m) (Ingham et al., 2012).
The 1 year adaptation of a THR emphasized (41/51/7%) vs.
a polarized (86/5/10%) TID were evaluated in nine Chinese
top-level sprint speed skaters (500 and 1000 m) and their
performances at national competitions, World Cups, and the
Olympics (Yu et al., 2012). The overall training durations and
frequencies were similar across the two seasons, with THR
constituting 50% of the training time (41/51/7%) and with
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Intensity distribution in endurance athletes
POL 1 year later only 5% (86/5/10%). The increase in HVLIT,
the reduction of THR from 50 to 5%, and the increase in
HIT led to 2–4% improvements in the 500 m and 1000 m
events.
Randomized Controlled Studies (Table 4)
The focus of the nine studies manipulating TID was mainly to
compare the change in performance and/or adaptation to three
different TID’s including: THR-emphasized training, HVLIT-
emphasized training, and polarized TID. In the majority of
studies, recreational or sub-elite athletes were investigated.
All experimental studies reported increased endurance
performance, however, in most of the studies the polarized
or HVLIT-emphasized TID resulted in the greatest responses of
various endurance performance variables (Esteve-Lanao et al.,
2007; Ingham et al., 2008; Neal et al., 2013; Munoz et al., 2014;
Stöggl and Sperlich, 2014).
Esteve-Lanao et al. (2007) were among the first to conduct
experimental randomized controlled studies assessing the effects
of 5 months increased or decreased HVLIT on endurance
performance. Twelve sub-elite Spanish runners were randomly
assigned to two separate groups performing equal amounts of
HIT (8.4% of training > VT2 ). Although the two groups varied
in the amount of HVLIT (group 1: 81%, group 2: 67%) vs.
THR (group 1: 12%; group 2: 25%), they achieved equal total
training loads (TRIMP scores). A polarized TID (74/11/15%) in
the group with emphasized HVLIT was revealed with the session
goal approach. The improvement in 10.4 km running was greater
in the group emphasizing HVLIT (-157 vs. -122 s). If there is
sufficient training time, it is advised to design an “easy-hard”
rather than a “moderately high-hard” load distribution training
approach.
In line with the Esteve-Lanao et al. (2007) study, experienced
national standard British rowers performed either 12 weeks
of HVLIT (98% ≤ LT) or mixed-intensity training (72% ≤
LT; 28% between LT and VO2peak ) (Ingham et al., 2008).
Whereas, both groups improved similarly in terms of their
performance (VO2peak , 2000 m ergometer time trial), HVLIT
improved performance at LT to a greater extent than in the mixed
training group.
Neal et al. (2013) analyzed the molecular adaptation resulting
from 6 weeks of polarized (80/0/20%) vs. THR (57/43/0%) TID
in 12 male cyclists. In both groups, 40 km time trial performance,
peak power output, power at LT, monocarboxylate-transporter
4 and high-intensity exercise capacity all increased; however,
improvements were greater with polarized TID concerning peak
power output (8 vs. 3%), power at LT (9 vs. 2%), and high-
intensity capacity (85 vs. 37%), despite greater total training
volume in THR (458 vs. 381 min·wk−1 ).
Munoz et al. (2014) manipulated the TID in 30 recreational
runners randomly assigned to a 10 weeks training program (5–
6 sessions·wk−1 ) emphasizing polarized training (77/3/20%) or
THR (46/35/19%) with equal volume in zone 3 (i.e., 2 weekly
sessions at ≥85% VO2max ) and equal in training load (TRIMP).
Both groups increased their 10 km performance by 5.0 vs. 3.5%
for polarized vs. THR TID. In a sub-analysis of selected athletes
with TIDs emphasizing either zone 1 in the polarized group or
8 October 2015 | Volume 6 | Article 295
Stöggl and Sperlich Intensity distribution in endurance athletes

TABLE 3 | Non-experimental longitudinal or single case studies comparing different intensity-distribution in well-trained to elite endurance athletes.

References Sport Subject characteristics Research design Intensity Intensity zones Intensity distribution
classification

Billat et al., Running Eight endurance-trained Non-experimental longitudinal Based on running LOW High
1999 male middle and long study with 4 weeks using 4 speeds in %vVO2max HVLIT (60–70% 4 3
distance runners (1500 m to HVLIT, 1 LT and 1 HIT session (5 vVO2max
half-marathon). Training 6 × vVO2max with 50% of
OBLA: 4 mM 1 1
sessions·wk−1 tVO2max) followed by 4 weeks
HIT: vVO2max 1 2
of 2 HVLIT, 1 LT, and 3 HIT
sessions

Ingham Running One international 1500 m Single case study over 2 years. Based on respective Year1 Year2
et al., 2012 runner (PB 3:38.9 min:s; In the first year the HVLIT was speed expressed as & HVLIT: <80% vVO2max ∼20% ∼55%
VO2max :70.5– performed above the prescribed vVO2max Tempo: 80–90% ∼44% ∼20%
79.6 ml·min−1 ·kg−1 ) level and tempo training at an vVO2max
excessively high intensity.
HIT: 90–100% ∼20% ∼8%
Second year HVLIT was
vVO2max
increased from 20 to 55%, LT
and HIT was reduced from 42 to Supramaximal: ∼16% ∼17%
20% and 20 to 10%, while the 100–130% vVO2max
highest intensity was increased
from 7 to 10%

Yu et al., Speed Nine Chinese top-level Non-experimental longitudinal HR time-in-zone based Year1 Year2
2012 skaters sprint skaters (500 m and study comparing 1 year THR on lactate testings Low: <2 mM 41% 86%
1000 m) all performing at training vs. 1 year polarized
Moderate: 2–4 mM 51% 5%
World Cup and Olympic training. Performances during
High: >4 mM 7% 10%
competitions during national, World Cup and Olympic
2004–2006 competitions and blood lactate
after competitions were analyzed

HVLIT, high volume low intensity training; LT, lactate threshold; HIT, high intensity training; HR, heart rate; vVO2max , velocity at maximal oxygen uptake.

zone 2 in the THR group, the polarized TID showed greater
improvements (+7.0%) compared with THR (+1.6%).
Stöggl and Sperlich (2014) explored the response of HVLIT
(83/16/1%) vs. THR (46/54/0%) vs. HIT (43/0/57%) vs. polarized
TID (68/6/26%) on key components of endurance performance
in 48 well-trained runners, cyclists, triathletes and cross-country
skiers. While all four groups increased time to exhaustion, the
polarized TID increased VO2peak (+11.7%), time to exhaustion
(+17.4%), and peak performance (+5.1%) to the greatest extent.
Performance at 4 mM increased after polarized TID (+8.1%)
and HIT (+5.6%), with no change in the other groups. HIT
resulted in decreased body mass (-3 kg) and increased VO2peak
(+4.8%). Exclusive emphasis of THR or HVLIT did not lead to
further improvements in endurance performance in well-trained
athletes.
Evertsen et al. (1997, 1999, 2001) randomly assigned 20 well-
trained Norwegian cross-country skiers for 5 months to HVLIT
vs. a HIT/THR emphasized TID. The HVLIT group spent 86%
at an intensity < 1.5 mM (7 sessions·wk−1 with an increase from
10 to 16 h·wk−1 ) and 2–3 sessions·wk−1 HIT (14%), while the
HIT/THR group demonstrated 83% HIT/THR at 3–4 mM (12
h·wk−1 ) and 17% HVLIT as recovery. Despite a 60% increase
in training volume in the HVLIT group and approximately four
times more training at intensity close to LT in the HIT/THR
group, physiological and performance changes were modest in
both groups. In contrast to other studies (Ingham et al., 2008;
Stöggl and Sperlich, 2014), greater improvements in performance
(e.g., running speed at LT and performance in a 20 min run) were
found in the HIT/THR group compared with HVLIT.
Seiler et al. (2013) analyzed the performance adaptations
of different types of high intensity interval training. Thirty-
five recreational cyclists were randomized to four training
groups with equivalent training the two previous months
(∼6 h·wk−1 , ∼1.5 session·wk−1 ). The HVLIT group trained
4–6 sessions·wk−1 , and the three HIT groups trained two
sessions·wk−1 with either 4 × 4 min (94% HRmax ), 4 × 8 min
(90% HRmax ), or 4×16 min (88% HRmax ) plus 2–3 sessions·wk−1
HVLIT. The 4 × 8 min interval group induced greater average
gains in VO2peak , power at VO2peak , and power at 4 mM. Subjects
without interval training experience before the intervention
tended to achieve greater average improvements in VO2peak ,
peak power output, and power at 4 mM compared with subjects
reporting 1–1.5 HIT sessions·wk−1 . All three interval training
groups tended to improve in physiological capacity after the
training period, while the HVLIT group remained relatively
unchanged (with the exception of a significant increase in power
at 4 mM), despite similar or slightly higher total training volumes
(8.5 h·wk−1 vs. 5.7–7.6 h·wk−1 ).
METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Although the authors are aware that the investigations
summarized in this review vary regarding the endurance
disciplines, athletic level, duration of observation, time

Frontiers in Physiology | www.frontiersin.org 9 October 2015 | Volume 6 | Article 295

 TABLE 4 | Randomized controlled trials (RCT) with different intensity-distribution in well-trained to elite endurance athletes.

References Sport Subject characteristics Research design Intensity Intensity zones Intensity distribution
classification

Esteve-Lanao Running Twelve well-trained sub-elite RCT with two groups performing the HR time-in-zone and LIT THR
et al., 2007 Spanish runners (regional to same amount of HIT but variations in session goal approach 80.5 (74) 66.8
Stöggl and Sperlich

<VT1
national level, competition the amount of HVLIT and THR while VT1 to VT2 11.8 (11) 24.7
experience ≥5 years, VO2max ∼ achieving equal training loads (TRIMP)
>VT2 8.3 (15) 8.5
69 ml·min−1 ·kg−1 , 5–6 h·wk−1 over a 5 month period
training

Neal et al., 2013 Cycling Twelve well-trained male cyclists Randomized cross-over design with HR time-in-zone POL THR
from two local cycling clubs with POL distribution (80/0/20) and the Zone 1: <LT 80% 57%

Frontiers in Physiology | www.frontiersin.org

consistent training >4 yr with 7–8
h·wk−1 training
THR distribution (57/43/0) over 6 Zone 2: PO 50% LT and LTP 0% 43%
weeks. Zone 3 training was Zone 3: 5–10% greater PO 20% 0%
performed indoor using 6 × 4 min at LTP
intervals. Wash out period of 4
weeks. Muscle biopsies for
mitochondrial enzyme activity, MCT
1&4 content and morning first-void
urine was collected. Endurance
performance assessed in a 40 km
time trail, incremental exercise, PPO,
and high intensity capacity (95% PPO
to exhaustion)

Munoz et al., 2014 Running 30 recreational Spanish runners RCT with a 10 weeks training HR time-in-zone POL THR

10
(mean competition experience program (5–6 sessions·wk−1 )
≥5.5 y; VO2max POL: 61.0, THR emphasizing POL (77/3/20%) or a <VT1 72.9% 46.8%
64.1 ml·min−1 ·kg−1 ) moderately high –intensity program VT1 to VT2 13.5% 37.3%
THR (46/35/19%) with equal volumes >VT2 13.6% 15.8%
in zone 3 (2 sessions·wk−1 at ≥85%
VO2max ) and equal training load
(TRIMP). 10 k running performance
was analyzed

Ingham et al., Rowing 18 experienced national standard RCT, with randomization according to Power output, 500 m HVLIT MIX
2008 British rowers performance and selected split time and HR 64–69% VO2peak 53.8% 49%
physiological variables into two converted to equivalent 70–75% VO2peak 44.1% 23%
groups with identical training volume % VO2peak
76–83% VO2peak 0% 0%
(∼1140 km) with either 12 weeks
HVLIT, or mixed intensity training (MIX) 84–93% VO2peak 0.2% 21.9%
94–99% VO2peak 0.9% 3.2%
>100% VO2peak 0.9% 2.9%

Evertsen et al., Cross-country 10 well-trained Norwegian RCT with training for 5 months either Intensity control by HR HVLIT THR
1997, 1999, 2001 skiing cross-country skiers competing at mainly HVLIT or THR/HIT. Analysis of and blood lactate
national and international junior performance (20 min run test, <1.5 mM, 60–70% VO2max 86% 17%
level (11 men VO2max VO2max test, incremental test), HIT/THR: 3–4 mM, 80–90% 14% 83%
73.4 ml·min−1 ·kg−1 , 9 women biopsies for enzyme analysis, fiber VO2max
58.3 ml·min−1 ·kg−1 ) typing, Na+ -K+ pump and MCT1
HIT 0% 0%
and 4 content
Intensity distribution in endurance athletes

October 2015 | Volume 6 | Article 295

(Continued)
Stöggl and Sperlich Intensity distribution in endurance athletes

of season (preparation, pre-competition, or competition

4×16

HR, heart rate; HVLIT, high volume low intensity training; THR, lactate threshold training; LTP, lactate turnpoint; LT, lactate threshold; HIT, high intensity training; POL, polarized training; VT1 , first ventilatory threshold; VT2 , second
72%
28%

68%

36%
POL
0%

6%
phase) and TID methodology, the present data show no
uniform TID pattern among the different endurance disciplines
Intensity distribution

4×8
81%

19%

57%
HIIT
(Figure 1).
0%

3%
0%
The methodology incorporated in the retrospective analysis
to compare the TID between disciplines might produce
4×4
91%

46%
54%
THR
0%
9%

0%
discrepancies in numbers. The intensity of endurance exercise is
frequently defined as percentage of HRmax or VO2max or blood
lactate concentration. The percentages of for example, VO2max
HVLIT

HVLIT
100%

83%
16%
0%
0%

1%
have been shown to lead to inhomogeneous metabolic strain
as indicated by the large variability of blood lactate responses
(Scharhag-Rosenberger et al., 2010), and therefore may lead to
imprecise assignment to the intensity zones during prolonged

HIGH: 90–95% HRmax

Low intensity (≤VT1 )

exercise.
Intensity zones

LT (88% HRmax )
90–94% HRmax

Elite endurance athletes also implement strength training and

LOW: <2 mM

speed training in their conditioning training. Since these training

LT: 3–5 mM

forms incorporate short (<30 s), very intense, anaerobic bouts,

the continuous measurement of for example HR (due to inertia
of the cardio-respiratory system at the onset of intense exercise)
not presented. Duration

Session goal approach

may preclude exact quantification of the intensity zone for this

of intervals in % total
Intensity distribution

part of training. In this context, other methods, such as the

“session RPE method” or the “session goal approach” (Seiler and
classification

training time

Kjerland, 2006) might be applied. For other candidate biomarkers

Intensity

to quantify training load and understand fatigue in athletes we

refer to Halson (2014).
groups using intervals with differences

times·wk−1 4 × 4 min (94% HRmax ) or

(88% HRmax )]. Measures of VO2peak ,

4 × 8 min (90% HRmax ) or 4 × 16 min
intensity matched effort in a HVLIT

INTENSITY DISTRIBUTION AMONG

sessions·wk−1 over 7 weeks with

sessions·wk−1 for 9 weeks using

RCT comparing the effects of ∼6
group, and three interval training

ENURANCE ATHLETES
peak power, power at 4 mM

HVLIT, THR, HIT, and POL

in duration and intensity [2
RCT trial with 4–6 training

Most retrospective studies report a pyramidal TID, with extensive

Research design

HVLIT (>70%), less time in zone 2, and very little time spent
in zone 3, independent of the time of season. Three studies on
polarized TID involving cross-country skiers during different
phases of the season (Seiler and Kjerland, 2006; Sandbakk et al.,
2011; Tonnessen et al., 2014) and one on marathon runners
(Billat et al., 2001) were found.
35 recreational cyclists (29 male,

volumes 6 h training·wk−1 , 1.5

Athletes favor HVLIT, since when the training volume is high,

athletes from running, cycling,
∼52 ml·min−1 ·kg−1 training

triathlon and cross-country

low intensity training (<2 mM or ∼55–85% HRmax ) is more

48 well-trained endurance
Subject characteristics

skiing, VO2peak = 62.6 ±

tolerable (Hartmann et al., 1990). Despite athletes’ preference

for low intensity training the majority of coaches favored higher
7.1 ml·min−1 ·kg−1
6 female, VO2max

intensity [2.5–4 mM (THR)], mainly for theoretical reasons (e.g.,

intervals·wk−1 )

Fritsch, 1985, 1986; Nolte, 1986). Since the amount of HVLIT

has been linked to improved race performance (Hagerman
and Staron, 1982; Steinacker, 1993; Esteve-Lanao et al., 2005;
Seiler and Kjerland, 2006), the necessity of HVLIT in achieving
ventilatory threshold; PPO, peak power output.

physiological adaptations for gains in performance has been

Running, cycling,

pointed out in longitudinal observations and experimental

cross-country

designs (Esteve-Lanao et al., 2005, 2007; Zapico et al., 2007;

Cycling

Ingham et al., 2008). However, when the amount of HVLIT by

Sport

skiing

elite athletes is doubled, no further improvement in performance

TABLE 4 | Continued

is evident (Costill et al., 1991), and the athletes mood may be

negatively affected (Raglin, 1993). Therefore, for elite endurance
Seiler et al., 2013

Sperlich, 2014

athletes with high amounts of HVLIT, the ability to distribute the

References

Stöggl and

training intensity optimally may be paramount to both success

and counteracting non-functional overreaching (Fiskerstrand
and Seiler, 2004).

Frontiers in Physiology | www.frontiersin.org 11 October 2015 | Volume 6 | Article 295

Stöggl and Sperlich
The longitudinal retrospective observations (Fiskerstrand and
Seiler, 2004; Orie et al., 2014) and quasi-experimental designs
(Ingham et al., 2012; Yu et al., 2012), revealed a THR-emphasized
TID in recent decades. Overdoing THR by >20% through
reducing HVLIT may exert a negative impact on the autonomic
nervous system (Chwalbinska-Moneta et al., 1998; Esteve-Lanao
et al., 2007), with no further adaptation (Esteve-Lanao et al.,
2007; Guellich and Seiler, 2010; Ingham et al., 2012; Yu et al.,
2012; Neal et al., 2013; Stöggl and Sperlich, 2014). In fact,
THR training places greater demands on carbohydrate fueling,
leading to restricted training time due to limited glycogen storing
(Beneke et al., 2011). However, THR may be more applicable
for untrained and/or recreational individuals (Kindermann et al.,
1979; Yoshida et al., 1982; Denis et al., 1984; Keith et al., 1992;
Takeshima et al., 1993; Londeree, 1997; Gaskill et al., 2001). In
some disciplines however, displaying a pyramidal TID, THR was
thought to be a fundamental part of the training program (7–
22%) of elite endurance athletes or in distinct phases of the season
(Hartmann et al., 1990; Lucia et al., 2000; Esteve-Lanao et al.,
2005; Zapico et al., 2007; Sandbakk et al., 2011; Plews et al., 2014).
The various responses to HIT have been investigated
extensively, showing rapid adaptions of various tissues and
performance indexes (Lindsay et al., 1996; Weston et al.,
1997; Stepto et al., 1999; Laursen, 2010) involving aerobic and
anaerobic energy demands (Laursen and Jenkins, 2002; Laursen,
2010; Sperlich et al., 2011). The molecular events (Laursen,
2010), fueling strategies (Burke, 2010), hydration (Maughan and
Shirreffs, 2010), psychological skills (Birrer and Morgan, 2010),
and overtraining prevention (Kellmann, 2010) in connection
with HIT have been previously described in detail.
Runners who have prioritized HIT instead of THR into their
HVLIT- training have been reported to perform better (Billat
et al., 2003), a result which was corroborated in a prospective
study (Stöggl and Sperlich, 2014). Approximately two HIT
sessions·wk−1 have been proposed to stimulate performance
adaptations without inducing chronic stress (Seiler, 2010). While
it was shown that an increase from one to three HIT sessions per
week was not accompanied with further performance benefits,
such an increase did result in greater subjective muscle stress,
plasma epinephrine, and reduced sleep quality, all indicators of
impending overtraining (Billat et al., 1999).
Although there are numerous time-efficient adaptations and
health benefits associated with HIT, there is evidence that
individuals will need to feel physically capable and adequately
motivated to perform and maintain high intensity exercise
(Hardcastle et al., 2014). Additionally, condensed HIT over a
longer period (9 weeks) may lead to a loss in body mass in
well-trained athletes (Stöggl and Sperlich, 2014) which may also
negatively impact health.
Training adaptation is subject to high inter-individual
response (Bouchard et al., 1986), and disciplines with high
eccentric forces, high force impacts (e.g., running), and chronic
muscle damage will not necessarily exhibit similar TID when
compared to disciplines with lower eccentric impact (e.g.,
swimming, cycling, rowing) because recovery and low-intensity
exercise might be less prominent. From this point of view the
Frontiers in Physiology | www.frontiersin.org
Intensity distribution in endurance athletes
same TID will in all likelihood induce different adaptations
among individuals, even if they behave and exercise in an “elite”
manner.
Although the number of retrospective studies reporting
a HVLIT or pyramidal based TID is substantial compared
to polarized TID in well-trained to elite endurance athletes
(Tables 1–4, Figure 1), the findings from various prospective
studies (≤5 months training intervention), suggest that a
polarized TID results in superior training and performance
responses compared to HVLIT and THR in some endurance
disciplines and certain phases of the season. Since, variation of
the training stimuli is a critical aspect of effective training (Kiely,
2010, 2012), switching from a long-term unidirectional training
stressor (e.g., HVLIT) to another training stressor that provides a
substantial increase in the amount of HIT (e.g., polarized TID)
may prove fruitful. The optimal type of periodization model
however, remains open for debate (Issurin, 2010; Kiely, 2010,
2012). For instance, it is noteworthy that the effects of an inverse
pyramidal or inverse polarized TID (applying a high amount
of HIT with lower portion of HVLIT—e.g., 20:80), or exclusive
HIT for a longer period (>9 weeks) has not been analyzed.
Based on the experience of our previous investigation (Stöggl
and Sperlich, 2014), researchers—especially those conducting
prospective studies—will have to face the question which TID (in
combination with different periodization models) is superior in
athletic and health seeking populations.
Technical advancements integrating different internal (e.g.,
HR, oxygenation via near-infrared spectroscopy, sleep analysis,
breathing pattern, HR variability, hand-held analysis of saliva
and blood, questionnaires, etc.) and external (power output,
GPS-based distance and speed, accelero- and inclinometer,
etc.) sensor technologies that enable biological monitoring at a
distance (Chan et al., 2012) will further enhance the estimation
of individual athletes’ optimal TID in a timely manner. Yet,
the question remains: which data are the best foundation for
quantifying TID?
In summary, most retrospective studies on well-trained to
elite endurance athletes report a pyramidal TID, with a large
proportion of HVLIT. Polarized TID has been proven to be an
effective strategy for some elite athletes during certain phases
of the season. However, experimental studies lasting 6 weeks
to 5 months demonstrate superior responses to polarized TID,
especially when compared with TID that emphasizes THR
or HVLIT. As pointed out, the combination of HVLIT with
HIT may improve endurance performance with potentially less
autonomic and hormonal stress and boredom. The reasons
for the non-uniform TID among endurance disciplines may
arise from differences in methodology in retrospective analyses
and/or high inter-individual variation in the training response.
Furthermore, the long-term effects of different forms of TID
(e.g., inverse pyramidal or inverse polarized or exclusive HIT)
with different patterns of periodization on well-trained to elite
endurance athletes, have yet to be characterized. Consequently,
an “optimal” TID cannot be identified, and future prospective
randomized investigations conducted over extended time-
periods will have to be designed to address this question.
12 October 2015 | Volume 6 | Article 295
Stöggl and Sperlich
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Conflict of Interest Statement: The authors declare that the research was
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