Module 2.

Human
Development.
Unit 2. Biological early
human development.
Developmental Psychology
Degree in Early Childhood Education
Lecturer: Julia Vacas
Year 2023/2024
 Main Reading

Feldman, R. S. (2012). The start of life: Genetics and

Prenatal Development. In R. S. Feldman (Ed.), Child
Development (6 Ed., pp. 50-83). Pearson.
 Learning objectives

LO1.- To know the basics of genetics.

LO2.- To understand how the environment and genetics work
together to determine human characteristics.
LO3.- To discern which human characteristics are significantly
influenced by heredity.
LO4.- To reflect on how intelligence is determined.
LO5.- To describe the prenatal stages of development.
LO6.- To know the main threats to the fetal environment and
what can be done about them.
LO7.- To get an overview of the newborn’s main characteristics.
 Table of contents
The Earliest Development: Prenatal Growth
01 Genes and Environment 02 and Change
a) Basic concepts a) The stages of prenatal
b) Cell division processes period. The onset of
c) Mendel’s laws development
d) Research after Mendel b) The prenatal
e) Inherited and genetic disorders environment. Threats to
f) Influence of genes on development
psychological traits The Newborn’s
04 Readiness for Life
03 Labor a) Apgar Scale
b) Newborn reflexes
1. The Earliest Development:
Genes and Environment (I)
Basic concepts

Gametes → Zygote → A Genes →The basic units of Chromosomes

The first cell is
Sperm & ovum single cell genetic information. They are → Rod-shaped
created when a
→ The sex cells formed at made of DNA (deoxyribonucleic portions of
sperm pushes
from the mother conception from acid) that determines the nature DNA that are
through the
and father that the union of a of every cell in the body and how organized in 23
membrane of
form a new cell sperm and an it will function. pairs (46 in
the ovum.
at conception. ovum (gametes). total).

The 23rd pair of chromosomes contains the

information related to the sex of the child:
Boys → XY; Girls → XX
1. The Earliest
Development: Genes
and Environment (II)
All genes are composed of specific
sequences of DNA molecules → Genes
are arranged in specific locations and in
a specific order along 46 chromosomes
organized in 23 pairs → Only sex cells
(ovum and sperm) contains half this
number, so that the mother and the
father provide the child with one of the
two chromosomes each.
1. The Earliest Development:
Genes and Environment (III)
Genotype→ The genetic endowment that an individual inherits. It is
composed by the whole combination of genetic material present (but
not always visible) in an organism.
Phenotype → An observable trait, that is, the way in which the
genotype is expressed in observable or measurable characteristics.
More Dominant traits (the expressed traits) vs. recessive traits (the
unexpressed ones).
basic Monozygotic twins → It occurs when a cluster of cells in the
concepts ovum splits off within the first two weeks after fertilization →
Genetically identical → Any difference in development will be
due to environmental factors.
Dizygotic twins → It occurs when two ova are fertilized by two
separate sperm at the same time → They are not more similar than
two siblings born at different times.
1. The Earliest Development:
Genes and Environment (IV)
Cell division processes

Mitosis or somatic cell division Meiosis or sex cell division

 1. The Earliest Development:
Genes and Environment (V)

Mendel´s laws to explain the genetic variability

Law Parent cross Offspring
TT × tt 100% Tt
Dominance
Tall × Short Tall
Tt × Tt 75% Tall
Segregation
Tall × Tall 25% Short
RrGg × RrGg 9/16 Round & Green
Independent Round & Green 3/16 Round & Yellow
assortment × 3/16 Wrinkled & Green
Round & Green 1/16 Wrinkled & Yellow
1. The Earliest Development:
Genes and Environment (VI)
Research after Mendel…

Think! Could inhalation

The genes are not always dominant or recessive; i.e., blood type
of unhealthy air lead to
(AB).
genetic mutation? And
WiFi waves?

Polygenic inheritance → A combination of multiple gene pairs

that is responsible for the production of a particular trait (i.e., Environment can lead to
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder –ADHD-). genetic mutation.
Teratogenic agent/teraton →
Environmental agent or factor
that produces a birth defect.
The environment can influence the dominance of a particular
We’ll come back to this in a
gene (epigenetic). Genes vary in terms of their reaction range.
few slides…
1. The Earliest Development:
Genes and Environment (VII)
Research after Mendel…

Environment also determines the expression of genes; i.e.,

temperament.

A number of recessive genes, called X-linked genes are located

only on the X chromosome (i.e., hemophilia).

Emergenesis → A trait or phenotype sometimes appears as

result of the specific combination of several interacting genes
(even though no parent has the trait); i.e., genius, exceptional
athletic skills, physical attractiveness...
 1. The Earliest Development:
Genes and Environment (VIII)
Inherited and Genetic Disorders
Name Type of alteration Genotype Phenotype

Phenylketonuria Methabolopathy transmitted Inability to use phenylalanine→ Brain

Recessive gene p
(PKU) by a recessive gene damage and intellectual disability.

Chromosomopathy caused Short and wide skull, slanting eyes,

Presence of extra chromosome
Down Syndrome by alteration in the number of small nose, short stature, variability in
on the 21st pair
chromosomes intelligence.
Klinefelter’s Presence of extra X Underdeveloped genitals, extreme height,
syndrome chromosome in males → XXY enlarged breasts, and intellectual disability.
Ovarian failure, uterus and breasts
Turner’s Absence of a second
Sex chromosome underdeveloped, normal IQ, but learning
syndrome chromosome in females → X0
disorders.
Fragile X Mutation/Injury on the X
Mild to moderate intellectual disability.
syndrome chromosome
1. The Earliest Development:
Genes and Environment (IX)
Do you think It is commonly measured in terms of IQ and it is a central
that genes Intelligence human characteristic that differentiates us from other species.
influence
psychological • Genetics plays a significant role in intelligence as demonstrated in research on monozygotic
twins → The closer the genetic link between individuals, the greater the correspondence of
traits?
their overall IQ.
• This influence also increases with age; however, environmental factors such as the
adequate exposure to sources of cognitive stimulation also influence.

According to research, some of our basic personality traits have

Personality genetic roots; i.e., neuroticism and extraversion.
• Some specific genes are linked to particular traits; i.e.:
• Social potency (61%), traditionalism (60%), stress reaction (55%), absorption (55%),
alienation (55%), well-being (54%), harm avoidance (50%), aggression (48%),
achievement (46%), control (43%), and social closeness (3%) →Source Tellegen et al.
(1988).
• Of course, the environment in which a child is raised also affects personality development.
2. Prenatal Growth and Change (I)
The stages of prenatal period:
The onset of development

1. Germinal
Stage

2. Embryonic
Stage

Where does fertilization take place

in female reproductive system? 3. Fetal Stage
 2. Prenatal Growth and
Change (II)
1. Germinal Stage → From
Fertilization to 2 weeks.
The blastocyst (fertilized egg
or zygote) travels towards the
uterus and it´s implanted.
2. Prenatal Growth and Change (III)
2. Embryonic Stage → From 2 weeks to 8 weeks.
At second week, the zygote is called an embryo which contains three layers (each one
forms a different set of structures of the new human being).
Ectoderm
Skin, hair, teeth, sense organs, brain,
The nervous spinal cord.
system begins to
function around
the 5th week and Mesoderm
weak brain waves
Muscles, bones, blood, circulatory
begin to be
produced. system.

Endoderm
Digestive system, liver, pancreas,
respiratory system.
2. Prenatal Growth
and Change (IV)
3. Fetal Stage → 8 weeks to birth.
It starts once the differentiation of the major
organs has occurred.
❑ 3 months → Fetus swallows and urinates.
❑ 4 months → Mother can feel the
movement, do somersaults, cry, hiccup, open
and close its eyes…
❑ 5 months → The head accounts for just
over one forth of its total size.
2. Prenatal Growth and Change (V)
 2. Prenatal Growth and Change (VI)
The Prenatal Environment → Threats to Development
Mother’s diet
• A varied diet during pregnancy relates to
fewer complications, easier labor, and
healthier babies. Fortunately, today there
are methods to counteract mother
malnourishment; i.e., vitamin supplements.
Mother’s health
• Illnesses in a pregnant woman may have
dangerous consequences for the baby; i.e.,
chicken pox, mumps, sexually transmitted
diseases like syphilis or gonorrhea, or even
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
(AIDS).
• Also mental health can affect the fetus.
Mother’s age
• The risks involved in pregnancy are greater
for older and atypically young mothers.
However, it doesn’t mean that these
mothers are automatically at risk for
pregnancy problems.
Mother’s drug, alcohol, and/or
tobacco consumption
• I.e., The fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) →
Cognitive disorder caused by the pregnant
mother consuming substantial quantities
of alcohol during pregnancy, resulting in
intellectual disability and delayed growth in
the child.
Remember teratons?
The timing and
quantity of exposure to
a teraton are crucial.
Mother’s prenatal support
• Adverse social and economic factors may
affect infant health; i.e., teenage mothers
who don’t have good prenatal care
because a lack of money or parental
involvement.
What about fathers?
• Father’s consumption of alcohol, tobacco,
or illegal drugs may affect the sperm and
the fetus.
• Moreover, fathers who are physically or
emotionally abusive can damage the
unborn child by increasing maternal stress
or causing physical damage.
3. The labor
 4. The newborn’s readiness for life (I)
The Apgar scale is a rapid test
performed to a newborn to check
how the baby has tolerated the
birthing process.
A score is given to each sign at 1 The Apgar Scale
minute and 5 minutes after the
Sign 0 Points 1 Point 2 Points
birth. If there are problems with the
baby, an additional score is given at A.- Appearance Blue-gray, pale, Normal, except Normal over
10 minutes. A score of 7-10 is (skin color) all over for extremities entire body
considered normal, whereas 4-7
might require some resuscitative P.- Pulse Absent Below 100 bpm Above 100 bpm
measures, and a baby with an G.- Grimace No response Grimace Sneezes,
Apgar score under 4 requires (reflex coughs, pulls
immediate resuscitation.
irritability) away
A.- Activity Absent Arms and legs Active
flexed movement
R.- Respiration Absent Slow, irregular Good, crying
4. The newborn’s readiness for life (II)
Think! How many
newborn reflexes do
Newborn reflexes you know?

Reflexes are unlearned, organized, involuntary

responses that occur automatically in the presence of
certain stimuli. Central nervous system is immature.

Reflexes emerge and disappear on a regular

timetable.

Their absence or presence at a given point of

infancy can provide a clue that something may be
amiss in an infant´s development (cerebral palsy,
Down syndrome, etc.).
4. The newborn’s readiness for life (III)
Newborn reflexes
Sucking
reflex
Appearance → When the baby is born.
Approximate age of disappearance → At 4
month, when it becomes a voluntary action.
Description → Infant’s tendency to suck at
things that touch its lips.
Possible function → To allow the baby to
take in nutrients.
Rooting
reflex
Appearance → When the baby is born.
Approximate age of disappearance → Over 4
months of life and it is replaced by voluntary
head turning (pathological if it persists more
than 18 months).
Description → Turning the head in the
direction of a tactile (touch) stimulus to the
cheek.
Possible function → To orient the baby to
the breast or bottle.
4. The newborn’s readiness for life (IV)
Newborn reflexes
Spinal
Galant
reflex
Appearance → When the baby is born.
Approximate age of disappearance → 3-9
months.
Description → It is elicited by holding the
newborn face down and run a finger down
one side of the spine. The normal reaction is
for the newborn to laterally flex toward the
side that was stroked.
Palmar
Grasping
reflex
Appearance → When the baby is born.
Approximate age of disappearance → In the first
3-4 months; it is replaced by a voluntary grasp
(pathological if it persists at 6 months).
Description → Curling of the fingers around
objects (such as a finger) that touch the baby’s
palm.
Possible function → Protection. Its presence at
birth and later disappearance are indicators of
typical neurological development.
4. The newborn’s readiness for life (V)
Newborn reflexes
Babkin
reflex
Appearance → When the baby is born.
Approximate age of disappearance → 4-5
months.
Description → Opening of the mouth and
flexion of the arms in response to stimulation
of the palms.
Moro
reflex
Appearance → When the baby is born.
Approximate age of disappearance → 3-6
months; however, the child continues to react to
unexpected noises or a loss of bodily support by
showing a startle reflex.
Description → A loud noise or sudden change in
position of the baby´s head will cause the baby
throw his or her arms outward, arch the back,
and then bring the arms toward each other as if
to hold onto something.
4. The newborn’s readiness for life (VI)
Tonic neck
Newborn reflexes or Magnus
Klein
reflex
Babinsky
Appearance → When the baby is born.
reflex Approximate age of disappearance → 5-7
months (pathological if it persists into the second
or third year of life).
Appearance → When the baby is born.
Description → Extension of the upper limb and
Approximate age of disappearance → 8-12
sometimes the lower limb on the side to which
months.
the head is forcibly turned, with flexion of the
Description → An infant fans out its toes in
contralateral limbs.
response to a stroke on the outside of its
foot.
4. The newborn’s readiness for life (VII)
Newborn reflexes
Stepping
reflex
Appearance → When the baby is born.
Approximate age of disappearance → In the
first 3-4 months unless the infant has regular
opportunities to practice this response. When
starting to walk, the infant controls the
movement.
Description → Movement of legs when held
upright with feet touching the floor.
Landau
reflex
Appearance → At 3 months.
Approximate age of disappearance → 12-18
months.
Description → With the examiner’s hand
supporting the trunk (face down) the infant
raises his head, arches his back, and extends his
arms and legs, showing muscle tone. When the
head is gently pushed into flexion, the legs drop
into flexion like a clasp-knife.
4. The newborn’s readiness for life (VIII)
That’s all for
now!
Well-done!
Thank you!
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