Construction and Building Materials 58 (2014) 214–224

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Construction and Building Materials

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Multidirectional double punch test to assess the post-cracking behaviour

and fibre orientation of FRC
P. Pujadas ⇑, A. Blanco, S.H.P. Cavalaro, A. de la Fuente, A. Aguado
Department of Construction Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, UPC, Jordi Girona 1-3, 08034 Barcelona, Spain

h i g h l i g h t s

 The MDPT is a double punch test applied on cubic specimens for the post-cracking characterization of FRC.
 The test can be used to assess the toughness and residual tensile strength of FRC considering the orientation of fibres.
 A simple approach for determining the orientation of the fibres by means of mechanical results is presented.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The wide variety of tests currently used for the characterization of fibre reinforced concrete (FRC) only
Received 18 October 2013 allow a unidirectional characterization (without considering the orientation of the fibres in the matrix).
Received in revised form 10 February 2014 However, from a design-oriented perspective, the anisotropy due to the dispersion and orientation of
Accepted 11 February 2014
fibres has to be taken into account when characterizing the mechanical behaviour of the material. In this
Available online 13 March 2014
paper, an alternative to the conventional tests applied for the characterization of FRC is proposed. The
multidirectional double punch test (MDPT) consists of a double punch test applied to a cubic specimen.
Keywords:
Due to the specimen shape in a single procedure an estimation of the fibre orientation efficiency can be
FRC
Post-cracking characterization
obtained, establishing a link between the mechanical properties of FRC with the fibre orientation.
Double punch test Thereby, this paper represents a meaningful contribution to provide a step towards the development
Multidirectional test of a rational and design-oriented constitutive model for real-scale structures.
Fibre orientation Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction obtained from the results of a unidirectional characterization test

Several authors have shown the direct influence of the orienta-
tion of the fibres on the residual strength of the material [1–3].
Studies have shown that an anisotropic orientation of fibres in
the hardened state may occur as a result of the different stages
and processes (fresh state, the concrete pouring, the geometry of
the formwork, the type of vibration and the production method)
that FRC undergoes from mixing to hardening [4,5].
For this reason, authors such as di Prisco et al. [6,7] claim that
from a design-oriented perspective, the anisotropy due to the dis-
persion and orientation of fibres has to be taken into account when
characterizing the mechanical behaviour of the material. However,
all design recommendations and codes [8–12] for FRC are based on
an inverse approach and do not consider the dispersion and orien-
tation of the fibres [13]. In fact, the parameters of the constitutive
equation provided by these recommendations and codes are
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 93 401 7825; fax: +34 93 401 1036.
E-mail address: pablo.pujadas@upc.edu (P. Pujadas).
(in most cases uniaxial or flexural tensile tests). This leads to the
common and erroneous assumption of isotropy, that is, the fibres
are oriented evenly in all directions. This causes an apparent incon-
sistency in the design, since characterization test specimens might
not represent the real fibre orientation of the real-scale structure.
In order to overcome this drawback, a complete characteriza-
tion of the fibres orientation together with its structural contribu-
tion in the cracked section is required. Considering the above, this
paper proposes the use of the double punch test on cubic samples
(multidirectional double punching test or MDPT test) as an alterna-
tive to conventional characterization tests. The shape and size of
the specimen allow obtaining information regarding the fibre ori-
entation efficiency indirectly from the behaviour of the material,
thus establishing a link between the mechanical properties of
FRC with the fibre orientation. As a consequence, the approach pre-
sented in this paper together with models for the prediction of
fibre orientation in FRC [5,14] provides a powerful tool to develop
a comprehensive and design-oriented constitutive model for the
tensile behaviour of FRC. This is of paramount importance in order

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.02.023
0950-0618/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 P. Pujadas et al. / Construction and Building Materials 58 (2014) 214–224
to achieve a rational methodology for the design of full-scale struc-
tures, in which the real post-cracking behaviour of the material
might be considered depending on the expected fibre orientation.
After a brief description of the new characterization test geom-
etry and methodology, the potential and the reliability of the
proposed test will be highlighted with a cross-wise comparison
of experimental MDPT tests with plastic and steel fibres. Moreover,
a simple and straightforward approach for determining the
orientation of the fibres by means of mechanical testing will be
presented and discussed.
2. The multidirectional double punch test
2.1. General overview of the post-cracking characterization test
The execution of characterization tests is the first step to define
the post-cracking tension behaviour or constitutive equation in
terms of stress–strain (r–e) or stress–crack width (r–w) relation-
ships of FRC. Despite the wide variety of characterization tests,
they only allow a unidirectional characterization without consider-
ing the dispersion and orientation of the fibres in the matrix.
For practical reasons, the reference standards and codes recom-
mend the use of flexural tests on a prismatic specimen either in the
configuration of a three-point bending test [9,15] or the four-point
bending test ([16] or [17]). Despite being widely used these tests
exhibit a high scatter of the results, often above 20% [18,19], which
compromises its use as a control tool. Other standard methods
have also been used for the material characterization, namely:
round determinate panel tests [20,21], EFNARC panel test [22]
and wedge-splitting tensile test [23]. The latter was modified by
[6,24] introducing a wedge-shaped cut and a notch (Double Edge
Wedge Splitting or DEWS) aiming at reducing the scatter of the
results. Nevertheless, its associated labour costs and complexity
hinders the use of the DEWS test for systematic control and design
purposes.
Alternatively, research on the application of the double punch
test to FRC was conducted at the Department of Construction Engi-
neering of the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC). The so-
called Barcelona test [19] is the extension of the Double Punch Test
(DPT) formerly presented by Chen [25,26] to FRC. This test leads to
representative values of the residual tensile strength and tough-
ness of the material with an average coefficient of variation lower
than 13% [19], which makes it a suitable test for systematic perfor-
mance control of FRC. Although this test was successfully applied
to characterize the post-cracking behaviour of FRC, the geometry
of the specimens does not allow to deduce the fibre orientation
from the mechanical performance of the material [6]. This fact, to-
gether with the model developed in [27] for the direct estimation
of the Total Circumferential Opening Displacement (TCOD) by
means of the axial displacement, provides a unique opportunity
to develop a new test methodology to be used for the evaluation
of the tensile post-cracking behaviour of FRC. However, due to
the specimen shape and size, no information about the fibre orien-
tation dependence of the material behaviour can be obtained.
For these reasons, in subsequent sections the use of the double
punch test on cubic samples is presented as a new characterization
method to assess both the post-cracking response of the material
and the fibre orientation.
Therefore, as an alternative to the traditional cylindrical speci-
men used in the Barcelona test, in this paper the double punch test
applied to cubic samples is proposed. In such way, the effect of the
orientation of fibres on the material post-cracking behaviour can
be determined. Moreover, the information required to link the
behaviour from the characterization test with the expected behav-
iour of the material at the structural level may be assessed by
215
means of the orientation factor (K). Hereinafter, the new testing
method proposed will be referred to as multidirectional double
punch test or MDPT.
2.2. Description of the MDPT characterization test
The MDPT is an indirect tensile test to assess the toughness and
residual tensile strength of FRC considering the distribution and
orientation of fibres. The possibility of carrying out tensile tests
by applying compressive loads, avoids the typical complications
of the direct application of a tensile load on the specimen (like
gluing the extremities of the specimen to the press plates, or
providing the specimen with particular load-transferring devices).
In the MDPT two steel cylindrical punches arranged concentri-
cally above and below a FRC cubic specimen (with 150 mm of
edge) transmit the load applied by the plates of the press that ap-
proach each other at a constant relative rate (Fig. 1a). The diameter
of the punches is 1/4 of the diameter of the inscribed cylinder
(37.5 mm) and its height is 24 mm. Unlike the Barcelona test
[28], in the MDPT the control is not controlled by the TCOD chain
or circumferential extensometer (due to the cubic geometry of the
specimen, see Fig. 1b). Instead, the test is controlled by the dis-
placement of the loading plate [27].
The first step to perform the test is to place correctly the loading
cylindrical punches. For that, a metal disc is used as a template,
with an outside diameter approximately equal to the diameter
of the inscribed cylinder (150 mm ± 1 mm) and an inner
diameter approximately equal to the cylindrical loading punch
(37.5 mm ± 1.5 mm). Then the group formed by specimen and
the cylindrical punches (Fig. 1) is properly introduced in the press
avoiding possible eccentricities between the press axis and the
punches. Finally, the load is uniformly applied with a rate of dis-
placement of the piston jack of 0.5 ± 0.05 mm per minute during
the test.
During the test, the specimen undergoes three different phases
depending on its integrity and on the resistant mechanism. Stage 1
(Fig. 2a) coincides with the initial application of load. The radial
internal stress generated is resisted by the concrete matrix that
presents no major cracks. Once the stress reaches the tensile
strength of the material, the specimen enters Stage 2. The upper
and lower wedges are abruptly formed. According to different
authors [25–27,28–30], these wedges present a conical shape with
a diameter equal to that of the punches used in the test. Between
two and four major cracks appear, dividing the specimen in parts
that are kept together by the fibres bridging the cracks (Fig. 2b).
As the cracks stabilize, Stage 3 begins, following a kinematic mech-
anism that involves sliding between the conical wedge and the
fragmented specimen, as is illustrated in Fig. 2c.
During this stage the debonding and pull-out of the fibres dissi-
pate more energy, which leads to a significant increase in tough-
ness [31]. The alignment of the fibres according to the generated
stresses (in the perpendicular plane to the loading direction) im-
proves the post-cracking response due to an increased number of
effective fibres crossing the crack and an improved pull-out behav-
iour of those fibres with low angles of inclination relative to the
cracking plane. Based on this principle and considering that the
post-cracking residual strength is proportional to the average ori-
entation of the fibres [4,32], three post-cracking behaviours
(curves [F–d]X, [F–d]Y and [F–d]Z) associated with three loading
directions may be obtained.
3. Experimental program
Although the method proposed appears to be logical, simple and straightfor-
ward, it is necessary to check its validity. For that, an extensive experimental pro-
gram was performed using the double punch test, in which the influence of the
216 P. Pujadas et al. / Construction and Building Materials 58 (2014) 214–224

(a) (b)

Fig. 1. (a) Dimensions and (b) test set up of the multidirectional (MDPT).

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2. Stages of the MDPT test: (a) Stage 1, (b) Stage 2 and (c) Stage 3 [27].

specimen shape was analyzed by comparing the results obtained using cylindrical Table 2
and cubic specimens. Subsequently, tests on cubic specimens and samples with dif- Composition of FRC mixtures (in kg/m3).
ferent anisotropy levels were conducted in order to study of the test sensibility to
the material anisotropy. Material Characteristics PFRC SFRC
PF/S1 PF/S2 PF/S2 SF/S1 SF/S2

3.1. Materials and mixtures Gravel (6/15 mm) Granite 520 520 520 520 520
Gravel (2.5/6 mm) Granite 400 400 400 400 400
Taking into account that the post-cracking response of FRC is significantly influ- Sand (0/3 mm) Granite 500 500 510 510 510
enced by the main characteristics of its components, different fibre types and con- Cement CEM I 52.5 R 400 400 350 350 350
tents should be analyzed. In order to assure a complete and balanced validation of Filler Marble dust 260 260 300 300 300
the test, a wide range of FRC in terms of fibre type and fibre content was considered. Water – 170 170 178 178 178
Different steel and plastic fibre reinforced concrete (SFRC and PFRC, respec- Superplasticizer AdvaÒ Flow 400 12 12 12 12 12
tively) were studied. Two different types of fibres were added: straight shape plas- Fibres Table 1 5 7 9 40 60
tic macro-fibres (PF) with a rectangular cross-section and hooked steel fibres (SF)
with circular cross-section. Characteristics of this fibre are summarized in Table 1.
In Table 2 the dosages used in this experimental campaign are defined (desig-
nated with the code: PF/S1, PF/S2, PF/S3, SF/S1 and SF/S2). Despite the benefits con- prismatic beams by cutting at 75 mm and 225 mm from the edge of the beam
ferred by the addition of fibres to concrete when hardened, they modify the (CUT2, see Fig. 3b). The different boundary conditions due to the pouring of the
consistency in the fresh state, reducing its workability. If this tendency is not con- concrete, the geometry of the formwork and the wall effect of each of the three
sidered in the definition of dosage, problems may occur during mixing, placement types of specimens tested induce different fibre orientation.
and compaction, resulting in a reduction of the quality and an increase in the poros- For this study, the Z-axis corresponds to the casting direction and the X-axis, in
ity of the hardened concrete. For this reason, the contents of water, cement and fil- the case of the cubic samples, corresponds to the larger dimension of the beam. The
ler were varied in order to compensate the consistency loss due to the addition of a analysis of the results is completed with 6 casted cylindrical specimens
higher fibre dosage. Notice that the objective of these changes were to assure (150  £ = 150 mm) for the Barcelona test (BCN), according to [28].
similar production conditions and avoid local defects in the specimens due to a The production process has a significant influence on the performance of con-
material with poor consistency. ventional FRC [33,34]. For the sake of uniformity and consistency in the research,
For each of the five batches, three types of cubic specimens all the specimens were filled following the procedures and recommendations de-
(150  150  150 mm) were tested in this experimental program: cubic specimens fined by [35]. This guideline defines that the volume of concrete poured into the
cast in cubic moulds (CUB), cubic samples cut from prismatic beams at 150 mm of centre of the mould must be twice the volume discharged at the ends. The method,
the edge of the beam (CUT1, see Fig. 3a) and cubic samples obtained also from intensity and time of compaction also affects the orientation and distribution of the
fibre. The use of internal vibrators may generate excess paste areas and few fibres in
the region where the vibrator is disposed, and a certain orientation in the direction
Table 1 tangential to the outer diameter of the vibrator [36]. That is why, in all cases the
Fibres characteristics (data provided by the manufacturer). vibration was done by means of a vibrating table at 3000 rpm during 10 s
approximately.
PF SF Moreover, the following specimens were cast for the characterization of each
Length (L) (mm) 48 50 concrete batch: six prismatic beams (150  150  600 mm) for the characterization
Diameter (d) (mm) – 0.62 of the flexural strength [15], three cylindrical samples (150  300 mm) for the
Aspect ratio (L/d) (–) 44 83 assessment of the compressive strength [37] and three cylindrical samples
Tensile strength (fy) (MPa) 550 1270 (150  300 mm) for the measurement of the modulus of elasticity [38]. The ele-
Modulus of elasticity (E) (GPa) 10 210 ments were removed from the moulds within 24 h of casting and were moist cured
Number of fibres per kg (fibres) >35,000 8100 under a plastic sheet for a week, after which the specimens were kept in a curing
room at 20 ± 2 °C and 95% of relative humidity.
 P. Pujadas et al. / Construction and Building Materials 58 (2014) 214–224 217

(a) CUT1 specimens

(b) CUT2 specimens

375 mm
450 mm
Z 150 mm
Y
150 mm 75 mm
X

Fig. 3. Scheme of the cubic samples cut from prismatic beams: (a) CUT1 and (b) CUT2.

The average results at 28 days for the compressive strength (fcm) and modulus
of elasticity (Ecm) of each batch are presented in Table 3 as well as the coefficient
of variation (CV). Table 3 also shows the limit of proportionality (fL) and the residual
flexural tensile strengths (fR1, fR2, fR3 and fR4) corresponding to the CMOD of
0.05 mm, 0.50 mm, 1.50 mm, 2.50 mm and 3.50 mm, respectively.
The bending tests, carried out in accordance with [15], present high dispersion
of the obtained results, this is particularly true for the SF/S1-Series. However, this
dispersion may be attributed to the test itself, which according to [18,19,39] can
reach values of 20%. Notice that the residual flexural strengths of Series SF/S2 cor-
respond to the testing of only one beams due to problems with the CMOD control
device.
3.2. Test procedure
The test procedure for the MDPT is the same as for the Barcelona test [28], pre-
viously described in Section 2.2. Given the geometry of the specimen, a chain gage
was not used and the control of the test is performed continuously recording the
axial plate displacement and the load. The test was considered to be completed
when the piston displacement was at least 4 mm after the cracking of the specimen.
The enhancement of the mechanical properties of FRC due to the effectiveness
of the fibres is dependent on the loading conditions (mainly on the directions of the
principal tensile stresses, see Fig. 4) and the orientation of the fibres relative of the
active crack planes. In this sense, the use of a cubic specimen allows three different
loading conditions (directions X, Y and Z-axis), activating different groups of fibres
in each case. Thereby, a different toughness and residual tensile strength may be
obtained in each loading direction. Two specimens of each series and types were
tested in each of the X, Y and Z-axes.
4. Analysis of the results
4.1. Sensibility of the test to the influence of the shape of the specimen
The aim of this section is to evaluate the shape influence of the
specimen (cubic or cylindrical) on the mechanical response of
the double punch test. The procedure adopted was to compare
the results obtained in the Barcelona test with the results obtained
in the CUB specimens loaded in the same direction as in the BCN
test (Z-axis or casting direction). Fig. 5 shows the global results
for both tests for Series CUB_PF/S1; CUB_PF/S2 and CUB_SF/S1.
The results presented in Fig. 5 show that the MDPT load–axial
displacement curves for the Z loading direction (in red) perfectly
fit the results obtained with the BCN test (in grey), thus highlight-
ing the equivalence concerning the mechanical behaviour of both
tests.
The correlation between the MDPT and the BCN test in terms of
the average cracking load (Fcr) and in terms of the average tough-
ness (E(0 < d < 4)) are presented in Fig. 6a and b, respectively. To
extend the study, results of concrete with 9 kg/m3 plastic and
40 kg/m3 steel fibres from [40,41] respectively were also added.
The average values of Fcr were obtained testing six cylindrical spec-
imens (Barcelona test) and two in the case of the cubic specimens
(MDPT).
In Fig. 6a, all the points except one in the limit are within the
10% confidence area highlighted in grey in the same figure. This
fact shows a good correlation between both tests of Fcr, regardless
of the type of fibre (for the whole series analyzed, an average devi-
ation of 0.21% from the 1:1 straight line is obtained). Such outcome
reveals that the shape of the specimens is not a major influence
parameter on the results of Fcr.
Moreover, the clear correlation between toughness (Fig. 6b) and
the residual strength (Fig. 7a), obtained with the MDPT (Z-axis) and
the BCN tests, also indicates a similar mechanical behaviour in
both tests. Again, all the points present results within the 10% con-
fidence area, except for SF/S2. This Series presents significantly
higher values of E(0 < d < 4) and FR (Fig. 6b) compared to the BCN
test (a detailed comparison on the load–axial displacement of the
Series SF/S2 is presented in Fig. 7b).
It should be mentioned that the differences observed in both
tests may be caused to the fibre orientation and not the test mech-
anisms. The cylindrical specimens present a more favourable fibre
orientation to resist the concentric distribution of tensions stresses
generated during the tests. The wall effect of the cylindrical form-
work, forces the alignment of the fibres with the concentric distri-
bution of the stresses, whereas such alignment is not so favourable
for the cubic specimens. This effect is accentuated for concretes
with higher values in the post-cracking range (for example, in
the case of Series SF/S2 with a fibre dosage of 60 kg/m3).
4.2. Sensibility of the test to the material anisotropy
4.2.1. Results for molded specimens (CUB)
Fig. 8 shows the experimental load–axial displacement (d)
curves obtained for the CUB-specimens of the Series CUB_PF/S1,

Table 3
Characterization of the FRC mixtures (fcm; Ecm; fL and fRi).

PFRC SFRC
PF/S1 PF/S2 PF/S3 SF/S1 SF/S2
Average (MPa) CV% Average (MPa) CV% Average (MPa) CV% Average (MPa) CV% Average (MPa) CV%
Ecm 31,150 1.69 31,930 1.61 32,000 0.74 24,300 1.65 31,599 1.09
fcm 52.15 1.52 54.64 0.82 46.40 2.44 37.87 1.09 54.30 1.51
fL 4.38 0.71 5.14 8.71 4.82 7.71 3.73 8.57 3.72 –
fR,1 1.82 13.22 3.59 9.20 3.56 8.47 4.62 12.15 6.40 –
fR,2 2.01 9.36 4.66 7.05 4.70 6.05 5.09 13.77 6.12 –
fR,3 2.11 8.72 5.14 6.50 5.19 4.81 5.10 15.91 6.24 –
fR,4 2.08 10.75 5.17 6.43 5.23 5.17 4.87 14.08 6.47 –
218 P. Pujadas et al. / Construction and Building Materials 58 (2014) 214–224

Fig. 4. Scheme of the MDPT methodology.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 5. Comparison of the Multidirectional test results loaded in Z-axis and the Barcelona test results for the Series (a) PF/S1, (b) PF/S2 and (c) SF/S1.

(a) (b)

Fig. 6. Comparison between multidirectional and Barcelona test in terms of (a) average cracking load (Fcr) and (b) average toughness.

(b)
(a)

Fig. 7. (a) Comparison between MDPT and BCN test in terms of average residual load (FR) and (b) load–axial displacement of Series SF/S2.

CUB_PF/S2 and CUB_PF/S3 (representing each of the three amounts the loading direction. In order to avoid confusion, the results of
of PF-fibres used, 5 kg/m3, 7 kg/m3 and 9 kg/m3, respectively). In the MDPT-method are depicted in terms of load–displacement
each graph, the experimental curves are grouped according to curves taking the cracking as the origin.
 P. Pujadas et al. / Construction and Building Materials 58 (2014) 214–224 219

In the results, an initial non-linear tendency attributed to the Table 4

casting imperfections and inherent instabilities of the test setup Results of the MDPT in terms of FR;d = 2 mm in the CUB specimens.

for low load levels is observed in the first stage of the test. Once d = 2mm
the coupling between the specimen and the press has taken place, CUB_PF/S1 CUB_PF/S2 CUB_PF/S3 CUB_SF/S1 CUB_SF/S2
the curve clearly shows an almost linear tendency up to the crack-
Z FR 32.59 35.72 42.15 57.24 72.18
ing of the concrete. C.V. 13.21 1.02 7.10 13.60 16.38
Once the concrete has cracked, the fibres exert a ‘‘bridge’’ effect Y FR 22.26 21.55 18.89 28.71 47.05
between the divided specimens, allowing a controlled formation of C.V. – 23.67 10.43 16.41 14.65
cracks and leading to a ductile behaviour. However, as FRC is an X FR 19.94 20.61 21.58 35.56 62.79
C.V. 13.36 1.49 21.45 35.25 0.43
anisotropic material, the fibres do not provide an identical rein-
forcement in all directions. Consequently, different post-cracking
behaviour of cubic specimens are obtained when loaded in the
Z-, Y- and X-axes. Table 4 summarizes the average residual load fibres preferentially in a plane perpendicular to the direction of the
experimentally obtained and its coefficient of variation for each vibration [36]. Moreover, the more FRC is subjected to vibration,
test series and directions. The values shown correspond to an axial the more the fibres tend to align themselves in the horizontal
displacement of 2 mm from the cracking point, taken as a reference plane.
for the analysis.
From Table 4 it can be observed that higher residual strengths 4.2.2. Comparison of the CUB and CUT specimens: Influence of the
(FR;d = 2 mm) are obtained for the series with larger fibre dosages, wall-effect
especially when loading in the Z-direction. As an example, for the In this section, a comparison between the results of the molded
Z-direction, (FR;d = 2 mm) values of 32.59, 35.72 and 42.15 kN were cubic specimens (CUB) and the cut prismatic specimen (CUT1 and
obtained for PF dosages of 5, 7 or 9 kg/m3, respectively, and CUT2) is presented. Figs. 10 and 11 show the experimental curves
57.24 and 72.18 kN for the series with 40 or 60 kg/m3 of SF. This of the Series PF/S3 in terms of load–axial displacement and
leads to the conclusion that the test is sensitive to the amount of E(0 6 d 6 4 mm)-axial displacement, respectively.
fibres. However, for the CUB-specimens studied in this section, The results of Fig. 10 show that unlike the results of CUB-
such outcome cannot be observed for the loading in X- and Y-axis, specimens presented in Section 4.2, the CUT-specimens present
in which the post-cracking fibre contribution is so small that the lower values of load in the post-cracking stage when the speci-
differences whit increasing fibre dosage is unnoticeable (due to mens are tested in the X-axis. That means that compared to the
the low number of fibres actively oriented to bridge the cracks in CUB-specimens, specimens cut from beams (CUT1 and CUT2) also
these cases). show an effect of preferential orientation: the alignment of fibres
Nevertheless, the load obtained in X- and Y-direction is consis- along the X axis (along the length of the beam).
tently 60–70% (in average) the value obtained when loading in the Such outcome is particularly pronounced for specimens CUT2
Z-direction. This fact becomes even more evident when evaluating (see Fig. 11c) since the fibre alignment along the X-axis caused
the toughness (defined as the capacity of the material to absorb en- loads about 20% higher than along the Y-axis. Nevertheless, the
ergy) of the FRC series for different d up to 4 mm, E(0 6 d 6 4 mm), specimens CUT1 exhibit a different behaviour due to the wall-
see Fig. 9. This parameter was calculated as the area below the effect provided by the side of the beam that was not cut (see
graph F–d. Fig. 11b). This local phenomenon distorts the results of the prefer-
As mentioned in Section 2, only the fibres preferably circumfer- ential of fibres along the X-axis by increasing the alignment of fi-
entially oriented in the perpendicular plane to the testing direction bres along Y-axis. Hence, the percentage of both axes is very
contribute to the post-cracking response of the material. similar.
Consequently, the higher post-cracking loads registered for the From the results presented in this section it can be concluded
CUB-specimens tested in Z-axis and lower loads for X- and Y-axes that in the prismatic specimens (from which the cubic samples
is the result of a higher amount of fibres oriented in the perpendic- CUB1 and CUB2 were obtained), a plane orientation of the fibres
ular plane to the Z-axis. The clear tendency towards a flat/plane due to external vibration exists. However, a significant increase
orientation of the fibres is the consequence of the vibration of cubic of the fibre alignment with the X-axis due to concrete flow was ob-
specimens. The vibration triggers the rotation and alignment of the served (Fig. 12). This result, agrees with several studies indicating a

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 8. Load–axial displacement curves (a) CUB_PF/S1, (b) CUB_PF/S2 and (c) CUB_PF/S3.
220 P. Pujadas et al. / Construction and Building Materials 58 (2014) 214–224

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 9. E(0 6 d 6 4 mm)-axial displacement curves for (a) CUB_PF/S3, (b) CUB_PF/S2 and (c) CUB_PF/S3.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 10. Load–axial displacement curves (a) CUB_PF/S3, (b) CUT1_PF/S3 and (c) CUT2_PF/S3.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 11. E(0 6 d 6 4 mm)-axial displacement curves (a) CUB_PF/S3, (b) CUT1_PF/S3 and (c) CUT2_PF/S3.

significant influence of the casting [42–44] and concrete flow
[44–46] in the fibre orientation.
Considering the sensibility of the MDPT to identify the anisot-
ropy of the material, the new test may be used as a reference to
predict the fibre orientation. In such way a complete characteriza-
tion of the material properties can performed, linking the post-
cracking residual strength with the orientation of the fibres.
5. Assessment of fibre orientation
5.1. Introduction of assessment methods
Significant research was conducted in the past years with the
aim of developing techniques capable of identifying the fibre orien-
tation in hardened FRC. Table 5 shows a summary of the main
 P. Pujadas et al. / Construction and Building Materials 58 (2014) 214–224 221

(a) (b)

Fig. 12. Alignment of the fibres with the X-axis due to concrete flow along the prismatic specimen.

Table 5 Table 6
Methods to determine fibre orientation [41]. Summary of the formulation for obtaining the orientation of the fibres.

Method Measurements Technique References i Eð0 6 d 6 4ÞR;i Þ 1i (%)1i

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Destructive Indirect Manual counting + theoretical [48–50] Z Eð0 6 d 6 4ÞR;Z Þ  1X 1Y [1] 1Z  ER;X ER;Y
[4] ð%Þ1Z ¼ 1 þ11Z þ1 [7]
ER;Z X Y Z
expression by [47] qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Y Eð0 6 d 6 4ÞR;Y Þ  1X 1Z [2] 1Y  ER;X ER;Z
[5] ð%Þ1Y ¼ 1 þ11Y þ1 [8]
Mechanical testing [51–54] ER;Y X Y Z
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Direct Image analysis [53,55] X Eð0 6 d 6 4ÞR;X Þ  1Y 1Z [3] 1X  ER;Y ER;Z
[6] ð%Þ1X ¼ 1 þ11X þ1 [9]
ER;X X Y Z
X-ray method [56–58]
Computerized tomography [59]
Non-destructive Direct Alternating current-impedance [33,60]
spectroscopy (AC-IS)
Open coaxial transmission line [61]
Dielectric waveguide antennas [62]
Electrical resistivity methods [63]
Inductive method [64]

methods currently available to assess the orientation of fibres.

These methods are classified in terms of the type of measurement
(direct or indirect) and the effect of on the sample (destructive or
non-destructive).
An example of a destructive measurement of the fibre orienta-
tion is manual counting [48–50], which by means of a theoretical
expression [47] indirectly relates the number of fibres in a cross-
section with the average orientation of the fibres. Non-destructive
measurements on fibre orientation can be directly obtained by
techniques such as image analysis [53,55], X-ray methods [56–
58] or computed tomography (CT-scans) [59].
Because of the complexity, time-consumption and cost of these
techniques, they have been mostly limited to research purposes.
Moreover, these techniques (except for image analysis) are gener-
ally restricted to SFRC, as they are based on measuring electrical
properties of fibres and cannot be applied for plastic fibres.
Hence, a major challenge is to obtain the orientation of fibres in
great detail, such as provided by these refined methods, but using a
reliable, simple and inexpensive technique that is useful regardless
the fibre type and material.
5.2. Development of the formulation
The fact that the post-cracking strength of FRC is proportional to
the average fibre orientation [40,51–53] constitutes a great oppor-
tunity to indirectly evaluate fibre orientation through mechanical
results of the MDPT. The following describes the formulation and
presents the main results.
According to the results discussed throughout the previous sec-
tions the E(0 6 d 6 4 mm) obtained may be considered propor-
tional to the contribution of the fibres aligned in the plane
perpendicular to the loading direction (designated as orientation
efficiency or 1i). For example, when loading in the Z-direction,
the toughness (E(0 6 d 6 4 mm)R,Z) may be considered propor-
tional to the contribution of fibres in the X- and Y-axis. This argu-
ment may be mathematically represented by Eq. (1). Likewise the
Fig. 13. Validation of the method with results from SFRC.
same argument may be extend to the E(0 6 d 6 4 mm)R,Y and
E(0 6 d 6 4 mm)R,X in Eqs. (2) and (3), respectively (assuming the
same proportionality constant for Eqs. (1), (2) and (3)).
Eqs. (4), (5) and (6) are obtained after solving the system
formed by Eqs. (1), (2) and (3) with the unknowns 1X, 1Y and 1Z.
The orientation efficiency in each axis may be presented in adi-
mensional relative terms calculated according with the last column
of Table 6. Considering the proportionality between the post-
cracking strength of FRC and the average fibre orientation reported
by [40,51–53], the parameter % 1i should approach the contribu-
tion of fibres (in terms of %) in each direction.
5.3. Validation with SFRC
Even though the method proposed appears to be simple and
logical, it is necessary to check its validity against real experimen-
tal data. A wide range of SFRC in terms of fibre content (40 and
60 kg/m3) and casting conditions (cubic specimens and samples
T1C and T2C) was considered. SFRC experimental data of Section 3
together with data available from the literature [41] were used in
order to validate and to determine the accuracy of the aforemen-
tioned approach. In both groups of specimens, fibre orientation
was assessed by means of the mechanical results of the MDPT
and measured with the inductive method [64]. The inductive
method is a non-destructive method to assess the amount of steel
fibres as well as their orientation. This method is based on measur-
ing the change in inductance generated by the presence of steel
fibres the concrete. Fig. 13 compares the average results obtained
222 P. Pujadas et al. / Construction and Building Materials 58 (2014) 214–224
(a)
Fig. 14. Average fibre orientation obtained by means of the Eð0 6 d 6 4Þ: (a) cast specimens CUB, (b) samples CUT 1 and (c) samples CUT 2.
Table 7
Fibre orientation according to the Z, Y and X axis.
Method Element X (%) Y (%)
New methodology Cast specimens (CUB) 39 38
Samples T1C 40 29
Samples T2C 38 30
[41,64] Cast specimens (CUB) 40 40
Samples T1C 40 30
for SFRC using the MDPT-method proposed cubic and the inductive
method.
A good correlation between the experimental results measured
with the inductive method and the theoretical results obtained
with the method presented can be observed for all the specimens
(Fig. 13). Differences in the amount of fibres measured with both
tests of less than 10% were obtained for all the specimens studied.
These results reinforce the good accuracy of the formulation pro-
posed since the slopes of the regression line of Fig. 13 is quite close
to 1 with a R2 value of 0.8455, regardless of the type of concrete.
According to [65], to describe the accuracy of a measurement
the terms trueness and precision are used. Trueness refers to the
closeness of the mean of the measurement results to the reference
value and precision refers to the closeness of agreement within
individual results. Therefore, according to the ISO standard, the
accuracy of the MDPT, considering the values of the inductive
method as reference, correspond to a trueness of 0.00% and preci-
sion of 8.55%, respectively. Notice that better results might be ob-
tained in case a bigger number of samples were tested in each
direction. In addition to that, it would be important to evaluate
the scatter of the predictions with the MDPT.
The aforementioned formulas (Eqs. (7), (8) and (9)) were ap-
plied to the CUB-specimens and samples T1C and T2C of the Series
PF/S1; PF/S2 and PF/S3 (described in Section 3). Fig. 14 shows the
average values of the orientation of fibres obtained by means of
the MDPT.
The results reveal the preferential orientation of the fibres in
the perpendicular plane to the casting direction (Z-axis) since few-
er fibres are aligned along with Z axis. Furthermore, the results for
X- and Y-axis show that the percentage of fibres oriented in both
directions is very similar (around 40%, approximately). Thus, the
fibre alignment in the cast specimens is about 40% along X- and
Y-axis and 20% along the Z-axis was observed. In the case of the
specimens cut from beams another preferential orientation: the
alignment of fibres along the X-axis (along the length of the beam).
Moreover, the results show a considerable increase of the number
of fibres oriented along to the Z-axis. Thus, the fibre alignment in
the cut specimens is around 40% along the X-axis and 30% along
Y- and Z-axes. Nevertheless, the specimens T1C exhibit a different
behaviour due to the wall-effect provided by the side of the beam
that was not cut. This local phenomenon distorts the results of the
preferential alignment of fibres along X-axis by slightly increasing
the percentage of fibres along Y-axis. Hence, the percentage of both
axes is very similar.
(b) (c)
The results shown in Fig. 14 for PFRC are consistent with the re-
sults reported by [41,64] in SFRC, who assessed the fibre orienta-
Z (%) tion along the axes Z, Y and X in cubic specimens, using
23 nondestructive test. Table 7 presents a comparison of the amounts
31 of fibres obtained with both methods.
32
20 6. Conclusions
30
One of the main drawbacks of conventional post-cracking char-
acterization tests is the impossibility to suitably take into account
the anisotropy of FRC due to the dispersion and orientation of fi-
bres. This paper proposes to overcome this drawback establishing
a framework to predict the fibre orientation efficiency, linking
the mechanical properties of FRC with the fibre orientation. With
this aim, a new characterization test, the so-called MDPT, was pre-
sented. In the first part, the motivations for this investigation were
highlighted and the core concepts of this novel characterization
methodology were advanced. In a second part, a large experimen-
tal campaign with plastic and steel fibres was carried out in order
to assess the potential and reliability of the proposed test. Finally,
in the last part, the proposed approach to retrieve the fibre orien-
tation form the mechanical results was explained in detail and val-
idated with several results from literature.
This paper represents a meaningful contribution that, combined
with the existing models for the prediction of fibre orientation in
FRC [Laranjeira et al.], provides a step towards the development
of a rational and design-oriented constitutive model for the tensile
behaviour of FRC in the final structure. The following conclusions
may be derived based on the results of this study.
 The MDPT represents an efficient alternative to conventional
characterization tests. No specific instrumentation is required
for its execution (only a conventional press and two metal
punches). The cubic configuration has the advantage of being
able to quantify the structural contribution of the fibres in each
of the directions of the three Cartesian axes.
 The MDPT allows a complete characterization of the post-crack-
ing behaviour of the FRC, considering the influence of the fibre
orientation in the assessment of the toughness and the residual
tensile strength of the material. Likewise, the test could be
applied to define the coefficient K, proposed by the Model Code,
thus providing the missing link between the mechanical behav-
iours and fibre orientation obtained in the characterization
tests.
 The results herein presented indicate that the MDPT-method
shows the influence of fibre orientation on the post-cracking
behaviour of FRC, and is able to detect preferential orientations
due to the geometry of the specimen and the walls of the
moulds.
 Additionally, the test enables a good approximation of the per-
centage of fibres aligned along the three Cartesian axes. This
information can be advantageously applied (with the possibility
to be combined with non-destructive test) for improving the
structural design and quality control of FRC structures.
 P. Pujadas et al. / Construction and Building Materials 58 (2014) 214–224
 The ability of the MDPT to assess the percentage of fibres in
each direction was validated with the inductive method and a
good correlation was observed between both methods. Differ-
ences in the amount of fibres obtained with both tests of less
than 10% were obtained for all the specimens studied. The accu-
racy of the MDPT, considering measurements with the induc-
tive method as reference, correspond to a trueness of 0.00%
and a precision of 8.55%, respectively.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the support of the Spanish Ministry of
Science and Innovation (MICINN) in the scope of the project
CONSFIB (reference: BIA 1010-17478). The first and second authors
acknowledge the grant FPI – UPC and FI provided during their PhD
by the UPC and Comissionat per a Universitats del DIUE de la
Generalitat de Catalunya i del Fons Social Europeu, respectively.
The first and second authors acknowledge as well the support of
the Collegi d’Enginyers de Camins, Canals i Ports de Catalunya.
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