ASPECTOFNEGATI

ONI
NAHAN

AZEEZ,Hamme
dAl
aje
1
8/1
5CB07
1

ALONGESSAYSUBMI
TTEDTOTHEDEPARTMENTOFLINGUI
STI
CSANDNI
GERI
ANL
ANGUAGES,
FACUL
TYOFARTS,UNI
VERSI
TYOFI
LORIN,I
LORI
N,KWARASTATE.
I
NPARTIALFIL
FULMENTOFTHEREQUIREMENTSF
ORTHEAWARDOFADEGREEOFBACHEL
OR
OFARTS,B.
A(HONS)I
NLI
NGUISTI
CS.

SEPTEMBER,2023
 CERTI
FI
CATI
ON

Thi
sresearc
hwo r
kh asreadandap pr
ovedasr e
achi
ngt
herequi
remen
tsfortheawardof
Bach
elorofArtsinLin
guis
tic
sint hedepartmento
fL i
ngu
ist
icsandNige
rianLan
guage
s,
Fac
ultyofArt
s,Uni
versi
tyofI
lor
in,I
l
ori
n,Nige
ria.

…………………………………… ………………………
MRS.C.EWEAMA DATE
PROJECTSUPERVI
SOR

……………………………………. .
…..
……………………
DR.AROKOYO DATE
HEADOFDEPARTMENT

…………………………………. . .
…..
……………………
EXTERNALSUPERVI
SOR DATE
 DEDI
CATI
ON
Thi
sproj
ectisdedi
cat
edtoAlmi
ghtyAll
ah,wh
ohasbe
enmys
tre
ngt
h,p
owe
r,p
il
laran
d
so
urceandt
oallt
heAhann
ati
vespeake
rs.
 ACKNOWL
EDGEMENTS
Al
lp raisesan dado rati
onsbe lo
n gstoAl migh tyAllah,themo stbenefi
c i
entan dt hemo st
merciful,whoh asbe enmys trengthandgu idan ceth r
oughmyl i
fejourneys ofar.Ifn otfor
Al
migh tyAllahmye x i
stencewouldabs ol
utel
ybev aluel
ess.Inthi
stransformativ
ev oyageo f
academi a,Ih umblyr ecogni
zet hep resenceo fAl l
ah,anu ns
eengu i
dingf orcet hath as
bestowe du ponmet hes tr
engtht op er
se v
e rean dt hewisdomt oovercome .Iam de epl
y
gratefulf o
rt heblessi
ngsan do pport
unit
iest hathav ecomemyway ,wh i
chIbe li
evear ea
te
s t
ame ntt ot h
edi vi
negr acet h
ath asi ll
u minatedmyp ath.Mygr ati
tudet oAl l
ahi s
i
mme as urable,aseverys t
eptake nande ver yc hall
engec on
queredhavebe eninfusedwi t
ha
senseo fpurp o
sethattranscendst h
eo r
dinary .Withp r
ofoundappreci
ati
onf ortheprovidence
th
ath asgu idedme ,Io f
fermyh eartfel
tac knowledgme n
tt oAll
ahf orbe i
ngt heultimate
so
u rceo finspi
rati
onan dthesi
lentp ar
tnerint hisremar kabl
ejourney.
Inthec u
lminati
onofthisarduousjour
ne y,Is
tandhumbledandprofou
ndlygratef
ulf
ort he
multi
tudeo fin
divi
dual
san dmo ment
st hathaveledtothecomple
tio
no fthi
st h
esi
sproj
ect.
Thede pthofmye mo t
ionscan
n otbeade quat
elyexp
r e
ssed,butIamdr i
venbyt h
eneedt o
acknowledgethep r
ofoundimpactthate achenti
tyhashado nmyinte
ll
ectualandpe
rsonal
growth.
Tomyde dic
atedp r
ojectsupervi
sor,Mr s.EweamaCh i
oma,y o
uru nwaveri
ngbe l
ie
fi nmy
abil
i
tieshasbeenac on
stantsourceofinspi
rati
on.Yourmento
rshi
ptranscendsth
er eal
msof
academia,asyourpati
encean dguidancehaveshapedmeintoamo recrit
icalt
hinkeranda
betterresearc
her.Th ec o
untle
ssh o
urss pe
ntdi s
sect
ingconcepts
,de bati
ngideas,and
refi
ni
ngar gument
shaveindel
ibl
ylefttheirmarkonthepagesofthi
swo r
k.
Iamal s
oindebtedtoallprofess
ors,doct
orsan dle
c tu
rerso ftheDepartmentofL i
ngui
stic
s
andNigeri
anL anguages whop rov
idedmewi thvaluableins
ights
,c h
all
engedmyi deas,and
off
eredthei
re xper
tisewheneverIfaceddif
ficul
ti
es.Theircoll
ecti
veknowle
dgeh asplayeda
pi
votalrol
eins h
apingtheq ual
it
yan ddepthoft hi
swo rk.Iusethi
smo menttoac knowl
edge
the
ire f
fortsandIap p
reciateeachan de ve
ryoneo ft hemf orbeingsuppor
tivemo ral
ly,
phys
ical
lyandacademicall
y.
I
ntheint
ric
at etap e
s t
ryo fmyacade mi cj
ourney,thebr i
ghtes
tt hr
eadh asbee nwo v
enbyt he
u
nwaveri
ngl ovean ds upportofmyp arent
s.Mymo ther,wh oseboundles
se n cour
ageme nt
,
s
acri
fic
es,an dbe l
iefinmyp oten
t i
alhav ebeenagu idi
n gli
ght,Ioweyouade bto fgrati
tude
t
hatwordsc an n
otade quatel
yc o
n vey.Yo u
re ndur
ingf ait
hinmyabi li
tiesandy o
urc on
stant
p
rayerthroughe veryc h
allen
geh aves hapednotonlyth i
sacade mi
cac compli
shme ntbutalso
t
hep e
rsonIh avebe come.Thi
sac hi
eve mentstandsasat es
tame nttoy ours acri
fi
cesan d
u
nwaveri
ngde di
cation.Thanky ou,Mo m,f orbein
gt hec ornersto
neo fmys uccessandt he
e
mbodimento floveands tren
gthinmyl ife'
snarrati
ve .
Az
eezMuf
aidat,Aze
ezMar
ufat,Abi
odu
nAz e
ez,Az
eezTe
sleemDandanNi
ku,Aze
ezMu t
iu
an
dmembersofthemyf
ami
ly,i
nthemosai
cofmyacco
mpl
ish
me n
ts,y
ouri
nfl
uen
ceshi
nesas
abe aconofunwaverin
gs upportandl ov
e.Yourbel
iefinmyp ot
enti
alh asbee
nmygu i
di
ngstar,
andy ourc o
nstantencourageme nth asprop
e l
l
edmef or
ward.Thro ugheverytri
ump hand
tr
ibu l
ati
on,yourpresen
ceh asbe enac ons
tantreminderofthestrengthth
atc omesfromthe
bondso ffamil
y.Thisachie
v ementi snotmin
eal on
e ;it
'sar ef
lect
iono fthecoll
ecti
velove
,
wi
sdo m,andresil
ie
ncet h
aty ou'v
ei mparte
dtome .Th ankyouforbei
n gmyp i
ll
arsofstren
gth
andf orsh
aringinthi
sjourneywithme .
Tomyde arest
,Ade waleKesi
rahAde ronke ,asIr e
flecto nt h
ismo numentaljourneyofmi n
e,
i
t'
simp ossi
bleno ttobeo ve
rwh el
me dbygr ati
t udefo ryo u
ru nwav eri
ngp res
e nc
einmyl if
e.
Yourlovehasbe enmyan chor,yourunwav e r
ingbe l
iefinmeh asbe enmymo t
ivati
on,andyour
boundles
ss upporth asbeenmys ourc eo fs trength.Yo urp resenceh asbe enac on
stant
re
min derthatI'
mn o
taloneinthispursuit,thate veryc hall
engec anbec onquered,andevery
vi
ctoryiss weeterwh enshar e
dwi thy ou .You re ncourageme nth asbreathe dli
feintomy
aspi
rations
,andy ourunderst
an di
ngh asc arriedmet h roughe v
e nthemo sttryin
gt i
mes.With
yo
ubymys i
de,I
'vef ou
ndas ourceofc omf ortan dsolacet hatisasl i
mit
lessasitisprofou
nd.
Thi
sac hiev
eme ntisasmu c
hy oursasi tismi ne,foryo urloveh asinfuse
di twithpurpos
ean d
meaning.Thanky ouforbei
ngt heheartth atbeat salongsidemin einthi
sjourney.
Tomybr othersan ddear estfriend,Ti
ami yuMu he
ezatTe ju
,Akan deRo ke ebOwo l
abi,Adam
Jamal ,Yu su
fJamalOway in
ka,Ade s
an yaIsmail
,KazeemQu dus,Ade gboyegaIsrael,Owolade
Peac eEmman uel,Adedoku nQu ariOlajide,andlastl
yOladipup
oTo biFawaz ,h avebe enmy
pi
ll
ar so fs t
rengthan dmys our ceofu n waveri
ngsupport,Iextendmyh ear t
feltgratit
u de.
Yourp r esen
ce,e ncou
rage me n
t,an ds haredmo mentsoflaughterhav ebee nar espi
tedur in
g
themo stdeman dingphase soft hisjour ne
y.Yourbe l
iefinmyas piratio
nsh asp ropel
ledme
forwar d,andy ourcamar aderieh asil
luminatedeventhedarkestday s.Thi
sac hi
e v
eme ntisas
muc hy oursasitismine,an dIamp ri
v i
l
e gedtohavey o
uasn otjustf ri
ends,butasmyc l
ose st
confidan t
san dch ampi
ons .Than kyouf orbe i
ngthec o
nstantreminde rthatIamn everalo n
e
i
nmye ndeavors.
AsInav i
gatet h
ep ageso fmyac ademicjourney
,Iamac utel
yawar ethatthenarrati
vewo ul
d
beincomp l
etewithoutyo urname setche
dwi th
init.Abdul
FatalAbas sAyofe,you
ru nwaveri
ng
bel
iefinmyabi l
iti
esandt hec o
un tl
esshoursspen
tdissect
ingideash av
ebe enthecornerst
one
ofmyi ntel
lect
ualgr owth.An dt oMu dasirZainabJu mmaiy ouri nfe
ctiou
sl aughte
ran d
unyi
eldin
gs upporthavep rov
ideds ol
acedu ri
ngthemo stdeman di
ngt i
me s.
Yourp r
esencehas
i
ll
uminatede vent he darkesto fday san dy ourf ri
endshiph asbe en myr efu
ge.Th i
s
accomp l
ish
me ntisar e fl
ect
iono ft hecamarader i
ewe '
ves haredan dt h
eme mo ri
eswe '
ve
cre
at ed.Th anky o
uf orbe i
n gth ethreadsthath avewovenani rrepl
aceabletapestryof
fr
iendshipintothefabricofmyj ourney.
Tomywo nderfu
lHo st
elmat es
,amids tthechaosofas s
ignme
nts,late-ni
ghtstu dyses
sio
ns,
andthesharedmo men
tso flaugh
te r,yourp r
esenc
eh asbeent hean chorthatmadet h
is
jou
rneyunfor
gettable
.Yo ursuppo
rt ,camaraderi
e,ands h
arede x
p e
rienceshav emadet h
is
advent
uremoret hanjustacademic;it'
sbeenaj ourne
yo ffri
endshi
pan dgrowt h.F
romt he
l
ate-ni
ghtheartfeltconve
rsati
ons,e achmo mentwe'vesharedhase n
riche
dmyl i
fe.This
achi
evementi
sasmu chyoursasiti smine,at es
tamenttothebo ndwe 'v
ef orgedinthese
wal
ls.Th
ankyouforbe
ingmo
ret
hanh
ost
elmat
es;y
ou'
vebe
comeani
nte
gralp
arto
fmy
col
l
egeexpe
rie
nce
.

L
isto
fAbbr
evi
ati
onsan
dSy
mbo
ls
NP--------No
unPh
ras
e
N --------No
un
C --------Co
mpl
i
men
tiz
er
DET-------De
ter
min
er
S.
V.O-----Su
bje
ctVe
rbObj
ect
P.
S--------Ph
ras
eSt
ruc
tur
e
F
.C-------F
ocu
sCo
nst
ruc
tio
n
C.
P-------Co
mpl
i
men
tiz
erPh
ras
e
S.
S---------Su
rfacSt
ruc
tur
e
Pr
st-------Pr
ese
nt
Pr
o-------Pr
ono
un
()---------Op
tio
nal
i
ty
V.
P------ Ve
rbPh
ras
e
AP-------Adv
erbi
alPh
ras
e
PP-------Pr
epo
sit
ion
alPh
ras
e
Sp
ec-----Sp
eci
fi
er
I
P--------I
nfl
ect
ion
alPh
ras
e
Co
nj------Co
nju
nct
ion
//--------Ph
one
micRe
pre
sen
tat
ion
t----------Tr
ace
--->-------Re
-wr
itear
row
Agr------Agr
eeme
nt
V--------Ve
rb
P-------Pr
epo
sit
ion
Adj-----Adj
ect
ive

Ti
tl
ePage I

Ce
rti
fi
cat
ion i
i

De
dic
ati
on i
i
i

Ac
kno
wle
dge
men
ts i
v

L
isto
fSy
mbo
ls/
Diagr
ams v

Tabl
eofCo
nte
nts v
i

CHAPTERONE:
GENERALI
NTRDOUCTI
ON
1
.0I
ntr
odu
cti
on
1
.1 Ge
ner
alBac
kgr
oun
d
1
.2 Hi
sto
ric
alBac
kgr
oun
d
1
.3 So
cio
-Cu
ltu
ral
Bac
kgr
oun
d
1
.3.
1Mar
riage
1
.3.
2Re
li
gi
on
1
.3.
3Fe
sti
val
s
1
.3.
4Oc
cup
ati
on
1
.3.
5Fo
od
1
.3.
6Dr
ess
ingMo
de
1
.4 Ai
msan
dObj
ect
ive
s
1
.5 Re
sear
chQu
est
ion
s
1
.6 Ge
ogr
aph
ical
Loc
ati
on
1
.7 Ge
net
icCl
ass
ifi
cat
iono
fAh
an
1
.8 Sc
opean
dOr
gan
izat
iono
fSt
udy
1
.9 Or
gan
izat
iono
fth
est
udy
1
.10F
iel
dwo
rdan
dMe
tho
dol
ogy
CHAPTERTWO:
LITERATUREREVI
EW
2.
0In
tro
duc
tio
n

2.
1Tr
ans
for
mat
ion
alGr
ammar

2.
2Sy
ntac
ticPr
oce
sse
s

2.
3GBTh
eor
y

2.
4Th
eor
eti
cal
Frame
wor
k

CHAPTERTHREE:
ASPECTOFNEGATI
ONI
NAHAN
3.
0 I
ntr
odu
cti
on
3.
1 Se
nte
nce
s
3.
2 Si
mpl
eSe
nte
nce
s
3.
3 Co
mpo
undSe
nte
nce
s
3.
4 Co
mpl
exSe
nte
nce
s
3.
5 De
clar
ati
veSe
nte
nce
s
3.
6 I
mpe
rat
iveSe
nte
nce
s
3.
7 Ne
gat
ion
3.
8 Ne
gat
iveMar
keri
nAh
an
3.
9 Se
nte
nti
alNe
gat
ion
3.
10 Ve
rbPh
ras
eNe
gat
ion
3.1
1 No
unPh
ras
eNe
gat
ion
3.
12 I
mpe
rat
iveSe
nte
nceNe
gat
ion
3.
13 As
pec
tual
Mar
ker
s
3.
14 As
pec
tinAh
anAf
fir
mat
iveSe
nte
nce
s

CHAPTERF
OUR:
TRANSF
ORMATI
ONALPROCESSES
4.
0In
tro
duc
tio
n
4.
1 Re
fle
xiv
izat
ion
4.
2 Re
lat
ivi
zat
ion
4.
3 WHQu
est
ionF
ormat
ion
4.
4Fo
cusCo
nst
ruc
tio
n
4.
4.1Su
bje
ctNPF
ocu
sin
g
4.
4.2Obj
ectNPF
ocu
sin
g
4.
4.3Obj
ectPr
epo
sit
ionF
ocu
sin
g
4.
5Pas
siv
isat
ion

CHAPTERF
IVE:
SUMMARY,F
INDI
NGS,CONCL
USI
ONAND
RECOMMENDATI
ONS
5.
1 Su
mmar
y
5.
2Fi
ndi
ngs
5.
3 Co
ncl
usi
on
5.
4Re
comme
ndat
ion
s
Re
fer
enc
es
 CHAPTERONE
I
NTRODUCTI
ON
1
.1Ge
ner
alBac
kgr
oun
dtot
heSt
udy
Ni
geri
ai samulti
-li
ngualco
un t
rybles
sedwithabou
t51 2languages.Spokenwi
thi
nand
out
sidethec ountr
y,bu tonlyfewo ftheselan
g u
agesh avebe enc o
mmi tt
e dtowriti
ng.
Ul
timatel
y,thi
swo rki starget
edate ns
uringthatAhanl anguage
,al an gu
agewithouta
sp
ec i
fi
co r
thographyotherthanwh atitshareswithi
tssiste
rdi al
ectoc cup
iesadigni
fi
e d
st
atusinreco
r dti
me .
Thi
sre s
ear chworkdealswithas p
e ctofne gati
oninAh an ,alanguages p o
kenbyabo ut
2,
000in h
abitantsinOmu o-Ekiti
,IgashiandAj owai nAkokoL o calGove rnme ntAreao fOn do
Stat
ei ntheSo uthwe s
to fNigeri
a.Th ough,situatedwithint heEki tidialecte xt
rac t
iono f
Yorubaspeakinglanguagearea,Ah anisadi st
inctlanguagef romYo ruba.Linguist
sh avest i
l
l
notbeenabl etof i
ndt h
ep roperc l
assi
f i
cati
onf ort h
el angu age.Ho wev e
r ,Akanbi( 2014)
fo
llo
wingElugbe( 2012)clas
sifi
esitasabr ancho fAhanoidun de rDefoids ub-group.Cr o
zier
andBlench(1992:13)putAhanu ndertheAko koidbr anchofDe foidfamilygr oup.Webe l
ieve
th
atasmo r
ewo rksar edoneonthel an
gu age,thep ro
perclassificati
onwi l
lbear rivedat.

1
.2Hi
sto
ric
alBac
kgr
oun
dofAh
anPe
opl
e
ThePe oplean dt h
eL angu ageÀh ànist h
en ameo fthelangu ages p
oke nbyt heÀhànp eo pl
eo f
Òmù ò-Eki t
i,IgashiandAj o wainOn dos t
at e.Asf arasc anbeas cert
ai nedf romthec laimso f
l
oc alhistorians,theÀh ànp eopl
emi gratedf romt heacclaime dancest r
yh omeoft heYo r
ùbá
rac e
-IléI fei nthec omp an yoft heÀy èrée thnicgr oupo ft hep res
e ntKo gi-St
ate,Ni ge r
ia.
AhanAy egun l
el i
keo t
he rYo rubat ownsan dv il
lage shash erh is
tori
calo rigi
nf romt hec radle
ofYo ru baki ngdomI l
e-Ife .Thec omingto getheran dco-ex ist
ence( Amal gamation)oft own s
andv il
lage so fAhanAy egu nl
e,jero,Iworo,Ili
sa,Iludofi
n,Isay a,I
gbede ,I
r afun,Oruju,l
lisaoke,
Omu ooke ,Ar aromietc,al lkn o
wnasOmu o -Eki
t icanbet rac edbackt oabo ut400y earso f
existenceo fc o
urse,nowr itt
enr ecordtos howt heac tualdat eofamal gamat i
on,u n
liket he
Nor th
e rnan dSo uthernp ro t
ectoratesthatme rge dtoge t
he rin1914t of ormt hepre s
e ntday
Nigeria.

Al
lthesaidtownsandvi
ll
age swhi
charenowr ef
erredtoan dcall
edq uarte
rsinOmuo,have
th
eirhead-chi
ef'
sli
ke:Alahano fAhanAyegu
nle,Ajer
oo fIjer
o ,Ele
ko t
ao fKota,El
esiof
i
gbesie
tc .Th
osevari
ousquarter/
communi
tyheadshavebe enfuncti
oningeversi
nceasHigh
Chi
efsunderthepar
amo u
ntr ul
ershi
pofOl
omuoo fOmuoland/
kingdom.ItisONLYtheOlomuo
ofOmu oEkitithatist radi
ti
onall
yando ffi
ci
alr ecogn
ized ast hep aramountOba in
Omu
olan
d/Ki
ngdo
m,bas
edo
nhi
sto
ric
alan
tec
ede
nt.
Thisperhapse xpl
ainswh i
ledesp i
tet hespatialdif
ferencei
nt hel ocati
o nofÀh ànan dt he
Àyèrép eop
le,thetwol anguagesar emu tual
lyintel
li
gi
bleands i
mi l
arins tructu
rean df orm.
Accordin
gt ot heclaimso flocalh i
stori
ans( hi
ghc hi
efsandt het raditi
onalruler),itwas
ci
vil
izati
ono nonehan d,andethnicpoli
ti
csan dexpansi
o n
ismonth eotherh andthatledtot he
migrati
ono ftheÀhànp eo
p l
efromt he‘apo l
e’(nearOyínÀkókó)wh ereth eyini
ti
all
ys ett
led,
totheirpresentlo
cat ioni
nÒmù òl and.Thelingui
sti
cfiel
dworkt hatpr o
du cedthekn owle
dge
descri
bedint h
ispape ralsorev
e alsthatÀhànp eopl
esp e
akal anguaget hatisuniqu
et othem
andalmo s
tu ni
ntel
li
giblewithth
eo therdial
e ct
so fYorubaspo
ke ninan dar oun
dÒmù òEki t
i.

1
.3So
cio
-cu
ltu
ral
Bac
kgr
oun
d
1
.3.
1Mar
riage
Mar
riageI
nst
itu
tio
n

TheAh an'
speo p
leviewabo utmar ri
ageiswelles
tabli
shedasas oci
al af
fai
r.Int
hosedays,
p
arentsmadec hoiceso fwhot he
irdau ght
e rwoul
dman y
.Th e
ymayh avecont
ractedsucha
p
erso
ns i
ncechi
ldhoodday s.Thefirstapproachwasf orthep aren
tso fthebodytop r
esent
s
omet oken,abuncho fko l
anut,sch
n apps(drygi
n)andap i
eceo fcl
oth,notl
essthanay ar
d
t
othep arentsofth ewo man.I
two uldthenbebe l
ievedthatth e
reisanagr ee
me n
tbe twee
n
t
wof amili
esasr egardst hei
rc hi
ldren'
smar it
alc ondi
tio
n.Ho wever,ifthep r
o p
osedo r
p
oten
t i
alpartne
r shado bject
iontotheagre emen
t,itmaywe llbenul
li
fied.
Wh e
nt h
eyc o
meo fage,duri
ngt h
ep eri
odofengagementthesui
torisrequ
iredtoworkf o
ra
whil
eont h
ef armofh ispro
s p
ectivein
-laws,totesthi
ss tr
ength
,willanddevoti
ont othe
i
ntendedbri
de.Then,theboy'
sfamilywouldbri
ngsomeite
mss uchasfood,cl
othesandother
materi
alstomarkth eins
tal
lmentalpaymentofthedowry,Thesedayshowever
,t h
ingshave
change
dast h
ep ar
t ne
rsmaket hei
rde c
isi
onsthemse
lves,evenwith
outt h
ekn owle
dgeo f
th
e i
rparent
s.
1
.3.
2Re
li
gi
on
The
rearebel
ie
v er
samongt
heAhan
,bu tsyn
cret
ismiscommo
n.ThereareafewMu
sli
ms
amongt
hem,
too.Thep
eop
leo
fAhanprac
tic
ethre
e( 3)t
ype
sofrel
i
gio
n.Namel
y;
1
.Is
lam
2.Ch
ris
tian
ity
3.Tr
adi
ti
onal
rel
i
gio
n
1
.3.
3Fe
sti
val
s
Igas
hiisasecul
artown,butitcel
ebr
ate
sIsl
amf e
sti
val
ssuchasEi
dl-Adha,Ei
dl-F
itran
d
Eidl
-Kabi
r,Ch
ris
tianfe
sti
valssu
chasChr
ist
mas,andEas
terandNewYear’
sDay.
Everyyear,theAhanpeopl
ec omet o
ge thertoc elebratedu ri
ngaf e st
ivalknownastheAy an
fes
tival
.Mai nl
yc el
ebratedi nF ebr u
ar y,du r
ingt hi
sf estiv
alt hemal ey ou
thsbu yne w
cut
lassesandu s
eittodis
playt h
e i
rs ki
llsandt h
ewo me nalsodemo nstrateallj
ustl
ikenor
mal
Yorubac u
ltur
e.Anoth
erf e
st i
valisthe" Il
aagbe de"f estiv
al,whichismain l
ydoneduri
ngnight
ti
mebu tsometi
mesdu ri
ngdayt imean damas q
u eradei sme antt oc omeo utduri
ngth i
s
fes
tival
.Thewo menaree x
p ectedtor emainindo orsbe causeitisat aboof o
rf e
malestol
o ok
attheIlaagbedemasquerade.Th e"Go go"f e
stivalisan otherfesti
val,themaidenswil
lcover
onl
yt he
irbreastandbutt
oc ksandt heo therpartsar eleftu ncl
ad.
1
.3.
4Oc
cup
ati
on
TheAhanpeopl
elivemuc hli
ketheYo rubapeop
le.TheAhanareanagr i
cult
uralpeopl
ewh o
al
sorais
ec hi
ckens,go
at sandc att
le.Thei
rmainc r
opsincl
udebeans,yams,maize,mil
l
et,
banan
asandme lo
ns.Theysellpalmoil
,cocoaandpeanu
tsandbu yth
ingstheyareunabl
et o
makeforth
ems e
lvessuchastools,f
arme qu
ipmentandcel
lphon
es.Vi
ll
ageeldersse
ttlel
egal
di
sput
esanddealwithoutsi
ders
.
Asi
detheworkgeneral
lydon
ebyt h
ep eop
leo fAhan,thewomenfavor
iteoc
c up
ati
onisto
makegarr
i.Thati
smo s
toftheAhanwo menaref on
do fmakin
ggarri
,thi
sgarrii
smadefor
sal
easi
dethefactth
atitiscons
ume dasmeal.Thegarrimadebythewomenistran
spo
rte
d
outoft
hetowntopl
acesli
keLagos,I
badanando t
herbigci
ti
esinNi
geri
a.
1
.3.
5Fo
od
Con
ce r
nin
gfoods,whe
nwetal
kaboutYor
ubafoodswecanment
ionf
oodsl
i
kep
oun
dedy
am,
Amalaandth
elikesar
eal
soth
efoo
dstakenbyt
heAh anp
eop
le.
1
.3.
6Dr
ess
ingmo
de
Conc
e r
nin
gt h
eirmo
deo fdr
essi
ng,t
heyal
sodres
sinYoru
baatti
res
.Theydres
sju
stl
ikedue
totheeventth
eyaretocel
ebrat
e.Thewomenputon"
buba"an
d" i
ro"(
blou
seandwr
ap p
er)
andthemenp u
ton"bu
ba"an d"s
okoto
"(topan
dt r
ous
er).
1
.4Ai
msan
dObj
ect
ive
s
Th
eai
man
dobj
ect
iveo
fth
epr
oje
cti
stoc
rit
ical
l
yex
ami
net
heas
pec
tofn
egat
ioni
nAh
an.
Th
epr
oje
cti
stoc
los
elye
xami
net
heas
pec
tofn
egat
ioni
nAh
an
On
eoft
heai
mso
fth
epr
oje
cti
stoc
rit
ical
l
yex
ami
net
hen
ati
ves
peake
rso
fth
eAh
an
Toc
los
elyi
den
tif
yth
epe
opl
esway
sofl
i
vin
g
Ch
ecki
ngt
hege
ogr
aph
ical
loc
ati
ono
fth
epe
opl
ean
dth
elan
guagege
net
icc
las
sif
icat
ion

1
.5Re
sear
chQu
est
ion
Thepro
jectwil
lcaref
ull
ydisc
usst
heasp
ectofnegat
ioninAhanan
dho
wth
eyar
eus
ed
re
spe
ctive
ly.Th
iswi
l
lhelpch
ecki
ngt
hen
egati
onmar
kersinAhan
.
i
.I
nwh
atwayar
eth
eas
pec
tofn
egat
ioni
nAh
an?
i
i
.Ho
war
eth
eas
pec
tso
fne
gat
ioni
sbe
ingmar
ked?
i
i
i.Wh
atar
eth
eso
cio
-cu
ltu
ral
bac
kgr
oun
doft
heAh
ans
peake
rs?
i
v.Wh
erei
sth
ege
ogr
aph
ical
loc
ati
ono
fth
eAh
ann
ati
ves
peake
r?

1
.6Ge
net
icCl
ass
ifi
cat
ion
L
ANGUAGECL
ASSI
FI
CATI
ON
Àhành asbeenc lassi
fiedaso n
eo ft hel an
guageso ft h
eBe nue-Con gofami l
yu nde
rt he
Akokoi
dbr an
ch( Ogu n
mo dimu2008).CrozierandBlench1992:13alsoc lassi
fiedt helanguage
asbe l
ongi
ngtot heÀmgbél ects.Capo,asr epor
tedinOr eYu suf1 992:172h owe v
e rgavea
mo r
ediachroni
cc lassi
fi
c ati
onofÀh ànu nderthede fo
idc l
assifi
cation.Ilor
i( 2010)r epo
rts
thatthetermde foidisac oi
nageintro
du cedbyCap o(1989:275)tode sc r
ibelan guagesthat
arebeli
evedtohav ethei
rr ootsi
naPr oto-Yorubalanguaget y
p o
logy.
Ge
net
icCl
ass
ifi
cat
ion
Th
eess
enceofagene
ticcl
ass
ifi
cat
ionofalan
guagei
stot
rac
eth
eor
igi
noft
hel
angu
age
an
dsh
owitre
lat
ion
shi
pwit
htheothe
rlan
guages
.
Acco
r di
ngtoGreenberg(1996)
,Afri
canlanguage
sbe l
ongtov ari
ouslangu
agef amil
iesand
on
eo fthemisNige
r -Con
gowh i
chist
helarges
tAf r
icanl
anguagep h
ylaweh aveintheworl
d.
Thef ou
rlanguagef amil
ie
sp hyl
aincl
udes;Niger
-Congo,Afro-Asi
atic
,Ni l
o-Saharaand,
Kho
isan.
Ahanisclas
sif
iedasame mberofBe
nue-c
on gooftheDe
foidgroupofl
anguages
,whic
hisa
branchundertheNiger-CongoofNi
gerKordofan
ian
.Otherlangu
agesi
nt h
isgrouparet
he
Yoruboi
dan dAko ko
id,e t
c.Ahaniscl
assi
fiedasanAko ko i
d.Thi
scl
assif
icat
ioncanbe
re
p r
e s
entedonthediagrambelo
w.
 Af
ric
a

Af
ro-as
iat
ic Ni
l
o-Sah
ara Ni
ger
- Kh
ois
an

Ni
ger
-Co
ngo Ko
rdo
fon
ia

West
- Man
de Kwa Be
nue
-Co
ngo Vo
ltai
c Adamawa
At
lan
tic

Oko Edo
id I
gbo
id De
foi
d Nu
poi
d

Yo
rubo
id Ako
koi
d Ay
ere
-

Ah
an
1
.7Ju
sti
fi
cat
iono
fth
eSt
udy
Th eworkint
endstop res
entt h
er esearc
hedeff
ortsofli
ngui
stso nAhanNe gat
ionby
pro
vidi
ngadditi
onall
ingui
sti
cinformationthatcanass
isti
nt heoveralldev
elopmento fth
e
l
anguage.Theworkintendstop ro
vides ol
uti
onstoi
ssu
est h
ath av
ear o s
ebys omelingui
sts
basedont h
eirexpl
ici
tlacko fknowledgeo nthefu
ncti
onan dposi
ti
o no fnegat
ioninAhan
l
anguage,usi
ngdescri
pti
vebasedme thod.

1
.8Sc
opean
dOr
gan
izat
iono
fSt
udy
Theai
mofthestu
dyistodet
ailn
egat
ioni
nAhan
.Itexami
nesthel
anguageandt
hes
peake
rs,
i
tsasp
ecto
fn e
gatio
ninthev
iewofsy
ntaxan
dtrans
formati
onalp
roce
s s
es.
1
.9Or
gan
izat
iono
fSt
udy
Thefi
rstchapterisf
orthein
trodu
c t
ionofth
er es
earchwor
k.I
tint
roducesthel
anguageand
i
tsspeake
rs ,t
ogetherwi
ththei
rhist
ory,cul
tur
e,loc
atio
nandclas
sif
icat
ion
.F i
nal
l
y,itgi
ves
ju
sti
fi
cati
ono ftheworkandmethodol
ogy.
Chap
te rt
wo,det
ail
sthev
ari
oussy
n t
acti
cconc
eptf
roml
exi
calc
ate
gor
ytop
hras
est
ruc
tur
e
ru
les,bas
icwor
do r
derandt
ypesofsen
tenc
es.
Chapt
erthr
eec ar
eful
lye
x ami
nesth
easpe
ctofnegat
ioninAh
ani
den
tif
yin
gth
ene
gat
ive
markeri
nsent
enti
alf
orms.Thi
sfo
rmsth
ecoreo
fth
ep r
ojec
t.
Chap
terf ou
re nt
ail
st het r
ansfo
rmati
onal p
roce
sse
s wh i
chi ncl
ude r
efl
exi
vi
zat
ion
,
re
lati
vi
zat
ion
,fo
cuscons
tru
cti
on,q
uesti
onf
ormati
onandpas
siv
izat
ion
.
Ch
apt
erf i
vethi
sist
hel
astc
hap
tero
fth
epr
oje
ct,f
ocu
seso
nsu
mmar
y,r
eco
mme
ndat
ion
s
an
drefe
rence
s.
1
.10F
iel
dwo
rkan
dMe
tho
dol
ogy
Theme thodusedf orthecol
lec
t i
onofdatawast hr
oughtheinfor
man tmethod,direct
ly
translati
ngthel e
xicali
temsoft h
e400wo rdli
st.Thedatac ol
l
ecti
onwasgat here
du s
ing
bi
lingualap p
roacho nthelanguageofs t
udy,whichwasc ol
lect
edo ral
lyfro
m Re verend
Adey e
miAde mola,an at
ivesp
eake ro
ft h
elanguage,whospeaksAhan,Yoru
baan dEn gli
sh
fl
u e
n tl
y.Heli
vesinIgash
iandhei
sat hi
rty
-nin
e(39)y e
arsofageandalsoapastoratIgashi
.
 CHAPTERTWO
L
ITERATUREREVI
EW
2.
0In
tro
duc
tio
n
Thi
sc hapterwo ul
dbere vi
ewingr e
levantli
teratureo nasp
e cto fn egati
oninAhanlanguage.
Thi
swo ul
dh e
lpinc on
du cti
ngani n-dept
hs t
udyi ntothen egat i
ves tr
ategi
est h
atar e
appl
icableinAhanlanguage.Alineofinter
esto fthisworkli
esi nt heappli
cati
onofac urren
t
th
eore t
icalframeworkthatallowsu stoaskq uesti
onsonou rlan guageo fst
udyandt odraw
newc onclu
s i
onsfromth ealreadye xi
sti
ngmat erials
.Bydo ings o
,t hi
swo rkwil
lpresenta
nove
lwayo flooki
ngatthephenome nonofnegationinAhanlangu age.

2.
1Tr
ans
for
mat
ion
alGr
ammar
Transformationalgrammaral sokn ownast ran s
formation alge nerati
vegr ammar
(T.G.G)ins hort,fol
lowingthep ubli
cati
ono fNo am Ch omsky’
sbo o k,` Syntacti
cStructur
e`
(1957 )i
sc o
n cei
ve dasat heor
yo flanguageingene r
al.Itisagen erat i
vegr ammar ,e
speci
all
y
ofan aturalgr ammar ,thath asbe ende velo
p edint hesyntac tics tructu
reo fp hr
ase
structuregr ammar( aso ppos
e dtode pendencygrammar s).Thisne wl i
n gui
sti
cswh i
chbegan
i
n1 957do mi n
ate dthel i
ngui
sticsfiel
df o
rt hen extt hreede cade s.TGGi sat heoryof
grammart hatac coun
tsf ortheconstru
c t
ionofal anguagebyl i
nguist i
cst r
an s
formati
onsand
phras est
r u
c ture.
Accordi
ngt oCh o
ms ky,atransfor
mat io
nisdefin
edbyt h est
ru cturalanaly
sistowh ic
h
i
tap pl
i
esan dthes tructuralchangethati teffec
tso ntheses t
rings.Tr ans
f o
rmat ionisa
dev
iceuse
dt oc h
an gethef ormofo nel
inguist
icstr
ucturetoan ot
her .Itcanbede sc r
ibedas
ali
ngui
sti
cinstructi
onf orc e
rtainstep
st obet akenons omec ons
titue n
ts.Forinstanc e
,an
act
ivesente
n c
ec anbec hangedt opassiv
eo newh i
leas i
mp l
ede cl
ar ati
ves e
n tencec anbe
ch
angedtoaq uestio
nan dap osi
tivestatementcanbec hangedtoan egat
ives tatement,
whi
chisourmajorc oncerninthi
ss t
udy.
Tran
sformat
ionpro
cessofnegat
ionoccu
rshe
r ewhe
nan ewe l
ementisbei
ngi
nse
rte
d
i
ntothesente
ncei.
e.inser
tio
no fthenegati
onmarker“not”inEngli
shlangu
ageint
oan
o
ther
wiseposi
ti
vesente
nceaswe l
lastheins
erti
onofthenegat
ivemarker“aa”int
hecase
o
fAhan.
1
a) Tay
ego
“
Tay
eisf
at”
1
b) Tay
eaago
NPn
eg.bi
g
“
Tay
eisn
otf
at”
I
n(1
b)“
not
”an
d“aa”wh
ichdon
oto
ccu
rin1
a,h
avebe
eni
nse
rte
dth
rou
ghn
egat
ive
tr
an sformat i
on.Th eTGGt heoryc ap turesthein tui
ti
v ekn o
wledgeo fan ativespeake r.The
grammaru sesaf i
nites e
to fr u
lest oge nerateani n f
init
es etofs ent
ences.Asar esultof
furt
h eradv ance me ntinsi
gh t
fu lknowl e
dgei ntot henatureo flangu agean dc r
iti
cismso fthe
TGG,t hetheo ryh asbe enr evi
s edan dde vel
o pedf romo nephaset oan other.Thef i
rstp has
e,
st
an dardmo delo rth eor
yde velopedi nCh omsky 's'Aspecto ftheTh eoryo fSy ntax'
.Th e
secondp hasei st heEx tendedSt andar dTh eoryi nthe1 970swh ilet heth i
rdp hasei sthe
Revi
s edEx tende dSt andardTh eo r
y( REST).Pr inci
plesan dPar ame t
erTh eor
yo th
e rwi
se
knownas( GBTh e or
y )isp arto ft hede velopmen toft ransfo
rmat ionalgrammar .Th emo st
recentadv ance me ntinTGGi st h
eMi ni
malistPro gramwh i
l
einvestigationsint
ot hen atureof
humanl angu agec ontinues
.Th ef ac tremainst h atalltheset heor i
esar ege aredt owards
fi
ndingas i
mp l
et oolfo rdescribingn aturall
an guagesade quatel
y.

2.
3Sy
ntac
ticPr
oce
ss
Syntaxisthestudyofthear r
angementofwordstoforms entenc
es.Thel
argestuni
t
ofours t
ructurei.
e.phrases
,wo r
dan dthesent
encearestudi
e dinsynt
ax.Putanoth
erway ,
i
ns ynt
axwes tudyh owwordsar egroupe
dtogeth
e randar r
an gedtoformsentences
.The
majorc onc
e rnofs yn
taxiss t
udyin
gt hesen
tences.Therearev ari
oustypesofsentenc
es
whic
hisbe inglookedintoinsyntax.Weh avethes i
mplesentence,thecompl
exs en
tence,
compoundse n
tence,decl
arati
vesentenc
e,imp
e r
ati
ves e
ntence,i
n t
erro
gativ
esente
nce.
Sen t
e ncesmay beal ter
e dbyt het r
ansformation
st ogi veu sdiff
erents entenc
e
st
r u
c t
urel i
keq ues
tion,pas
sive
,f oc
u s
,n e
gationetc.drivi
ngust osyntacti
cprocess,ap art
wheret hec or eofthisproj
ectNEGATI ONi sbeingdisc
ussed.Syntacti
cp ro
cessesotherwis
e
knownast ran sf
ormationsi
ncluderulerecursi
onwh ic
hi stherepetit
ionofar ule
.Sy n
tacti
c
processcanaswe llber ef
erredt oast ransfor
mat i
onalprocesswh i
chmaj o
rlyfocuseson
moveme nt.Tr ansfo
rmat i
oncanbes implydefin
edasade vi
ceu s
edt ochangethef or
mo fo n
e
l
ingui
stics t
r ucturetoan oth
er.Itc analsode scri
beasal i
ngui
sticinst
ructi
onf orcertai
n
st
e pstobet akeno nsomec onst
ituent
s.Mo vementinvolv
esmo vingane l
eme ntconsti
tuent
fr
o mane x t
r acti
ons i
tetoalandingsit
e.

Mo
veme
nti
sdi
vi
dedi
ntot
wo;
NPmo
veme
nt
WHmo
veme
nt
NP movementconsi
stsof Pas
sivi
zat
ion
,Focuscons
truct
ion
,Ne gati
on,Re
fle
xiv
izati
on,
Re
lat
ivi
zati
on,wh
il
eweh av
equest
ionfo
rmati
on,y
eso
rn oq
uesti
onu
nde rWHmovement.
Amove del
ementofac o
nst
itu
entfil
l
sane mpt
yp o
sit
ionofthesamesy n
tacti
cc atego
ry,
o
ther
wis
e,i ti
sadjoi
nedtoane xi
sti
ngnode[inth
ec ou
rseofmo vemen
t ,ther
emu stbea
c
ondi
ti
ont hatwi
lltri
ggermovement,suc
hmo ve
me n
tmu stmo vetoit
ss i
mil
ars yntact
ic
p
osi
ti
one.g.NPsh
ouldlan
dtoNPan dnotVP,t
husthel
andingpo
sit
ionmustcorresp
on dtothe
e
xtr
act
ions
ite
].
1
.Pas s
ivi
zati
on:Thi
si schan
ginganacti
ves
entenc
ei n
toap ass
ivesen
t e
nce.I
npass
ive
cons
truct
ion,t
heo bjec
to ftheve
rbismove
dS-init
iall
ytobecomethesubj
ectwhi
le
th
eo ri
gi
nalsubje
cti smovedouti
ntoaby
-p h
rase,exampl
einAhanlangu
ageisgi
ven
bel
ow;

i
. [
Olo
dep
uer
anbu
ru]
Hu
nte
rki
l
lan
imal
wil
d
“
theh
unt
erki
l
ledawi
l
dan
imal
”

i
i
. [Ol
odep
uer
anu
juebu
ru]
Hu
nte
rki
l
lan
imal
wil
d
“
thewi
l
dan
imal
waski
l
ledbyt
heh
unt
er”

I
P

1
I
Sp
ec
I
VP

NP Agr
Tn
s
Sp
ec
V1
[
+pas
t]

N1 V
NP

N Pu
 Er
anbu
ru

Th efirstexamplei n“ i
”(anac ti
ves ent
ence)isrepresentedint heabovediagr am
whil
et hese con
do neine xamp l
e“ i
i”isap assi
vesentence
.Ino r
dinaryde cl
arati
vesenten ce,
thelogicalsentencepre c
e dest h
eI NF Lan dVwh i
lethelogi
calo bjectfol
lowsthev erb.In
passi
vec on s
tructi
on,howe ver,thi
so rde risr ever
sed.Thelogicalsubjectismov e
dt ot h
e
subj
ec tfinalposi
ti
onan disp rece
de dbyt hede te
rminerbythelogicalobjec
tisalsomove dto
thesen t
e nceini
ti
alp o
siti
o n.Inadditi
o n,thep ass
ivemarker'be-e n'isin
sertedunderI NFL
andbe forethemat ri
xv erbo fthesent ence.TheAGRf eatu
resalsoc hangetoconformtot h
e
featu
r esoft heNPi nsubje ctposi
tion.The seexpl
ainthediff
erenc ebetweentheac ti
vean d
passi
ves entence.

2.Negati
on:i
sthefi
rstpl
aceofaphenomeno
no fsemanti
copposi
ti
on.Assuch,negati
on
rel
atesanexpr
essi
onwit
hame ani
ngthati
sinsomewayo pp
o s
edt oth
eme anin
g .Thi
s
rel
ati
onmayber eal
iz
edsynt
acti
call
yandp r
agmatic
all
yinvariou
sway s
.Th ehisto
ry
ofnegat
ioni
scompreh
ensi
vel
ystu
diedandsurve
yinHorn2012.
I
thastodowithi
n s
erti
onofn ewe
lementton
e gateaposi
ti
vesent
e n
c e(Radfo
rd).
Anegati
vemar kerl
ikenot" aa"isi
n t
roduc
edan dn orealmov
eme nto ccur
s.Jus
t
i
nser
tin
gn egat
ivemarker"not”inEngl
is
hand"aa"i ntheres
earchlanguage(Ahan
)
i
ntoanothe
r wi
sepos
iti
vesent
e nc
e.Examplei
nAhanlangu
age;

a.[
Tol
ani
eeo
]
 ‘
Tol
ahasmo
ney
’

b.[
Tol
aaan
iee
o]
NPn
eg.h
avemo
ney
“
Tol
ado
esn
oth
avemo
ney
”

Thetran
sfo
rmati
onthathasoccur
redhereisth
atth
es e
nte
nceabov
e'in"ni
"
whi
chisap os
iti
vesi
mpledecl
arati
vesent
encehashadan ewel
ement"n
ot"
i
nser
tedini
tth
erebyi
tanegat
ivesent
enc
e.

3.Foc
usCo nstru
ction:Focusc
onst
ruct
ionismoreorlessauniv
ersalph enomenonamong
nat
ur all
anguages.Wh atmakesfo
cu s
ingauniv
ersalsyn
tacti
cp r
o cessamo nghuman
l
anguagei sthef ac tth
atitisnormalforas peakero fanylan guaget owis
ht o
emphasisa s peci
f i
c aspec
to fh i
s message whil
ec ommunicatin
g wi thhis
/her
i
nterl
o cu
tor.Thes peakerdoespr
agmat i
cal
lyassi
gnp ro
minencet ot hatofhis
/her
messaget h
ath e
/sh ewis
hestoemphasi
zewit
houtchangi
ngthemai nsubs t
anceofthe
message(Baker,1995).
Focusasas y nt
act i
cp roc
essty p
icall
yi nvol
vesmove mentofc onst
itue
n t
st ot he
l
e ftp eri
phery( Cinque1 990);Culi
cover1 992;Puskas1995;Rizzi1997,2001,2004a,
2004b,201 3b,201 3b;Nmdi mele2003,Abo h2004,Radf ord2004,Bassong201 4).Asa
func ti
onalcatego r
y,fo cuscanbeindicatedi nan u
mbero fstruc
turalway s,i
tc anbe
i
n di
c atedphonolo g
ical
ly( bys t
ress,toneo ri n
tonati
on),morphol
ogical
lyo rlexicall
y
(bys peci
alfocu smar kin
gp arti
ci
ples,cli
ticsorothermar ker
s),ors yntacti
cally(by
wo rdsorderan de special
lytheso-callede x-si
tustrat
egies)
.Man ylanguagese xhibi
t
af o cus
ingp r
oc essthatr equi
resleftwardmo vementoft hefocusede l
eme n
tt ot he
l
e ftadjacentp osit
iono fthemorpholo
gicallyreal
izedfoc
u smarkerovertlyorc o
v ertl
y
(Abo h2004,Rizzi1997).

Forinst
ance,iti
sde termin
edbyi n
tonatio
ni nalanguagelikeEn gl
ishbuti nman y
Af
ricanlanguages,focusmake risu sedtoat tai
nt hatprominence.Fore xamp le,(i
)
Joh
ns awBi ll
.(i
i)Johns awBI LL
.( thi
sisp honol
ogical
l
ymar ke dbyi ntonation).The
up
p e
rc aseinwh i
ch"Bi
ll
"waswr it
teni n
dicatesinto
nationfoc
usi .
e.s e
ntence sian di
i
co
mmu nicatethesameide a,i
ii
ndicatedp r
ominencewh i
letheotherdidn otindicateit
.
Theemp hasi
sisshownt hroughintonati
onan dn otbyan ymarke r
.Ho we ver
,i nman y
Af
ricanlanguagesfocu
siss ynt
acticall
ymar ked.
Foc
usisakindo femphas
isthatissynt
act
icall
ymarkedthr
oughamo v
ement
t
ran
sformat
ioni
nst
andardYorubalan
guag
e.Asitisfou
ndinYo
rubasoal
sowehav
e
 i
tinman
yot
herAf
ric
anl
angu
age
sli
keAh
anl
angu
age
.E.
g

a.[Se
gunt
eus
u]
Se
gune
aty
am
“
Segu
nat
eyam”

b.[Us
uSe
gunt
e]
YamF
MSe
gune
at
“I
tisy
amSe
gunat
e”

Usu“y am”whichwaso bj
e c
to ftheverbte“e
at”h asbeenmovedtosent
ence
i
ni
tialf oratypeofe mphasi
sc al
le
d.No t
e,Ahandoesn
’thaveaspeci
fi
cfocus
marker ,th
eobjec
to fthev erbisonl
ymovedtothefocus
ing
”us
u”in3bwillbe
i
ll
ustratedint
hediagr
ambe low;

F
P

1
F
Sp
ec
Refl
exivi
zati
on:Intradit
ion
algr ammar ,wec al
lc ert
ainNPp ronounswh i
chc anstandf or
ot
herNPs .Examp l
esofpronounsare;he,she,i
t,we,theyetc.The
s epronounscannotstayin
th
es ames en
tencewiththei
ran tecedentsi
.e.th
eNPswh i
chp r
ecedet h
eman dtowhichthey
areco-referen
tial
.Ruleoflanguagethensubsti
tutesanot
hertypeo fpronounforth
e s
ep l
ain
pron
o u
n sandthesesubsti
tutesarec al
ledrefl
exivepronoun
s.Ast hei
rn amesindi
cate,they
ref
ert o(orrefl
ect)anearl
ierNPi nthesames en
tence.Examplei
nAh anlanguage;

a.[
Joh
nfe
ranJo
hn]
Jo
hnl
ove
sJo
hn
b.[
Joh
nfe
’yeo
lar
en]
Jo
hnl
ove
shi
mse
lf

Sin
c eth
eJo hninsamp l
e(a)areco-ref
er e
ntial(i
.e
.refer
ringtothesameperso
n),
thesubst
itu
tiontransf
ormati
oncanapplytor epl
acethesecondoccur
renceofJohn
withanappropri
atepronou
n.Hencehi
mselfsubsti
tut
esforJohnin(b)i
fhowev
er,the
twoJohnsarediff
e r
ent,wecanhave'
a'ormo reapprop
riat
ely(cord)

c
.[Jo
hnf
eranr
en]
 Jo
hnl
ove
shi
m'
d.[
Afe
ranJo
hn]
‘
She
/hel
ove
sJo
hn

4.Rel
at i
vization:Thi
sinvo
lvestheins
ert
ionofar elativ
ec l
auseinf r
onto fit
sNP.I tmo r
e
orlessp layst heroleofp ronoun
.Accordingto Radford(2004:223)ar elat
ivi
zatio
n
contai
nsa“ ar el
ati
vep to
noun(wh o
,who se,which)thatre l
ates(i
.er ef
er sback)to
anan tec edentinah i
gherc l
ause(ge n
e rall
yo newh ichimme di
atelyp recedest h
e
rel
at i
vewh -expres
s.”Th i
sme ansth
att her el
at i
vec l
ausewh osede ri
vat i
onr es
ults
fr
omt hein co
rp o
rati
ono far el
ati
vepron
o unintoac onstrualtorenderitc omplex.
.A
sen
te ncee mbedded( i
ns urfacestr
ucture)asmo di
fiero fanNP,t hee mbedded
sen
te nceh avingwithi
nitar eWH-p r
onominalr epl
ac e
me ntforade e p-st
r uctu
reNP
whi
c hisins omes ens
eidentic
alwithth
eh eadNP,i sar el
ativeclause.Explanati
onf or
i
nstance;

I
sawt
heman(
whoki
l
ledt
hego
at)

"Who"isrefe
rrin
gbac kt
ot he"
man "henc
eiti
sr e
plac
ingtheNPwhic
his"t
h eman
'.A
sen
tencethatisembedde
di nanot
herisknownasac ons
tit
uentse
ntenc
e.(whoki
ll
ed
th
ego at)andtheonewhichisembeddediskno
wnast hematrixs
enten
ce(Isawthe
man).

Theproces
so fembeddingac ons
tit
uentsen
tenceinamatr i
xsentenceisagene
rali
zed
tr
ansformati
ont hatcoul
dbes eeninmanyothertrans
fo r
mat i
onse.gequi
val
entNP
del
eti
onr u
le,r ais
inge xtraposi
ti
on( al
lt hes
e ar ec as
eso f WH-pronomin
al
repl
acement)wh i
chthee xe
mp ti
ono fre
lati
vi
zati
onc o
nsiderthef o
llo
wingsente
nces
matri
x.Examp l
esinAhanlanguage;

1
.Mami
eri
kot
ika
I
kno
wth
eman

2.Er
ikoer
aiwe
Manwh
obo
ugh
tbo
ok
Th
emanwh
obo
ugh
tth
ebo
ok
I
norderwords,se
ntenc
eai se mbe
ddedi nsen
tencebt opro
ducer
elat
ivecl
aus
e.Ikn
owt he
whoboughtthebook.Itsh
o u
ldben o
tedthatrelat
iveclaus
esarein
trodu
cedbyrelat
ive
pr
onou
n( r
e l
ati
vemarker)l
i
ke ,who,whos
e,whi
ch,when,th
atetc

6.
Ques
tio
nF or
matio
n :Th
isisi
nthes eco
ndtyp
eofmov
ementi
.e
.WH-mo v
ement
.Qu e
sti
on
fo
rmati
oninvo
lvi
ngWH-p hras
essuchas;wh
at,wh
o,wh
ich
.TheWH-p
hras
es u
bst
itu
tedfor
th
eit
emq ue
sti
onedismovedS-in
iti
all
y.
a.Maf
eranbat
are
n
I
li
kes
hoey
ouAUX
I
li
key
ours
hoe
c
.Kemi
fer
an
Wh
atI
li
ke…
Wh
at di
dIl
i
ke…

Transfo
rmationcanalsobee l
ementsfro
mo neposi
tio
nt oanoth
erinas enten
ce.Th
isi
sto
achi
eves y
ntacti
ce ff
ects.Forins
tanc
e,t oc
h an
geade cl
arati
vestate
me nttoaYES/NO
(p
o l
ar)quest
iont
h eauxi
li
arywil
lbemovedtot
h esen
tenceini
ti
alpos
iti
on:cf

a.Adeendorepayor?
Adewi
l
leatgr
oun
dnu
t?

b.SheAdendorepayor?
Wi
l
lAdee
atgr
oun
dnu
t?

c
.Jamesyaweyi
n?
Jame
scans
wim?

d.SheJamesweyi
n?
CanJame
sswi
m?
Wh
ent
her
eisn
oau
xil
i
arye
leme
nto
the
rth
ant
ens
e“DO”i
sadj
oin
edt
oth
eAu
xno
de.Th
ene
w
Au
xist
henmo
veds
ent
enc
ein
iti
all
y.

e
.Kol
ayay
eIgbo
Ko
las
peaksI
gbo

f
.SeKol
ayay
eIgbo
?
Do
esKo
las
peakI
gbo
?

Theint
rodu
ctio
nof“DO” toth
eq ue
sti
onfor
mati
oni
scal
ledt
he“DO”sup
por
t.Th
ismaybe
ex
p r
essedfo
rmall
yas“DO”i
sadjo
inedtot
heAuxt
obeart
heTens
eaffi
x.
2.
4GBTh
eor
y
Governmentan dBi n
dingTh eo r
ys u cc
eededt ransformat i
onalgr ammarwi t
hint he
Chomskyanr e
v o
luti
onin1981.GBTh eo ryge n
erall
yde alswit
ht ransformat i
on.Itreferstoa
speci
ficapproachtolingui
sti
ct heory.Itfoll
owedf ro
me xt
en dedthe o
ryint ransfo
rmat i
onal
grammar .Itactual
lyc on
sist
so fas eto ftheori
e sthatinteract( Governmentan dBindi
n g
bein
gt woo fthem)an ditf ocusesonp rin
c i
pl
esr atherthanr ules
.Go vernmentan dBindi
n g
th
e oryisamo dul
arde ducti
vet heor
yo fgr ammart hatp o
sit
ss evenl eve
lso freprese
ntation
whichwillbediscusse
de x
ten s
ivel
yint h
iss ect
ion.Thismo dulesotherwisekn ownass ub-
th
e ori
esareco n
nectedinternal
ly.Thefo l
l
owingar ethesub-th e
oriesofGBTh eo
ry;

X-bart
heo
ry
Go
ver
nme
ntt
heo
ry
Bi
ndi
ngt
heo
ry
Th
etat
heo
ry
Cas
eth
eor
y
Bo
undi
ngt
heo
ry
Co
ntr
olt
heo
ry
Th
esesub-t
heo
riesarerepre
sente
dinthediagr
am am be
low.Adi
agr
am o
fth
e
mo
dul
eso
fgrammarwhi
chisado
pte
df ro
mYu s
uf(
1998
).
 X-BARTHEORY
Pr
oje
cti
onPr
inc
ipl
e

D-STRUCTURES
L
exi
con

α–t
heo
ry(
α–t
heo
ry)

Mo
ve-α
Bo
ndi
ng

D-STRUCTURES

Cas
eth
eor
y
(
Cas
efi
l
ter
)

PHONETI
CFORMS PHONETI
CFORMS

Eacht he
oryst
udi
esp r
inc
ipl
eso
fr u
lesandrep
resen
tat
ion
sthatarea s
ubsys
temof
underl
yi
nggrammar.Theymayaff
ectdif
fer
entle
velsoflan
guage(
d- s
tru
cture
,s-
stru
cture)
.
Gove
rnme ntandBi n
dingisat heoryofsyntaxandaPh r
aseStruct
ureGrammar( as
oppo
sedt oaDe pendencyGrammar )i
nt hetradi
ti
onofTr ans
formati
onalGr
ammarde v
e l
oped
pri
nci
pall
ybyNo am Ch omskyinthe1 980'
s.Thistheor
yi sar adi
calrevi
si
onifhisearli
er
th
eorie
san dwasl at
err evis
e di
nt heMi n
imali
stProgr
am.Th et h
eoryisamo readvanced
th
eoryo fUniv
e r
salGr ammar .Th
ef ol
lowingstru
ctureisas ch
ematicrepr
esen
tati
ono fthe
waygrammari sorganizedi
nt heth
e o
ry:
X-BarTh
eor
y
Acc
ordi
ng toSadi
qi(1
992),x-bartheo
ryrep
res
ent
stheinf
ormati
onofphr
ase
s
tru
cturerul
eswi
thanewver
sion
,sin
ceiti
ntr
oduce
sthen
oti
ono
fin
termedi
atep
roj
ect
ion
,
n
amelyx.
Manygenerati
veli
nguis
tsli
keWe bel
huth(1995p.
18)viewX-bart heoryaso c
cu py
ing
acentralp
osi
tio
nins y
ntacti
ctheory,i
no newayo ranot
her,drawo nthebasicst
ructurethat
the
nX-bart heorymakesav ai
labl
e.Th i
stheoryformal
izesthenotion"head."I
tdefinesthe
nati
veo ftypeso fsyntacti
cc ategori
esav ai
labletoan yl an
gu age
.Th eX-bart heory
cent
rali
zesit
sn oti
onont hemaj o
rl e
xicalcategori
esthatisNo un,Verbs,Prepo
sit
ionan d
Adverb

X1

X0 Co
mp
0
Co
mpl
i
men
tx

X1

Co
mp X0

Toacco
mmodat
espec
ifi
ers
,asec
ondl
eve
lofs
tru
ctu
rei
sre
qui
redi
ndi
cat
ingt
hel
eve
l
o
fsp
eci
fi
ersandc
ompl
ime
nttoget
her
.
I
nwh
ath
asc
omet
obekn
ownast
heX^0t
heo
ryi
nani
deadat
ingbac
ktoZe
ll
in
g
Harrisinthe1 950st h
roughCh omsky( 1
97 0)andJac kendof
f( 1977)
,thein
termediate
cat
e gor
yisn ot
atedX^1( X-si
ngl
ebar )v ari
antl
yn o
tatedasX^2*X^0bu tmo re
con
v eni
ent
lytotypographi
calreas
onswr i
ttenX^1Th emax i
malpro
j e
cti
on(t
hephrase)has
beencodedasX^p ri
mep ri
mewh i
lethelex
icallev
elisrender
edsimpl
eX( mo
retech
n i
call
yX
^0)t husth
eNP" thebigtree""wil
lhavethes t
ruct
urebelow:

NP

D X1

t
ree

bi
g

Th
e
Cas
eTh
eor
y
Bl
ake( 1994p .
1)se escaseasas y
stemo fmarkingdep e
ndentnounsf orthetypeo f
rel
ati
on s
hiptheybe artot h e
irh eads.Casetheorydealswitht heassi
gnmento f'cases'to
Nounph r
asesinth es e
nten ceac c
or di
ngtothei
rp os
iti
oninthed-s tr
uctur
eo rs-stru
c t
ur ei.
e.
knowi
ngi ftheNPi sgo i
ngt otakeaNo mi
nati
vec asei.
e.caseas si
gnedbyt hesubjecto fa
TenseINFL,orAc cusativec asei.e.caseassi
gnedbyt heobjectofav e
rbo rano bl
iquec ase
,
th
ati sas si
gnedbyt heo bjecto fap repo
siti
onasr eq
uire
dbyt hec asef i
lt
ert hereby
accoun
t i
ngfort hee ventualdifferencebetweenthesurfaceform.Thesethreecasesar ethe
commonc asestypest hought heyar enotal
lcasetype.
Accordi
n gtoTr ask(1993)
,CaseTh eoryisoneofthep ri
nci
palmo du
lesinGB,
c
onsi
sti
ngo fvario
usc ase-marki
ngconv
entio
nsandthecas
efi
lte
r.Thist
heoryi
sr es
pons
ibl
e
f
orinsuri
ngt hate v
er yo v
ertNPi nas e
ntenceismarke
dasp oss
essi
ngac ase,suchas
n
ominati
ve,accusati
ve,o rgen
iti
ve,asrequi
redbythec
asefi
l
ter.Thefol
lo
wingareallc
ase
t
ype
s;

Ac
cus
ati
ve o
bje
ctNP
Vo
cat
ive c
all
i
ngNP
No
min
ati
ve s
ubj
ectNP
Ge
nit
ive Noo
bje
cto
fOF
Dat
ive NPo
bje
cto
fTO
Abl
ati
ve NPo
bje
cto
fin
/on
/fr
om

Incas
eassi
gnme
ntadjace
ncyisre
quire
d.Thi
sistos
ayt h
atcaseas
sign
eesandthe
as
sign
ersmustwo
rkcont
igu
ouswit
hnobarri
erblo
cki
ngth
edisc
hargeoft
he(abst
rac
t)cas
e.
Casetheo
ryaccountsforsomeofth eformalprop
er ti
eso
fNP.Casethe
oryac cor
ding
toHaegeman( 1
991p.
180)isthemoduleofgr ammart h
atisc o
ncer
nedwit
hthedist
ribu
tionof
NPswithingrammati
calsentence
s.AccordingtoTr ask(1993p.
36),Cas
etheoryrecogni
zes
twotyp e
so fcaseassi
gnme n
t.Inher
entc aseas s
ignedatt heD-str
uct
ure
,an dstruct
u r
al
caseassign
edatS-st
ructure.

Th
etaTh
eor
y
Th
etatheor
yde al
swit
htheassi
gnmento
fsemant
icrol
esals
oknownasp ar
tic
ipant
r
ole
sorthetat
heory.Suc
hasrec
ipi
enttoel
emen
tsi
nthesen
tence
,cons
trai
nedbythethet
a
c
rit
eri
on;t
hatst
atesthus:

Eac
har
gume
ntbe
arso
nean
don
ly:

On
eth
eta-r
olean
deac
hth
eta-r
ole

I
sas
sign
edt
oon
ean
don
lyo
ne

Par
tic
ipan
tsar
eas
sign
edt
hes
ero
lA
er
g
siumh
nten
eDt
-st
ruc
tur
e.F
ore
xamp
le;Sh
eat
eri
ce
y
est
erday.
 I
P

1
I
Sp
ec
I
VP

NP Agr
Tn
s
Sp
ec
V1

N1 [
+pas
t] V
Adv
p

N e
at Adv
r
ice

Sh
e Ye
ste
rday

The
ta-t
heoryisthemo dul
et hatdealswi
tht hevale
ncyrequi
rement
so fverbs.It
i
nco
rporat
eas eto fparti
ci
pantr ol
es,cal
ledThet
a-Rol
e s
.Thei
rdistri
but
ioninsen
t e
n c
e
s
truct
urei
smediatedchi
efl
ybyt h
ePr oj
ecti
onPri
nci
plean
dt heTh
eta-Cri
teri
on.Th
ist
h eory
i
sgoi
ngtobeprese
ntedinthecomingsect
ion
s.
I
ntheil
lu
str
atio
nabo veth
ev e
r bphr
asehasass
ign
edage
ntrol
etothesubj
ectNP
whi
leve
rbass
ignspat
ientr
oletotheobje
ctofth
ev e
rbandth
eprep
osi
ti
onas
sign
slocat
ive
ro
letoi
tsNP.

a)THEME(
orPATI
ENT)
:En
tit
yun
der
goi
ngt
hee
ffe
cto
fso
meac
tio
n.
b)AGENT(
orACTOR)
:In
sti
gat
oro
fso
meac
tio
n
c
)EXPERI
ENCE:
Ent
itye
xpe
rie
nci
ngs
omep
syc
hol
ogi
cal
stat
e
d)BENEF
ACTI
VE:
Ent
itybe
nef
iti
ngf
roms
omeac
tio
nd)
 e
)INSTRUMENT:
Mean
sbywh
ichs
ome
thi
ngc
ome
sabo
ut
f
)LOCATI
VE:
Plac
einwh
ichs
ome
thi
ngi
ssi
tuat
edo
rtake
spl
ace
g)GOAL
:En
tit
yto
war
dswh
ichs
ome
thi
ngmo
ves
h
) SOURCE:
Ent
ityf
romwh
ichs
ome
thi
ngmo
ves

Bi
ndi
ngTh
eor
y

Accordi
ngtoChoms
ky(198
1p.
52),Bi
ndi
ngthe
oryiscon
cerne
dwithconn
ecti
ons
amongNPsthathavetodowi
thsemant
icpr
opert
iesasdepe
ndenc
eo fr
efere
nce,
i
ncl
udin
gc o
nnect
ionbe
tweenapr
on o
unandi
tsantece
dent
s.
Th
eBindi
ngtheor
ye xp
lai
nshowt h
ereferenceofvari
oustypesofNounphr
asecanbe
l
i
nkedtooth
erNPs.Itdeal
swithwh e
therexpr
essi
onsinthesente
ncemayr efert
othesame
e
nti
ti
esaso th
erexpressi
ons
.Th eproj
ecti
onp r
inci
pl
er equ
iresallth
el e
velsofsy
ntaxto
o
bser
vespeci
fic
ati
onforeachle
xicali
temgi
veinitsentr
yinthelexi
con.
Bi
ndi
ngTh eor
yisthemodul
eo fgrammarthatassi
gnsandr e
gul
ate
sanap p
rop
riat
e
i
nte
rpret
ationoftheNP.Thethe
orydeal
swithwhetherexpr
ess
ioninthesen
ten
ceref
erto
t
hesamee n
titi
esasoth
erexpr
essi
onse.
g.tothes
ame ,pl
aceort
hing.
a. An
aph o
rsareNP-type
st hatmus
th aveantec
edentsi
nt hesent
ence.Acc
ordi
ngto
Rie
ms di
jkandWil
li
ams(198
6p .
279)anapho
rmu s
tbebo u
ndinit
sgo v
erni
ngcate
gor
y.
Therearetwoty
pesofanaphor
;th
er efl
exi
veandth
er e
cipr
ocal
s.

b.Pr
ono
minal
sarepers
onalpron
ounsth
atmustbef
reei
nth
eirgo
ver
nin
gcat
ego
ry.
Th
eynee
dn oth
avean
tecede
ntsint
hesen
ten
ce.

c
.Re f
err
ingex
pre
ssi
onsac
cordingtoYus
uf(1998p.1
48 )ar
eNPsthatser
vet
oide
nti
fy
s
omeenti
tyi
nther
ealworl
d'.The
yarelex
icalNPsthatmustbef
ree.
Th
isi
sex
pre
sse
dbe
tte
rbyt
het
hre
ebi
ndi
ngp
rin
cip
les
Pr
inc
ipl
eA:
AnAn
aph
ormu
stbebo
undi
nit
sgo
ver
nin
gcat
ego
ry
Pr
inc
ipl
eB:
Apr
ono
unmu
stbef
reei
nit
sgo
ver
nin
gcat
ego
ry
Pr
inc
ipl
eC:
AnR-e
xpr
ess
ionmu
stbef
reee
ver
ywh
ere
(
Hae
geman
,1992p
.233)
 I
tshoul
d be no
tedt
hatv
iol
ati
ono
f an
yoft
he bi
ndi
ngp
rin
cip
lesr
esu
ltsi
n
u
ngr
ammat
ical
sent
enc
e.

Bo
undTh
eor
y
Thi
stheo
rydeal
swit
hc on
s t
rai
ntsuponthepermi
ssi
bledegreeofseparati
onina
s
truct
ureoftwoel
ement
sthatarebothinv
olv
edinthest
atementofasingl
egr ammati
cal
u
nit
.Thist
heo
rybear
sanimp
o r
tantpri
nci
pl
e,whic
hisc
all
ed“theSubj
acen
cyCon di
ti
on.
”
Accor
dingtoChomsky,'
boundingtheo
ryimpo
se sl
ocalcondi
tio
nso ncert
ainproce
s s
es
andr el
ateditems
'.Befor
et hedeve l
opmentofBoundin
gt he
o r
y,theu ni
vers
alrule'move-
alph
ah adbe ensubj
ecttoac ertai
nc onstr
ain
tknownasCo mple
xNo unPhraseCo n
strai
nt
(CNPC),whereane l
ementcannotbemo v
edbyac omp l
exNP.Bo undin
gt he
oryp r
eventthe
rel
atio
n s
hipofmovementfor
me xtendi
ngtoofarint
hes ent
ence.

Bo
u n
dingt
h eo
ryisconc
ernedwi
ththeli
mit
ati
ont
obep l
acedonth
elocati
onfrom
wh
ichmovementtakespl
acewhic
hdoesno
th av
etobeadjac
enttoth
elan
din
gs i
te,bu
tit
mus
tatleastbes
u bj
ace
nt.E.
g.
L
olat
ookwh
at?
[
s'wh
atdi
dLo
lat
ake
]

‘
Whath
asbe e
nmo v
edfro
m anobj
ectpo
sit
iontothes
pec
ife
rofC₁c
ros
sin
ganS
bo
undar
y,s
oasin
gleSbo
undar
ydoesn
otbl
ockmov
eme n
t'.
However,inrecentdev
e l
opment,const
rai
ntshavebee ndi
scu
ssedundersubjacenc
y
whic
hf all
sunde rtheBoundi
ngt he
ory.Subjacen
cyhasp ro
videdap ri
nci
pl
ee xp
lanati
onto
mostp roces
sesi nvol
vedint he app
licat
iono fBoundi
ngt heor
yt ou n
ive
rsallanguage.
Subjacen
cyp ri
ncipl
es t
atesthat;'
Move mentmustno
tc ros
smo rethanoneboundi
n gnode'
(Cook,1
988p.134).
Theter
mbo un
disbas
edont
hep
rin
cip
les
;th
ats
imp
lyr
efe
rst
oth
eco
nju
nct
iono
fC-
c
ommandan
dc o-i
nde
xin
gthu
s;
∝bin
dsβ,ifonly
∝c-commandβ,and
∝Andβarec o
-refe
ren
tial
I
nprin
cip
leβs i
mpl
eme an
sno
tbo
undp
rin
cip
le.Cr
efe
rst
oel
eme
nts
uchasn
ame
san
d
r
efe
renti
aln
ounphr
ase
.

Onth
isp
r e
mi s
es,Boun
din
gt h
eorycl
aimsth
atmove
menti
sproh
ibi
tedi
fto
o
man
y'bo
undi
ngnodes'i
nterv
enebetweenth
estart
ingan
dthef
ini
shi
ngofe
achmoveme
nt.

Go
ver
nme
ntTh
eor
y

Accor
dingtoTrask(1993)th
istheoryi
soneofthemo dul
esreco
gniz
edinGB.I
tsfu
ncti
onisto
ens
uret hatcert
aintypesofs t
ructur
alrel
ation
sh ol
dbetweennodesintre
es;i
tspri
nci
pal
re
quirementisth
eEmp tyCategoryPri
nci
pl
e{ECP}.Alexi
calh
eadgo v
ernsi
tscomp
lementan
d
I
NFLgo vernsi
tssubj
ect.Ver
bsan dprepo
sit
iongove
rnNPsinas en
tence.

Govern
me ntthe
o r
yi n
ter-rel
atewi
the v
eryoth
ersub-th
eory.Itpe
rvadesal
lthemodu
lesof
grammar.ItensuresthataNo uni
sassi
gnedappr
opri
atecase,ascasecanonl
ybeassi
gne
d
undergovern
me nt
.Th ro
ughtheEmptyCate
goryPri
nci
pl
es(ECP)itmakessur
ethatt
hetrace
ofamo ve
dc ategoryi
sp ro
perl
ygovern
ed.

Th
eCo
ntr
olTh
eor
y

Horroc
ks( 1987p.31)descri
be,thecon t
ro l
theoryastheoneinwhichverbs
takeinf
ini
tiv
alcomp l
imentt hathavenull
subjec t
su nderst
oodasbei
n gco-referenti
alwithan
NPi nthemai nclause.Simp l
y,contro
lt h
e or
yde al
swi ththesubj
ecto finfi
nit
ivalclauses.
Chomsky(1986p.183)describest
h econtro
l t
heo ryass i
mple'
PROisungov e
rn e
d'.Thesu bje
ct
oftheseinfi
nit
ivalclause
swh i
chisn otovertl
yr epre
sentedhasbee npresentbyPRO.PRO
cannotrecei
vecas esin
ceith asnogovernor.E.g.

Hamme
dto
ldh
iss
ist
ert
hath
edropp
edthedoc
ument
Hamme
dto
ldh
iss
ist
er(
PROtodr
opthedoc
ument
)

Th
ePROh
erei
sco
ntr
oll
edbyHamme
dwh
ichi
ssu
bje
cto
fth
emai
ncl
aus
e.

2.
5Th
eor
eti
cal
Frame
wor
k

TheGo vern
me ntandBi n
dingt he
oryist het h
eoreti
calframeworkado pt
edf ort hi
s
res
e archwork.It
saimistoe xpr
essge n
eral
iz
ationaboutthephras
es t
ructureofallhuman
l
angu ages
,ratherthanfeatur
est h
atar epecu
li
art oin
divi
duall
anguages.TheGBth e
oryis
aninterl
ocki
ngar r
angementofpri
ncipl
esandparameterswhi
chinte
ractindif
feren
tway sto
th
ee x t
entth
atn opartcanbeconsi
deredini
sol
ation.

Negati
onwou
ldbean aly
sedus
ingth
eGBt he
oreti
calfr
amewo
rk.I
tisthetheor
yt hat
capt
urest
hes i
mil
ari
ti
eswhi
chexi
stbet
wee
ndi f
feren
tcate
gor
ieso
flex
icalp
hrases
,by
h
avi
ngo n
ecommonstr
uc tu
refort
hemrathert
hanh avi
ngdif
feren
tr u
les.Thus
,our
s
yst
emati
can
aly
siso
fn egati
oni
nAh
anlan
guagewi
llc
ar e
full
yfol
lo
wt hesyn
opsi
softh
e
t
heor
y.
 CHAF
TERTHREE
ASPECTOFNEGATI
ONI
NAHAN
3.
0In
tro
duc
tio
n
Thisc h
apterexamine
st h
es ynt
ac t
icconcept
so fthi
sresearchwor
kan dviewthe
basi
cc on
c e
ptsli
keSe n
tencesLexi
calcategor
ies
,Basicwordorder,phr
asestru
ctu
rer ul
e
andtypeso fsente
nces.Itthe
np roceedstoe xami
net h
eNe gati
veAspect
so fal
lt h
ese
con
ceptsbyt h
euseofnegati
vemarkersinthelan
guagethrou
ghtransf
ormat
ional
proc
essof
i
nsert
ionineachofthecon
sti
tuent
sdisc
us s
ed.
3.
1Se
nte
nce
s
Sente
nc ei
sal inguist
icunitth
atisstudi
edinsyntaxan di
tisthelargestunito fsynt
ax
madeu po fwo rdsan dp hrases
.Se n
tencesar eutter
anceswh ichoftenc ontainc omplete
i
nformationwh i
chi ncl
u dewo rdsthatar egr ou
pedme aningful
lytoe xpre
ssas tatemen t
,
ques
tio
n ,excl
amat io
n,r equestcomman dors u
ggesti
on.As e
n te
nceisas eto fwo rdst h
ati n
pri
nci
pletell
sac o mple
t etho u
ght,al
thoughitmaymakel it
tlesensetakeninisolationoro ut
ofcontext.Typicall
yas entencecontai
nsas ubjec
tan dp r
e di
cate,i
tismadeu po fwo rds
fro
ml exic
alc ategori
es .Inas enten
cet her
ei sap art
icul
arwayo farrangingwo rdsi .
e.a
basi
cwo rdordero falan guage
Thefol
l
owingbelo
war etheeigh
tlexi
calcat
egori
esi.
epartso
fspeec
hidenti
fi
edbyt h
e
tr
adi
ti
onalgrammari
ans,Nou
n,Ve r
b,Adje
cti
ve,Adve
rb,Pr
onou
n,Pr
eposi
ti
on,Conj
unc
tio
n
andi
nter
jec
tion
.
No
un
Jakson( 2003 p.35) defi
nesn ou n
s as t hec l
assof wo r
ds wh ose me mbers
c
haracteri
sti
cal
lyrefer
st othi
ngsthattakep l
aceinaplur
ali
nfl
ect
ionandmo stimpo r
tantl
y
f
uncti
onash eadofnounp hr
aseinsubjectando bj
ectsl
otinase
ntence.I
nallthath asbeen
s
aidan o
unisan amingword.Iti
stradit
ional
lyreferr
edtoanameofap e
rso
n ,animal,pl
ace
o
rthin
gs(Lawal,2005p.1).
CommonNoun:Thesearen
ounst
hatref
ertoge
neralnou
nsr an
gin
gf r
omt h
eo n
eswecan
to
uchorfe
el;thatwecanse
eornot
,no
unst
hatcantakepl
uralornote.
t.
cExampl
einAh
an
are:
Ex
amp
lei
nAh
anar
e:
i
. He
ad [
Eri
]
i
i
. To
ngu
e [
Ire
n]
i
i
i. Jaw [
Angbao
do]
i
v. Bo
dy [
Agbe
]
v
. F
ire [
Una]

Pro
perNoun:Thes
earenounsofcapi
tali
zedanddenot
edindi
vidualsandpe
rso
n i
fi
cati
on.
Pro
perno
un sar
enamesofpeop
lep
laceo rth
ings
.Pro
perno
unsdon o
ttaketh
epluralf
orm
no
raretheynor
mall
ypr
ecede
dbyarti
cles(Lo
ngeandOfu
ani
,1996).Exampl
esi
nAhanare;

i
. Nameo
fpe
rso
n [
Eruo
niy
e]
i
i
. Nameo
fpe
opl
e [
Erue
ro]
i
i
i. Nameo
fGo
d [
Erue
nsh
orl
a]

Co
ncr
eteNoun:Th
eser
efe
rtos
ome
thi
ngt
hati
sto
uch
abl
e;s
ome
thi
ngwec
ans
eean
dfe
el.
Ex
ample
sinAh
anare
i
. '
bas
ket
' [
Enka]
i
i
. '
chai
r' [
Ij
oko
]
i
i
i. '
sho
e' [
Bat
a]
i
v. '
ban
ana' [
Oge
de]
Abst
ractNoun
:Thi
sistheoppo
sit
eo fconc
ret
eno
un;i
tre
fer
stos
ome
thi
ngt
hati
s
unt
ouch
abl
e,whi
chc
anbeani
deaorqual
i
ty.
Ex
amp
lesi
nAh
anar
e:
i
. '
fear
' [
Ajur
iru
]
i
i
. '
thi
rst
' [
Iso
yin
]
i
i
i. '
hun
ger
' [
Aar
i]
Unco
unt
abl
eNoun
:Ar enou
nsthatc
an'tbecou
nte
d,t
heydon
oto
ccu
rinp
lur
alf
ormsan
d
th
eyareus
ual
l
yprec
ededbyth
earti
cl
es(a,an
)
Ex
amp
lesi
nAh
ani
ncl
ude
:
i
. '
wat
er' [
Oyi
n]
i
i
. '
sal
t' [
Oun
]
i
i
i. '
san
d' [
Eru
ku]
i
v. '
oi
l' [
Epu
]

Cou
n t
ableNouns:The
yar etype
so fnounst
hatcanbecou
nted.Coun
tabl
enouncaneas
il
ybe
pl
ural
ized,i
tdoesnotnecess
aril
yn ee
dade te
rmin
er,t
hatis
,wh e
nt h
eplur
alfo
rmisusedi
t
do
esn otnece
ssari
lyreq
uireadetermine
r.
Ex
amp
lesi
nAh
anl
angu
agear
e:
i
. '
bag' [
Apo
]
i
i
. '
tabl
e' [
Atu
]
i
i
i. '
boo
k' [
Iwe
]
Pr
ono
uns
Apro
n o
unisanident
ify
ingwo rduse
di nste
ado fanou
nandinf
lect
edinthesamewayn o
un
ar
e.Accor
dingtoStockwell(197
7p .56),pron
ounsaret
hecomplet
ereplac
eme n
to fno
un
ph
rasebysubs
tit
ute(anaph
o r
ic)words.Thi
sisdon
emostes
pec
ial
lytoavo
idrepe
titi
on.
Pr
ono
unt
abl
eofAh
an
Si
ngu
lar Su
bje
ct Obj
ect Po
sse
ssi
ve
st
1 pe
rso
n Emi I Emi me Tu
tumi
mi
ne
2ndp
ers
on Ugan Ugan y
ou Tu
tur
en y
our
you
3rdp
ers
on Eroy
en Eer
iko
th
ey he
Eeri
pu
sh
e
Si
ngu
lar Su
bje
ct Obj
ect Po
sse
ssi
ve
st
1 pe
rso
n ah
aa ahaa Tu
tua o
urs
we us
2ndp
ers
on Ugan Ugan y
ou Tut
uren
you yo
urs
3rdp
ers
on Eroy
en Eeri
ko Tu
tut
wa t
hei
rs
th
ey th
em

Ve
rbs
Verbsar ewordsthate x
pressfor
mo facti
on,theyareo f
teninf
lect
edf o
rtenseandthei
r
i
nfl
e cti
onissi
mplerinEngli
shth
aninanyoth
erlanguage.Verbsaregrammati
calwordsu
sed
toi
n di
cateanac t
ionthatisper
formed(L
awal,2005p.28)Yusuf(
1997p.21)c
las
sif
iedver
bs
i
ntot r
ansit
iveandintr
ansit
ivev
erbs.
Trans
iti
vev er
bsmakeac ompl
etestat
e men
twithth
eh el
pofanobje
ctorac ompli
men
t
(F
o wl
er,198
0p .
40).Tran
sit
ivev
erbsmusthaveanNPobj
ectast
heyr
equi
redi
rec
to bj
ectt
o
makeco mpl
etesen
s e.
Tr
ans
iti
vev
erbsi
nAh
anar
e
i
. '
eat
' [
ter
u]
i
i
. '
swal
l
ow' [
faaj
eh]
i
i
i. '
vomi
t' [
gbo
]
i
v. '
go' [
tel
or]

I
ntrans
iti
vev
erbso
nth
eot
herh
anddon
otr
equ
ireanNPo
bje
ctt
omakes
ens
e.Ex
amp
lesi
n
Ahanare:
i
. '
jump
' [
rep
oli
]
i
i
. '
sl
eep
' [
nti
]
i
i
i. '
run
' [
sa]
 i
v. '
fal
l
' [
wo]

Adj
ect
ive

Anadjecti
veisawo rdthatmo di
fi
esorqual
ifi
esanounorprono
un;itmaybeintheformsof
comparati
vedegree.Accor
dingtoDineo
n(1967p.
58)thecl
assofadject
ivecanbedefi
nedas
af o
rmt hatcane nterint
oc omposi
ti
onwiththeboundformsglo
ssedasc omparat
iveand
su
p er
lati
ve.Adegbi
j( 1
987p .
100)defi
nesanadject
iveasap artofspeechwhosemembers
qual
ifynoun
s.
Adj
ect
ivei
nAh
anl
angu
age
;
i
. '
sho
rts
' [
aar
i]
i
i
. '
big' [
ndu
]
i
i
i. '
heav
y' [
oo]
i
v. '
Swe
et' [
yon
]

Adv
erbs
Anadve
rbisawor
dt hatde
s c
ribesoraddst
otheme
ani
ngo
fav
erb,anadj
ect
ive
,an
oth
er
adv
erborawho
lesen
te n
ce(Adegbi
ja,1
988p.
37)
Ex
amp
lesi
nAh
anl
ang
uagear
e;
i
. '
qui
ckl
y' [
tet
e]
i
i
. '
sl
owl
y' [
per
ejo
]
i
i
i. '
degr
ee' [
tewa]

Pr
epo
sit
ion
Thes
ear ewordsth
atc o
mbinewithapr o
nounornountoformap hr
asetheyc
hangetheform
ofnoun
so rpron
ounstotheobje
ctiv
ec aseort
hep o
ssess
ivecaseAcco
rdi
ngtoLawal(2003p
20)
,ap repo
siti
onisawo rdwhichsho
wst herel
ati
onshi
pbe t
weenan ou
nan dap r
onoun,a
nou
nan danoun,apro
n o
unan dapronouninas
e n
tence
.
Yus
uf( 1997p
.97)statesthatpr
epo
sit
ionrel
atesanou
ntoav
erbi
nte
rmso
flo
cat
ion
,
di
rect
ionandcon
dit
ion.Exampl
esi
nAhanlan
guagear
e;
i
. '
at' [
ufe
ren
]
 i
i
. '
for
' [
ji
]
i
i
i. '
i
n' [
asi
]
i
v. '
unde
r' [
ape
]

Co
nju
nct
ion
These ar e wo r
dst hatc onnects e
nten ces,c l
auses,p hrase
s,o rwo rdsan ds ometimes
paragrap h
s .Therearetwotypesofc onj
u n
ction,subordinati
ngandcoordi
n at
ingconjunct
ions
.
Subordi
n atingconjunct
ionint
roducess ubordin
at ec l
auseEx ampl
esar ewh ere,when,after
etc.whil
ec oor
dinati
ngconjunc
tionsarec onjuncti
onslike:and,butetc.Adgbija(1998p106)
sayst hata c on
juncti
onisawo rdt h
atj oi
nswo r
ds ,phrases
,c l
auseso rs en
t en
ces.A
conju
n c
t i
oni susedt oi
ndic
atet herelatio
nshipbe tweent woormo reelements.Examp l
esin
Ahanlangu ageare ;

i
. '
or' [
abi
]
i
i
. '
and' [
ati
]
i
i
i. '
but
' [
sugbo
n]
i
v. '
aft
er' [
udau
u]

I
nte
rje
cti
on

I
nte
r j
ect
ionsareexcl
amati
onss
uchaso h
!,alas!etc
.Anin
ter
jec
tionac
cordin
gtoAdegbi
ja
(
1987p .
108)isa wordt h
atexpres
sese mo t
ion
s.Theyareusual
lyacc
o mpan
iedbyan
e
xclamator
ymar k(
!)Exampl
esi
nAhanlanguageare:

Oo
h!
Ec
h!
Hu
n!
Ko
ko!

Bas
icwo
rdo
rde
r
Thebas i
cwo rdorderisawayo fco nn
ec ti
ngt heverban dtheo bj
ectt ogethe rtomakea
sens
einap ar
tic
ularlanguage .Wo rdorde ristheseque
n t
ialarrange
me nto fclauseele
ments
orwo rdsinas enten
c e(Cry s
t al1994p .420).Itisane xpress
ionofh ows ubje ctverband
objec
tc o-occ
urinanybas icgr ammat i
cal sent
ence.Ayodel
e( 1
999p .
51)des cr
ibe sbas
icword
orderasa p ermis
sibl
es eque n
ceo rar r
angeme n
to flexi
calt of orm me ani
ngfuland
grammat i
calsent
enceinal anguage .AccordingtoRil
li
um,t hesixposs
iblewo rdo rde
rsthat
canocc u
rinvari
ouslanguage sar e:

SVO(
Subj
ect
,Ve
rb,Obj
ect
)
SOV(
Subj
ect
,Obj
ect
,Ve
rb)
VOS(
Ver
b,Obj
ect
,Su
bje
ct)
VSO(
Ver
b,Su
bje
ct,Obj
ect
)
OVS(
Obj
ect
,Ve
rb,Su
bje
ct)
OSV(
Obj
ect
,Su
bje
ct,Ve
rb)
Theideaofbas i
cwo rdordersteamedfromt hefactthatl anguagesneedtobec l
ass
ifi
edo n
th
ebas isofh ows y
ntacticconsti
tue
ntss u
chass u
bject ,verban dobjectstru
cturesina
si
mplede cl
arati
ves ente
nce.Inlin
guis
tic
s,wo rdordert ypologyr e
ferstothestudyoft he
sy
n t
acticconst
itu
ento falanguageandhowdifferentl
an guage scanemplo
ydiff
erentorders
corr
e l
ati
onbe t
we enordersfoundindiffere
nts yn
tactics ub-domainsarealsoofintere
st.
AhanoperatesSVO(SUBJECTVERBOBJECT) .
i
. Aar
enu
juTo
lay
ash
i
DETf
arme
rTo
lado(
Agr
)
'
Tol
aisaf
arme
r'
Aar
enu
juTo
lay
ash
i
Obj
. Su
b. v
erb
i
i
. Or
imae
rikos
aau
fe
c
hil
dMAS.r
unt
ohe
re
'
Thebo
yranh
ere
'
Or
imae
rikos
aau
fe
Su
b. Ve
rb o
bj.
3.
2.1Si
mpl
eSe
nte
nce
 Asi
mp l
es ent
enceisat ypeofsent
encethatcont
ainsas i
ngl
ep r
e di
cate.I
tisal so
kno
wnasi ndependen
tc l
aus
e :cont
ain
ingamaincl
ausewit
hn orel
ati
veorsubo r
din
ateclause.
Acco
rdingtoYu s
u f(1
997p.59)s i
mpl
es e
ntenc
eismadeu pofoneNPs ubj
e ctandpredicat
e
i
.e
.as ubje
c tandaf i
nit
eve rb.I
tmu s
tbeabletoexpr
essac omple
tethought.Thefo
llowin
g
ar
ee xamplesofsimpl
esent
e ncesi
nAhan.
a. Ey
ibe
reo
suke
ta
r
ain(
fut
uret
m)s
tar
tMar
ch
'
Rai
nst
art
sinMar
ch'
b. Aaj
okon
yer
ijo
ko
h
e/s
hes
ito
nth
ech
air
'
S/Hes
ato
nto
poft
hec
hai
r'
L
en gt
hdo e
snotdet
ermi
net
he'
si
mpl
e'c
las
sif
icat
iono
fse
nte
nce
s,s
imp
les
ent
enc
emaybe
l
ong;snake
-lo
ng.
c
. Er
ikoe
goagbal
agbah
unu
ruagbal
agbako
jao
rsh
a
Th
efato
ldmanc
arr
iedt
het
hino
ldmant
her
ive
r.
d. Or
kor
las
iKwar
aat
iAbae
ranr
enn
gorker
inKo
gis
tat
evi
aObo
doaf
or
Th
ero
adt
oKwar
aSt
atef
romAbawi
l
ltakey
out
hro
ughKo
giSt
atev
iaObo
do-af
or

Th
es i
mpl
esente
ncecoul
dpe
rformfun
cti
onsli
kede
clar
ati
on,i
nte
rrogat
iono
rimp
erat
ive
,
wher
eyoumakepl
ains
tat
emen
ts,as
kques
tio
ns,o
rgi
veorde
rsre
spect
ivel
y
3.
2.2Th
eCo
mpo
undSe
nte
nce
Ac
omp
oun
dse
nte
ncec
ont
ain
stwoi
nde
pen
den
tcl
aus
est
hatc
ans
tan
din
dep
ende
ntl
y.A
c
omp
oun
dse
nte
ncei
saki
ndo
fse
nte
ncer
ecu
rsi
ono
fsamec
lau
salc
ate
gor
y,t
hatr
ecu
rse
s
o
veran
dov
er,al
lli
nke
dbyc
onj
unc
tio
nsl
i
ke,an
d,f
or,bu
t,n
or,o
r,y
et,s
oet
c.Ex
cep
tfo
r
v
erys
hor
tse
nte
nce
s,c
oor
din
ato
rsar
eal
way
spr
ece
dedbyac
omma.Ex
amp
lesi
nAh
an
l
angu
agei
ncl
ude
:

(
a) Ay
odu
pet
eac
herakas
ieeo
mui
we
'
Ayot
han
kedt
het
eac
her
,an
dbo
rro
wedan
oth
erbo
ok.
'
(
b) Owai
njoabi
fae
pun
je
'
Owai
dran
kors
wal
l
owe
doi
l
?'
3.
2.3 Co
mpl
exSe
nte
nce
s
Ac o
mp l
exsent
encehasmo rethanonejoi
nedbyo n
eo rmoreindepe
nden
tc l
aus e
s.The
su
bordi
natecl
ausemaybee mbeddedi
nanNPasc ou
ldbefoun
dinr e
lati
vecl
aus
es ,ormay
beincl
udedi
ntheVP.Tradit
ion
ally
,comp
lexsen
ten
cei sde
scr
ibe
dast hemainclauseand
su
bordi
natecl
ause(
Yum,1997p.63)
Compl
exsentenc
esalwayshaveasu bor
dinat
orsu c
hasbe c
ause,s
inc
e,aft
er ,al
tho
ugh,or
(andman
yo th
er),orarel
ati
vepron
o unsuc
hast hat,wh
o,when
/whi
leorwh
ich.Thefol
lo
win
g
compl
exsen
tencesarere
presen
tedinAhanlangu
ag e:
(
a)Or
mas
uku
ruy
arai
wer
enot
eri
peon
iay
eol
a
'
Thes
tude
ntsar
est
udy
ingbe
cau
set
heyh
aveat
estt
omo
rro
w.'
(
b)I
ti
shadai
wes
hoj
iudau
nugbi
ikas
iat
user
en
'
Thet
eac
herr
etu
rne
dth
ebo
okaf
ters
hen
oti
cedt
hee
rro
r.'

3.
2.4De
clar
ati
veSe
nte
nce

Decl
arat
ivesenten
ces t
atesaf actoranar gu
me ntandendswit
haf u
lls
toporper
iodA
decl
arat
ivese
n t
enceisat y
p eo
fs i
mplesen
tencethatmakesst
ateme
ntsandi
tist
hemo s
t
co
mmo ntypeofsent
ence.Exampl
esinAhanl
anguagein
clu
de:
a.Madu
peo
orj
iamo
ran
'
Ith
anke
dth
ete
ach
erf
orh
isadv
ice
.'
b.Ekoe
rie
ler
iNai
ji
ri
a
'
Lago
sist
hec
api
tal
ofNi
ger
ia.
'

3.
2.5I
mpe
rat
iveSe
nte
nce
Ani
mperati
vesen
tencei
sac o
mman
do rapol
i
tereq
uest
.Iten
dswithanexc
lamat
ionmar
k(!
)
orafu
llst
op/p
erio
d.areco
mmandsen
tenc
e.Examp
lesi
nAhanlan
guage:
a.Sh
imi
sho
rabr
adami
'
fet
chmyu
mbr
ell
a.'
 b.Ji
unakeki
ra
'
le
tth
erebel
i
ght
.'
c
.Gu
nOl
oru
nlo
go
'
prai
set
hel
ord.
'

3.
3Ph
ras
es
Phras
esarehe
adedbytheke
ywo r
dscal
le
dt he'he
adwords'
,wheret
heheadword
gi
vesth
en ameo
fthewho
leph
ras
e.Thuswehav
eNo u
np h
rase,Ve
r bphr
asean
dPr
ep os
iti
on
ph
rase(PP).
33.
1No
unPh
ras
e
Then ounphraseismadeu po fagr oupo fawo rdsheadedbyan oun.Theke yword
whi
chisalwaysan o
u ncansometi
mesbeap ronounandbo t
hs tan
df orNP.Itismadeu po fa
nou
nh e
adan dit'
srequir
edo ropt
ion
als at
ell
i
te's,suchsatel
li
tesmayinclu
dean ot
hern o
u nor
der
ive
dn oun.The
rear eti
me st
heNPc anbemo di
fie
d( Yusu
f,1992p.119
)as s
ertsthatnounin
anNP c anbep re-modif
iedorp ost-modi
fiedbyar ti
cles
,p oss
essiveorde mo n
strated
adj
ecti
ves.

Ex
amp
lesi
nAh
anl
angu
age
;
a.¬[
Abu
ruo
rma]
‘
stu
bbo
rnc
hil
d’
'
stu
bbo
rnc
hil
d'
b.Er
ikoe
go
MASf
at
'
Thef
atman
'
c
.Or
mat
ail
ore
rip
u
Ch
il
dtai
l
orF
EM
'
Thet
ail
or'
sdau
ght
er'

Theabur
uo r
mainexamp
le'a'i
sanopti
onalsat
ell
i
te,be
causei
tin
clude
stwonoun,o
ne
wh
ichi
stheori
gi
nalan
dtheoth
erisde
riv
edwh i
letheoth
erexampl
esi
n'b'and'
c'ar
ebo t
h
NPswithamodifi
er,the
yarep r
e-modi
fi
edbyade t
ermi
ner'th
e '
,whil
e'b'i
saccomp
aniedby
anadject
ive'f
at'p r
e-modif
ier
,'e'i
saccompani
edbyan o
thern ounmakingi
tano p
tion
al
sat
ell
i
te.Someoftheseexampl
eswil
lbei
ll
ust
rate
dinthetwodiagramsbelo
w:
a)
NP

N NP

Abu
ru o
rma

NP

b.

N Ad

Er
iko e
go

NP
3.
3.2Ve
rbPh
ras
e

Thever
bphras
eisagroupofwor
dswh i
chh
avea'mainverb'asahead.It
sst
ruc
ture
i
sde
termi
nedbythetyp
eo fverbth
ate x
ist
sintheco
nsti
tuentan di
nadditi
onmayhave
c
ompl
ement
sandadju
ncts
.Ito
ftenti
meshaveanounasitq
u al
i
fier,wh
ichfol
l
owsthever
b.
Thelexi
calcategor
y(V)sel
ectsi
tsownc
ompl
ime
n tandmaximalph
rasalc
atego
ry,(Yus
uf
1996p.
27)itisthel
exi
calc
ategor
yth
attel
l
suswhatpart
ici
pator
yrol
esoftheno
minal
sare
i
nt hes
entence.
Ex
amp
lesi
nAh
anl
angu
age
:
a.Ri
nmat
o
‘
takec
ar’
'
taket
hec
ar'
b.An
iee
o
‘
he/
sheh
asmo
ney
’
'
Hav
eth
emo
ney
'
c
.Sar
unf
e
‘
runt
ohe
re’
'
Runh
ere
'

VP

a.

V NP

Ri
n mat
o

3.
3.3Pr
epo
sit
ion
alPh
ras
e
 Th
eprepo
sit
ion
alphr
as eiscl
ose
lyrel
atedtotheNPbec
aus
ei tc
ontai
nsapr
epo
sit
ion
andanNPco
mp l
ement.I
nthi
sc ase
,theprepo
sit
ioni
sthehe
adanditprec
edest
heNPinthe
PPPPsar
etypeofphr
asethatnamelocat
ionordi
rect
ion
s.
Ex
amp
lesi
nAh
anl
angu
agear
e;
a)As
iij
oko
‘
Onc
hai
r’
'
Ont
hec
hai
rs'
b)As
iagboay
eye
‘
Atc
rowdp
art
y’
'
Att
hep
art
y'
c
)Ar
indaat
ihi
n
‘
Upan
ddo
wn’
'
Upan
ddo
wn'

PP

a.

P NP

As
i i
joko

b.
PP
 P NP

De
t N

As
i agbo ay
eye

3.
4Ne
gat
ion
Negati
onisthef
irs
tp l
aceofap he
n omenonofs
emant
icoppo
sit
ion
.Assuch
,negat
ion
r
elat
esane xpr
essi
onwi
thame ani
ngthatisinsomewayop
posedt
otheme an
ing
.Thi
smaybe
r
eali
zeds
yn t
actic
all
yandpragmat
ical
l
yinv ari
ousways
.
Negati
onisalanguageuniv
e r
sal,fo
undinal
lknownlanguages,anduni
quetohuman
l
anguages( L
indst
ad2007 )
.Inotherwo rdofHorn(2001:
1)‘t
hec apacit
yt onegat
eisthe
c
ap aci
tytorefuse,t
oc o
ntradi
ct,toli
e,tospe
akiro
nic
all
y,todis
tingu
ishtru
thfromfal
si
ty-
i
nsh o
rt,t
hec apaci
tytobehuman.
F
orHu
lse(
201
0:30)
,‘t
hep
hen
ome
nono
fne
gat
ionc
anbede
fin
edi
nan
umbe
rofdi
ffe
ren
t

way
sinEn
gli
sh.I
tisanabs
trac
tph
eno
men
onwh
ere
bys
omef
ormso
fco
ntr
adi
cti
ono
r

o
ppo
sit
ioni
sex
pre
sse
d,t
hou
ght
hisi
sac
hie
vede
ith
ergr
ammat
ical
l
yors
eman
tic
all
y,wh
ichi
s

r
eal
i
zedbys
pec
ifi
cgr
ammat
ical
con
str
uct
iono
rbyt
heap
pli
cat
iono
fas
pec
ifi
cpr
oce
ss.

Ne
gati
onisapr
ocesso
fcon
vert
inganaf
fir
mat
ives
tat
eme
nti
ntoi
tso
ppo
sit
ede
nial
.
F
ore
xampl
einEn
gli
shl
ang
uagewecanhave
:

i
.Sh
eisat
hie
f
i
i
.Sh
eisn
otat
hie
f

I
nl i
ngui
sti
csan dgrammar ,af f
irmati
v eandn egati
vearetermsofo pposi
t eme ani
ng,wh i
ch
maybeap pl
iedtos t
ateme n
ts ,verbphrases,cl
ausesandsomeotherutterances.Affi
r mati
ve
arealwaysposit
ivei
nn ature,whil
en egati
onwh i
chistheo
pp o
sit
ear enegative.Negationisa
tr
an s
formation
alp ro
ce s
st hate xpresse
sap roposi
ti
onthatisc ont
raryt othet r
u th.Al
l
humanlanguagehaveme anstoo vert
lydenyt h
et ru
thofaproposi
ti
on(Dawl ,1993p.914).
Ne
gat
ione
xpr
ess
esc
ont
radi
cti
ono
fawo
rd,p
hras
e,s
ent
enc
eet
c.Mal
mkj
aer(
2002,p1
2)
c
lai
mst hatan egati
vesentencei
sde r
ive
dbyano pti
onaltrans
f o
rmati
ont h
ati n
ser
tsa
n
egati
vee l
ementintoanaffi
rmati
vekernel
.Differe
nto ftheworldhavedif
ferentwaysof
n
egati
ngp hras
esan dsentenc
esbyu si
ngdiffe
r e
ntn egati
vemar kers
.Theimp or
tanc
eo f
n
egati
oninlanguagecannotbeove
remphasi
zedast herearealwaysn e
edtode nyorass
ert
p
ropos
iti
onsandas s
ert
ion
sinthecour
seoflanguageint
eracti
ons.
Negat
ioninvo
lvestheu seofnegat
iveparti
cleswhe
nitissynt
actic
,an dbo undmo rph
emes
wheni tismo r
p h
ologi
cal.Thi
sme anst h
atn e
gat
ionisa syntacti
c,mo rphologi
caland
morph
o syn
tact
icphenomena.Thescopeofnegati
onaff
ectst
hewh ol
ep rop
os i
ti
on;itexten
ds
th
en egati
vewordstothee ndofth
ec l
ause.Wh e
nev
eranyconst
ituen
tisn egated,thewhol
e
st
ructurecar
riesthenegati
vemeani
ng.

3.
4.1Ne
gat
iveMar
ker
sinAh
anL
angu
age
Negati
vemar kersarel
exi
calit
emsusedtomaken e
gati
oninal anguage(Lawal2005)and
negati
onmar kersvaryfromo nel
anguagetoan o
the
r .I
nAh anl anguage,thenegati
ve
markersare;"aa"andmawh enasent
enceisneg
atedinAhanlanguage,theverbmovesto
takethep o
siti
ono fth
eo bj
ectinthesenten
ceandv i
cev e
rsa,t heNe gat
ionmarkeris
adjoi
nedtotheverb.

3.
4.2Se
nte
nti
alNe
gat
ion
Th
ispartreve
alshows en
tencesaren e
gatedinAhanl
angu
age,usi
ngthenegati
vemarker
s
af
tertrans
formati
onhastakenplace
.Thenegati
vefor
msofsent
encesaf
tertheins
ert
iono
f
anegat
ivemarkersi
mplyexpl
ainsse
ntenti
alne
gati
onExampl
esare
(
a)[
Ojon
ior
ma]
Oj
ohav
ech
il
d
'
Ojoh
asac
hil
d'
(
b)Oj
oaan
ior
ma
Oj
o(n
eg)h
avec
hil
d
'
Ojodo
esn
oth
aveac
hil
d'
i
i a) Bas
ics
tru
ctu
re
[
Eri
puy
eny
a]
F
EMadu
ltt
hec
ome
'
Thewo
mani
sco
min
g'
b)
. Ne
gat
eds
tru
ctu
re
 [
Eri
puy
enaay
a]
F
EMadu
ltt
he(
neg)c
ome
'
Thewo
mani
sno
tco
min
g'

Bas
icSt
ruc
tur
eI I
P

Sp
ec I
I

I
NP VP

VI
I
N Tn
s Agr

[
+pas
t]

V NP
N
“
Ojoh
asac
hil
d”

Ne
gat
edSt
ruc
tur
eI
Ne
gP

NM I
P
Sp
ec

I
Sp
ec I

[
ei]
I
N

VP
I

N Tn
s Agr Sp
ec VI
“
Ojodo
esn
’th
aveac
hil
d”

I
P
Bas
ics
tru
ctu
rei
i

Sp
ec I
I

I
NP
VP

Agr
Tn
s VI
NI
[
+pas
t]

N
NP
V

I
“
Thewo
mani
scc
omi
ng”

Ne
gat
edSt
ruc
tur
eII

Ne
gP

Sp
ec I
P
NM

I
Sp
ec I

[
ei]
NI

VP
I

N VI
Tn
s Sp
ec
Ag
3.
4.3Ve
rbPh
ras
eNe
gat
ion
Notonlysentencesc anben egated,verbphrasean do t
herc on
stituen
tc anbenegate d.
Av erbphrasewh i
chh asamai nv erbasi tske y
wor dh asitsstructu
remi nedbyt hetypeo f
verbthate x
istsinthec onsti
tuent.Inthes ameman n e
r ,thetypeisde ter
minedbyt hes ub-
categori
zati
onf eatur
e soft hev erb,fori n
stance
,aVPc anbet ransit
iveinwh i
chc asei t
s
e l
ects(orco-o ccu
rswi th)ano bjectort wo,orintransiti
veinwh i
chc aseitco-occurswit h
orwi t
houtobjects.Af f
irmativev erbp hrasecanbe comen egatedwi ththei n
serti
ono fa
negati
vemar ker.Themo veme ntoccu r
swi l
lbetheinser ti
onofn egati
vemar keratthei n
itial
posi
tio
no fthec onsti
tuent.Ne gati
v emar kerisalway sinsert
e datt heini
tialpos
iti
ono fa
verbphrase.Examp l
esincludet h
ef oll
owingbelo
winAh anl anguage;
i
. a) Bas
ics
tru
ctu
re
[
Sar
unf
e]
'
Runh
ere
'
b) Ne
gat
eds
tru
ctu
re
[
Mas
aru
nfe
]
 (
neg)r
unh
ere
'
Don
'tr
unt
her
e'
i
i
. a) Bas
ics
tru
ctu
re
[Gbi
iwea]
Br
ingbo
okc
ome
'
Bri
ngt
hebo
om'
b) Ne
gat
eds
tru
ctu
re
[
Magbi
iwea]
(
neg)br
ingbo
okc
ome
'Don
otbr
ingbo
ok'

3.
4.4No
unPh
ras
eNe
gat
ion
Anounp h
raseme ansagroupofwordswit
han ounasitheadword.Then o
unp h
rase
c
analsobecomen egated,wi
ththeins
ert
ionofnegat
ivemarker.Thetr ans
formati
onthat
o
ccursatt
heiniti
alstageaswel
lwit
hthei
nsert
ionoft
hen e
gati
vemar ke
r .Exampl
esinAhan
l
angu
agesi
nclude:
i
. a)Bas
ics
tru
ctu
re
Er
ikoe
go
Adu
ltmal
e(p
rep
)fat
'
Thef
atman
'
b)Ne
gat
eds
tru
ctu
re
Aar
ier
ikoe
go
(
neg)adu
ltmal
e(p
rep
)fat
'
Nott
hef
atman
'
i
i
. a)Bas
ics
tru
ctu
re
 An
dae
ent
ewa
Sh
eepbe
aut
ifu
l
'
Thebe
aut
ifu
lsl
eep
'
b)Ne
gat
eds
tru
ctu
re
Aar
ian
dae
ent
ewa
(
neg)
shebe
aut
ifu
l
'
Nott
hebe
aut
ifu
lsh
eep
'

3.
4.5I
mpe
rat
iveSe
nte
nceNe
gat
ion
I
mperati
vesente
nceisatypeofsen
ten
c ethatexpr
essescommandandorder.I
tisa
ty
p ethatexpr
esseswit
hap er
iodorexc
lamat
o rypoi
nt.Anegate
dimp e
rati
vese
n t
enceisa
ty
p eofimp
erativ
es e
ntenc
ethatisdo
neinanegati
veform.Examplesaret
heses
e n
tencesi
n
Ahanare;
i
. a)Bas
ics
tru
ctu
re
Nau
fey
in
(
Aux
)co
meh
ere
'
comeh
ere
'
b)Ne
gat
eds
tru
ctu
re
Maau
fey
in
(
neg)c
omeh
ere
'
Don
'tc
omeh
ere
'
i
i
. a)Bas
ics
tru
ctu
re
Sh
iko
'
Kee
pqu
iet
'
b)Ne
gat
eds
tru
ctu
re
Mas
hiko
'
don
'tke
epq
uie
t'

3.
5 Co
nju
nct
ion
 Ac onjuncti
onisame mbe ro fac l
as sofwo rdswhosef un
c t
ionistojoi
nli
n guis
ticu n
its
suchasp hrases,claus
esan ds entences.Therear ebas i
cal
lyt wot yp
eso fc onjuncti
ons:
coordin
at orsandsubordinators.Coordinator
sar eu sedtojoinli
nguist
icunit
sofe q u
alr ank,
whil
es ubordinat
orsareu sedt ojoinli
ngu i
sti
cu n
itso funequalrank.Thesecoordinatorsan d
subordi
n atorsarebas icall
yide nti
fie
dasc onj
u n
c t
ionmar ker.Ex amplesofc o
o r
dinating
conj
u nctio
n mar kersin Ah an l anguage ar e ati( and) tabi( or),sugbon( bu t
).Th e
subordi
n atorsarekakaki( in
s te
ado f)bo ya( whether
) ,nit
ori( s
ot hat)
,bi( i
f),n i
ghati
(whi
le/wh en)
3.
5.1 Si
mpl
eSe
nte
nceCo
nju
nct
ion
Si
mpl
es ent
encec onju
ncti
ons ares i
mplesen
te n
c e
st hatmake useo fc e
rtain
co
njun
cti
onmarker
sinthem.Theconte
n t
sthatcanbefo
u ndinasimp
lesen
tenceconj
u nct
ion
are
,si
ngl
edecl
arati
on(i
.e
.agr ou
po fwordinvo
lvi
ngasubjectan
dap re
dicat
e( v
erb),anda
co
njun
cti
onmarker
.Examplesi
nAhanlanguageare;
a)So
laat
iemi
eri
ibe
ji
'
Sol
aan
dIar
etwi
ns'
b)Adet
erui
radi
pei
yen
ti
'
Adeat
ebe
for
ehes
lep
t.'

3.
5.2 De
clar
ati
veSe
nte
nceCo
nju
nct
ion
Thes
earest
ateme
ntsth
atinv
olv
eac on
jun
cti
onmarker.Th
econj
unct
ionmar
ker
sare
i
nse
rte
dins
ent
ence
swh e
nst
ati
ngafacto
ranargume
nt.Ex
amp l
esi
nAhanl
angu
agear
e:
a)As
ire
ney
anbi
ngo
rre
dingboo
yehr
en
'
Youwi
l
lbeh
app
y,i
fyo
uli
ste
ntoh
im.
'
b)I
dooe
kir
audau
nugbi
ors
eret
erun
ta
'
The
rewi
l
lbeane
xami
nat
ionaf
tert
hebr
eak.
'
3.
6.1As
pec
tual
Mar
ker
s
Comr i
e( 1
976:3)defi
nest heel
e men tAs pe
ctass peci
fyingt h
ewayo fv i
ewingthe
i
nternalc on
sti
tuencyofas i
tuati
on.Aspectist hegrammatic
alc at
e gor
yt hatst
atewh et
her
th
eac ti
o nofthev e
rbiscomplet
iveorcon t
inuativ
e.Bycompleti
veweme anthattheacti
onof
th
ev erbi salr
eadyp erf
ect
edan dbyc onti
n uati
veweme anthatt heactionoftheverbison
goi
ng,o rimperfecti
ve.Wewi l
lexamineÀh ànas pectsonl
yunderaf fi
rmat i
vesenten
ces,as
th
erear en oovertmakersfortheaspe
c tsinn e
gativese
ntences.

3.
6.2.As
pec
tinÀh
ànAf
fir
mat
iveSe
nte
nce
s
 Àhàndist
ingui
shesbe
tweenanacti
ont
hathasbee
nc o
mplet
ed(perf
ect
ive
)an
dth
at
wh
ichi
songo
ing(habi
tual
/cont
inu
ous
).Ex
amin
ethefol
l
owin
gsent
encesbe
low.
1
(a)Ko
ley
áte
rur
ereu
gba
Ko
leh
abe
at
i
.
e.“
Kol
eus
ual
l
yeat
s”
(
b)Ko
ley
áko
lir
ereu
gba
Ko
leh
abbu
il
dho
use
i
.
e.“
Kol
eus
ual
l
ybu
il
dho
use
s”
(
c)Ko
ley
árawer
ereu
gba
NPh
abbu
ybo
ok
i
.
e.“
Kol
eus
ual
l
ybu
ybo
oks
”

2.
(a)
Kol
ekát
eru
NPp
erfe
at
i
.
e.“
Kol
ehase
ate
n”
(
b)Ko
lekákó
li
Ko
lep
erfbu
il
dho
use
i
.
e“Ko
leh
asbu
il
tah
ous
e”
(
c)Ko
lekár
awe
NPp
erfbu
ybo
ok
“
Kol
ehasbo
ugh
tabo
ok”

Fro
mt hesent
enc e
sin( 1
)abo ve,weunderstandth
att heacti
onoftheverbisimperf
ecti
ve,
Yáde n
otesah abit
ualsituati
on.As i
tuati
onthatsti
llhol
dsan dhasbeenrepeatedovera
peri
odoftime( Omamor1 982).However,itmustbeme nti
onedthatÀhàndoe snothavea
sep
aratewayo findi
catingcontin
uousac t
ions
.Fromt hefactofthedata,Àhànin
flectfor
perf
ecti
veandimp erf
ectiveactio
ns.Themar kerforimperf
ecti
veacti
oninthelanguageis
yá.
 CHAPTERF
OUR
TRANSF
ORMATI
ONALPROCESSES

4.
1 I
ntr
odu
cti
on
Choms ky(1986)explainsthatat rans
formati
onalrul
ewilloperateinas t
ringofsymbol
swith
ap ar t
icul
ars t
ructuraldescri
ptionandwil
lconver
titin
toan ewstringofsymbol
swithanew
st
r uc t
uralde scr
ipt
ion.F ore xample,anys uchtransf
o rmatio
nswi llconve
rtan yac t
ive
se
n te ncei n
toac orre
spondingp assi
ves entenc
e.A t ransformati
onalr u
lec an be
char acter
izedbyade scri
pti
ono fchange(r
e-orderi
ng,additi
ono rdelet
ionofel
eme n
ts,re-
assignme n
to fconst
ituentboundaries
,etcwhi
chitaffect
s )

"Thetwol
evels
truct
ure
s:DS(Dee
ps tr
uctur
e)andSS(Surf
ac estr
uct
ure)arei
nte
rrel
ate
d
byas eto
fmo veme
ntrule
sknowntransf
ormati
ons
"(198
8p .401
).Ther
efore
,th
ismodelof
grammarcanbepres
ent
edinasi
mpli
fi
edformatbel
ow:
D-St
ruc
tur
e

Mo
ve-α-(
tran
sfo
rmat
ion
)

S-St
ruc
tur
e

(
Ado
pte
dinRadf
ord(
198
8)

Thetr ansf
ormati
onalareappl
iedtoth edeepstruc
ture(DS)ofas entenc
et oderi
veth e
surf
ac es t
ructur
e( SS).Itshou
ld ben ote
dt hattransf
ormati
onsar en o
tc arr
iedou t
arbi
trantly
,r ather
,t he
yf ol
l
ow ap arti
cul
ar for
mati no t
hert o al
lowf ore v
entual
generati
onsofc or
rectgrammati
calse
n te
nces.Yus
uf(1997,p.
66)expl
ainsthat"s
enten
ce s
arede riv
edbymap p
ingonep hr
asemar kerintoanotherwithano perati
onkn o
wnas
tr
an s
f or
mat i
on.
"

Therear emanyt ransf

ormationalp r
ocess
esnamel
y:Focu
sc on
struc
tion.Refl
exi
vizat
ion
,
Relat
ivi
zati
on,Topi
cal
izati
on,Que s
tionformat
ion
.Nomi
nali
zat
ionands oo n.I
nt hi
ss t
udy
however,onl
yfocu
sc o
n s
tructi
on,Reflexe
viz
ati
on,Qu
est
ionfor
matio
nan d,pass
ivi
zati
onwil
l
bediscu
s s
edbecauseofspaceconstrai
nt.

4.
2Re
fle
xiv
izat
ion
I
nt r
aditi
onalgr
ammar ,wecallc
ert
ainNPpron
oun
swh i
chcanst
andforot
herNPs.Example
s
ofpronounsare;he,she
,it
,we,theyet
c.Thes
eprono
unscanno
ts t
ayinthes
ames ente
nce
wit
ht h
eirantec
e de
n t
si.
e.theNPswhi
chpre
cedeth
eman dtowhi
chthe
yareco-r
e fe
renti
al.
Rul
eoflangu
agethensu
bsti
tut
esano
therty
peofprono
unf orth
eseplai
npron
oun
sandthes
e
su
bsti
tute
sarecall
edrefl
exi
vepr
onoun
s.Asthe
irnamesindi
cate,t
heyref
erto(orr
efl
ect)
anear
li
erNPi nt
hesamesent
ence
.Exampl
einAhanl
anguage;
(
a)"
Olah
ith
ims
elf
"
(
b)"
The
ytr
oubl
eth
ems
elv
es"e
tc
Ar
etobeanal
yzedasder
ivi
ngf
romanu
nde
rly
ings
tru
ctu
ret
hatc
ont
ain
stwoo
ccu
rre
nce
sof
aref
ere
nti
all
yide
nti
cal
NP
(
a)"
Olah
ito
la"
(
b)"
The
ytr
oubl
eth
ey"

Thereflexi
vef o
rmsap p
eart ober el
atedt oo t
h erpron
o u
nslikehim/hi
ms el
f.herhers
elf,
th
em/ t
he msel
ves,ititse
lf.Thisf o
rmalr elati
oni showevero ffs
etbyt hethattheo th
er
ref
lexi
vep ronounsdon otco r
r e
spondwi t
ht h eordin
aryo bjec
tp ronoun
s,bu trath
erwi t
h
pos
sessi
v esli
kememy self
,y ou/you
rself
,u so ursel
ves"Reflexi
vepronounso pe
ratewithi
n
si
mplese nt
encesiet h
eyar ec l
ause-me rval"He agman(1991p .
208)statesthat"Refl
exi
ve
mustbebo u
ndbyanan tecedent,theantec e
de n
twh ichisthebinderoft h
er efl
exi
ve.Thi
s
aspec
th asbeene xp
lai
nedinc hapte
rt wounde rthegovernmentandbindi
ngmo dul
e

Re
fle
xiv
izat
ioni
nAh
an
i
. [
Eer
iko
/Ee
rip
ugbi
oku
tagu
nlar
en]
[
S/h
eth
rows
ton
ehi
tREF
L]
"
S/h
ehi
tsh
ims
elfwi
thas
ton
e.

i
i
. [
Gans
eir
uti
tej
ilar
en]
[
Youc
ookf
oody
our
sel
f]
"
youc
ooke
dfo
ryo
urs
elf
"
i
i
i. [
Aap
ool
are
n]
[
Hewas
hhi
mse
lf]
"
Hewas
hedh
ims
elf
"
(
I)

I
P

Sp
ec
 I
I

“
She
/heh
itsh
im/
her
sel
fwi
thas
ton
e”

(
II
)

I
P

1
I

Sp
ec
I
VP
"
youc
ooke
dfo
ryo
urs
elf
"

(
II
I)

I
P

I
I
Sp
ec
I
VP
“
Hewas
hedh
ims
elf
”

4.
3Re
lat
ivi
zat
ioni
nAh
an
Thisi
nvolv
esthei
nsert
ionofarelati
vec l
auseinfr
on tofi
tsNP.Itmo reorle
ssplaystherol
e
ofpronou
n.Accor
dingtoRadfor
d( 2004:
223)ar el
ativi
zati
onc o
ntainsa“ arel
at i
veptono
un
(wh o
,wh ose
,which
)t hatrel
ates( i
.erefersback)t oanan t
ecedentinah igherclaus
e
(general
lyonewhic
himme di
atel
yp recedestherelati
vewh -expre
ss.”Thi
sme anst h
atthe
rel
ati
vec l
ausewhos
ede ri
vat
ionresult
sf r
omt heincor
p o
ratio
no far el
ati
vepro no
unintoa
cons
trualtoren
de ritco
mp l
ex.
.Asent
encee mbedde
d( i
nsurf
acestruct
ure)asmodi
fi
erof
anNP,t heembeddedsent
encehavi
ngwit
hinitareWH-prono
minalrep
lacementf
oradeep
-
st
ructu
r eNPwhichisins
omes e
nsei
dent
icalwit
htheheadNP,i
sar e
lati
veclau
se.
I
nsummary,r
elat
ivecl
aus
esaresente
ncee mbe
ddedi
nas ur
facest
ructu
reasmo
difi
erofan
NP,theembeddeds e
ntenc
eh avi
ngwithi ta WH-pro
nominalrep
laceme
ntfora deep
st
ruc
tureNP.whi
chisi
nsomesens
eident
icalwi
tht
heheadnoun
.
I
nst
anc
eso ft
hesekindsofcon
struct
ion
sc anbefoun
dinAhansy
ntaxThus,t
hefol
l
owi
ngare
e
xampl
esofsyntac
ticc o
nst
ructi
onswhererelat
ivecl
aus
esandnegat
ivemarke
rscon
joi
nto
f
ormsent
ences.
a) [
Egbanmi
eri
eer
ikoeh
auf
eyi
n]
Un
clemyt
hemanwh
oco
me[
pas
t]h
ere
'
Themanwh
ocameh
erei
smyu
ncl
e'

b) [
Aar
iegbanmi
eri
eer
ikoeh
auf
eyi
n.
]
NEGt
heu
ncl
emyt
hemanwh
ocameh
ere
‘
Themanwh
ocameh
erei
sno
tmyu
ncl
e’

c
) [
Iti
shaeko
weh
auf
eyi
n.
]
‘
Teac
herwh
owr
itec
omeh
ere
“
Thet
eac
herwh
owr
otet
hel
ett
erc
amey
est
erday
"
d) [
Aar
iIt
ish
aeko
weh
auf
eyi
n.
]
NEGt
het
eac
herwh
owr
itec
omeh
ere
.]
'
Thet
eac
herwh
owr
otet
hel
ett
erdi
dno
tco
mey
est
erday
.'

4.
4 WH-Qu
est
ionF
ormat
ion
Thisi
sint
hes e
condty
peo
fmovementi
.e
.WH-movement
.Quest
ionfo
rmat
ioni
nvo
lvi
ngWH-
ph
rasessuc
has ;what
,wh
o,wh
ich.TheWH-ph
ras
es u
bstit
ute
df orthei
temquest
ion
edi
s
movedS-i
nit
ial
ly.
WH-q
u e
sti
onisthet
ypeofquest
iont
hatreq
uiresanewinf
ormati
onso,iti
sknownascont
ent
wo
rdquesti
on.WH-que
sti
onstakeit
srootfromwordsorint
errogat
iveprono
unsli
kewhich
,
wh
at,when
,wh y
,whoandhow.I
tisawereprot
o-typ
ical
exampleofthemovementr
ule.
Mo
ve-ai
sth
eso
let
ran
sfo
rmat
ion
alc
omp
one
ntwh
ichi
sani
nst
ruc
tio
ntomo
veac
ate
gor
y
i
den
t i
fi
edasWH-p hrasefromanywheretot
hes
enten
cein
iti
alpos
iti
on.I
tshou
ldben
o t
ed
t
hatmo ve∞ all
owselemen
tt omovefromonesy
ntact
icpos
iti
ontoan o
the
rinthesame
s
yntacti
cst
ruc
tureortoanemptyp
o s
iti
on
Th
eWH-q
ues
tio
nisde
pic
tedi
nAh
ant
hus
:
I
) "
What
" [
Ker
eye
n]
I
I) "
Whe
re" [
Suf
e]
I
II
) "
Whe
n" [
Sugba]
I
V) "
How" [
Sibaa]
V) "
Who
" [
Eke
rey
en]
VI
) "
Whi
ch" [
Eke
e]
Th
eyar
ere
pre
sen
tedi
nth
efo
ll
owi
nge
xamp
les
:
I
. [
Kegans
hi?]
Wh
aty
oudo
"
Whatar
eyo
udo
ing?"
i
i
. [
Suf
iodee
eri
puy
enki
ra?]
Wh
ereAUXh
ous
ewo
man
"
Whe
rei
sth
ewo
man
’sh
ous
e?"
i
i
i. [
Sugbi
Sadey
aaa?]
Wh
ent
imeSadec
ome
"
Whe
nisSadec
omi
ng?"
i
v. [
Sibi
eragber
en?]
Ho
wbo
dyy
our
"
Howi
syo
urh
eal
th?"
v
. [
Soes
ayi
yer
aas
iiy
iyi
yen
?]
Wh
icht
hisf
inep
asti
nsi
dec
lot
htwo
"
Whi
cho
fth
etwoi
sfi
ne?"

CP

CI

Sp
ec
 [
ei]

“
whatar
eyo
udo
ing
?

I
tc anbeo bser
vedt hatthev e
rbphraseobjectNPise mptybasedonthefactthatitis
trans
iti
veandduetot hefactthatt
hereisaWH-q ues
tionfor
mati
on,t
heobjectoftheverb
hasbeenr e
presen
tedbyt heWHq u
esti
on[Ki)
,andthisexpl
ainst
heemptycategory
,along
withth
ec o
-inde
xatio
nbe t
we enthei
ntr
oducedques
tio
np art
icl
e"Ki
"andth
ee mptycatego
ry.
I
tcanalsobeo bse
rvedthatther
ei sane mptycategor
yinthes peci
fi
erposi
ti
ono ft
he
i
nfl
ect
ion
alphras
e(IP)
,duetothefactthatweconsi
deredthepo
r t
ionoftheNPusurp
edby
t
heWH-q ue
sti
onmarker'
ne'[wh
o],asitc
o ul
deasi
l
yhav ebee
n:Shadeisi
nthepi
ctur
e.

4.
5 F
ocu
sCo
nst
ruc
tio
n

Yus
uf(1998
)e x
plai
nst
hatfocus
ingi
sade vi
cewhere
byanNPi nthese
ntencei
semphas
ize
d
bycodi
ngitsenten
ceini
ti
all
y,th
atpr o
minencei
sassi
gnedtotheparti
cul
arnou
np hr
ase.
Unf
ortu
natel
y,thi
sdef
ini
ti
onissoone-si
ded,asi
tonl
ye x
plai
nst
hefocusi
ngofonl
yanNP.
l
eavi
ngouttheVP.
Baker(1995)defi
nesfocusasac onstr
ucti
onthatiss pe
cif
icall
yde s
ign
e dtoser
vean
i
denti
fic
ationf
uncti
on.I
tisawayofrenderi
ngaconst
itue
ntofas ente
ncee mph
ati
cWh ena
cons
tit
uentisfoc
used,i
tismovedfro
mi tsori
gi
nalposi
ti
ontoth esent
enceini
ti
alpo
sit
ion
.
Thi
ssentencei
ni
ti
alposi
ti
onisr
efer
redtoasthespec
ifi
erofFP.
WhenthesubjectNPisfocus
ed,iewhenthesubjectNPismovedtot
hes pe
cofFP,itl
eaves
behi
ndar es
ump t
ivepr
onounwh i
chheadsthecle
fts en
tenc
e,butwhentheobj
ectNPo fth
e
ve
rbp h
raseorprepos
iti
onalphr
aseisfocu
sed,i
tleavesbeh
indanempt
yc at
egor
y(ieatrac
e)
Theverbisfocuse
dthroughan omi
nali
zati
onprocess
,andleavesacopyofth
ev e
r batthe
on
ginalpo
sit
ion
.
L
ambretch(1
994)opi
nesthatfoc
u si
sthatnewkn o
wledgehi
tchedtothet
opi
ciei
tisthenew
i
nfo
rmati
onaboutat o
pic
.I ti
sap artofpropo
s i
ti
onthatcannotbetakenf
orgrant
edi na
s
enten
ce.Iti
stheu
npredi
ctabl
eo rpragmat
ical
lynon-reco
verablepar
tofanutt
eran
ce .
Fro
mt heabov edefini
ti
o n
s,itiscl
earth
atf oc
usisawayo fmakinganel
ementinasentenc
e
moreprominentthano thers.Thi
se l
ementisfocu
sedasar esul
to ft
heneedoftomaintai
n
emphasi
sorgi ven ewinformatio
naso pp
o s
edt owhatisbel
i
ev e
d.Thisv
iewissupp
ortedby
Hal
li
day( 1
967 ,p.204)wh oe xpres
sesthatfocusisakindo fe mph
asi
sthatwherebyt h
e
spe
akermar kso u
tasp art(whic
hmaybet hewh o
le)o
fame ssageblo
ckasthathewish
est o
beint
erpret
e dinf
o rmative.
I
never
ylanguaget
hatf
ocusi
ngop
erat
es,the
reisafoc
usmarkerandinAhanlan
guage
,th
e
f
ocu
smar keri
s"ki
Theexampl
eso
ffocusc
onstr
uct
ioni
nth
isl
anguagearegiv
enbelo
w:

4.
5.1Su
bje
ctNPF
ocu
sin
g

I
nfocu
singth
esubj
ectNP,th
esubj
ecti
smo v
edtot
hespec
ifi
erpos
iti
onofFPinwh
ichc
ase
,
t
her
ewi l
lbeare
sumpti
veorare
capi
tul
ato
rypro
nou
n.Ex
amp l
esar
egivenbe
low:
i
. Ol
uye
rii
joko
Ol
usi
tont
opc
hai
r
'
Olus
ato
nto
poft
hec
hai
r.
'
i
i
.
Ol
uiti
shes
ito
nto
pch
air
'
Iti
sOl
uwh
osato
nth
ech
air
'

4.
5.2Obj
ectNPF
ocu
sin
g

Wh e
ntheobjecto
ft h
eNPisfo
cus
e d,iti
smov
edt
othes
peci
fi
erpo
sit
iono
ftheF
Pan di
t
l
eavesbehi
ndat race(ane
mptycategor
y)t
hati
sco
-ref
ere
nti
altothemov
edele
ment
.
Exampl
eisgi
venbel
ow:
i
.
Ol
ueaty
am
'
Oluat
eyam'
i
i
.
i
suki
Oluj
e[e
]
'
Yami
tisOl
uar
e'

4.
5.3Obj
ectPr
epo
sit
ionF
ocu
s
I
nAhanl an
guage,theobjec
tofp re
posi
ti
onc ou
ldbef ocu
sed.Thispr
oces
so fobje
cto f
p
repos
iti
onfocusi
sp ar
all
eltot
hatofNo u
np h
rase.I
tn e
cessi
tat
estheent
iremov
e mentof
t
hepreposi
ti
onalph
rasetothesen
tence
-ini
ti
alposi
ti
on.Thi
sassert
ionc
oul
dbee x
e mpl
ifi
ed
i
nth
ee xample
sbelo
w:
i
.
Ol
ueaty
ami
msi
deh
ous
e
'
Oluat
eyami
nth
eho
use
'
i
i
.
I
nsi
deh
ous
eiti
sOl
ueaty
am
'
Iti
sin
sidet
heh
ous
eOl
uat
eyam'
4.
5.4Pas
siv
izat
ion:
Thi
sisc
han
gin
ganac
tiv
ese
nte
ncei
ntoap
ass
ives
ent
enc
e.I
npas
siv
e
c
on s
tru
cti
on,theobj
ectoft
hev e
rbismovedS-i
ni
tial
lytobec
omet h
esubj
ectwhi
let
he
o
rigi
nalsu
bjec
tismovedo
uti
ntoaby-p
hras
e,ex
ampleinAh
anlan
guagei
sgi
venbel
ow;

i
i
i. [
Olo
dep
uer
anbu
ru]
Hu
nte
rki
l
lan
imal
wil
d
“
theh
unt
erki
l
ledawi
l
dan
imal
”

i
v. [Ol
odep
uer
anu
juebu
ru]
Hu
nte
rki
l
lan
imal
wil
d
“
thewi
l
dan
imal
waski
l
ledbyt
heh
unt
er”

CHAPTERF
IVE

SUMMARY,F
INDI
NGS,CONCL
USI
ONANDRECOMMENDATI
ON

5.
1 Su
mmar
y
Th
isc
hap
ters
ummar
ize
sth
een
tir
ere
sear
chwo
rk,i
tgi
vesc
onc
lus
ionan
dre
comme
ndat
ion
.

Ch
apt
ero
nei
ntr
odu
cedt
hes
peake
rso
fAh
anl
angu
age
,ite
xpl
ain
edt
hei
rso
cio
-cu
ltu
ral
p
rof
il
e,i
ncl
udi
ngt
hei
rhi
sto
ry,be
li
ef,r
eli
gi
onan
dmar
riagei
nst
itu
tio
n.Th
ech
apt
eral
so
e
xami
nedt
hes
cop
ean
dor
gan
izat
iono
fth
est
udy
,in
clu
din
gth
ege
net
icc
las
sif
icat
ion
.

Ch
apt
ert
wode
altwi
tht
hee
xami
nat
iono
fco
nce
pto
fne
gat
ionan
dsy
ntac
ticp
roc
ess
es,an
d
t
het
heo
ryo
fGo
ver
nme
ntan
dBi
ndi
ng(
GB)
.Al
soi
nth
isc
hap
ter
,ty
peso
fse
nte
nce
sar
e
r
evi
ewe
d,

Ch
apt
ert
hre
efo
cus
edo
nth
ene
gat
ioni
nAh
anl
angu
agei
nwh
ichde
clar
ati
vec
ons
tru
cti
ons
ar
ene
gat
edwi
tht
hei
ntr
odu
cti
ono
fne
gat
ionmar
ker'
aa'i
nth
ese
nte
nce
s.

Ch
apt
erf
ourde
altwi
tht
het
ran
sfo
rmat
ion
alp
roc
ess
esi
nth
elan
guagewh
ichi
ncl
ude
:
Re
fle
xiv
izat
ion
,WH q
ues
tio
nfo
rmat
ion
,Fo
cusc
ons
tru
cti
onan
dPas
siv
isat
ion
.Li
keman
y
l
angu
age
soft
hewo
rld,i
ftr
ans
for
mat
ion
alp
roc
ess
esh
app
en,s
omef
eat
ure
sar
eno
tic
ed
s
uchasp
rep
osi
ti
ono
fel
eme
nts
,su
rfac
ingo
fgap
san
dori
ntr
odu
cti
ono
fre
cap
itu
lat
ory
p
ron
oun
.

5.
2 F
indn
gs

Th
rou
ght
hisr
ese
arc
hiti
squ
iteu
nde
rst
andabl
eth
att
heas
pec
tso
fne
gat
ioni
nAh
an
l
angu
agec
anbede
riv
edt
hro
ught
won
egat
ivemar
kerwh
ichar
e;“
aa”an
d“ma”
.“Ma”do
es
o
ccu
rwh
ene
xpr
ess
ingt
hev
erbs
tru
ctu
reswi
thn
egat
ivedo
-su
ppo
rt.Wh
il
eont
heo
the
r
h
ands
,“aa”i
sth
edi
rec
tne
gat
ivemar
ker
.

An
oth
erp
ecu
li
ari
tyo
fAh
anl
angu
agei
sth
edi
ffe
ren
cesi
nth
eus
eoff
ocu
sco
nst
ruc
tio
n.Ah
an
l
angu
agedo
esn
oth
aveas
pec
ifi
cfo
cusmar
keri
nst
eade
achl
exi
cali
temsar
eemp
has
ize
d
f
orf
ocu
sin
g.I
ncas
eofSu
bje
ctf
ocu
sin
g,Su
bje
ctNPwi
l
lbee
mph
asi
zedwi
tho
utan
yfo
cus
mar
ker
,th
esamet
hin
goc
cur
swh
il
ede
ali
ngwi
tht
heObj
ectNPf
ocu
sin
gan
d Obj
ect
p
rep
osi
ti
onf
ocu
sin
g.

5.
3 Co
ncl
usi
on
Sof
ar,t
hes
tudyh
asbe
enabl
etoe
xami
net
heas
pec
tso
fne
gat
ioni
nAh
anl
angu
age
,wi
thi
n
t
hes
cop
eofGo
ver
nme
ntan
dBi
ndi
ngt
heo
ry,wh
ichi
samo
dul
arde
duc
tiv
eth
eor
yofgr
ammar
p
rop
oun
dedi
n198
1.Th
ere
sear
che
rcan
notas
sumet
hatt
her
ese
arc
hise
xpl
i
cite
nou
gh,bu
tit
wi
l
lse
rveasr
efe
ren
cep
oin
tfo
rot
herp
ote
nti
alr
ese
arc
her
sho
pin
gtov
ent
urei
ntoAh
an
l
angu
age
.

5.
3 Re
comme
ndat
ion

Do
cto
rist
oa p
ati
ent
,asa l
i
ngu
isti
stoa l
angu
age
.li
ngu
ist
sar
esaddl
edwi
tht
he
r
esp
ons
ibi
l
ityo
fsav
ingt
hel
angu
age
swh
ichar
eal
readyde
fil
i
ng,an
dinas
tat
eofp
utr
id.Asa
mat
tero
ffac
t,n
oin
dige
nou
slan
guagei
ssaf
e,i
nsof
arasi
tisr
ele
gat
edt
oth
ebac
kgr
oun
d
byt
hen
ati
ves
peake
rsan
disl
abe
leda'
ver
nac
ular
'byv
irt
ueo
fit
slac
kofat
ten
tio
nfr
om
t
hef
iel
dofl
i
ngu
ist
ics
,th
ere
bybe
ingl
eap
-fr
oge
dbys
omef
ore
ignl
angu
age
swh
icho
ffe
r
mo
redi
ver
sean
aly
tic
ali
nve
sti
gat
ionl
i
keEn
gli
shi
nNi
ger
ia.

Toe
nhan
cet
her
evampo
fth
esei
ndi
gen
ousl
angu
age
s,p
lan
nin
gan
dst
andar
diz
ati
ons
hou
ldbe
p
rop
erl
ycar
rie
dou
tsoasn
oto
nlyt
o'i
mmo
rtal
i
ze't
hembu
ttogi
vet
hemr
ole
san
dfu
nct
ion
s
i
nth
eso
cie
tyan
dbyt
hats
ati
sfy
ingi
ndi
gen
ousau
ton
omy
.Af
oodf
ort
hou
ghtf
orl
i
ngu
ist
san
d
e
nth
usi
ast
s.
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