VOLCANOES CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES

-Where crust is consumed in the earth’s

VOLCANO – a vent, or orifice, in the Earth’s
interior as one plate dives under another
crust connecting the surface with a body of
molten rock below.
Masses of igneous and pyroclastic materials
which accumulate around the vents are
known as volcanic cones, cinder cones, lava
TRANSFORM PLATE BOUNDARIES
domes and plug domes.
- Where crust is neither produced nor
CALDERAS – crater-like basins formed by destroyed as plates slide horizontally past
subsidence of volcanic mountains each other
MAGMA – molten rock below the crust.
LAVA – molten rock when it reaches the
surface.
TYPES OF MAGMA
TYPES OF VOLCANOES
BASALTIC- characterized by lower gas FISSURE VOLCANOES
content, higher temperature of fusion, and  Are cracks in the ground that are
greater mobility, even at relatively low only a few meters wide but can be
temperature. several meters in length.
RHYOLITIC- characterized by lower  Are not usually explosive. Instead,
temperature of fusion but are more viscous the lava seeps out the gaps in the
and less mobile even at relatively high surface of the crust.
temperature.
WHAT CAUSES VOLCANOES?
-Volcanic activity frequently occurs on the
boundaries of tectonic plates as the
pressure within causes the magma below to
rise up and explode or escape to the
surface.
DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES
- where new crust is generated as the
plates pull away from each other
SHIELD VOLCANOES
 composed almost entirely of
relatively thin lava flows built up
over a central vent.
 Vent after vent flows out through
the volcano to the center vent.
 Most shield volcanoes have a
roughly circular or oval shape in map
view.
COMPOSITE VOLCANOES
 Are some of the grandest on the
world.
 They are typically large, steep,
symmetrical cones built of
alternating flows of lava ash and
cinders
 Most have a crater at the summit
which contains a central vent or
clustered group of vents.
 Also called as Stratovolcanoes
CINDER CONE VOLCANOES
 Are formed large glob of lava being
launched from a single vent.
 As the gas-charged chambers
explodes, lava gets launched into
the air only to fall back down around
the main vent as cinders in an oval
or circular cone.
 Most have a bowl-shaped crater in
the center.
THE RING OF FIRE
 The Ring of Fire is a string of
volcanoes that runs around the edge
of the Pacific Ocean.
 The Ring of Fire is quite a circle,
more like 40,000 kilometer long
horseshoe.
 A string of 452 volcanoes stretches
from the southern tip of South
America, up along the coast of North
America, across the Being Strait,
down through Japan, and into New
Zealand
TYPES OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY
PHREATIC TYPE – an eruption driven by the
heat from magma interacting with water.
The water can be from groundwater,
surface runoff, a lake or the sea. Phreatic
eruptions pulverize surrounding rocks and
can produce ash but do not include new
magma.
ICELANDIC TYPE – an eruption
characterized by effusions of molten
basaltic lava that flow from long, parallel
fissures. Such outpourings often build lava
plateaus.
PELEAN TYPE – Peléan eruptions are
characterized most prominently by the
incandescent pyroclastic flows that they
drive. Peléan eruptions (or nuée ardente)
are a type of volcanic eruption, named after
the volcano Mount Pelée in Martinique, the
site of a massive Peléan eruption in 1902
that is one of the worst natural disasters in
history.
VULCANIAN TYPE – its eruption is
characterized by the solidification of the
lava between explosion, and as a result, the
clouds emitted are not incandescent. When
very old and cold material is ejected, the
eruption is often termed ultra- Vulcanian.
Vulcanian eruptions are small to moderate
explosive eruptions, lasting seconds to
minutes. Ash columns can be up to 20 km in
height, and lava blocks and bombs may be
ejected from the vent.
HAWAIIAN TYPE – the mildest form of
activity, and is characterized by quiet flows
of thinly liquid lava without explosive
escape of gases and the ejection of
fragmental material. Hawaiian eruptions are
a type of volcanic eruption named after the
Hawaiian volcanoes with which this
eruptive type is hallmark. Hawaiian
eruptions are the calmest types of volcanic
events, characterized by the effusive
eruption of very fluid basalt-type lavas with
low gaseous content.
STROMBOLIAN TYPE – marked by mild
explosions occurring every 10 to 15
minutes. The lava does not crust over
between successive eruptions and clouds of
incandescent materials are emitted.
Strombolian eruptions are the smallest type
of explosive eruptions. Strombolian
eruptions consist of intermittent, generally
relatively small explosions or weak pulsating
fountains of fluid (usually basaltic) lava from
a single vent or crater.
PLINIAN TYPE – the most extremely violent
activity of the Vesuvian type. The gases are
expelled with great violence to a height of
several miles.
Plinian eruptions (or Vesuvian) are a type of
volcanic eruption, named for the historical
eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 of Mount
Vesuvius that buried the Roman towns of
Pompeii and Herculaneum.
Plinian eruptions are similar to both
Vulcanian and Strombolian eruptions,
except that rather than creating discrete
explosive events, Plinian eruptions form
sustained eruptive columns.
PREDICTION OF ERUPTIONS
The best criteria of impending activity are:
1. Increase in the frequency of local
earthquakes,
2. Swelling of the volcanic edifice
indicated by accumulating earth tilt;
3. Unusual changes in the behavior of
hot springs;
4. Comparison of former cycles of
activity;
5. Strong magnetic disturbance;
6. Low buzzing sounds detectable by
the use of earth-contact
microphones;
7. Sympathetic eruptions of
neighboring volcanoes;
8. When the lava stands high in the
conduits and the conditions of
eruption are at hand, the precise
time eruption may be influenced by
lunar-solar controls and;
9. When the lava column is high, the
danger of flank eruptions is at
maximum.
 EARTHQUAKES
EARTHQUAKE – is the shaking of the earth
caused by the sudden release of energy
from rocks under tectonic stress.
SEISMOLOGY - as the scientific study of
earthquake is called, is one of the youngest
of the natural sciences, but despite its brief
life span, great progress has been made in
explaining the origin and mechanics of
earthquakes.
FOCUS AND EPICENTER
FOCUS – is where it begins, this is where the
plate slips on a fault line, usually at the
plate edges.
EPICENTER – is the point directly above the
focus on the surface of the earth. This area
will suffer from the most direct damage
SEISMIC WAVES – are the waves of energy
caused by the braking of rock during an
Earthquake.
INSTRUMENTAL RECORDING OF
EARTHQUAKES
 The vibrations earthquakes produce
are detected, recorded and
measured by instruments called
SEISMOGRAPHS.
 The line made by seismograph is
called a SEISMOGRAM and shows
the changing intensity of the
earthquake by responding to motion
of the ground below the instrument.
 From the data expressed in
seismograms, scientist are able to
determine the time, the epicenter,
the focal depth, the type of faulting
of an earthquake and how much
energy was released.
Engineering Connection
-While volcanoes cannot be prevented, we can
do our best to predict them so that human
populations near volcanoes can be safely
evacuated before an eruption. To predict
eruptions, engineers design and build many
different devices to detect subtle changes in a
volcano that occur before it erupts. Engineers
use their science and math skills to build
specialized instruments that can detect gases,
changes in the shape of the volcano, as well as
monitor earthquakes that may signal a possible
eruption.
 TUNNEL
• A tunnel is an underground
passageway, dug through the
surrounding soil/earth/rock and
enclosed except for entrance and exit,
commonly at each end.
• A tunnel may be for foot or vehicular
road traffic, for rail traffic, or for
a canal. The central portions of a rapid
transit network are usually in the
tunnel. Some tunnels are aqueducts to
supply water for consumption or
for hydroelectric stations or
are sewers.
TYPES OF TUNNELS
Utility tunnels are used for routing steam,
chilled water, electrical power or
telecommunication cables, as well as
connecting buildings for convenient passage
of people and equipment.
Utility Tunnel for heating Pipes between
Rigshospitalet and Amagerværket in
Copenhagen, Denmark
Secret tunnels are built for military
purposes, or by civilians for smuggling of
weapons, contraband or people.
Grand Hotel Secret Tunnel, Taiwan
Special tunnels, such as wildlife crossings,
are built to allow wildlife to cross human-
made barriers safely. Tunnels can be
connected together in tunnel networks
Wildwissel Woeste
Hoeve, Netherlands
 cycle or animal tunnel beneath a
road or railway is called a subway,
 A major tunnel project must start
with a comprehensive investigation
of ground conditions by collecting
samples from boreholes and by
other geophysical techniques.
 This may be a particular concern in
large-diameter tunnels. To give
more information, a pilot tunnel (or
"drift tunnel") may be driven ahead
of the main excavation.
Stand-up time is the amount of time a
newly excavated cavity can support
itself without any added structures.
Groundwater control is very important
in tunnel construction. Water leaking
into a tunnel or vertical shaft will
greatly decrease stand-up time,
causing the excavation to become
unstable and risking collapse.
Tunnel cross-sectional shape is also
very important in determining stand-
up time. If a tunnel excavation is wider
than it is high, it will have a harder time
supporting itself, decreasing its stand-
up time. A square or rectangular
excavation is more difficult to make
self-supporting, because of a
concentration of stress at the corners.
COSTRUCTION
-There are three basic types of tunnel
construction in common use.
1. Cut-and-cover tunnels are
constructed in a shallow trench and
then covered over.
2. Bored tunnels are constructed in situ,
without removing the ground above.
3. Finally, a tube can be sunk into a body
of water, which is called an immersed
tunnel.
• Two basic forms of cut-and-cover
tunneling are available:
1. Bottom-up method
2. Top-down method
Types of Tunnels Construction Machines
• Cutter head
• Electric Crawler Excavator
• Electric Wheel Loader
• Road Header
• Rotary Cutter
• Spiral Conveyor
• Tunnel Boring Machinery
Cutter Head
-A rotating head, which itself forms a
cutter, or a rotating stock to which
cutters may be attached, as planning or
matching machine.
Electric Crawler Excavator
-Use either electric or diesel motors.
These are then mounted on tracks.
Once the material is excavated, it is
then transferred to the rear excavator
using integrated on-board conveyor
system.
Electric Wheel Loader
-Electric wheel loaders provide
emissions as well as noise reduction,
expanding the range of applications
and environments in which they can be
used. Electrically powered wheel
loaders are among some of the more
recent machine introductions.
Road Header
-It is a piece of excavating equipment
consisting a boom mounted cutting head, a
loading machine usually involving a
conveyor and a crawler travelling track to
move the whole machine forward into the
rock face. The road header also includes
separate part, multi purpose hydraulic
cutting heads for increasing on excavators.
Rotary Cutter
-Ideal for trenching, profiling and
resurfacing rock and cement walls,
quarrying, demolitions, dredging and
finishing operations. They do not
produce strong vibrations or high noise
levels.
Spiral Conveyors
-Spiral conveyors are those types of
conveyors that are very effective in
tight places. They are also known as
spiral lift, spiral curve, spiral elevator, or
spiral lowerator, case lift and case elevator.
During tunnel excavation process, materials
after being crushed are removed from the
boring chamber by the spiral conveyor.
Tunnel Boring Machinery
-Also known as “mole” is a machine used to
excavate tunnels with a circular cross
section through variety of soil and rock
strata. They may also be used for
microtunnelling. They can be designed to
bore through anything from hard rock to
sand.

“ But that’s life. One long tunnel. There are

lights along the way. Sometimes they feel
spread apart than others, but they’re
there. And when you find one, it’s okay to
stand under it for a while to catch your
breath before marching back into the
dark.”