Managing for Quality and

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CHAPTER 6

Statistical Methods in Quality Management

Teaching Notes

This chapter describes concepts of statistics, statistical thinking, statistical methodology,

sampling, experimental design, and process capability. Students should be encouraged to take a
“big picture” perspective on this framework, rather than the approach of: “How do I get the right
answer?”

Although this chapter reviews many of the basic concepts and techniques of statistics that are
relevant to the technical areas of statistical process control (SPC), it is by no means

1
Statistical Methods in Quality Management 2

comprehensive. Students should be encouraged to consult a statistics textbook for further

insights on the topics in this chapter. These topics are typically covered in business or
engineering statistics course that students should have had prior to taking a course using this text.
Key objectives for this chapter include:

• To establish the importance of statistics as the "bridge" between quality of design and
quality of conformance. The proper use of statistics is highlighted as a quality
improvement tool.

• To help students appreciate the importance of statistical thinking in order to understand

inter-related processes, process variation, and the need to reduce it in order to assure
quality in operations.

• To review definitions and concepts of statistics, and relate them to quality control
applications. Spreadsheet techniques for statistical analysis with Excel® software are
also emphasized.

• To introduce the use of Design of Experiments (DOE) as a tool for drawing conclusions
regarding controllable process factors and/or comparing methods for process
development or improvement.

• To help students to understand the concept of process capability and its effects on quality
and conformance to specifications.

• To introduce the concept of statistical measurement of service quality

The Instructor’s Resource folder on the website for this chapter has a number of Baldrige video
clips which give an inside view of organizations that have received the Baldrige award. A couple
of those that are especially appropriate for this chapter, have scenes that show how statistical
thinking and concepts can enhance an organization’s quest for world-class quality.

ANSWERS TO QUALITY IN PRACTICE QUESTIONS

Improving Quality of a Wave Soldering Process Through the Design of Experiments

1. The first experimental design at the HP plant did not achieve the true optimum
combination of factors, because not all combinations were tested. It is theoretically
possible that a better combination of factors exists among those that were not tested.
Thus, the ones that were tested could be considered a “random sampling” of all of the
possibilities. It is also likely that some interaction effects were at work, so some of the
combinations that produced a higher number of defects had to be eliminated.
Statistical Methods in Quality Management 3

2. Experimental design allows the experimenter to systematically evaluate two or more

methods to determine which is better, or to determine the levels of controllable factors to
optimize process yields or minimize variation of a response variable. Therefore, it is
generally faster and more efficient than using one at a time, trial-and-error methods.

Applying Statistical Analysis in a Six Sigma Project at GE-Fanuc

1. This case showed how wave soldering technology was applied to electronic circuit boards
in a process that is very similar to the “Improving Quality of a Wave Soldering Process
Through the Design of Experiments” case, above. There are many variables that must be
taken into account in order to improve the process, some of which are the “true” root
causes of the problems in the process, but many are not. Thus, the “critical” X’s
(independent variables) must be separated from the “insignificant many,” in order to
solve the process problems. Many individuals were involved because this was a cross-
functional process problem. No one team member had all of the knowledge, but together,
they had all that was needed.

2. The Ni-Au boards could have originally been selected for any number of reasons. Reports
on the advantages of using Ni-Au boards could have been read in technical journals, a
persuasive salesperson for the vendor may have “sold” it as a solution to other problems,
the process may have been changed to correct problems that existed at that time, Ni-Au
boards may have been competitive when the improvements in scrap rates were taken into
account, or it might simply have been a matter of not having the methodology and
expertise to do the comparative analysis needed to find out that the Ni-Au boards were
no better than less expensive ones.

3. The F-test shows that the vendors, finishes, and interaction effects are all highly
significant for this particular independent variable, “Wave Solder Skips.” Thus, the team
must further analyze the defects to find out why the vendors’ products vary from their
competitors’, how the finishes differ, and what the interaction effects are.

ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Statistics is a science concerned with “the collection, organization, analysis,

interpretation, and presentation of data.” Statistics is essential for quality and for
implementing a continuous improvement philosophy. Statistical methods help managers
make sense of data and gain insight about the nature of variation in the processes they
manage. All managers, supervisors, and production and clerical workers should have
some knowledge of basic statistical methods and applications.

2. In statistical terminology, an experiment is a process that results in some outcome. The

outcome of an experiment is a result that we observe. The collection of all possible
outcomes of an experiment is called the sample space. A sample space may consist of a
small number of discrete outcomes or an infinite number of outcomes. Probability is the
Statistical Methods in Quality Management 4

likelihood that an outcome occurs.

3. The following rules apply to calculating probabilities of events:

Rule 1: The probability of any event is the sum of the probabilities of the outcomes that
compose that event.
Rule 2: The probability of the complement of any event A is P(Ac) = 1 – P(A).
( )
Rule 3: If events A and B are mutually exclusive, then P(A or B) = P A + P B . ( )
Rule 4: If two events A and B are not mutually exclusive, then P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)
– P(A and B). Here, (A and B) represents the intersection of events A and B; that is, all
outcomes belonging to both A and B.

4. The multiplication rule of probability is: P(A and B) = P(A | B) P(B) = P(B | A) P(A),
where P(A | B) reads as the conditional probability of A, given B. Conditional
probability is the probability of occurrence of one event A, given that another event B is
known to be true or have already occurred.

Two events A and B are independent if P(A | B) = P(A). If two events are independent,
then we can simplify the multiplication rule of probability in equation (6.2) by
substituting P(A) for P(A | B): P(A and B) = P(B) P(A) = P(A)P(B).

5. The two most important types of probability distributions are discrete and continuous
probability distributions. Under the discrete category, the binomial and Poisson
distributions are the most important. The binomial distribution calculates the
probability of exactly x successes in a sequence of n identical experiments, called trials.
The Poisson distribution is closely related to the binomial. It is derived by allowing the
sample size n to become very large, while the probability of success or failure (p) to
become very small (approaching 0).

A curve that characterizes outcomes of a continuous random variable is called a

probability density function, and is described by a mathematical function f(x). For
continuous random variables, it does not make mathematical sense to attempt to define
a probability for a specific value of x because there are an infinite number of values.

Sample statistics such as , s, and p are random variables that have their own
probability distribution, mean, and variance. Thus, different samples will produce
different estimates of the population parameters. These probability distributions are
called sampling distributions. A sampling distribution is the distribution a statistic for
all possible samples of a fixed size. In quality, the sampling distributions of and p
are of the most interest.

6. A probability distribution can be either discrete or continuous, depending on the nature

of the random variable it models. For discrete probability distributions, a complete,
Statistical Methods in Quality Management 5

finite number of outcomes and their associated probabilities of occurrence can be listed.
These outcomes are called a list of mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive
outcomes.

A continuous random variable is defined over one or more intervals of real numbers,
and therefore, has an infinite number of possible outcomes. A curve that characterizes
outcomes of a continuous random variable is called a probability density function, and
is described by a mathematical function f(x). For continuous random variables, it does
not make mathematical sense to attempt to define a probability for a specific value of x
because there are an infinite number of values. Probabilities are only defined over
intervals.

Discrete variables are used to measure whether tangible or intangible output from a
process is acceptable or not acceptable (good or bad; defective, or not defective). Discrete
variables are often used to classify the quality level of customer service. Was the patient
in the hospital satisfied or dissatisfied; customer compliments versus complaints for a
tour firm; did the marketing research firm accurately or inaccurately prepare the report?
Continuous variables are used to measure quantifiable characteristics, such as time,
temperature, weight, dimensions (in inches or millimeters). They are only limited by the
accuracy of the measuring instrument being used (for example, atomic clocks can
measure time to millionth of a second or finer accuracy). Thus, in quality control
applications, continuous variables are used to measure dimensions of parts in an
automotive supplier, temperature in drying processes, or times required to service each
customer in a bank.

7. The three basic elements of statistical methodology are descriptive statistics, statistical
inference and predictive statistics. The methods for the efficient collection,
organization, and description of data are called descriptive statistics. Statistical
inference is the process of drawing conclusions about unknown characteristics of a
population from which the data were taken. Predictive statistics is used to develop
predictions of future values based on historical data. The three differ in approach,
purpose, and outcomes. Descriptive statistics simply summarize and report on existing
conditions, inference helps to make decisions about population characteristics based on
sample data. Predictive statistics attempt to look into the future and state what will be
the results, if certain assumptions hold. All three of these can be important to a manager
who is trying to describe the current characteristics of a process, or make inferences
about whether a process is in control, or predict future values of instrument readings in
order to determine whether it is properly calibrated.

8. Methods of sample selection, or sampling schemes, include: simple random sampling,

stratified sampling, systematic sampling and cluster sampling. Simple random sampling
is useful where one needs to gather information from a moderately large, homogeneous
population of items. For example, if a MBA director wished to find out the attitudes of
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followed behind without the fasces. Their authority was equal; yet
the Valerian law gave the right of priority to the older, and the Julian
law to him who had the most children, and he was generally called
consul major or prior. As their power was absolute, they presided
over the senate, and could convene and dismiss it at pleasure. The
senators were their counsellors; and among the Romans, the manner
of reckoning their years was by the name of the consuls, and by
Marcus Tullius Cicerone & L. Antonio Consulibus, for instance, the
year of Rome 691 was always understood. This custom lasted from
the year of Rome 244 till the year 1294, or 541st year of the christian
era, when the consular office was totally suppressed by Justinian. In
public assemblies the consuls sat in ivory chairs and held in their
hands an ivory wand, called scipio eburneus, which had an eagle on
its top, as a sign of dignity and power. When they had drawn by lot
the provinces over which they were to preside during their
consulship, they went to the Capitol to offer their prayers to the gods,
and entreat them to protect the republic; after this they departed from
the city, arrayed in their military dress, and preceded by the lictors.
Sometimes the provinces were assigned them, without drawing by
lot, by the will and appointment of the senators. At their departure
they were provided by the state with whatever was requisite during
their expedition. In their provinces they were both attended by the 12
lictors, and equally invested with regal authority. They were not
permitted to return to Rome without the special command of the
senate, and they always remained in their province till the arrival of
their successor. At their return they harangued the people, and
solemnly protested that they had done nothing against the laws or
interest of their country, but had faithfully and diligently
endeavoured to promote the greatness and welfare of the state. No
man could be consul two following years; yet this institution was
sometimes broken, and we find Marius re-elected consul, after the
expiration of his office, during the Cimprian war. The office of
consul, so dignified during the times of the commonwealth, became a
mere title under the emperors, and retained nothing of its authority
but the useless ensigns of original dignity. Even the office of consul,
which was originally annual, was reduced to two or three months by
Julius Cæsar; but they who were admitted on the 1st of January
denominated the year, and were called ordinarii. Their successors,
during the year, were distinguished by the name of suffecti. Tiberius
and Claudius abridged the time of the consulship, and the emperor
 Commodus made no less than 25 consuls in one year. Constantine the
Great renewed the original institution, and permitted them to be a
whole year in office.――Here is annexed a list of the consuls from
the establishment of the consular power to the battle of Actium, in
which it may be said that the authority of the consuls was totally
extinguished.

♦ ‘misbehavour’ replaced with ‘misbehaviour’

The first two consuls, chosen about the middle of June, A.U.C. 244, were
Lucius Junius Brutus and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus. Collatinus
retired from Rome as being of the family of the Tarquins, and
Publius Valerius was chosen in his room. When Brutus was killed in
battle, Spurius Lucretius was elected to succeed him; and after the
death of Lucretius, Marcus Horatius was chosen for the rest of the
year with Valerius Publicola. The first consulship lasted about 16
months, during which the Romans fought against the Tarquins, and
the Capitol was dedicated.

A.U.C. 246. Publius Valerius Publicola 2; Titus Lucretius. Porsenna

supported the claims of Tarquin. The noble actions of Cocles,
Scævola, and Clœlia.

A.U.C. 247. Publius Lucretius, or Marcus Horatius; Publius Valerius

Publicola 3. The vain efforts of Porsenna continued.

A.U.C. 248. Spurius Lartius; Titus Herminus. Victories obtained over the
Sabines.

A.U.C. 249. Marcus Valerius; Publius Postumius. Wars with the Sabines
continued.

A.U.C. 250. Publius Valerius 4; Titus Lucretius 2.

A.U.C. 251. Agrippa Menenius; Publius Postumius 2. The death of

Publicola.

A.U.C. 252. Opiter Virginius; Spurius Cassius. Sabine war.

A.U.C. 253. Postumius Cominius; Titus Lartius. A conspiracy of slaves

at Rome.
A.U.C. 254. Servvius Sulpicius; Marcus Tullus.

A.U.C. 255. Publius Veturius Geminus; Titus Æbutius Elva.

A.U.C. 256. Titus Lartius 2; Quintus Clœlius. War with the Latins.

A.U.C. 257. Aulus Sempronius Atratinus; Marcus Minucius.

A.U.C. 258. Aulus Postumius; Titus Virginius. The battle of Regillæ.

A.U.C. 259. Appius Claudius; Publius Servilius. War with the Volsci.

A.U.C. 260. Aulus Virginius; Titus Veturius. The dissatisfied people

retired to Mons Sacer.

A.U.C. 261. Postumius Cominius 2; Spurius Cassius 2. A reconciliation

between the senate and people, and the election of the tribunes.

A.U.C. 262. Titus Geganius; Publius Minucius. A famine at Rome.

A.U.C. 263. Marcus Minucius 2; Aulus Sempronius 2. The haughty

behaviour of Coriolanus to the populace.

A.U.C. 264. Quintus Sulpicius Camerinus; Spurius Lartius Flavus 2.

Coriolanus retires to the Volsci.

A.U.C. 265. Caius Julius; Paius Pinarius. The Volsci make declarations
of war.

A.U.C. 266. Spurius Nautius; Sextus Furius. Coriolanus forms the siege
of Rome. He retires at the entreaties of his mother and wife, and dies.

A.U.C. 267. Titus Sicinius; Caius Aquilius. The Volsci defeated.

A.U.C. 268. Spurius Cassius 3; Proculus Virginius. Cassius aspires to

tyranny.

A.U.C. 269. Servius Cornelius; Quintus Fabius. Cassius is condemned,

and thrown down the Tarpeian rock.

A.U.C. 270. Lucius Æmilius; Cæsio Fabius. The Æqui and Volsci
defeated.
A.U.C. 271. Marcus Fabius; Lucius Valerius.

A.U.C. 272. Qucius Fabius 2; Caius Julius. War with the Æqui.

A.U.C. 273. Cæsio Fabius 2; Spurius Furius. War continued with the
Æqui and Veientes.

A.U.C. 274. Marcus Fabius 2; Cnæus Manlius. Victory over the Hernici.

A.U.C. 275. Cæsio Fabius 3; Titus Virginius. The march of the Fabii to
the river Cremera.

A.U.C. 276. Lucius Æmilius 2; C. Servilius. The wars continued against

the neighbouring states.

A.U.C. 277. Caius Horatius; Titus Menenius. The defeat and death of the
300 Fabii.

A.U.C. 278. Spurius Servilius; Aulus Virginius. Menenius brought to his

trial for the defeat of the armies under him.

A.U.C. 279. Caius Nautius; Publius Valerius.

A.U.C. 280. Lucius Furius; Cublius Manlius. A truce of 40 years granted

to the Veientes.

A.U.C. 281. Lucius Æmilius 3; Virginius or Vopiscus Julius. The tribune

Genutius murdered in his bed for his seditions.

A.U.C. 282. Lucius Pinarius; Publius Furius.

A.U.C. 283. Appius Claudius; Titus Quintius. The Roman army suffer
themselves to be defeated by the Volsci on account of their hatred to
Appius, while his colleague is boldly and cheerfully obeyed against
the Æqui.

A.U.C. 284. Lucius Valerius 2; Tiberius Æmilius. Appius is cited to take

his trial before the people, and dies before the day of trial.

A.U.C. 285. Titus Numicius Priscus; Aulus Virginius.

A.U.C. 286. Tulus Quintius 2; Quintus Servilius.

A.U.C. 287. Tiberius Æmilius 2; Quintus Fabius.

A.U.C. 288. Quintus Servilius 2; Spurius Postumius.

A.U.C. 289. Quintus Fabius 2; Titus Quintius 3. In the census made this
year, which was the ninth, there were found 124,214 citizens in
Rome.

A.U.C. 290. Aulus Postumius; Spurius Furius.

A.U.C. 291. Lucius Æbutius; Publius Servilius. A plague at Rome.

A.U.C. 292. Lucius Lucretius Tricipitinus; Titus Veturius Geminus.

A.U.C. 293. Publius Volumnius; Servius Sulpicius. Dreadful prodigies at

Rome, and seditions.

A.U.C. 294. Caius Claudius; Publius Valerius 2. A Sabine seizes the

Capitol, and is defeated and killed. Valerius is killed in an
engagement, and Cincinnatus is taken from the plough, and made
dictator; he quelled the dissensions at Rome, and returned to his
farm.

A.U.C. 295. Quintus Fabius 3; Lucius Cornelius. The census made the
Romans amount to 132,049.

A.U.C. 296. Lucius Minucius; Caius Nautius 2. Minucius is besieged in

his camp by the Æqui; and Cincinnatus, being elected dictator,
delivers him, obtains a victory, and lays down his power 16 days
after his election.

A.U.C. 297. Quintus Minucius; Caius Horatius. War with the Æqui and
Sabines. Ten tribunes elected instead of five.

A.U.C. 298. Marcus Valerius; Spurius Virginius.

A.U.C. 299. Titus Romilius; Caius Veturius.

A.U.C. 300. Spurius Tarpeius; Aulus Aterius.

A.U.C. 301. Publius Curiatius; Sextus Quintilius.

A.U.C. 302. Titus Menenius; Publius Cestius Capitolinus. The
Decemvirs reduce the laws into 12 tables.

A.U.C. 303. Appius Claudius; Titus Genutius; Publius Cestius, &c. The
Decemvirs assume the reins of government, and preside with
consular power.

A.U.C. 304 & 305. Appius Claudius; Quintus Fabius Vibulanus; Marcus
Cornelius, &c. The Decemvirs continued. They act with violence.
Appius endeavours to take possession of Virginia, who is killed by
her father. The Decemvirs abolished, and Valerius Potitus, Marcus
Horatius Barbatus, are created consuls for the rest of the year. Appius
is summoned to take his trial. He dies in prison, and the rest of the
Decemvirs are banished.

A.U.C. 306. Lars Herminius; Titus Virginius.

A.U.C. 307. Marcus Geganius Macerinus; Caius Julius. Domestic

troubles.

A.U.C. 308. Titus Quintius Capitolinus 4; Agrippa Furius. The Æqui and
Volsci come near the gates of Rome, and are defeated.

A.U.C. 309. Marcus Genucius; Caius Curtius. A law passed to permit the
patrician and plebeian families to intermarry.

A.U.C. 310. Military tribunes are chosen instead of consuls. The

plebeians admitted among them. The first were Aulus Sempronius;
Lucius Atilius; Titus Clœlius. They abdicated three months after their
election, and consuls were again chosen. Lucius Papirius Mugillanus;
Lucius Sempronius Atratinus.

A.U.C. 311. Marcus Geganius Macerinus 2; Titus Quintius Capitolinus

5. The censorship instituted.

A.U.C. 312. Marcus Fabius Vibulanus; Postumius Æbutius Cornicen.

A.U.C. 313. Caius Furius Pacilus; Maius Papirius Crassus.

A.U.C. 314. Proculus Geganius Macerinus; Lucius Menenius Lanatus. A

famine at Rome. Mælius attempts to make himself king.
A.U.C. 315. Titus Quintius Capitolinus 6; Agrippa Menenius Lanatus.

A.U.C. 316. Mamercus Æmilius; Lucius Quintius; Lucius Julius.

Military tribunes.

A.U.C. 317. Marcus Geganius Macerinus; Sergius Fidenas. Tolumnius

king of the Veientes killed by Cossus, who takes the second royal
spoils called Opima.

A.U.C. 318. Marcus Cornelius Maluginensis; Lucius Papirius Crassus.

A.U.C. 319. Caius Julius; Lucius Virginius.

A.U.C. 320. Caius Julius 2; Lucius Virginius 2. The duration of the

censorship limited to 18 months.

A.U.C. 321. Marcus Fabius Vibulanus; Marcus Fossius; Lucius Sergius

Fidenas. Military tribunes.

A.U.C. 322. Lucius Pinarius Mamercus; Lucius Furius Medullinus;

Spurius Postumius Albus. Military tribunes.

A.U.C. 323. Titus Quintius Cincinnatus; Caius Julius Manto; consuls. A

victory over the Veientes and Fidenates by the dictator Posthumius.

A.U.C. 324. Caius Papirius Crassus; Lucius Julius.

A.U.C. 325. Lucius Sergius Fidenas 2; Hostus Lucretius Tricipitinus.

A.U.C. 326. Aulus Cornelius Cossus; Titus Quintus Pennus 2.

A.U.C. 327. Servilius Ahala; Lucius Papirius Mugillanus 2.

A.U.C. 328. Titus Quintius Pennus; Caius Furius; Marcus Posthumius;

Aulus Cornelius Cossus. Military tribunes, all of patrician families.
Victory over the Veientes.

A.U.C. 329. Aarcus Sempronius Atratinus; Lucius Quintius Cincinnatus;

Lucius Furius Medullinus; Lucius Horatius Barbatus.

A.U.C. 330. Appius Claudius Crassus, &c. Military tribunes.

A.U.C. 331. Caius Sempronius Atratinus; Quintus Fabius Vibulanus.
Consuls who gave much dissatisfaction to the people.

A.U.C. 332. Lucius Manlius Capitolinus, &c. Military tribunes.

A.U.C. 333. Numerius Fabius Vibulanus; Titus Quinctius Capitolinus.

A.U.C. 334. Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus 3; Lucius Furius Medullinus

2; Mucius Manlius; Aulus Sempronius Atratinus. Military tribunes.

A.U.C. 335. Agrippa Menenius Lanatus, &c. Military tribunes.

A.U.C. 336. Lucius Sergius Fidenas; Marcus Papirius Mugillanus; Caius

Servilius.

A.U.C. 337. Agrippa Menenius Lanatus 2, &c.

A.U.C. 338. Agrippa Sempronius Atratinus 3, &c.

A.U.C. 339. Publius Cornelius Cossus, &c.

A.U.C. 340. Cnæus Cornelius Cossus, &c. One of the military tribunes
stoned to death by the army.

A.U.C. 341. Aulus Cornelius Cossus; Lucius Furius Medullinus, consuls.

Domestic seditions.

A.U.C. 342. Quintus Fabius Ambustus; Caius Furius Pacilus.

A.U.C. 343. Marcus Papirius Atratinus. Spurius Nautius Rutilus.

A.U.C. 344. Mamercus Æmilius; Caius Valerius Potitus.

A.U.C. 345. Cnaeus Cornelius Cossus; Lucius Furius Medullinus 2.

Plebeians for the first time questors.

A.U.C. 346. Caius Julius, &c. Military tribunes.

A.U.C. 347. Lucius Furius Medullinus, &c. Military tribunes.

A.U.C. 348. Publius & Cnæus Cornelii Cossi, &c. Military tribunes. This
year the Roman soldiers first received pay.
A.U.C. 349. Titus Quintius Capitolinus, &c. Military tribunes. The siege
of Veii begun.

A.U.C. 350. Caius Valerius Potitus &c. Military tribunes.

A.U.C. 351. Manlius Æmilius Mamercinus, &c. The Roman cavalry

begin to receive pay.

A.U.C. 352. Caius Servilius Ahala, &c. A defeat at Veii, occasioned by a

quarrel between two of the military tribunes.

A.U.C. 353. Lucius Valerius Potitus 4; Marcus Furius Camillus 2, &c. A

military tribune chosen from among the plebeians.

A.U.C. 354. Publius Licinius Calvus, &c.

A.U.C. 355. Marcus Veturius, &c.

A.U.C. 356. Lucius Valerius Potitus 5; Marcus Furius Camillus 3, &c.

A.U.C. 357. Lucius Julius Iulus, &c.

A.U.C. 358. Publius Licinius, &c. Camillus declared dictator. The city of
Veii taken by means of a mine. Camillus obtains a triumph.

A.U.C. 359. Publius Cornelius Cossus, &c. The people wished to

remove to Veii.

A.U.C. 360. Marcus Furius Camillus, &c.; Falisci surrendered to the

Romans.

A.U.C. 361. Lucius Lucretius Flaccus; Servius Sulpicius Camerinus,

Consuls, after Rome had been governed by military tribunes for 15
successive years. Camillus strongly opposes the removing to Veii,
and it is rejected.

A.U.C. 362. Lucius Valerius Potitus; Mucius Manlius. One of the

censors dies.

A.U.C. 363. Lucius Lucretius, &c. Military tribunes. A strange voice

heard, which foretold the approach of the Gauls. Camillus goes to
 banishment to Ardea. The Gauls besiege Clusium, and soon after
march towards Rome.

A.U.C. 364. Three Fabii military tribunes. The Romans defeated at Allia,
by the Gauls. The Gauls enter Rome, and set it on fire. Camillus
declared dictator by the senate, who had retired into the Capitol. The
geese save the Capitol, and Camillus suddenly comes and defeats the
Gauls.

A.U.C. 365. Lucius Valerius Poplicola 3; Lucius Virginius, &c. Camillus

declared dictator, defeats the Volsci, Æqui, and Tuscans.

A.U.C. 366. Titus Quinctius Cincinnatus; Quintus Servilius Fidenas;

Lucius Julius Iulus.

A.U.C. 367. Lucius Papirius; Cnæus Sergius; Lucius Æmilius, &c.

A.U.C. 368. Marcus Furius Camillus, &c.

A.U.C. 369. Aulus Manlius; Publius Cornelius, &c. The Volsci defeated.
Manlius aims at royalty.

A.U.C. 370. Servius Cornelius Maluginensis; Publius Valerius Potitus;

Marcus Furius ♦Camillus. Manlius is condemned and thrown down
the Tarpeian rock.

♦ ‘Carnillus’ replaced with ‘Camillus’

A.U.C. 371. Lucius Valerius; Aulus Manlius; Servius Sulpicius, &c.

A.U.C. 372. Spurius & Lucius Papirii, &c.

A.U.C. 373. Marcus Furius Camillus; Lucius Furius, &c.

A.U.C. 374. Lucius & Publius Valerii.

A.U.C. 375. Cnæus Manlius, &c.

A.U.C. 376. Spurius Furius, &c.

A.U.C. 377. Lucius Æmilius, &c.

 A.U.C. 378.
A.U.C. 379. For five years anarchy at Rome. No consuls or
A.U.C. 380. military tribunes elected, but only for that time,
Lucius Sextinus; Caius Licinius Calvus Stolo,
A.U.C. 381. tribunes of the people.
A.U.C. 382.

A.U.C. 383. Lucius Furius, &c.

A.U.C. 384. Quintus Servilius; Caius Veturius, &c. Ten magistrates are
chosen to take care of the Sibylline books.

A.U.C. 385. Lucius Qunitus Capitolinus; Spurius Servilius, &c.

A.U.C. 386. According to some writers, Camillus this year was sole
dictator, without consuls or tribunes.

A.U.C. 387. Aulus Cornelius Cossus; Lucius Veturius Crassus, &c. The
Gauls defeated by Camillus. One of the consuls for the future to be
elected from among the plebeians.

A.U.C. 388. Lucius Æmilius, patrician; Lucius Sextius, plebeian;

consuls. The offices of pretor and curule ædile granted to the senate
by the people.

A.U.C. 389. Lucius Genucius; Quintus Servilius. Camillus died.

A.U.C. 390. Caius Sulpicius Peticus; Caius Licinius Stolo.

A.U.C. 391. Cnæus Genucius; Lucius Æmilius.

A.U.C. 392. Quintus Servilius Ahala 2; Lucius Genucius 2. Curtius

devotes himself to the Dii manes.

A.U.C. 393. Caius Sulpicius 2; Caius Licinius 2. Manlius conquers a

Gaul in single battle.

A.U.C. 394. Caius Petilius Balbus; Marcus Fabius Ambustus.

A.U.C. 395. Marcus Popilius Lænas; Cnæus Manlius.

A.U.C. 396. Caius Fabius; Caius Plautius. Gauls defeated.

A.U.C. 397. Caius Marcinus; Cnæus Manlius 2.

A.U.C. 398. Marcus Fabius Ambustus 2; Marcus Popilius Lænas 2. A

dictator elected from the plebeians for the first time.

A.U.C. 399. Caius Sulpicius Peticus 3; Marcus Valerius Poplicola 2;

both of patrician families.

A.U.C. 400. Marcus Fabius Ambustus 3; Titus Quintius.

A.U.C. 401. Caius Sulpicius Peticus 4; Marcus Valerius Poplicola 3.

A.U.C. 402. Publius Valerius Poplicola 4; Caius Marcius Rutilus.

A.U.C. 403. Gaius Sulpicius Peticus 5; Titus Quinctius Pennus. A censor

elected for the first time from the plebeians.

A.U.C. 404. Marcus Popilius Lænas 3; Lucius Cornelius Scipio.

A.U.C. 405. Lucius Furius Camillus; Appius Claudius Crassus. Valerius

surnamed Corvinus, after conquering a Gaul.

A.U.C. 406. Marcus Valerius Corvus; Marcus Popilius Lænas 4. Corvus

was elected at 23 years of age, against the standing law. A treaty of
amity concluded with Carthage.

A.U.C. 407. Titus Manlius Torquatus; Caius Plautius.

A.U.C. 408. Marcus Valerius Corvus 2; Caius Pætilius.

A.U.C. 409. Marcus Fabius Dorso; Servius Sulpicius Camerinus.

A.U.C. 410. Caius Marcius Rutilus; Titus Manlius Torquatus.

A.U.C. 411. Marcus Valerius Corvus 3; Aulus Cornelius Cossus. The

Romans begin to make war against the Samnites, at the request of the
Campanians. They obtained a victory.

A.U.C. 412. Caius Marcius Rutilus 4; Quintus Servilius.

A.U.C. 413. Caius Plautinus; Lucius Æmilius Mamercinus.

A.U.C. 414. Titus Manlius Torquatus 3; Publius Decius Mus. The

victories of Alexander the Great in Asia. Manlius puts his son to
death for fighting against his order. Decius devotes himself for the
army, which obtains a great victory over the Latins.

A.U.C. 415. Tiberius Æmilius Mamercinus; Quintus Publilius Philo.

A.U.C. 416. Lucius Furius Camillus; Caius Mænius. The Latins

conquered.

A.U.C. 417. Caius Sulpicius Longus; Publius Ælius Pætus. The

pretorship granted to a plebeian.

A.U.C. 418. Lucius Papirius Crassus; Cæso Duillius.

A.U.C. 419. Marcus Valerius Corvus; Marcus Atilius Regulus.

A.U.C. 420. Titus Veturius; Spurius Posthumius.

A.U.C. 421. Lucius Papirius Cursor; Caius Pætilius Libo.

A.U.C. 422. Aulus Cornelius 2; Cnæus Domitius.

A.U.C. 423. Marcus Claudius Marcellus; Caius Valerius Potitus.

A.U.C. 424. Lucius Papirius Crassus; Caius Plautius Venno.

A.U.C. 425. Lucius Æmilius Mamercinus 2; Caius Plautius.

A.U.C. 426. Publius Plautius Proculus; Publius Cornelius Scapula.

A.U.C. 427. Lucius Cornelius Lentulus; Quintus Publilius Philo 2.

A.U.C. 428. Caius Pætilius; Lucius Papirius Mugillanus.

A.U.C. 429. Lucius Furius Camillus 2; Ducius Junius Brutus Scæva. The
dictator Papirius ♦Cursor is for putting to death Fabius his master of
horse, because he fought in his absence, and obtained a famous
victory. He pardons him.
 ♦ ‘Curso’ replaced with ‘Cursor’

A.U.C. 430. According to some authors, there were no consuls elected

this year, but only a dictator, Lucius Papirius Cursor.

A.U.C. 431. Gaius Sulpicius Longus; Quintus Aulius Cerretanus.

A.U.C. 432. Quintus Fabius; Lucius Fulvius.

A.U.C. 433. Titus Veturius Calvinus 2; Spurius Posthumius Albinus 2.

Caius Pontius the Samnite takes the Roman consuls in an ambuscade
at Caudium.

A.U.C. 434. Lucius Papirius Cursor 2; Quintus Publilius Philo 3.

A.U.C. 435. Lucius Papirius Cursor 3; Quintus Aulius Cerretanus 2.

A.U.C. 436. Marcus Fossius Flaccinator; Lucius Plautius Venno.

A.U.C. 437. Caius Junius Bubulcus; Lucius Æmilius Barbula.

A.U.C. 438. Spurius Nautius; Marcus Popilius.

A.U.C. 439. Lucius Papirius 4; Quintus Publilius 4.

A.U.C. 440. Marcus Pætilius; Caius Sulpicius.

A.U.C. 441. Lucius Papirius Cursor 5; Caius Junius Bubulcus 2.

A.U.C. 442. Marcus Valerius; Publius Decius. The censor Appius makes
the Appian way and aqueducts. The family of the Potitii extinct.

A.U.C. 443. Caius Junius Bubulcus 3; Quintus Æmilius Barbula 2.

A.U.C. 444. Quintus Fabius 2; Caius Martius Rutilius.

A.U.C. 445. According to some authors, there were no consuls elected

this year, but only a dictator. Lucius Papirius Cursor.

A.U.C. 446. Quintus Fabius 3; Pucius Decius 2.

A.U.C. 447. Appius Claudius; Lucius Volumnius.

A.U.C. 448. Publius Cornelius Arvina; Quintus Marcius Tremulus.

A.U.C. 449. Lucius Posthumius; Tiberias Minucius.

A.U.C. 450. Publius Sulpicius Saverrio; Sempronius Sophus. The Æqui

conquered.

A.U.C. 451. Lucius Genucius; Servius Cornelius.

A.U.C. 452. Marcus Livius; Marcus Æmilius.

A.U.C. 453. Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus; Marcus Valerius

Corvus; not consuls, but dictators, according to some authors.

A.U.C. 454. Marcus Valerius Corvus; Quintus Apuleius. The priesthood

made common to the plebeians.

A.U.C. 455. Marcus Fulvius Pætinus; Titus Manlius Torquatus.

A.U.C. 456. Lucius Cornelius Scipio; Cnæus Fulvius.

A.U.C. 457. Quintus Fabius Maximus 4; Publius Decius Mus 3. Wars

against the Samnites.

A.U.C. 458. Lucius Volumnius 2; Appius Claudius 2. Conquest over the

Etrurians and Samnites.

A.U.C. 459. Quintus Fabius 5; Publius Decius 4. Decius devotes himself

in a battle against the Samnites and the Gauls, and the Romans obtain
a victory.

A.U.C. 460. Lucius Posthumius Megellus; Marcus Atilius Regulus.

A.U.C. 461. Lucius Papirius Cursor; Spurius Carvilius. Victories over

the Samnites.

A.U.C. 462. Quintus Fabius Gurges; Decimus Junius Brutus Scæva.

Victory over the Samnites.

A.U.C. 463. Lucius Posthumius 3; Caius Junius Brutus. Æsculapius

brought to Rome in the form of a serpent from Epidaurus.
A.U.C. 464. Publius Cornelius Rufinus; Marcus Curius Dentatus.

A.U.C. 465. Marcus Valerius Corvinus; Quintus Cædicius Noctua.

A.U.C. 466. Quintus Marcius Tremulus; Publius Cornelius Arvina.

A.U.C. 467. Marcus Claudius Marcellus; Caius Nautius.

A.U.C. 468. Marcus Valerius Potitus; Caius Ælius Pætus.

A.U.C. 469. Caius Claudius Cænina; Marcus Æmilius Lepidus.

A.U.C. 470. Caius Servilius Tucca; Cæcilius Metellus. War with the
Senones.

A.U.C. 471. Parcus Cornelius Dolabella; Cnæus Domitius Calvinus. The

Senones defeated.

A.U.C. 472. Qelius Æmilius; Caius Fabricius. War with Tarentum.

A.U.C. 473. Lucius Æmilius Barbula; Qelius Murcius. Pyrrhus comes to

assist Tarentum.

A.U.C. 474. Publius Valerius Lævinus: Tiberius Coruncanius. Pyrrhus

conquers the consul Lævinus, and though victorious sues for peace,
which is refused by the Roman senate. The census was made, and
272,222 citizens were found.

A.U.C. 475. Publius Sulpicius Saverrio; Publius Decius Mus. A battle

with Pyrrhus.

A.U.C. 476. Caius Fabricius Luscinus 2; Quintus Æmilius Papus 2.

Pyrrhus goes to Sicily. The treaty between Rome and Carthage
renewed.

A.U.C. 477. Publius Cornelius Rufinus; Caius Junius Brutus. Crotona

and Locri taken.

A.U.C. 478. Quintus Fabius Maximus Gurges 2; Caius Genucius

Clepsina. Pyrrhus returns from Sicily to Italy.
A.U.C. 479. Manius Curius Dentatus 2; Lucius Cornelius Lentulus.
Pyrrhus finally defeated by Curius.

A.U.C. 480. Manius Curius Dentatus 3; Servius Cornelius Merenda.

A.U.C. 481. Caius Fabius Dorso; Caius Claudius Cænina 2. An embassy

from Philadelphus to conclude an alliance with the Romans.

A.U.C. 482. Lucius Papirius Cursor 2; Spurius Carvilius 2. Tarentum

surrenders.

A.U.C. 483. Lucius Genucius; Caius Quintilius.

A.U.C. 484. Caius Genucius; Cnæus Cornelius.

A.U.C. 485. Quintus Ogulinus Gallus; Caius Fabius Pictor. Silver money
coined at Rome for the first time.

A.U.C. 486. Publius Sempronius Sophus; Appius Claudius Crassus.

A.U.C. 487. Marcus Attilius Regulus; Lucius Julius Libo. Italy enjoys
peace universally.

A.U.C. 488. Numerius Fabius; Decimus Junius.

A.U.C. 489. Quintus Fabius Gurges 3; Lucius Mamilius Vitulus. The

number of the questors doubled to eight.

A.U.C. 490. Appius Claudius Caudex; Marcus Fulvius Flaccus. The

Romans aid the Mamertines, which occasions the first Punic war.
Appius defeats the Carthaginians in Sicily. The combats of gladiators
first instituted.

A.U.C. 491. Manius Valerius Maximus; Manius Otacilius Crassus.

Alliance between Rome and Hiero king of Syracuse. A sun-dial first
put up at Rome, brought from Catana.

A.U.C. 492. Lucius Posthumius Gemellus; Quintus Mamilius Vitulus.

The siege and taking of Agrigentum. The total defeat of the
Carthaginians.

A.U.C. 493. Lucius Valerius Flaccus; Titus Otacilius Crassus.

A.U.C. 494. Cnæus Cornelius Scipio Asina; Caius Duillius. In two
months the Romans build and equip a fleet of 120 galleys. The naval
victory and triumph of Duillius.

A.U.C. 495. Lucius Cornelius Scipio; Caius Aquilius Florus. Expedition

against Sardinia and Corsica.

A.U.C. 496. Aulus Attilius Calatinus; Caius Sulpicius Paterculus. The

Carthaginians defeated in a naval battle.

A.U.C. 497. Caius Attilius Regulus; Cnæus Cornelius Blasio.

A.U.C. 498. Lucius Manlius Vulso; Quintus Cædicius. At the death of

Cædicius, Marcus Attilius Regulus 2 was elected for the rest of the
year. The famous battle of Ecnoma. The victorious consuls land in
Africa.

A.U.C. 499. Servius Fulvius Pætinus Nobilior; Marcus Æmilius Paulus.

Regulus, after many victories in Africa, is defeated and taken
prisoner by Xanthippus. Agrigentum retaken by the Carthaginians.

A.U.C. 500. Cnæus Cornelius Scipio Asina 2; Aulus Attilius Calatinus 2.

Panormus taken by the Romans.

A.U.C. 501. Cnæus Servilius Cæpio; Caius Sempronius Blæsus. The

Romans, discouraged by shipwrecks, renounce the sovereignty of the
seas.

A.U.C. 502. Caius Aurelius Cotta; Publius Servilius Geminus. Citizens

capable to bear arms amounted to 297,797.

A.U.C. 503. Lucius Cæcilius Metellus 2; Caius Furius Pacilus. The

Romans begin to recover their power by sea.

A.U.C. 504. Caius Attilius Regulus 2; Lucius Manlius Volso 2. The

Carthaginians defeated near Panormus in Sicily. One hundred and
forty-two elephants taken and sent to Rome. Regulus advises the
Romans not to exchange prisoners. He is put to death in the most
excruciating torments.
A.U.C. 505. Publius Clodius Pulcher; Lucius Junius Pullus. The Romans
defeated in a naval battle. The Roman fleet lost in a storm.

A.U.C. 506. Caius Aurelius Cotta 2; Publius Servilius Geminus 2.

A.U.C. 507. Lucius Cæcilius Metellus 3; Numerius Fabius Buteo. The

number of the citizens 252,222.

A.U.C. 508. Manius Otacilius Crassus; Marcus Fabius Licinius.

A.U.C. 509. Marcus Fabius Buteo; Caius Attilius Balbus.

A.U.C. 510. Aulus Manlius Torquatus 2; Caius Sempronius Blæsus.

A.U.C. 511. Caius Fundanius Fundulus; Caius Sulpicius Gallus. A fleet

built by individuals at Rome.

A.U.C. 512. Caius Lutatius Catulus; Aulus Posthumius Albinus. The

Carthaginian fleet defeated near the islands Ægates. Peace made
between Rome and Carthage. The Carthaginians evacuate Sicily.

A.U.C. 513. Quintus Lutatius Cerco; Aulus Manlius Atticus. Sicily is

made a Roman province. The 39th census taken. The citizens amount
to 260,000.

A.U.C. 514. Caius Claudius Centho; Marcus Sempronius Tuditanus.

A.U.C. 515. Caius Mamilius Turinus; Quintus Valerius Falto.

A.U.C. 516. Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus; Publius Valerius Falto. The

Carthaginians give up Sardinia to Rome.

A.U.C. 517. Lucius Cornelius Lentulus Caudinus; Quintus Fulvius

Flaccus. The Romans offer Ptolemy Evergetes assistance against
Antiochus Theos.

A.U.C. 518. Publius Cornelius Lentulus Caudinus; Licinius Varus.

Revolt of Corsica and Sardinia.

A.U.C. 519. Caius Attilius Balbus 2; Titus Manlius Torquatus. The

temple of Janus shut for the first time since the reign of Numa, about
440 years. A universal peace at Rome.
A.U.C. 520. Lucius Postumius Albinus; Spurius Carvilius Maximus.

A.U.C. 521. Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus; Manius Pomponius

Matho. Differences and jealousy between Rome and Carthage.

A.U.C. 522. Marcus Æmilius Lepidus; Marcus Publicius Malleolus.

A.U.C. 523. Marcus Pomponius Matho 2; Carcus Papirius Maso. The

first divorce known at Rome.

A.U.C. 524. Marcus Æmilius Barbula; Marcus Junius Pera. War with the
Illyrians.

A.U.C. 525. Lucius Postumius Albinus 2; Cnæus Fulvius Centumalus.

The building of new Carthage.

A.U.C. 526. Spurius Carvilius Maximus 2; Quintus Fabius Maximus.

A.U.C. 527. Publius Valerius Flaccus; Marcus Attilius Regulus. Two

new pretors added to the other pretors.

A.U.C. 528. Marcus Valerius Messala; Lucius Apulius Fullo. Italy

invaded by the Gauls. The Romans could now lead into the field of
battle 770,000 men.

A.U.C. 529. Lucius Æmilius Papus; Caius Attilius Regulus. The Gauls
defeat the Romans near Clusium. The Romans obtain a victory near
Telamon.

A.U.C. 530. Titus Manlius Torquatus 2; Quintus Fulvius Flaccus 2. The

Boii, part of the Gauls, surrender.

A.U.C. 531. Caius Flaminius; Publius Furius Philus.

A.U.C. 532. Marcus Claudius Marcellus; Cnæus Cornelius Scipio

Calvus. A new war with the Gauls. Marcellus gains the spoils called
opima.

A.U.C. 533. Publius Cornelius; Marcus Minucius Rufus. Annibal takes

the command of the Carthaginian armies in Spain.

A.U.C. 534. Lucius Veturius; Caius Lutatius. The Via Flaminia built.
A.U.C. 535. Marcus Livius Salinator; Lucius Æmilius Paulus. War with
Illyricum.

A.U.C. 536. Publius Cornelius Scipio; Tiberius Sempronius Longus.

Siege of Saguntum, by Annibal, the cause of the second Punic war.
Annibal marches towards Italy, and crosses the Alps. The
Carthaginian fleet defeated near Sicily. Sempronius defeated near
Trebia, by Annibal.

A.U.C. 537. Cnæus Servilius; Caius Flaminius 2. A famous battle near

the lake Thrasymenus. Fabius is appointed dictator. Success of
Cnæus Scipio in Spain.

A.U.C. 538. Caius Terentius Varro; Lucius Æmilius Paulus 2. The

famous battle of Cannæ. Annibal marches to Capua. Marcellus beats
Annibal near Nola. Asdrubal begins his march towards Italy, and his
army is totally defeated by the Scipios.

A.U.C. 539. Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus; Quintus Fabius Maximus 2.

Philip of Macedonia enters into alliance with Annibal. Sardinia
revolts, and is reconquered by Manlius. The Carthaginians twice
beaten in Spain by Scipio.

A.U.C. 540. Quintus Fabius Maximus 3; Marcus Claudius Marcellus 2.

Marcellus besieges Syracuse by sea and land.

A.U.C. 541. Quintus Fabius Maximus 4; Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus

3. The siege of Syracuse continued.

A.U.C. 542. Quintus Fulvius Flaccus; Appius Claudius Pulcher.

Syracuse taken and plundered. Sicily made a Roman province.
Tarentum treacherously delivered to Annibal. The two Scipios
conquered in Spain.

A.U.C. 543. Cnæus Fulvius Centumalus. Publius Sulpicius Galba. Capua

besieged and taken by the Romans. Publius Scipio sent to Spain with
proconsular power.

A.U.C. 544. Marcus Claudius Marcellus 4; Marcus Valerius Lævinus 2.

The Carthaginians driven from Sicily. Carthagena taken by young
Scipio.
A.U.C. 545. Quintus Fabius Maximus 5; Quintus Fulvius Flaccus 4.
Annibal defeated by Marcellus. Fabius takes Tarentum. Asdrubal
defeated by Scipio.

A.U.C. 546. Marcus Claudius Marcellus 5; Titus Quintius Crispinus.

Marcellus killed in an ambuscade by Annibal. The Carthaginian fleet
defeated.

A.U.C. 547. Caius Claudius Nero; Marcus Livius 2. Asdrubal passes the
Alps. Nero obtains some advantage over Annibal. The two consuls
defeat Asdrubal, who is killed, and his head thrown into Annibal’s
camp. The Romans make war against Philip.

A.U.C. 548. Lucius Veturius; Quintus Cæcilius. Scipio obtains a victory

over Asdrubal the son of Gisgo in Spain. Masinissa sides with the
Romans.

A.U.C. 549. Publius Cornelius Scipio; Publius Licinius Crassus. Scipio

is empowered to invade Africa.

A.U.C. 550. Marcus Cornelius Cethegus; Publius Sempronius Tuditanus.

Scipio lands in Africa. The census taken, and 215,000 heads of
families found in Rome.

A.U.C. 551. Cnæus Servilius Cæpio; Caius Servilius Geminus. Scipio

spreads general consternation in Africa. Annibal is recalled from
Italy by the Carthaginian senate.

A.U.C. 552. Marcus Servilius; Tiberius Claudius. Annibal and Scipio

come to a parley; they prepare for battle. Annibal is defeated at
Zama. Scipio prepares to besiege Carthage.

A.U.C. 553. Cnæus Cornelius Lentulus; Publius Ælius Pætus. Peace

granted to the Carthaginians. Scipio triumphs.

A.U.C. 554. Publius Sulpicius Galba 2; Caius Aurelius Cotta. War with
the Macedonians.

A.U.C. 555. Lucius Cornelius Lentulus; Publius Villius Tapulus. The

Macedonian war continued.
A.U.C. 556. Sextus Ælius Pætus; Titus Quintius Flaminius. Philip
defeated by Quintius.

A.U.C. 557. Caius Cornelius Cethegus; Qitus Minucius Rufus. Philip is

defeated. Quintius grants him peace.

A.U.C. 558. Lucius Furius Purpureo; Marcus Claudius Marcellus. The

independence of Greece proclaimed by Flaminius at the Isthmian
games.

A.U.C. 559. Lucius Valerius Flaccus; Marcus Porcius Cato. Quintius

regulates the affairs of Greece. Cato’s victories in Spain, and
triumph. The Romans demand Annibal from the Carthaginians.

A.U.C. 560. Publius Corn. Scipio Africanus 2; T. Sempronius Longus.

Annibal flies to Antiochus.

A.U.C. 561. Lucius Cornelius Merula; Quintus Minucius Thermus.

Antiochus prepares to make war against Rome, and Annibal
endeavours in vain to stir up the Carthaginians to take up arms.

A.U.C. 562. Lucius Quintus Flamininus; Cnæus Domitius. The Greeks

call Antiochus to deliver them.

A.U.C. 563. Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica; Manlius Acilius Glabrio.

The success of Acilius in Greece against Antiochus.

A.U.C. 564. Lucius Cornelius Scipio; Caius Lælius. The fleet of

Antiochus under Annibal defeated by the Romans. Antiochus
defeated by Scipio.

A.U.C. 565. Marcus Fulvius Nobilior; Cnæus Manlius Vulso. War with
the Gallogrecians.

A.U.C. 566. Marcus Valerius Messala; Caius Livius Salinator. Antiochus

dies.

A.U.C. 567. Marcus Æmilius Lepidus; Caius Flaminius. The Ligurians

reduced.

A.U.C. 568. Spurius Postumius Albinus; Quintus Marcius Philippus. The

Bacchanalia abolished at Rome.
A.U.C. 569. Appius Claudius Pulcher; L. Marcus Sempronius Tuditanus.
Victories in Spain and Liguria.

A.U.C. 570. Publius Claudius Pulcher; Lucius Porcius Licinius. Philip of

Macedon sends his son Demetrius to Rome.

A.U.C. 571. Marcus Claudius Marcellus; Quintus Fabius Labeo. Death

of Annibal, Scipio, and Philopœmen. Gauls invade Italy.

A.U.C. 572. ♦Cnæus Bæbius Tamphilus; Lucius Æmilius Paulus. Death

of Philip.

♦ ‘M.’ replaced with ‘Cnæus’

A.U.C. 573. Publius Cornelius Cethegus; Marcus Bæbius Tamphilus 2.

Expeditions against Liguria. The first gilt statue raised at Rome.

A.U.C. 574. Aulus Postumius Albinus Luscus; Caius Calpurnius Piso.

Celtiberians defeated.

A.U.C. 575. Quintus Fulvius Flaccus; Lucius Manlius Acidinus. Alliance

renewed with Perseus the son of Philip.

A.U.C. 576. Marcus Junius Brutus; Aulus Manlius Vulso.

A.U.C. 577. Caius Claudius Pulcher; Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus.

The Istrians defeated.

A.U.C. 578. Cnæus Cornelius Scipio Hispalus; Quintus Petillius

Spurinus.

A.U.C. 579. Publius Mucius; Marcus Æmilius Lepidus 2.

A.U.C. 580. Spurius Postumius Albinus; Quintus Mucius Scævola.

A.U.C. 581. Lucius Postumius Albinus; Marcus Popilius Lænas.

A.U.C. 582. Caius Popilius Lænas; Publius Ælius Ligur. War declared
against Perseus.
A.U.C. 583. Publius Licinius Crassus; Caius Cassius Longinus. Perseus
gains some advantages over the Romans.

A.U.C. 584. Aulus Hostilius Mancinus; Aulus Atilius Serranus.

A.U.C. 585. Quintus Marcius Philippus 2; Cnæus Servilius Cæpio. The

campaign in Macedonia.

A.U.C. 586. Lucius Æmilius Paulus 2; Caius Licinius Crassus. Perseus is

defeated and taken prisoner by Paulus.

A.U.C. 587. Quintus Ælius Pætus; Marcus Junius Pennus.

A.U.C. 588. Marcus Claudius Marcellus; Caius Sulpicius Galba.

A.U.C. 589. Cnæus Octavius Nepos; Titus Manlius Torquatus.

A.U.C. 590. Aulus Manlius Torquatus; Quintus Cassius Longus.

A.U.C. 591. Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus; Manlius Juvencius Phalna.

A.U.C. 592. Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica; Caius Marcius Figulus.

Demetrius flies from Rome, and is made king of Syria.

A.U.C. 593. Marcus Valerius Messala; Caius Fannius Strabo.

A.U.C. 594. Lucius Anicius Gallus; Marcus Cornelius Cethegus.

A.U.C. 595. Cnæus Cornelius Dolabella; Marcus Fulvius Nobilior.

A.U.C. 596. Marcus Æmilius Lepidus; Caius Popilius Lænas.

A.U.C. 597. Sextus Julius Cæsar; Lucius Aurelius Orestes. War against
the Dalmatians.

A.U.C. 598. Lucius Cornelius Lentulus Lupus; Caius Marcius Figulus 2.

A.U.C. 599. Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica 2; Marcus Claudius

Marcellus 2.

A.U.C. 600. Quintus Opimius Nepos; Lucius Postumius Albinus.

A.U.C. 601. Quintus Fulvius Nobilior; Titus Annius Luscus. The false
Philip. Wars in Spain.

A.U.C. 602. Marcus Claudius Marcellus 3; Lucius Valerius Flaccus.

A.U.C. 603. Lucius Licinius Lucullus; Aulus Posthumius Albinus.

A.U.C. 604. Titus Quintius Flamininus; Manius Acilius Balbus. War

between the Carthaginians and Masinissa.

A.U.C. 605. Lucius Marcius Censorinus; Manius Manlius Nepos. The

Romans declare war against Carthage. The Carthaginians wish to
accept the hard conditions which are imposed upon them; but the
Romans say that Carthage must be destroyed.

A.U.C. 606. Spurius Postumius Albinus; Lucius Calpurnius Piso.

Carthage besieged.

A.U.C. 607. Publius Cornelius Scipio; Caius Livius Drusus. The siege of
Carthage continued with vigour by Scipio.

A.U.C. 608. Cnæus Cornelius Lentulus; Lucius Mummius. Carthage

surrenders, and is destroyed. Mummius takes and burns Corinth.

A.U.C. 609. Quintus Fabius Æmilianus; Lucius Hostilius Mancinius.

A.U.C. 610. Servius Sulpicius Galba; Lucius Aurelius Cotta.

A.U.C. 611. Appius Claudius Pulcher; Quintus Cæcilius Metellus

Macedonicus. War against the Celtiberians.

A.U.C. 612. Lucius Metellus Calvus; Quintus Fabius Maximus

Servilianus.

A.U.C. 613. Quintus Pompeius; Cnæus Servilius Cæpio.

A.U.C. 614. Caius Lælius Sapiens; Quintus Servilius Cæpio. The wars
with Viriatus.

A.U.C. 615. Marcus Popilius Lænas; Cnæus Calpurnius Piso.

A.U.C. 616. Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica; Decimus Junius Brutus.
The two consuls imprisoned by the tribunes.

A.U.C. 617. Marcus Æmilius Lepidus; Caius Hostilius Mancinus. Wars

against Numantia.

A.U.C. 618. ♦Lucius Furius Philus; Sextus Atilius Serranus.

♦ ‘P.’ replaced with ‘Lucius’

A.U.C. 619. Servius Fulvius Flaccus; Quintus Calpurnius Piso.

A.U.C. 620. Publius Cornelius Scipio 2; Caius Fulvius Flaccus.

A.U.C. 621. Publius Mucius Scævola; Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi.

Numantia surrenders to Scipio, and is entirely demolished. The
seditions of Tiberias Gracchus at Rome.

A.U.C. 622. Publius Popilius Lænas; Publius Rupillus.

A.U.C. 623. Publius Licinius Crassus; Lucius Valerius Flaccus.

A.U.C. 624. Caius Claudius Pulcher; Marcus Perpenna. In the census are
found 313,823 citizens.

A.U.C. 625. Caius Sempronius Tuditanus; Manius Aquilius Nepos.

A.U.C. 626. Cnæus Octavius Nepos; Titus Annius Luscus.

A.U.C. 627. Lucius Cassius Longus; Lucius Cornelius Cinna. A revolt of

slaves in Sicily.

A.U.C. 628. ♦Marcus Æmilius Lepidus; Lucius Aurelius Orestes.

♦ ‘L.’ replaced with ‘Marcus’

A.U.C. 629. Marcus Plautius Hypsæus; Marcus Fulvius Flaccus.

A.U.C. 630. Caius Cassius Longinus; ♦Caius Sextius Calvinus.

♦ ‘L.’ replaced with ‘Caius’

A.U.C. 631. Quintus Cæcilius Metellus; Titus Quintius Flamininus.

A.U.C. 632. Caius Fannius Strabo; Cnæus Domitius Ahenobarbus. The

seditions of Caius Gracchus.

A.U.C. 633. Lucius Opimius; Quintus Fabius Maximus. The unfortunate

end of Caius Gracchus. The Allobroges defeated.

A.U.C. 634. Publius Manlius Nepos; Caius Papirius Carbo.

A.U.C. 635. Lucius Cæcilius Metellus Calvus; Lucius Aurelius Cotta.

A.U.C. 636. Marcus Portius Cato; Quintus Marcius Rex.

A.U.C. 637. Lucius Cæcilius Metellus; Quintus Mutius Scævola.

A.U.C. 638. Caius Licinius Geta; Quintus Fabius Maximus Eburnus.

A.U.C. 639. Marcus Cæcilius Metellus; Marcus Æmilius Scaurus.

A.U.C. 640. Manius Acilius Balbus; Caius Portius Cato.

A.U.C. 641. Caius Cæcilius Metellus; Cnæus Papirius Carbo.

A.U.C. 642. Marcus Livius Drusis; Lucius Calpurnius Piso. The Romans
declare war against Jugurtha.

A.U.C. 643. Publius Scipio Nasica; Lucius Calpurnius Bestia.

Calpurnius bribed and defeated by ♦Jugurtha.

♦ ‘Jugartha’ replaced with ‘Jugurtha’

A.U.C. 644. Marcus Minucius Rufus; Spurius Postumius Albinus.

A.U.C. 645. Quintus Cæcilius Metellus; Marcus Junius Silanus. Success

of Metellus against Jugurtha.

A.U.C. 646. Servius Sulpicius Galba; Marcus Aurelius Scaurus. Metellus

continues the war.
A.U.C. 647. Caius Marius; Lucius Cassius. The war against Jugurtha
continued with vigour by Marius.

A.U.C. 648. Caius Atilius Serranus; Quintus Servilius Cæpio. Jugurtha

betrayed by Bocchus into the hands of Sylla the lieutenant of Marius.

A.U.C. 649. Publius Rutilius Rufus; ♦Cnæus Mallius Maximus. Marius

triumphs over Jugurtha. Two Roman armies defeated by the Cimbri
and Teutones.

♦ ‘Corn. Maniius’ replaced with ‘Cnæus Mallius’

A.U.C. 650. Caius Marius 2; Caius Flavius Fimbria. The Cimbri march
towards Spain.

A.U.C. 651. Caius Marius 3; Lucius Aurelius Orestes. The Cimbri

defeated in Spain.

A.U.C. 652. Caius Marius 4; Quintus Lutatius Catulus. The Teutones

totally defeated by Marius.

A.U.C. 653. Caius Marius 5; Manius Aquilius. The Cimbri enter Italy,
and are defeated by Marius and Catulus.

A.U.C. 654. Caius Marius 6; Lucius Valerius Flaccus. Factions against

Metellus.

A.U.C. 655. Marcus Antonius; Aulus Postumius Albinus. Metellus is

gloriously recalled.

A.U.C. 656. ♦Quintus Cæcilius Metellus Nepos; Titus Didius.

♦ ‘L.’ replaced with ‘Quintus’

A.U.C. 657. Cnæus Cornelius Lentulus; Publius Licinius Crassus.

A.U.C. 658. Cnæus Domitius Ahenobarbus; Caius Cassius Longinus.

The kingdom of Cyrene left by will to the Roman people.
A.U.C. 659. Lucius Licinius Crassus; Quintus Mucius Scævola.
Seditions of Norbanus.

A.U.C. 660. Caius Cœlius Caldus; Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus.

A.U.C. 661. Caius Valerius Flaccus; Marcus Herennius. Sylla exhibited a

combat of 100 lions with men in the Circus.

A.U.C. 662. Caius Claudius Pulcher; Marcus Perpenna. The allies wish
to be admitted citizens of Rome.

A.U.C. 663. Lucius Marcius Philippus; Sextus Julius Cæsar. The allies
prepare to revolt.

A.U.C. 664. ♦Lucius Julius Cæsar; Publius Rutulius Rufus. Wars with
the Marsi.

♦ ‘M.’ replaced with ‘Lucius’

A.U.C. 665. Cnæus Pompeius Strabo; Lucius Portius Cato. The great
valour of Sylla surnamed the Fortunate.

A.U.C. 666. Lucius Cornelius Sylla; Quintus Pompeius Rufus. Sylla

appointed to conduct the Mithridatic war. Marius is empowered to
supersede him; upon which Sylla returns to Rome with his army, and
takes it, and has Marius and his adherents judged as enemies.

A.U.C. 667. Cnæus Octavius; Lucius Cornelius Cinna. Cinna endeavours

to recall Marius, and is expelled. Marius returns, and with Cinna
marches against Rome. Civil wars and slaughter.

A.U.C. 668. Caius Marius 7; Lucius Cornelius Cinna 2. Marius died, and
Lucius Valerius Flaccus was chosen in his room. The Mithridatic
war.

A.U.C. 669. Lucius Cornelius Cinna 3; Cnæus Papirius Carbo. The

Mithridatic war continued by Sylla.

A.U.C. 670. Lucius Cornelius Cinna 4; Cnæus Papirius Carbo 2. Peace

with Mithridates.