1st Phase

In the first phase of Akbar's religious policy, according to K.A. Nizami, Akbar displayed vulnerability and
diffidence towards the Islamic orthodoxy. He was still grappling with his ideas and showed curiosity to
know more about different religious groups. During the first twenty years of his reign, Akbar made
significant departures from the traditional Sunni system of government. He abolished the pilgrimage tax
on Hindus, ended the practice of enslaving families of prisoners of war, and Abul Fazl dates the
abolishment of the jizya tax to 1564. These measures aimed to create a sense of common citizenship for
all his subjects, both Hindus and Muslims.

However, despite these measures in favor of the Hindus, Akbar's early reign was still predominantly
Islamic. The nobility consisted mostly of Muslims, and Akbar deferred to the leading orthodox Sunni
personalities, giving them independent control over religious affairs. The court itself was dominated by
the orthodoxy.

During this phase, Akbar faced political challenges and rebellions from his Turani nobility and the threat
of the Afghans. To seek new support groups, he turned to the Rajputs as possible allies. Measures like
the abolition of the jizya tax and pilgrimage tax were driven by the need for political stability rather than
religious tolerance. Despite his liberal policies towards the Rajputs, only the Kachchwahas of Amber
joined the Mughal court. In 1567, Akbar changed his stance and took vigorous measures against the
Rajputs, attacking Chittor and ordering a general massacre in which approximately 30,000 people were
killed. The victory was presented as the subjugation of infidels and framed as a 'jihad'. A farman was also
issued to prevent idol-worship by Hindus in the region.

However, it is important to note that this aggressive attitude was an attempt to appease the Muslim
orthodoxy and gain their support, rather than reflecting an entire policy. The war was not primarily
religious, as evidenced by the fact that the Kachchwahas fought on the side of the Mughals. Akbar's
patronage of the Dargah of Khwaja Muin-ud-din Chishti at Ajmer became an important aspect of his
religious policy, possibly driven by political motivations as he needed a Mughal base in Rajasthan.

Despite the re-imposition of the jizya tax in 1575, most of the Rajputs entered into an alliance with Akbar
after the fall of Chittor, indicating that their decisions were influenced by political considerations rather
than Akbar's attitude towards non-Muslims.

Overall, the first phase of Akbar's religious policy was marked by a mixture of sympathy, vulnerability,
and political motivations, as he navigated the complexities of religious and political dynamics during his
early reign.

2nd phase

The period of intense discussions and introspection marked a significant change in Akbar's religious
beliefs. He sought new solutions due to the repercussions of orthodox Sunni dominance over his
administration. Akbar encouraged the emergence of a new elite group, led by Abul Fazl, who played a
crucial role as a spokesman. Akbar's interest in spiritual matters and his dissatisfaction with the orthodox
view of Islam led him to be influenced by jogis, qalandars, and sanyasis who disregarded established
religious norms. The establishment of the Ibadat Khana in 1575 at Fatehpur Sikri provided a platform for
religious debates and discussions. Initially focused on resolving Muslim religious disputes, it later
included representatives of other religions and faiths. Akbar believed that all religions had elements of
truth and led to the same supreme reality. These discussions laid the foundation for his religious ideas
and the development of Sulh-i-Kul (universal peace). The promulgation of the Mahzarnama in 1579
further symbolized Akbar's departure from orthodoxy. The document granted Akbar the right to adopt
any position in case of conflict among the orthodoxy, with his position being held as superior. The
Mahzarnama also aimed to control the ulama and establish Akbar's authority over spiritual and temporal
spheres. The implications and meaning of the Mahzarnama have been subject to debate among
historians. Some scholars interpret it as an "infallibility decree" influenced by the Papacy, while others
see it as a constructive effort in accordance with Islamic law. The Mahzarnama played a significant role
internationally, politically, and in establishing a composite state that allowed decisions based on political
demands rather than strict orthodoxy. Its implementation marked a final breach between Akbar and the
orthodox ulama, leading to their declining influence in the court. However, they continued to receive
patronage and grants.

Arguments on MazarNama

Certainly! Here are two simplified arguments put forth by scholars regarding the significance of Akbar's
religious changes:

1. Some scholars suggest that Akbar's promulgation of the Mahzarnama was influenced by Jesuit priests
and aimed to establish him as the superior Khalifa to whom Indian Muslims should owe allegiance,
freeing him from the influence of the Ottoman Khalifa and other Central Asian states.

2. Others argue that the Mahzarnama was a means for Akbar to assert his authority over the ulema and
prevent their indiscriminate use of power. It allowed him to choose between different interpretations of
Islamic law based on political needs, without replacing the sharia.

3rd Phase – Antipathy

During the third phase of Akbar's religious belief and state policy, which spanned from 1581 to 1605,
Akbar's ideological beliefs became more defined and led to a break with orthodox Islam. Scholars have
characterized this phase as one where Akbar displayed antipathy towards Islam. However, it is important
to understand that Akbar's religious beliefs were based on his faith in uncompromising monotheism or
Tauhid-i-Ilahi, influenced by the ideas of Islamic philosopher Ibn-i-Arabi.

Akbar's ideology emphasized the giving up of formal, outward religion or taqlid, rather than rational,
practical belief. The followers of Tauhid-i-Ilahi underwent an initiation ritual where they symbolically cast
aside selfishness and conceit. Akbar gave them a circular ring or emblem engraved with the name of God
and the motto 'Allahu Akbar.' The members were expected to rise above sectarian differences and follow
a path of peace with all, worshiping the light and praying three times a day. However, the number of
followers of Tauhid-i-Ilahi remained limited, dwindling to only one under Jahangir.

The nature of Tauhid-i-Ilahi has been a topic of debate due to contrasting views in primary sources. Abul
Fazl viewed it as a means to find a common ground between religion and worldly affairs, with Akbar as
the spiritual guide. On the other hand, Badauni and some Jesuit missionaries accused Akbar of
abandoning Islam and starting his own religion. Nevertheless, Akbar's religious policy aimed to establish
a composite governing class and a state that would not discriminate based on religion, considering the
diverse population within the empire.
Critics, particularly the bitter ulema, accused Akbar of suppressing Islam, especially Sunnis. However,
modern scholars argue that their protests were mainly related to the loss of special privileges for Islam
rather than actual persecution. Mosques continued to be built, and grants and privileges were regularly
given, suggesting that the accusations of hostility towards Islam were exaggerated reactions to the
reduction in the status of the ulema.

In summary, during the third phase, Akbar's religious beliefs became more crystallized and diverged from
orthodox Islam. His faith in uncompromising monotheism and the establishment of Tauhid-i-Ilahi
emphasized a departure from formal religious practices and a path of peace and unity. The accusations
of hostility towards Islam were primarily driven by the ulema's discontent over reduced privileges, rather
than religious persecution.

Akbar concept of Divinity

M. Athar Ali, in his work on Akbar's religious ideas and intellectual ferment, highlights that Akbar started
exploring other religions out of curiosity and a desire to go beyond the narrow framework of traditional
Islam. Akbar's concept of God differed from orthodox Islam, and he believed that God could be grasped
and worshipped in different ways according to individuals' knowledge limitations. Akbar emphasized that
worship was an act of the heart, not external rituals.

Akbar rejected both image worship in Hinduism and the prayer rituals of Muslims. His imagination of the
divine was centered on the concept of "Divine Luminosity" and the importance of formless light
accessible to all. He elevated the Sun as a representation of the formless divinity and encouraged the
Parsi worship of the Sun during "Nauroz" and Persian festivals.

The influence of "Divine Monotheism" and "Divine Pantheism" is evident in Akbar's religious ideas, as
seen in the Ain-i-Rahmamuni. He rejected the existence of the Devil or Satan and questioned the
existence of evil coming from divinity. Akbar rejected the notion of divine incarnations, which attributed
earthly beings as part of the divine. He saw a close relationship between the divine sovereign and the
temporal sovereign, considering himself as the "elect of God" and in direct relationship with God,
independent of any religion.

The central theme of Akbar's rule and religious maturity was Sulh-i-Kul, meaning peace for all. This
concept aligned with the idea of Wahdat-ul-Wajud, the oneness of truth, which suggested that various
faiths were based on the same truth, and their differences were superficial. Sulh-i-Kul aimed to bridge
the gap between divine and temporal authority and integrate the composite governing class into the
Mughal throne.

Akbar's religious policy reflected his attempt to establish a liberal and secular state. It emphasized the
rise of a composite nobility and the inclusion of Indian Muslim and Rajput elements. Sulh-i-Kul rejected
the discriminatory provisions of the Shariat against non-Muslims and had global significance, contrasting
with contemporary empires that based their state on a single religious ideology.

Akbar's religious policy was accompanied by other reforms, such as translating various texts into Persian,
revising the education syllabus to include moral education and secular subjects, and promoting cultural
integration. The state became essentially secular and liberal in both religion and state policy.
Conclusion

In conclusion, Akbar's religious policies were closely intertwined with the political interests of the
Mughal Empire, aiming to ensure stability and consolidate power among various sections of the nobility.
These policies facilitated the creation of a composite governing class and contributed to the relations
between Hindu upper classes, particularly Rajput chiefs, and Muslim groups. By curbing the power and
influence of the Ulema and the Turani nobility, Akbar sought to establish a more balanced and unbiased
governance over the empire's finances and throne.

As Akbar's religious understanding evolved, his liberal inclinations became more prominent, likely
stemming from his detachment from orthodox elements later in his reign. It is important to note that
accounts of Akbar's religious ideas, such as those by Abul Fazal, reflect the perspectives of a patron and
may not be entirely factual. Similarly, the biased views of writers like Badauni and Jesuits should be
considered within their own expected perspectives.

However, it is evident that Akbar transformed the Mughal Empire into a neutral force concerning internal
controversies within Islam. Through his exceptional intellect, Akbar developed a set of religious ideas
that were internally consistent, drawing from various sources and refined through reasoning and
rationality.