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DETERMINATION OF THE SENSITIVITY AND THIXOTROPIC EFFECTS

OF CLAY SOIL FOR SELECTED SITES IN DIWANIYA CITY -IRAQ
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Article in Journal of Southwest Jiaotong University · April 2020

DOI: 10.35741/issn.0258-2724.55.2.58

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 西南交通大学学报
第 55 卷 第 2 期 Vol. 55 No. 2
JOURNAL OF SOUTHWEST JIAOTONG UNIVERSITY Apr. 2020
2020 年 4 月

ISSN: 0258-2724 DOI：10.35741/issn.0258-2724.55.2.58

Research article

Earth Sciences

DETERMINATION OF THE SENSITIVITY AND THIXOTROPIC EFFECTS

OF CLAY SOIL FOR SELECTED SITES IN DIWANIYA CITY - IRAQ

迪瓦尼亚市某些选址粘土的敏感性和触变效应的测定-伊拉克

Abdul-Kareem H. Al-Rubaiee, Rand S. Al Salami

Department of Applied Geology, College of Science, University of Babylon
Babylon, Iraq, abdalkreemrubaie@gmail.com, randalsalami82@gmail.com

Received: February 10, 2020 ▪ Review: April 2, 2020 ▪ Accepted: April 24, 2020

This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0)

Abstract
This paper is conducted to determine the sensitivity and thixotropic effects of clay soil for selected
sites in Diwaniya city which are: (Dawr Aldubbat, Al-Zawra square, 14 Ramadan square, Al'iiskan
Alaqadim and Military square). The main aim of this investigation is to study the sensitivity and
thixotropy of clay soil, and determination and classification of soils to (Insensitive), (slightly to very
sensitive) and (slightly to extra quick)) relying on special test methods in sensitivity and thixotropic
phenomena. The experimental tests that were done including geotechnical, chemical and mineralogical
tests to natural soils and special tests were for the identification and classification of sensitivity of soils.
The results of sensitivity of soils test displayed low to medium for all the types of the soils in the study
area. The results of the thixotropic strength ratio test showed a small increase in thixotropic strength ratio
values with time. The results of Atterberg limits test indicated that increasing the proportion of the clay
causes an increase in the plasticity index of the soil. While the results of the liquidity index varied from
0.24 to 0.70, which reflects the low sensitivity of the clay soil in the study area.

Keywords: Sensitivity, Thixotropic Effect, Diwaniya City, Thixotropic Strength Ratio

摘要 本文旨在确定迪瓦尼亚市中选定地点的黏土的敏感性和触变性效果：（达尔·阿杜巴特，扎
拉广场，14斋月广场，阿尔伊斯坎阿拉卡丁和军事广场）。这项研究的主要目的是研究黏土的敏
感性和触变性，并通过特殊的敏感性和敏感性测试方法来研究土壤对（不敏感），（轻微到非常
敏感）和（轻微到非常快）的分类和分类。触变现象。进行的实验测试包括对天然土壤的岩土工
程，化学和矿物学测试以及特殊测试，用于识别和分类土壤敏感性。对于研究区域中所有类型的
土壤，土壤敏感性测试的结果均显示为低至中等。触变强度比试验的结果表明，触变强度比值随
时间增加很小。阿特伯格极限试验的结果表明，增加粘土的比例会增加土壤的可塑性指数。而流
 Al-Rubaiee and Al Salami / Journal of Southwest Jiaotong University / Vol. 55 No. 2 Apr. 20202
动性指数的结果从0.24到0.70不等，这反映了研究区粘土的低敏感性。
关键词: 灵敏度，触变效应，迪瓦尼亚市，触变强度比
I. INTRODUCTION
Due to the increase in the world's population,
geotechnical engineers are forced to deal with
difficult soil such as the sensitive clay.
Problematic clay, when exposed to periodic
loading, could experience a piecemeal decrease
in the bearing capacity or could lead to a
catastrophic failure of its structure. This type of
clay, when it is remolded, shows a large decrease
in shear strength, which is called clay sensitivity
[1].
The unconfined compressive strength in many
of the clay soil that are deposited naturally, is
decreased significantly when tested after
remolding and there is no change in the moisture
content. This is called sensitivity. This property
could be defined as the percentage of the
unconfined compressive strength in an
undisturbed state to a remolded, equation 1 [2].
(1)
The general classification of the clays
according to their sensitivity is illustrated in
Table 1. These kinds of clay could be formed in
numerous areas of the world, such as Eastern
Canada, Sweden, Norway, and the coastal region
of India [2].
Table 1.
Classification of clay soil according to the degree of
sensitivity
Sensitivity, Classification of References
% clay
St < 8 Low sensitivity
8 < St < 30 Medium [3]
sensitivity
St > 30 Very high
sensitivity
Less than 1 Insensitive
1-8 Slightly to very [4]
sensitive
8 to 64 Slightly to extra
quick
For geotechnical engineers, it is considered a
challenge for these who have a specific problem
in stability, settlement and predictive behavior.
The structures that are built on sensitivity clay
such as bridges, towers, high-rise buildings, often
have a decreased safety factor during its lifetime.
There are many factors that cause periodic loads
on the foundations, such as earthquakes, loads
from winds, ice accumulation, and other loads,
these loads could cause quick clay conditions and
catastrophic failure [1].
Long bridges and chimneys, which are
considered as long flexible structures, are
normally subject to dynamic vibrations as a result
from wind loading, which could amplify the
static winds. Silos and oil tanks, which are
considered as storage facilities, that are carry
high pressure when its filled and become less
pressure when its empty [5], [6].
Clay soils are affected by different factors that
may lead to an increase or reduction in their
sensitivity, including filtration, ion exchange,
cation ratio, formation or addition of dispersing
agents, cementation, weathering, and thixotropic
hardening. The weathering processes have an
effect on the flocculation tendencies of the soils
by which ions in the solution change. Therefore,
the strength and sensitivity numbers decrease or
increase based on the type of differences in ionic
distributions [1].
In the thixotropic process, clay particles and
water are re-oriented into a new state of
equilibrium in a state of rest after remodeling.
During this process, the changing hard-state
stresses must achieve new values, which lead to
increased stress in the liquid state that appears in
the form of suction operations. This shows that
the strength gain, thixotropy, depends on the
direction of the clay particles and water. This re-
assembly process takes a long time and is
sometimes called the coagulation process. It can
be said that, in general, the greater the cohesion
in the clay in a certain range of water content, the
greater the strength gain [7]. This phenomenon is
shown in Figure 1. The loss of strength in clay
soil from its remodeling is primarily due to the
destruction of the structure of the clay particles
developed during the original sedimentation
process. The thixotropic strength ratio is
calculated from the following equation [8]:
where Cu is untrained shear strength.

Figure 1. Behavior of thixotropic material [2]
Some earlier studies that are related to the
study of the sensitivity and thixotropy of clay soil
are summarized below:
Terzaghi et al. [9] described the quantitative
degree of clay sensitivity as follows: natural clay
sensitivity between 1 and 4, while sensitive clay
between 4 and 8, and high sensitivity clay
between 8 and 16. Clays which have a degree of
sensitivity more than 16 are called quick clays.
Eden [10] studied various approaches to
acquiring undisturbed samples of sensitive
coatings and noted that Shelby sampling (U-
shape) was the best way to achieve undisturbed
samples of sensitive clay.
Al-Rawi [11] studied the sedimentation of the
alluvial plain deposits in the Diwaniya region. He
reported that most of the gypsum has deposited a
chemical deposition in the same place, and a
small proportion of gypsum is of transferable
origin as revealed by an X-ray study of the clay.
He mentioned that chlorite and montmorillonite
are the predominant clay minerals, kaolinite is
also found in high ratios, and there is a small
percentage of illite mineral.
Mitchell [12] reported by P.R. Day.
According to tensiometers where entrench in clay
pastes (apparently saturated), allowed to reach
equilibrium, followed by the mixing of the clay.
Tension decreased immediately after mixing and
was restored over time. These results may reflect
gas dissolution and time-dependent diffusion. In
3
addition, ionic motion after mixing may cause
particle reorganization.
Al-Rashidy [13] evaluated the geotechnical
properties of soil for the Al-Qadissya
Governorate of Iraq, studying the geotechnical
and chemical properties of the soil at depths of
1.0, 1.5, 3.5, 4.0, 6.0, 6.5, 8.5, and 9.0 meters.
Based on the geotechnical maps, the results were
interpreted, and an appropriate assessment was
made by interpreting the maps and establishing
an initial perception of the different geotechnical
properties with the depth of the soil in the
Diwaniya city Al-Qadissya Governorate. The
objective of this study was to present an
interpretation of the results to determine the
sensitivity of clay and the thixotropic strength
ratio of the clay soil for the study area.
A. Geology of the Study Area
The studied city is located 180 km south of
the Baghdad Governorate. It occupies a
geographical position in the middle of Iraq and
represents the heart of the Middle Euphrates
region, which is located in Iraq’s Mesopotamian
Plain. The coordinate location of the city is
determined to be between the latitudes
32°.0111 and 31°.5546 North and the
longitudes 44°5107 and 44°5850 East [14]. A
map of the location is shown in Figure 2 [15].
 Al-Rubaiee and Al Salami / Journal of Southwest Jiaotong University / Vol. 55 No. 2 Apr. 20204

Figure 2. A satellite image showing location of study sites included for Diwaniya city [15]

The city of Diwaniya is part of the floodplain,
which represents the most recent layers of the
surface of Iraq as a composition of new
sediments left by the Tigris and Euphrates
Rivers. In addition, the region is free from the
discovery of ancient rock layers, and the
floodplain in Diwaniya dates back to the
Pleistocene period. It is one of the oldest
formations of Iraq’s Mesopotamian Plain [16].
The region has a depression fill deposit that
accumulates as a result of successive flooding
[17]. These deposits are located in many parts of
the study area. Aeolian deposits are identified in
the eastern parts of the Diwaniya Governorate.
These sediments are found as sand dunes, which
are formed as crescent shapes with a height of 1–
3 m. They are not fixed, as the wind controls
their distribution and transport [18], [19]. Figure
3 illustrates the geological map of the studied
area.

Figure 3. Geological map of the study area [20]

 5

II. METHODOLOGY Laboratory tests were conducted in the

The research methodology involved several
stages. The field stage included the following:
selecting five sites in Diwaniya city: Dawr
Aldubbat, Al-Zawra square, 14 Ramadan square,
Al'iiskan Alaqadim and Military square, whose
locations are identified by their coordinates as
shown in Figure 1.
laboratories of the Department of Applied
Geology/College of Science, as well as at the
college of Materials Engineering/University of
Babylon. The laboratory tests completed in this
stage include the tests listed in Table 2. After
completing the previous stages, the results were
analyzed and explained to determine and assess
the sensitivity and thixotropy of the clay in the
study area.

Table 2.
Laboratory tests and specifications for each test
Soil properties tests Number of Specifications
samples
tested
Moisture content 5 ASTM [21]
Physical, index and
engineering tests

Atterberg limits 5 ASTM [22]

Specific gravity
Grain size analysis
Classification of soils
Unconfined compressive strength
Moisture-density relations
Sulphate content
Chemical tests
5 ASTM [23]
5 ASTM [24]
5 ASTM [25]
5 ASTM [26]
5 ASTM [27]
5 British BS [28]

Gypsum content 5 British BS [28]

Total soluble salts
Organic matter content
Carbonates CO3
pH-value
Mineralogy analysis
5 British BS [28]
5 British BS [28]
5 British BS [28]
5 [29]
3 [30]

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF THE percentages of the particles are simple in terms of
the soil (clay, silt, sand, gravel).
LABORATORY TESTS The Atterberg limits were measured after
This portion includes the results of the
preparation of the samples. The plastic limit vary
physical, engineering, chemical and mineral tests
between 23% and non-plastic, while the liquid
on the samples tested in the laboratory. These
limit ranges from 30% to 51%, with an average
tests included the following:
of 45%. The liquidity index changes from 0.24 to
0.70 which gives an indicator on the low
A. Physical, Engineering and Index Tests
sensitivity clay in study area.
All tests were carried out on the five soil
3) Specific Gravity
samples representing the five areas: Dawr
The specific gravity of the soil tested on the
Aldubbat, Al-Zawra square, 14 Ramadan square,
five samples ranged only from 2.66 to 2.75,
Al'iiskan Alaqadim, and Military square. These
which displays the similar mineralogical
tests were conducted according to American and
composition of the soil.
British specifications and included the following
4) Grain-Size Analysis
tests as shown in Table 3.
Figure 4 and Table 3 show the percentages of
1) Water Content
soils and their distribution by size distribution
The distribution of water content for sites
curves. These given percentages indicate the
within the study area is normal of the
original deposition in the study area. The results
heterogeneity addition to differences in the water
of grain-size analyses of five samples reveal that
table level of Diwaniya soils. The general
the clay-sized fractions (< 2 .m) have a 7–50%
direction displays difference with all sites. Most
difference. Note that the grain-size distribution is
values fall between 26% and 39%.
well linked with the plasticity index of the soil.
2) Atterberg Limits
Table 3 displays the Atterberg Limit values
for soils in the studied samples are approaching
with each other, because the gathering of the
 Al-Rubaiee and Al Salami / Journal of Southwest Jiaotong University / Vol. 55 No. 2 Apr. 20206
Figure 4. Grain size distribution curves to five soils for
study area
5) Strengths
a) Undisturbed Unconfined Compressive
Strength
The undisturbed strength is determined by
means of the unconfined compressive
strength machine, which represents the
average of five measurements.
Figure 5 shows that the values fall between
150 and 250 kPa. The undisturbed strength
was measured after sampling.
Figure 5. Unconfined compression strength and strain for
undisturbed samples to five soils
b) Remolding Unconfined Compressive
Strength
The remolded strength was calculated
using the unconfined compressive strength
machine, from at least three tests. For all
the measurements completed, the clay
samples became so liquid upon remolding
that the remolding compressive strength
reduced by almost half from the
undisturbed compressive strength values,
with the values ranging between 70 and
130 kPa (Figure 6).
Figure 6. Unconfined compression strength and strain for
remolded samples to five soils
6) Sensitivity Ratio
The values of sensitivity according to
equation No.1 at all the sites in the study area are
shown in Table 3.
7) Thixotropic Strength Ratio
Figure 7 and Table 3 present the results of
several tests conducted on five compacted soils
by the Stander Procter Test with water content
close to optimum moisture content, to study the
thixotropic strength regaining characteristics for
different intervals of time of the selected samples
at the study sites. However, the moisture content
of the tested samples was maintained throughout
the tested interval time and the results obtained
using equation No. 2 showed that the thixotropic
strength regained was relatively low for all the
studied soils, being between 1.05 and 1.15 % for
28 days. This is because the soil of the study sites
was of low to medium sensitivity.
Figure 7. Thixotropic strength a little increase with time for
five soils
IV. CHEMICAL TESTS
Chemical tests were carried out in the
laboratories of the Department of Applied
Geology/ College of Science / University of
Babylon. The results of the chemical tests which
were used in this research are explained in the
Table 4.
A. Sulphate Content Tests
The test was achieved in accordance with the
British Standard (1377), bearing the symbol Test
- Number 9 [28].
 7

B. Gypsum Content Tests C. Total Soluble Salts Test

Gypsum was determined by multiplying the The amount of soluble salts for natural soil
sulphate content of the soil x 2.15%. was obtained using the method described with the
British Standard [28].

Table 3.
Geotechnical properties for the soils of the study area
Sample No. 1 2 3 4 5
Samples
Location Dawr Al-Zawra 14 Ramadan Al'iiskan Military
details
Aldubbat square square Alaqadim square
Moisture content (ω) % 38 39 32 31 26
Liquied limit L.L% 43 51 46 39 34
Plastic limit P.L% 26 28 27 26 NON
Plasticity index I.p% 17 23 19 13 NON
Liquidity index L.I% 0.70 0.47 0.26 0.38 -
Specific gravity 2.73 2.75 2.73 2.70 2.66
Gravel (%) 0 2 0 3 0
Grain size
analysis

Sand (%) 10 6 12 35 60
Silt (%) 55 41 40 42 30
Clay (%) 35 51 48 20 10
Unified soil classification system ML CH CL ML SM
(USCS)
Dry unit weight (gm/cm3) 1.60 1.56 1.53 1.57 1.65
Maximum dry unit weight 1.72 1.67 1.65 1.77 1.78
(gm/cm3)
Optimum moisture content (%) 18 21 20 16 15
Undisturbed unconfined
250 225 196 150 176
compressive strength (KN/m2)
Remolding unconfined compressive
128 115 80 70 95
strength (KN/m 2)
Sensitivity, % 1.95 1.95 2.45 2.14 1.85
Thixotropic strength (Cu) at t = 0
142.5 120 102.5 87.5 97.5
(after compaction)
Thixotropic strength (Cu) at
150 131 110 101 111.5
t = 28 day (after compaction)
Thixotropic strength ratio 1.05 1.09 1.07 1.15 1.143
Water table
0.80 0.35 1.00 1.11 1.55
W.T.L (m)

D. Organic Material Content

The organic material content of the natural
soil was found based on the method mentioned in
the British specification British Standard [28], in
the method of oxidation by dichromate. The
results showed that they were within the normal
specifications. The organic matter content varies
between 0.54% and 1.02%, with an average of
0.79%.
E. Carbonates CO3
The tests indicated carbonate contents varying
between 25% and 33%, with an average value of
30.2%. Such high values of carbonate content are
common for the study area. It was checked
according to British Standard [28].

Table 4.
Results of the chemical tests of the five soils used in the research
Location Sulphate Gypsum Carbonate Total soluble Organic matter pH-value
No. content SO3 content content salts content content %
% % CO3 % %
1 0.288 0.619 23 2.74 0.91 9.00
2 0.631 1.35 25 1.77 0.52 9.00
3 0.3 0.64 33 1.77 1.02 8.83
4 0.221 0.47 28 1.22 0.97 9.08
5 0.31 0.666 32 1.81 0.54 8.93

F. pH-Value
 Al-Rubaiee and Al Salami / Journal of Southwest Jiaotong University / Vol. 55 No. 2 Apr. 20208

The pH was measured in the natural soils used
in the research by the method provided by [29].
The soil pH was measured in the soil samples,
the pH percentages varied between 8.8% and
9.08%, with an average of 8.9 %.
V. MINERALOGICAL ANALYSIS
The X-ray diffraction types required for the
three powder samples reflect that the
mineralogical composition of the material is
virtually the same throughout the study area.
From the tests of samples in the study area, the
presence of montmorillonite, kaolinite, illite and
chlorite is found in different percentages.
According to [30], the presence of
montmorillonite, kaolinite, and chlorite in
different proportions. Even if it were a small
percentage, it could significantly affect the
physical properties of the soil.
As shown in Figures 8a, 8b, and 8c, the
material consists of the actual amount of rock
flour minerals like quartz, feldspar, dolomite and
calcite. Illite is the major phyllosilicate mineral.
Chlorite and kaolinite are also present in traces.
Figures 8a, 8b, and 8c show the components of
clay and non-clay minerals for the study area
samples according to X-ray diffraction patterns.

a. Site of the Dawr Aldubbat

b. Site of the 14 Ramadan square


c. Site of the Military square
Figure 8. Diagrams of soil diffraction in the sites
VI. CONCLUSIONS
After observing the results obtained from the
study of the determination of the sensitivity and
thixotropic effects of clay soil in Diwaniya city,
the conclusions were as follows:
1. Plasticity index increases with the
proportion of clays in the sites of the study area.
2. Liquidity index values indicate low values
of the soil sensitivity.
3. The sensitivity ratio values indicated that
the predominant soils in the study area are low to
medium-sensitivity.
4. The presence of a part of clay minerals in a
few percentages did not have a high impact on
the sensitivity ratios.
5. Low thixotropic strength ratio values are
due to the low coagulation and flocculation
phenomenon ratio in the soils.
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