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 Astro Ltd Laser Physics Letters

Laser Phys. Lett. 20 (2023) 085201 (6pp) https://doi.org/10.1088/1612-202X/acde73

Letter

Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen steering and

coherence in structured environments
K Berrada1,∗ and H Eleuch2,3
1
Department of Physics, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU), College of Science,
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
2
Department of Applied Physics and Astronomy, University of Sharjah, Sharjah PO Box 27272, United
Arab Emirates
3
College of Arts and Sciences, Abu Dhabi University, Abu Dhabi 59911, United Arab Emirates

E-mail: kaberrada@imamu.edu.sa

Received 24 April 2023

Accepted for publication 30 May 2023
Published 26 June 2023

Abstract
We examine the quantum steering and coherence for two qubits that are immersed in an
isotropic (I) and anisotropic (A) photonic band-gab (PBG) crystal. We show how the steerability
and coherence of the qubits’ state depends on the essential parameters of the model and initial
state setting of the qubits. We find that the prevention of the amount of quantum steering and
coherence can be achieved in the presence of PBG materials by a considerable choice of the
system parameters. Furthermore, we show that the quantum steering and coherence can resist
the degradation during the dynamics in IPBG more than in APBG according to the same
physical conditions. Finally, we illustrate the relationship between the quantum steering and
coherence with respect to the system parameters under the decoherence effect. These obtained
results reveal that quantum systems in PBG materials are very useful to implement diverse
applications of quantum technology with optimal performance.
Keywords: solid state system, EPR steering, coherence, photonic band gab, quantum dynamics

(Some figures may appear in colour only in the online journal)

1. Introduction phenomenon as the potential for local measurements to

Nonlocal correlations may be found in correlations res-
ulting from local measurements conducted on separated
entangled systems [1]. The violation of the Bell inequal-
ity highlights the fact that the local hidden variable model
cannot be utilized to replicate the observed data [2]. The
‘Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen (EPR) paradox’ has allowed for
the development of nonlocality as a significant aspect [3].
The paradox refutes the idea that the concept of ‘spooky
action at a distance’ may be produced by the theory
of quantum mechanics. After, Schrödinger explained this
∗
Author to whom any correspondence should be addressed.
influence (known as quantum steering or EPR steering) a
distant quantum subsystem without having access to it [4].
In the area of contemporary quantum information theory,
quantum steering is typically employed as a quantifier of
quantum correlation strong enough to explain the EPR para-
dox and is thought of as an intermediate sort of nonclas-
sical correlation between quantum entanglement and Bell
nonlocality. The steerable quantum states can be regarded
as a subset of the entangled states [5]. Quantum steering
has attracted a lot of attention recently in both theoret-
ical and experimental investigations [6–10]. Quantum key
distribution [11], channel discrimination [12], and secure
teleportation [13] all use steerable states. Additionally, the
distribution of entanglement by an untrustworthy party was

1612-202X/23/085201+6$33.00 Printed in the UK 1 © 2023 Astro Ltd

Laser Phys. Lett. 20 (2023) 085201 K Berrada and H Eleuch

offered as an operational explanation for quantum steering
[14]. The entropy uncertainty relation may be used to
obtain several quantum steering inequalities for both con-
tinuous and discrete systems [15–17]. To investigate steer-
ing in many aspects, several promising criteria for EPR
steering have been found [18, 19].
Every quantum system interacts with its surroundings.
Therefore, understanding the dynamics of various physical
quantities of an open quantum system, and the interplay
between a composite quantum system and the environment has
gained increased attention. This interaction causes ‘quantum
noise’ in the system, which manifests as oscillations, decoher-
ence, and potentially irreversible dissipative dynamics. Since
dissipation is always present in any experiment, we need
to consider it in our model. The dissipation is significant
from both a theoretical and practical standpoint. The inter-
action of an open quantum system with an external reser-
voir includes energy losses, the system dissipates energy by
creating a quantum bath [20–23]. The Hamiltonian operator
that describes the interaction between the bath and the system
does not commute with the system Hamiltonian in this type of
damping. Typically, this causes the system to thermalize after
a certain time. In composite systems, this causes decoherence,
or the progressive loss of a coherent superposition and the sub-
sequent transition to a statistical mixture.
The spontaneous emission rate has a significant impact
on how well photonic devices operate in various fields. For
instance, spontaneous emission from light-emitting diodes and
lasers which is not extracted from the devices may contribute
to noise and loss [24]. In these fields, it is crucial to prevent
unwanted spontaneous light emission and redistribute energy
into beneficial forms [25]. Theoretically and empirically, it has
been shown that photonic band-gab (PBG) materials can be
employed to efficiently reduce spontaneous emission [26]. It
has demonstrated that the structures of PBG can lead to light
localization [27] via a proper interplay between scattering res-
In section 2, we display the quantum model. Section 3 illus-
trates the dependence of the quantumness measures on the
input parameters. Section 4 displays the obtained results and
discussions. We summarize the work in the last section.
2. Model and quantum dynamics
Our quantum system consists of two identical independ-
ent qubits (two-level atoms), with transition frequency ω12 ,
each embedded in a PBG material for isotropic and aniso-
tropic models at zero temperature. The two atoms are
considered to be sufficiently separated in order to ignore
the dipole–dipole interaction. In this context, it has been
proved that the dynamics of two atoms can be determ-
ined through the knowledge of that of a single atom [33].
Here, each atom is coupled to a surrounding radiation field
in three-dimensional periodic dielectric structure [32, 34,
35]. Under this situation, the Hamiltonian of the single
atom-environment system in the interaction picture takes the
form
X X  
H = h̄ ωk â†k âk + h̄ω12 â22 + h̄ fk â21 âk + â†k â12 , (1)
k k
where âk (â†k ) defines the annihilation (creation) operator of
the field. ωk designs the field frequency of mode k in the
reservoir. σ̂lm = |l⟩⟨m| (l, m = 1, 2) represents the operators of
the atom for the excited state |2⟩ and ground state |1⟩. The
parameter fk describes the constant of the field-atom coup-
1
ling equals to (ω12 d12 /h̄) [h̄/ (2∈0 ωk V)] 2 êk .ûd with the dipole
moment ⃗d12 = d12 ûd . Here V defines a sample volume, ∈0 is
the Coulomb constant and êk represents the polarization vec-
tor of the mode reservoir k. The whole state vector can be
given as
−iω12 t X −iωk t

onances and coherent interference of light [28]. Since the dis- |Ψ (t)⟩ = q1 e |Ψ 1 ⟩ + qk e |Ψ 1 ⟩, (2)
k
covery of PBGs [29], PBG materials displaying photon local-
ization have been created at microwave frequencies [30], and where
lately two-dimensional PBG systems can been created in the
Y
near-infrared [30]. For laser applications, a complete three- |Ψ k ⟩ = |2⟩ ⊗ |0k ⟩
dimensional PBG at optical frequencies is the ultimate goal k
[31]. Qubits are frequently imitated in experiments by artifi-
Y
cial atoms made of quantum dot structures placed in the solid |Ψ k ⟩ = |1⟩⊗|1k ⟩ |0k ′ ⟩. (3)
portion of the PBG materials [32]. k ′ ̸=k
In this manuscript, we examine the quantum steering and
coherence for two qubits that are immersed in isotropic PBG Here, the vector |0k ⟩ represents the vacuum state and |1k ⟩
(IPBG) and IPBG crystals. We show how the steerability and is the first excited state for the field mode k. The Hamiltonian
coherence of the qubits’ state depend on the main parameters of two atoms is the sum of the Hamiltonian of each one.
of the model and initial state setting of the qubits. We find that According to the states defined in (3) and employing the
the prevention of the amount of quantum steering and coher- Schrödinger equation, we get the system of coupled equations
ence can be achieved in the present PBG materials by a con-
siderable choice of the system parameters. Furthermore, we
dq1 X
illustrate how the quantum steering and coherence can res- = −i fk e−iΩk t qk (4)
ist against the degradation during the dynamics in IPBG and dt k
anisotropic PBG (APBG). Finally, we display the relationship
between the quantum steering and coherence with respect to dqk
= −ifk e−iΩk t q1 . (5)
the system parameters under the decoherence effect. dt

2
Laser Phys. Lett. 20 (2023) 085201 K Berrada and H Eleuch

Here Ωk = ωk − ω12 represents the detuning frequency. By We introduce the entropic uncertainty relation (EUR) steer-
making the integration of equation (5) with the condition qk (0) ing inequality for studying the quantum steering of the two-
and the substitution of the result into equation (4), the time- atom state under the PBG effect. If the atoms’ state violates
evolution equation of the amplitude of excited state probability the EUR steering inequality, the atoms’ state is steerable [16,
is given by 17, 36]. In the basis {|00⟩,| 01⟩, |10⟩,| 11⟩} for the case of the
X-state of the two-qubit system, and by considering unitary
ˆ∞ transformations with Bloch decomposition of the density oper-
dq1
= dτ F (t − τ ) q1 (τ ) , (6) ator with Bloch vectors ⃗r = (0, 0, r) and ⃗s = (0, 0, s), the EUR
dt
0 steering inequality is
P X
where F (t − τ ) = k f 2k e−iΩk (t−τ ) is the memory Kernel that [(1 + bl ) log2 (1 + bl ) + (1 − bl ) log2 (1 − bl )]
describes the delay Green’s function. Consequently, the l=1,2
reduced density operator of the atomic is written as
− (1 + r) log2 (1 + r) − (1 − r) log2 (1 − r)
 
ϖ 22 (0) |q (t) | 2
ϖ 21 (0) q (t) 1

+ (1 + b3 + r + s) log2 (1 + b3 + r + s)
ϖ̂ S (t) =  ϖ 12 (0) q* (t) ϖ 11 (0) + ϖ 22 (0) 1 − |q (t) |2  . 2
1
+ (1 + b3 − r − s) log2 (1 + b3 − r − s)
(7) 2
1
The time evolution of the two-level atom depends on the + (1 − b3 − r + s) log2 (1 − b3 − r + s)
2
function q (t) that includes the influence of the coupling con- 1
stant and spectral density of environment. Then, the dynam- + (1 − b3 + r − s) log2 (1 − b3 + r − s) ⩽ 2, (11)
2
ical behavior of the EPR steering and coherence depend on
the initial state setting and the Hamiltonian model. To exam- where
ine the influence of PBG on the quantumness measures, we
b1 = 2 (ϖ 23 + ϖ 14 )
need the density matrix of two atoms. This density matrix can
by obtained by knowing the time evolution of the density mat- b2 = 2 (ϖ 23 − ϖ 14 )
rix of one atom (7), using the standard procedure [33]. In the b3 = ϖ 11 − ϖ 22 − ϖ 33 + ϖ 44
standard basis {|00⟩,| 01⟩, |10⟩,| 11⟩}, the matrix elements of r = ϖ 11 + ϖ 22 − ϖ 33 − ϖ 44
the atoms’ density operator are given by
s = ϖ 11 − ϖ 22 + ϖ 33 − ϖ 44 (12)
ϖ 11 (t) = ϖ 11 (0) |q (t) | 4

with ϖ ij being the matrix elements of the two qubits.
ϖ 22 (t) = ϖ 22 (0) q (t) |2 + ϖ 11 (0) q (t) |2 1 − |q (t) |2 It is preferable to measure a quantum state’s coherence in


ϖ 33 (t) = ϖ 33 (0) q (t) |2 + ϖ 11 (0) q (t) |2 1 − |q (t) |2 terms of how far away the nearest incoherent state is from it.
The diagonal elements of a quantum state’s density operator
ϖ 44 (t) = 1 − (ϖ 11 (t) + ϖ 22 (t) + ϖ 33 (t)) ,
with respect to a chosen reference basis are typically used to
(8)
describe the coherence properties for that quantum state. The
with the off-diagonal elements
absolute value of non-diagonal elements is taken into account
ϖ 12 (t) = ϖ 12 (0) q (t) q (t) |2 , ϖ 13 (t) = ϖ 13 (0) q (t) q (t) |2 when calculating the L1 norm of coherence, which quantifies
the quantum coherence. The L1 norm of quantum coherence is
ϖ 14 (t) = ϖ 14 (0) q(t)2 , ϖ 23 (t) = ϖ 23 (0) |q (t) |2 introduced by


ϖ 24 (t) = ϖ 24 (0) q (t) + ϖ 13 (0) q (t) 1 − |q (t) |2 X

CL 1 = |ϖ mn | , (13)
ϖ 34 (t) = ϖ 34 (0) q (t) + ϖ 12 (0) q (t) 1 − |q (t) |2 ,
m̸=n
(9)
where ϖ ij (t) = ϖ *ji (t)
with ϖ̂ (t) is a Hermitian matrix. where m and n are the row and column index, respectively.
We assume that the two atoms are initially prepared in Bell-
like state described by the one-parameter ket
4. Quantum steering and coherence in IPBG and
p
|Ψ A ⟩ = ζ| 01⟩ + 1 − ζ 2 |10⟩, (10) APBG crystals
√
which exhibits a maximally entangled state for ζ = 1/ 2. Firstly, we consider the case of zero-temperature three-
dimensional dielectric as an environment with isotropic
photon dispersion relation ωk [32, 34]. Near the band edge ωc ,
3. Quantumness measures the dispersion relation has the form
In the present section, we define the expressions used to detect ωk − ωc = G(k̄ − k)2 , (14)
quantum steering and coherence in the state of atoms under
the influence of PBG in terms of the matrix elements given in where G ∼ = ωc /k̄2 . The dispersion relation defined in
equations (8) and (9). equation (14) is said to be isotropic because it depends only

3
Laser Phys. Lett. 20 (2023) 085201 K Berrada and H Eleuch

on the wave-vector magnitude. In this situation, the explicit

form of q (t) is given by
2 2
q (t) = 2a1 ϑ1 eβϑ1 t+i∆t + a1 (ϑ2 + υ2 ) eβϑ2 t+i∆t
X
l=1  q 
2
− al υl 1 − Φ βϑ2l t eβϑl t+i∆t , (15)
3

where

ϑ1 = eiπ /4 (F+ + F− ) (16)

 
ϑ2 = e−iπ /4 F+ e−iπ /6 − F− eiπ /6 (17)

 
ϑ3 = ei3π /4 F+ eiπ /6 − F− eiπ /6 (18) Figure 1. Quantum steering for initial like-Bell state versus the time
βt with different values of detuning from the PBG edge in the IPBG
case with ζ 2 = 1/2. Solid curve is for the case of ∆ = −10β,
  1 ! 13 dash-dotted curve displays the case of ∆ = −8β, dashed curve
1 1 4 ∆3 2

F± = ± 1+ , (19) shows the case of ∆ = −4β and dotted curve represents the case of
2 2 27 β 3 ∆ = 0.
q
υl = ϑ2l , l = 1, 2, 3, (20)
∆ = ω12 − ωc according to the frequency of the band edge. In
7/2
this situation, the explicit form of q (t) is given by
where β 3/2 = d2 ω12 /6h̄π ∈0 c3 . nh  √ i 2
We now display the time variation of quantum steering of q (t) = ε 1 + Θ χ + eiπ /4 t χ + eiχ + t
the qubits’ state in the IPBG as characterized by the disper- h  √ i 2
o
sion relation of equation (14) with respect to the detuning − 1 + Θ χ − eiπ /4 t χ − eiχ − t , (22)
∆ = ω12 − ωc , where ω12 is the transition frequency of qubit
and ωc represents the frequency of the band edge. In figure 1, where
we display the measure of EPR steering against dimensionless
ei∆t
time βt for different values of the parameter ∆. The qubits’ fre- ε= √
quency is inside the band gab when ∆ < 0. The blue solid line α2 − 4∆
is for ∆ = −10β, red dash-dotted solid line is for ∆ = −8β, p 
green dashed line is for ∆ = −4β, and blue dotted line is χ+ = α2 − 4∆ − α /2
for ∆ = 0. Figures 1(a) and (b) are ζ 2 = 1/2 and ζ 2 = 1/3,
 p 
respectively. In general, we can observe that the preservation
χ − = − α2 − 4∆ − α /2,
and delay of the measure of EPR steering depends on the para-
meters ∆ and ζ. The figures show the trapping phenomenon of 3/2
the quantum measure of EPR steering. In the ω12 ≤ ωc limit, with α ≈ d2 ω122
/[8(π A) ωc ∈0 ] as a constant which is related
the qubits’ state is steerable during the evolution and the meas- to the nature of the singularity of the band edge and Θ is the
ure of quantum steering oscillates in a periodic manner with error function.
the time. When the qubit frequency gets far from the band edge The measure of EPR steering corresponding to the case of
(ω12 ≪ ωc ), the measure of quantum steering is nearer to its APBG, is displayed in figure 2 versus the time α2 t for different
maximal initial value with perfect steering of the qubits’ state. values of detuning ∆. The blue solid line is for ∆ = −10α2 ,
On the other side, we can protect the measure of EPR steering red dash-dotted solid line is for ∆ = −8α2 , green dashed line
by a proper choice of the parameter ζ. is for ∆ = −4α2 , and blue dotted line is for ∆ = 0. We can
Let us now consider the environment in the case of APBG observe that the measure of quantum steering decreases with
crystals. In the model of anisotropic dispersion, the band edge time and goes to attain a steady value providing that the qubits’
is associated with a definite point in k-space. In this situation, state is steerable as the frequency of the qubit is largely inside
the dispersion relation has the form [35] the gap ∆ ≪ 0. Furthermore, the quantum measure of EPR
steering decreases with time providing an unsteerable state of
ωk − ωc ≈ C(k − k0 ) ,
2
(21) two qubits in the limits ∆ ⩾ 0 (the frequency of the qubit is
detuned outside the band gap) and ∆ < 0 (the frequency of
where C is a constant that depends on the model, ωc represents the qubit is inside the gap). The larger the detuning of the qubit
the upper band-edge frequency and k0 describes the wave vec- frequency inside the gab according to the APBG, the larger the
tor associated with the point-group symmetry for the dielec- steady value with a smaller sudden drop of the EPR steering
tric material. Here, the detuning of the atomic frequency is with the steerable state of two qubits.

4
Laser Phys. Lett. 20 (2023) 085201
Figure 2. EPR steering for initial like-Bell state versus the time α2 t
with different values of the detuning from the PBG edge in the
APBG case with ζ 2 = 1/2. Solid curve is for the case of
∆ = −10α2 , dash-dotted curve displays the case of ∆ = −8α2 ,
dashed curve shows the case of ∆ = −4α2 and dotted curve
represents the case of ∆ = 0.
Figure 3. Quantum coherence for initial like-Bell state versus the
time βt with different values of the detuning from the PBG edge in
the IPBG case with ζ 2 = 1/2. Solid curve is for the case of
∆ = −10β, dash-dotted curve displays the case of ∆ = −8β,
dashed curve shows the case of ∆ = −4β and dotted curve
represents the case of ∆ = 0.
In figures 3 and 4, the quantum coherence for the dispersion
relations (14) and (21) are displayed versus the dimensionless
time for various values of detuning. Generally, we find that the
quantum coherence behaves in a similar way as the measures
of EPR steering with respect to the values of the detuning. It
can be found for negative values of detuning, i.e. the trans-
ition frequency of the qubit takes far from the band edge and
it is inside the gab, the amount of the qubits’ coherence can be
largely preserved during the dynamics. Under the same con-
dition, the preservation of coherence for the dispersion (14) is
larger than that of (21). This means that the qubits’ coherence
in the IPBG is more robust than that in the APBG and show-
ing the PBG can be utilized to restrain the coherence’s sud-
den drop. Also, we show that the qubits’ state with coherence
5
K Berrada and H Eleuch
Figure 4. Quantum coherence for initial like-Bell state versus the
time α2 t with different values of detuning from the PBG edge in the
APBG case with ζ 2 = 1/2. Solid curve illustrates the case of
∆ = −10α2 , dash-dotted curve displays the case of ∆ = −8α2 ,
dashed curve shows the case of ∆ = −4α2 and dotted curve
represents the case of ∆ = 0.
can violate the quantum steering inequality as the frequency
of the qubit is largely inside the gap, and not every state of the
qubits’ is steerable as the frequency of a qubit is detuned out-
side the band gap. The obtained results here demonstrate that
the amount of EPR steering and coherence for the IPBG case
is more easily protected than in the case of APBG.
5. Conclusion
In conclusion, we have examined the quantum steering and
coherence for two qubits that are immersed in an IPBG and
APBG crystal. We have shown in detail how the steerability
and coherence of the qubits’ state depend on the main paramet-
ers of the model and initial state setting of the qubits. We have
found that the prevention of the amount of quantum steering
and coherence can be achieved in the presence of PBG mater-
ials by a considerable choice of the system parameters. We
have obtained that the quantum steering and coherence can res-
ist the degradation during the dynamics in IPBG more than in
APBG according to the same physical conditions. Finally, we
have displayed the relationship between the quantum steering
and coherence with respect to the system parameters under the
decoherence effect. These results show that quantum systems
in PBG materials are very useful to implement diverse applic-
ations of quantum technology with optimal performance.
The validity of the findings achieved here for ideal PBG
materials raises the question of how well they apply to real
crystals. A pseudo gap is frequently created in real crystals
with limited dimensions where the density of states is sig-
nificantly lower than that of empty space but not vanishing.
However, in such gaps, the local density of states can be so
low that it is possible to successfully prevent an excited emitter
from spontaneously decaying by judiciously placing it inside
the PBG material [37, 38]. Thus, memory and coherent con-
trol effects exist and are comparable to those in an ideal PBG.
Laser Phys. Lett. 20 (2023) 085201
Significant suppression of spontaneous emission of up to 30%
has been reported for quantum dots contained within real PBG
material [26]. In several studies, ‘artificial atoms’ made of
quantum dot structures ensconced in the solid fraction of the
PBG material serve as qubits [35]. With the technical advant-
ages of solid-state systems, quantum dots enable coherent
manipulation of a single localized quantum system. The Stark
effect may be used to adjust the energy levels in the quantum
dots situation as well, with typical shifts of 1 − −10 GHz
[39, 40], in order to create the necessary conditions for qubit
coherent operations. These characteristics enable the incorpor-
ation of quantum dots into a PBG material suitable for estab-
lishing different quantum computing and coherent informa-
tion processing. Entangled independent atoms in PBG mater-
ials can be generated through a three-dimensional photonic
crystal single-mode cavity with a high-quality factor where
the Rydberg atoms can freely travel via the void regions [41].
Here, the atoms change photons with the cavity, characterized
by the defect mode of crystal resonant with the atomic fre-
quency. In this case, the atoms are considered to be independ-
ent since their transition frequency is inside the PBG and their
relative distance permits neglect of the dipole–dipole interac-
tion. Our present study from a phenomenological perspective
may provide a clearer explanation of the experimental results
of the dissipation on the EPR steering and coherence.
Acknowledgment
The authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of
Scientific Research at Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic
University (IMSIU) for funding and supporting this work
through Research Partnership Program No. RP-21-09-42.
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