1.

Give the contributions of the following persons to the field of statistics:

a) Gauss (Carl Friedrich Gauss) - He made significant contributions to the normal
distribution, often referred to as the Gaussian distribution, which is a cornerstone of
modern statistics.
b) Cardano (Gerolamo Cardano) - Cardano's work included contributions to probability
theory. He wrote about games of chance and introduced the concept of probability.
c) Pearson (Karl Pearson) - Made significant contributions to the field of statistics,
particularly in developing the theory of correlation and regression. He is also known for
Pearson's chi-squared test, a statistical test used for independence and goodness-of-
fit analysis.
d) Spearman (Charles Spearman) - Developed Spearman's rank correlation coefficient, a
non-parametric measure of statistical dependence between two variables. He also
contributed to factor analysis, a technique used in psychology and other fields.
e) Kolmogorov (Andrey Kolmogorov) - Made significant contributions to probability theory.
He developed the Kolmogorov axioms, which laid the foundation for modern
probability theory.
f) Smirnov (Nikolai Smirnov) - Worked on statistical tests and distributions. He is known
for the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, which is used to test the goodness-of-fit of a data
sample to a specific probability distribution.
g) Chebyshev (Pafnuty Chebyshev) - Made contributions to probability theory and
statistics. He is known for Chebyshev's inequality, which provides bounds on the
probability of values being far from the mean in any distribution.
h) Fisher (Ronald A. Fisher) - Made significant contributions to various areas of statistics,
including the development of the analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Fisher's exact test.
He is also known for Fisher's fundamental contributions to the field of experimental
design.
i) Laplace (Pierre-Simon Laplace) - Made contributions to probability theory. He worked
on the concept of probability and Bayesian inference, which is fundamental in statistics
and data analysis.
j) De Moivre (Abraham de Moivre) - Made important contributions to probability theory.
He is best known for De Moivre's theorem, which deals with the probabilities of events
in repeated Bernoulli trials and is a precursor to the normal distribution.
k) Quetelet (Adolphe Quetelet) - Is often considered the founder of anthropometry and
the body mass index (BMI). He made significant contributions to the statistical analysis
of social phenomena and the concept of the "average man."

2. Trace the history of statistics in the Philippine setting. Cite the significant events,
personalities, and their contribution.

a) Spanish Colonial Period (16th to 19th Century):

During the Spanish colonial period, the Philippines was primarily subjected to
demographic and economic data collection for administrative purposes. The
Spanish government conducted censuses and collected data on landholdings,
population, and agriculture to aid in taxation and governance.
b) American Colonial Period (1898-1946):
The United States, following its colonization of the Philippines, introduced modern
statistical methods and institutions. In 1903, the Census of the Philippine Islands
was conducted, providing valuable demographic and economic data. Dr. Jose P.
Laurel, an early Filipino statistician, contributed to the development of statistical
methods and was one of the first Filipinos to earn a Ph.D. in Political Science and
Jurisprudence.
c) Post-World War II Era (1946-1960s):
 The Philippine Statistical System (PSS) was established in 1947, laying the
foundation for a comprehensive statistical infrastructure. Dr. Guillermo Padolina,
the first National Statistician, played a significant role in organizing the PSS. The
National Census and Statistics Office (NCSO) was created to oversee statistical
activities.
d) 1970s and 1980s:
The Philippine Institute for Development Studies (PIDS) was founded in 1977,
contributing to policy research and statistical analysis. The PIDS played a role in
the development of economic statistics in the country.
e) 1990s and 2000s:
The Philippines continued to strengthen its statistical capabilities, aligning with
international standards and practices. The National Statistical Coordination Board
(NSCB) was established to coordinate statistical activities across government
agencies. Efforts were made to improve data collection, dissemination, and
utilization.
f) 21st Century:
The Philippines adopted the Philippine Statistical Development Program (PSDP)
to guide the development of the statistical system. The Philippine Statistics
Authority (PSA) was created in 2013 through the passage of the Philippine
Statistical Act, consolidating various.
g) Recent Developments:
The Philippines has increasingly focused on data collection and analysis to
support policy formulation, socioeconomic planning, and disaster management.
Various universities and research institutions have contributed to statistical
research and training in the country.

3. origin and development of statistics

Origin
1. Ancient Civilizations: The roots of statistics can be traced to ancient civilizations like Egypt,
Babylon, and China, where early forms of data collection and numerical records were used
for administrative and economic purposes. These civilizations had systems for recording
information about populations, agricultural production, and trade.
2. Greece: In ancient Greece, thinkers like Thales and Pythagoras made early attempts at
using data and mathematics to understand the world. However, it was in the 5th century
BC that the philosopher Democritus introduced the concept of probability, laying the
groundwork for statistical thinking.
Development:
1. 17th Century: The development of modern statistics began in the 17th century. Notable
milestones include:
 John Graunt's work on mortality statistics in London, published in 1662, is often
considered the start of vital statistics.
 Blaise Pascal and Pierre de Fermat's correspondence on probability theory in the
1650s led to the formulation of probability theory.
2. 18th Century: The 18th century saw significant advancements in statistics:
 Abraham de Moivre introduced the normal distribution in the 1730s, which became
fundamental in probability and statistics.
 Daniel Bernoulli's "The Law of Large Numbers" (1713) and Thomas Bayes'
theorem (posthumously published in 1763) contributed to probability theory.
 3. 19th Century: The 19th century marked further progress:
 Carl Friedrich Gauss developed the method of least squares in 1809, a
cornerstone of regression analysis and data fitting.
 Pierre-Simon Laplace made significant contributions to probability and Bayesian
inference.
 Sir Francis Galton worked on correlation and regression, as well as pioneering the
use of statistical techniques in the study of heredity.
4. 20th Century: The 20th century witnessed a boom in statistical theory and practice:
 Ronald A. Fisher made groundbreaking contributions to experimental design,
analysis of variance, and maximum likelihood estimation.
 Jerzy Neyman and Egon Pearson developed hypothesis testing and introduced
the concept of confidence intervals.
 The advent of computers revolutionized data analysis, allowing for complex
statistical computations and simulations.
5. 21st Century: Statistics continues to evolve with the advancement of technology:
 Big data analytics and machine learning have become prominent, with statistics
playing a crucial role in data-driven decision-making.
 Bayesian statistics, non-parametric methods, and data visualization have gained
prominence.
 The interdisciplinary nature of statistics has expanded, with applications in fields
like epidemiology, finance, social sciences, and more.
Overall, the origin and development of statistics are characterized by the gradual evolution of
mathematical and analytical techniques to understand and interpret data. It has grown from basic
record-keeping in ancient civilizations to a sophisticated and indispensable tool for scientific
research, policy formulation, business decision-making, and various other applications in the
modern world.
4. what are the fuctions of statistics as a discipline? Cite three functions and explain each
Statistics serves several important functions as a discipline in various fields, including science,
social sciences, economics, business, and public policy. Here are three key functions of statistics,
along with explanations for each:
1. Descriptive Function:
 Explanation: The descriptive function of statistics involves summarizing and
presenting data in a meaningful and concise manner. It aims to provide a clear
and objective overview of a dataset, helping individuals and organizations
understand its characteristics, patterns, and key features.
 Importance:
 Data Summarization: Statistics allows for the summarization of large and
complex datasets, making it easier to grasp and interpret information.
 Data Visualization: Through graphical representations like histograms, bar
charts, and scatterplots, statistics can visually convey trends and patterns
in data.
  Data Centralization: By providing measures of central tendency (mean,
median, mode) and measures of dispersion (variance, standard
deviation), statistics distills data down to its essential components, aiding
in decision-making and communication.
2. Inferential Function:
 Explanation: The inferential function of statistics involves making inferences,
predictions, and generalizations about populations or phenomena based on
sample data. It helps us draw conclusions and make statements about a larger
group or population from a smaller, representative sample.
 Importance:
 Hypothesis Testing: Statistics allows us to test hypotheses and assess
whether observed differences or associations in data are statistically
significant or likely due to chance.
 Estimation: Through techniques like confidence intervals, statistics
provides estimates of population parameters (e.g., population mean)
along with a measure of uncertainty.
 Predictive Modeling: Statistical models, such as linear regression and
logistic regression, are used to make predictions and inform decision-
making based on historical data.
3. Decision-Making Function:
 Explanation: Statistics plays a critical role in supporting decision-making
processes by providing evidence and insights derived from data analysis. It helps
individuals, businesses, and policymakers make informed choices, allocate
resources efficiently, and assess the potential outcomes of various actions.
 Importance:
 Risk Assessment: Statistics is used to quantify and assess risks
associated with different courses of action, helping decision-makers make
choices that maximize benefits while minimizing potential negative
consequences.
 Resource Allocation: Businesses and governments use statistical analysis
to allocate resources such as budgets, manpower, and time effectively.
 Performance Evaluation: Performance metrics and key performance
indicators (KPIs) derived from statistical analysis are used to evaluate the
effectiveness of strategies, products, or processes and make adjustments
as needed.
In summary, statistics serves the descriptive function by summarizing data, the inferential function
by drawing conclusions from samples, and the decision-making function by providing evidence-
based support for making informed choices. These functions are essential in helping us
understand, interpret, and utilize data to address questions, solve problems, and make decisions in
a wide range of fields and applications.

5. Cite some specific applications of statistics in the following areas:

1. Economics:
  Economic Forecasting: Economists use statistical models to predict economic
trends, such as GDP growth, inflation rates, and unemployment rates.
 Market Research: Statistics helps in analyzing consumer behavior, market trends,
and demand patterns to inform pricing and marketing strategies.
 Cost-Benefit Analysis: Statistical methods are used to evaluate the costs and
benefits of various policy decisions, investment projects, and economic policies.
2. Business:
 Quality Control: Statistical process control (SPC) is employed to monitor and
improve product quality in manufacturing and services.
 Marketing Analysis: Businesses use statistical techniques for customer
segmentation, market research, and A/B testing to optimize marketing campaigns.
 Financial Analysis: Statistical models are used for risk assessment, portfolio
management, and credit scoring in finance and banking.
3. Education:
 Assessment and Testing: Statistics is used to develop standardized tests, evaluate
their reliability and validity, and analyze student performance data.
 Education Policy Evaluation: Researchers use statistical methods to assess the
impact of educational policies and interventions on student outcomes.
 Classroom Assessment: Teachers use statistics to analyze student performance
data to adapt instruction and identify areas needing improvement.
4. Nursing:
 Clinical Trials: Statistics is critical in designing and analyzing clinical trials to
assess the effectiveness of new treatments and drugs.
 Patient Outcomes: Nurses use statistical tools to track patient outcomes, identify
trends, and improve patient care protocols.
 Nursing Research: Statistical analysis informs nursing research on topics such as
healthcare disparities, patient satisfaction, and nursing interventions.
5. Social Sciences:
 Survey Research: Social scientists use statistical sampling and analysis to gather
and interpret data on various social phenomena, including attitudes, behaviors,
and demographics.
 Criminology: Statistical analysis helps in studying crime rates, victimization
patterns, and the effectiveness of criminal justice interventions.
 Demography: Statisticians analyze population data to study population growth,
migration, aging, and fertility rates.
6. Psychology:
 Psychological Research: Statistics is crucial for designing experiments, conducting
surveys, and analyzing data to study human behavior, cognition, and mental
health.
 Clinical Psychology: Psychologists use statistical methods to assess treatment
efficacy, diagnose disorders, and evaluate therapy outcomes.
  Psychometrics: Statistical techniques are applied to develop and validate
psychological tests and assessments.
7. Computer Science/Information Technology:
 Machine Learning: Statistical algorithms and models underpin machine learning
and artificial intelligence applications, including image recognition, natural
language processing, and recommendation systems.
 Data Analysis: Statistics is used for data preprocessing, exploratory data analysis,
and data visualization in data science projects.
 Network Security: Statistical anomaly detection methods are employed to identify
unusual patterns in network traffic and detect potential cyber threats.
 1. What do you mean by parametric and non-parametric data analysis?
Parametric Data Analysis: This involves making assumptions about the underlying population
distribution, often assuming it follows a normal distribution. Parametric tests are used when data
meets certain assumptions, such as homogeneity of variance and normality.
Non-parametric Data Analysis: Non-parametric methods do not make specific assumptions about
the population distribution. These methods are used when the data does not meet the assumptions
of parametric tests or when dealing with categorical or ordinal data.

2. Which of the nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio can be analyzed using parametric and
non-parametric data analysis?
Nominal Data: Nominal data are categorical and represent categories or labels with no inherent
order. Both parametric and non-parametric methods can be used to analyze nominal data, but non-
parametric tests are more common.
Ordinal Data: Ordinal data have ordered categories but the intervals between them are not
necessarily equal. Both parametric and non-parametric methods can be used, but non-parametric
tests are often preferred.
Interval Data: Interval data have ordered categories with equal intervals between them but no true
zero point. Parametric methods are typically used for interval data, but non-parametric tests can be
applied when assumptions are not met.
Ratio Data: Ratio data have ordered categories with equal intervals and a true zero point.
Parametric methods are most appropriate for ratio data, but non-parametric tests can be used if
necessary.

3. Classify the following if qualitative or quantitative:

a. Income Qualitative Data
b. Grade in Math Quantitative Data
c. Preference in Death Penalty Qualitative Data
d. School organization membership Qualitative Data
e. Type of newspaper read Qualitative Data
f. Blood pressure Quantitative Data
g. Cholesterol count Quantitative Data
h. Cholesterol level Quantitative Data
i. Course taken Qualitative Data
j. Heart rate Quantitative Data

4. Classify the following data as nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio

a. Car plate number Nominal Data
b. Mobile phone number Nominal Data
c. Tuition fee Interval Data
d. Frequency of going to mass Ordinal Data
e. Degree of effectiveness Ordinal Data
f. Level of job satisfaction Ordinal Data
g. Family name Nominal Data
h. Water bills Ratio Data
i. Temperature Interval Data
j. Pressure Interval Data