Mobile Computing Quantum (Motivationbank - In)

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Wireless Networ~ ?,{obile Computing
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b. For example, Bluet . ::---.__ li7(JT_g,,
interconnectingaheadsootth, infrared np,n ... , ,~ IT-8)J
PART·l e to lapto rov1des w
WirelessLAN: p. PAN for
Wireless Networking, Wirekss LAN Overview : MAC Iss~ 2-
a. A wireless LAN (WI.AN) links
IEEE 802.11, Bluetooth, Wjreless Multiple ~ c~ ss Pro!.oc;l;. distributed method (For exam two or lllore device .
and usually providing pie.= SPfead.~USlllg a Wireless
wider internet. a connection through an or OFDM radio)
CONCEPT OUTLINE: PART·l . . access l>Oint to the
• Wrreless network refers to any type of computer network that b. This provides user the mobilit
coverage area and still be co Y to move around within
is wireless and is commonly associated with a telecommunication nnected to netw k a 1ocaJ
network. c. For example : or .
. ..-_r,;. . A wireless LAN is linking of two or more computer or devic i Wi-Fi :Wi-Fi networks broad .
using spread spectrum or OFDM modulation. es picked up by Wi-Fi receivers a::hrad10 ~aves that can be
• Bluetooth is open wireless technology standard for exchangin or mobile phones. ed to different computers
data over short distances from fixed or mobile device creating ii. Fixed wireless data : It is a t of .
PAN with high levels of security. g that can be used to connect twoyPe Wireless data network
or more building to
extend or share network bandwidth. s gether to
. 3. Wireless MAN:
a. WirelessMetropolitanAreaNetworkareatype 0 f .
Questions-Answers that connects several wireless LANs. 1
Wire essnetwork
J
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions b. For example, Wi-Max is a type ofWMAN.
4. Wireless WAN:
a. Wireless Wide Area Network (WWAN) are wireless networks that
+QueFZ.1. '.j Describe briefly about wireless networking. Describe typically cover large outdoor areas.
the various types of wireless networking. b. These network can be used to connect branch offices of business or
OR as a public internet access system.
What are the basic differences between wireless WAN and wireless c. They are usually deployed on 2.4 GHz band.
LAN ? Discuss the common features of these. d. A typical system contains base station gateways, access points and
wireless bridging relays.
IUPTU 2012-13, Marks 05 I
~1°:l>Jti:_JExplain the uses, pros and cons of wireless network.
~ er OR
Wireless network : What are the advantages and disadvantages of using a wireless
1. Wireless network refers t.o any type of computer network that is wireless transmission as compared to a fiber or wire transmission ?
and is commonly associated with a telecommunication network whose I
UPTU 2012-13, Marks os]
interconnection between nodes are implemented without the use of
wires.
2. Wireless telecommunication networks are generally implemented with ~~~tdrt- "·.·
:: 1
some type of remote information transmission system that uses Uses of ~less networking:
1. With the help of wireless networks, information could be sent overseas
electromagnetic waves, such as radio waves for the carrier and this
with efficiency and more reliability.
implementation usually takes place at physical layer of network.
Types of wireless network : 2 Efficient services such as the police department utilize wireless network
·
to communicate important information quickly.
L Wireless PAN: · Another important use for wireless networks is an expensive and rapidth
3
a A Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPAN) interconnect devices way to be connected to the internet in countries and regions where e
1
within a relatively small area. telecom infrastructure is poor.
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Pros:
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Wireless Networking
Mobile Computing
2. Installation difficulties :
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1. Easy to set up : · d networks , as is

easy to set up as wire a. Because wireless network are so commonly used, you may find
· 1 networks are as that other wireless networks setup in your medical building interfere
a. Wire ess mputers to the network.
adding more co with your wireless signal.
. eed to fix wires and users can move around
b There is obvious1Y no n . . , b. There are a limited nUlllber of channels and if the incorrect channel
· within the signal range at their discret.on. . is used, you may end up with inconsistent network connection or
. • has phones and iPods can also be easily set up to no network connectivity at all.
c Mobile devices sue
· connect to the network. 3. Signal stability :
l
I
2. Coverage:
a. Th oug · ail
the past decade and good coverage 1s av a e wt
range.
bl
.
h coverage is limited, wireless technology has improved over
"thin a spec1"fied
a. Users can experience black spots within the coverage range where
the wireless signal has difficulty passing through certain building
materials or if the area has significant radio interference.
b. Users may need to do some experimenting to obtain optimal signal
b. Beyond that, extender and range boost~rs can be used if wider stability.
coverage is required. 4. Speed:
3. Unlimited users : a. While wireless networks are faster than dial-up connection, the
a. Wired routers will typically come with three or four connection average speed tends to be slower than an ethernet connection as
port and require a switch for additional expansion. an issue to be considered if you or your organization will be relying
b. With a wireless network you can add more users without the need solely on a wireless network.
to change hardware, though bandwidth and speed may become an
Que ·2;s: JI Give the brief discussion on wireless LAN. What are the
issue if there are too many users. h. ~ ~ ut1
Convenience, flexibility and efficiency : advantages and disadvantages of WLAN ?
4.
a. A wireless network can be invaluable for companies that hot desk
or have other office-sharing practices.
~ ' :)
.wer
•. '"_.
.w,-
Wireless LAN:
b. If you need mobility around the workplace, a wireless network 1. A wireless LAN is linking of two or more computer or devices using
help you move around without worrying about access points or spread spectrum or OFDM modulation.
wires.
2. WI.AN are typically restricted in their diameter to buildings, college
5. Cost:
I
campus, single rooms etc. and are operated by individuals, not a large-
a. Wireless routers have become very affordable in the past few years scale network providers.
so the costs associated with setting up a wireless network will not 3. The global goal ofWLAN's is to replace office cabling, to enable access to
necessarily be prohibitive.
I
the internet and, to introduce a higher flexibility for adhoc communication
b. It may even cheaper to install a wireless network in some situations. in public places and group meetings.
Cons: j 4. The wireless LAN technology is based on IBEE 802.11 standard.
L Security: 5. It is a member oflEEE 802 family, which is a series of specification for
a
b.
Wireless networks are more difficult to secure than wired local
networks.
As a result, they are more vulnerable to attack by unauthorized
I LAN technologies.
6. The primary component of a WLAN is the wireless interface card that
has an antenna.
users. 7. This interface card can be connected to the mobile unit as well as to fixed
C.
If improperly secured, an individual could access the network from network .
a location near the practice using scanning software to identify 8. There are many products which used unlicensed ISM bands along with
available network. WLAN, for example microwave over cordless phone etc.
9. There are three bands within the ISM bands.
L l
Wireless Networking •• bile Computing
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regulate the operation 61 (}T.G, ,
10. There are 900 MHz ISM band, which ranges from 902 to 928 MHz, 2 _4 interference. sand restrict frenn •• _ . ~
GHz ISM bands which ranges from 2.4 to 2.4853 GHz and 5.4 GHz band requencies to . .
which ranges from 5.275 to 5.85 GHz. b. The WLAN s are limited to low lllinimize
free frequency bands whi h PGWer Benders •·•
11. WLAN uses 2.4 GHz and 5.4 GHz band. ' c are not _,.. certain Ii
12. WLAN works both in infrastructure and adhoc mode.
S. safety and security : same worldWide. cense.
a. Using radio waves for data tr . .
AdvantagesofWLAN: high-tech equipments for ans1111sSJonlllightinter£ .
1. Flexibility: . . , example, in hos i ere with other
b. Special precautions have to bet ptais.
a Within radio coverage, nodes can communicate without further
restriction.
c. The open radio interface
"" A
-·L akentopre
,.r, this 1eads to the hacking
vent safety hazards
....,._es eavesdr0 . ·
vv ......ru, s, f . PPmg much easi .
b. As radio waves can penetrate walls, so senders and receivers can o Wireless er in
be placed anywhere. 4. proprietary solutions: Due to slow stand . . network easily.
companies have come up with proprietary ardi. zation Procedures man
2. Planning : · alitY WI"th many enhanced featur801utionsofliermg · standardized
' Y
function
a Wireless adhoc networks allow for communication without previous es.
b.
planning, any wired network needs wiring plan.
As long as devices follow the same standard, they can communicate.
~ IDiscuss the basic design goals of'WLAN's.
3. Design:
a Wireless networks allow for the design of small, independent devices
~ I
Design goals of WLAN's are:
which can be put into a pocket.
1. Global, seamless operation : It should work g1Oball 1,
b. For example : small PDAs, notepads, mobile phones etc. · al s an dthe operafionsh ould be faultless that is seamless.
tenmn Y orallthe
4. Robustness : 2. Low power fo~ battery use: Since mobility comes with the limitation
a Wireless networks can survive disasters. For example, earthquakes, of power thus, 1t should consume low power.
floods or users pulling a plug. 3. No special permissions : It should not require any special permission
b. If the wireless devic~s survive, people can still communicate. or license to use the LAN. All the users in the range of a particular
c. Networks requiring a wired infrastructure will usually breakdown WLAN should be able to access the LAN easily.
completely. 4. Robust transmission technology : The transmission technology
5. Cost: used should be robust that is easy to use and implement.
a After providing wireless access to the infrastructure via an access 5. Security : WLAN should ensure security that is a user must be ensured
point for the first user, adding additional users to a wireless network that no one should be able to read his/her data.
will not increase the cost. 6. Privacy: WLAN should also ensure privacy i.e., no one should be able
Disadvantages of WLAN: to collect user profiles.
1. Quality of Service : 7. Safety: WLAN should be safe i.e., it should have low radiation.
a WLAN s typically offer lower quality than their wired counterparts. 8. Simplified spontaneous cooperation at meetings.
b. The main reasons for this are the lower bandwidth due to 9. Easy to use for everyone, simple management.
limitations in radio transmission, (for example, 1-10 Mbps user data 10. Protection of investment in wired networks.
rate instead ofl00-1000 Mbps), higher error rates due to interference . Ii t·
11. Transparency concerning app ca ions an
d higher layer protocols, but
and higher delay due to extensive error correction and detection also location awareness if necessary.
\ , -, IDescribe the basic transmission

· ·. tbatcanbeusedtoset
1
mechanisms.
2. Restrictions :
a All wireless products have to comply with national regulations. upWLAN.
Several government and non-government institutions worldwide
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Wireless Networking
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Mobile Computing 63(IT-8) J
There are
WLAN : two basic transmission technologies that can be us ed to set up
~ ml What the variol18 types of WLAN ? List the various
applications of wireless LAN.
1. Infrared technology :
a. This technology uses diffuse light reflected at walls f . Types ofWLAN: There are different types ofWLAN's. Some of the most
directed light if a line-of-~ight (LOS) exists betwee'n urruture
sender and
or
popular ones are :
receiver. 1. IEEE 802.11 :
ders can be simple light emitting diodes (LEDs) where
b. S en . as a. In June 1997, IEEE finalized the initial specification for WLAN's:
ii photodiodes can act as receivers. IEEE 802.11.
Advantages of infrared technology : b. This standard specifies a 2.4 GHz frequency hand with data rate of
l. It is simple and extremely cheap. 1 Mbps and 2 Mbps.
2. Most of the devices have an infrared data association (lrDA) c. Today, these standards offer a local area network of bandwidth
interface. going upto a maximum of 54 Mbps.
3. No licenses are needed for infrared technology and shielding 2. Hyper LAN:
is very simple. a. Hyper LAN begins in Europe in 1996 by EISI broadband radio ·
4. Electrical devices do not interfere with infrared transmission. access network group.
h. Hyper LAN/1 the current version works at the 5 GHz band and
Disadvantages of infrared technology :
offer upto 24 Mbps bandwidth.
1. Low bandwidth compared to other LAN technologies.
c. Next version Hyper LAN/2 will support a bandwidth of 54 Mbps
2. Infrared data association devices are internally connected to a with QoS support.
serial port limiting transfer rates to 115 khit/s. This is not a
d. This will he able to carry Ethernet frames, ATM cells, IP packets
high data rate. and support data, video, voice and images.
3. One of the main drawbacks of infrared is that it can be easily
3. Bluetooth :
shielded.
a. Bluetooth was named after Harold Bluetooth, King of Denmark
4. Infrared transmission cannot penetrate walls or other obstacles. · during 952 to 995 AD, who had a vision of a world with cooperation
2. Radio transmission : It includes long-term experiences made with and interoperability. ·
radio transmission for wide area networks and mobile cellular phones. b. It is now promoted by many big industry leaders like IBM, Ericsson,
Advantages of radio transmission : Intel, Microsoft, Nokia etc.
1. It can cover larger areas. c. Blue tooth is a wireless personal area network (PAN) operating at
2.4 GHz hand and offers 1 Mbps data rate.
2. It can penetrate walls, furniture, plants etc.
d. It uses frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) modulation
3. It does not need line-of-sight (LOS) if the frequencies are not too
and offers 1 Mbps and 2 Mbps at 2.4 GHz frequency band.
high.
4. MANET: Manet is a working group within the IETF to investigate and
4. Radio based products have higher transmission rates . For example,
develop the standard for mobile adhoc networks.
54 Mhit/s, 100 Mhit/s.
Disadvantages of radio transmission : Various applications of wireless LAN are:
1. Radio transmission can interfere with other senders.

1. Office/campus environment
2. Electrical devices can destroy data transmission via radio. 2. Home

3. Radio transmission is only permitted in ~ertain frequency bands. 3. Public places
4. Very limited ranges oflicense-free hands are available worldwide. 4. Warillefense sites
l
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I
18,e.2.t,itl Give the brief dis~ussion on MAC layer. Why the :::.--:-:;; therefore, needs a mechanism to coordinate traffic · · • th
~•• llis' th t ,m1mnuze e
specialized MAC is needed for wireless LAN? 4- UDlber of co ions a occurs, and maximize the numbe f fr
nthat are delivere
. d successfull y. r o ames
1· ,. ·;·-·-1
,~swe:a;'l,J,
0 •
The access mechanism used in an ethemet is called carrier sense multipl

Medium Access Control (MAC) layer : 5. access with collision detection (CSMAICD). e
1. Medium access control layer controls medium access through the User. For wireless~, CSMA/CD is not suitable because if a sender wants to
2_ It also supports roaming, authentication and power conservation. 6. send something _it_ sends as ~oon as the medium is free it listen into the
medium if, a collis1on occurs it stops sending and sends ajamming signal.
3. 'fhe basic services provided by the _MAC ~ayer are the mandatory
asynchronous data service and an optional time bounded service. 7 In case of wireless network, this scheme fails as in wireless network the
· signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance.
4. The asynchronous service supports broadc~ and multicast packet and
pack.et exchange is based on a "best effort model. 8 Now when the sender would apply CS (Carrier Sense) and CD (Collision
· Detection) if a collision occurs at the receiver it might be the case that a
Need for apecialized MAC :
- In
sender cannot "hear" the collision due to weakening of the signals, i.e.,
1. The MAC algorithms used in wired network often fail in wireless CD does not further move, CS might not work if, for example, a terminal
network due to some reasons. is "bidden". Collision detection in wireless is a difficult task as the
2. One of the commonly used algorithm for wired networks is CSMA/cn magnitude of the signal varies with distance.
which works as follows : If a sender wants to send something, it sends as
soon as the medium is free, it listen into the medium if a collision occurs context to cellular network, discuss the following:
it stops sending and sends a jamming f!ignal. i. Cell splitting
3. Now, in case of wireless network this scheme fails, as in wireless network ii. Near and far problem
4.
the signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance.
Now when the sender would apply CS (Carrier Sense) and CD (Collision
iii. Bidden terminal problem IUPTU 2014-15, Marks 05 I
Detection) if a collision occurs at the receivl!r it might be the case that a IUPTU 2015-16, Marks 02 I
sender cannot "hear" the collision due to weakening of the signal, i.e.,
CD does not further move, CS might not work. For example, a terminal
is "hidden".
IA1itnr4
Cell splitting: Refer Q. 1.10, Page 19.J, Unit-1.
5. Collision detection in wireless is a difficult task as the magnitude of the Near and far problem:
signal varies with distance.
1. This situation often occurs in wireless networks. Consider the scenario
S!e·u : ,JI "CSMA/CD is not suitable protocol for wireless LAN".
ft
in Fig. 2.9.1.
--~·"-·.c·.:.·.:._; ·-:-
Give reaaons in favour of or against the statement ?
----~~~ --
Answer
IUP.TU 2013-14, Marks 05 j
IUPTU 2012-13, 2015-16; Marks 10 I
A B
I C
• •il:!.:JJear and far_terminals.
1.
Whenever multiple users have unregulated access to a single line, there Terminals A and B send with the same transmission power but as the
is a danger of signals overlapping and destroying each other. 2.
signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance, the
2. signal ofteruriJlal B, therefore, drowns out A's signal.
Such overlaps which turn the Bignais into unusable noise are called
collisions.
Thus c cannot receive A. lfC, for example , was an arbiter for sending
3. 3.
A traffic increases on a multiple-access link, so do collisions.
::!wn
. bbl (C acts as a coordinator for media access), terminal B would
out teruriJlal A already on the physical layer .
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66 (IT-8) J Wireless Ne._
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Hidden terminal problem:
l. In Fig. 2.9.2 there are three devices A, Band C. The ellipses re
the transmission ranges. Prel!ent (Multiple Access Collision Avoidance) : MACA is proposed as an
2. We can see that the transmission range of A reaches B b 'llfACAtive to traditional CSMA. It presents a simple scheme that solves the
. ut not c,
transmission range ofC reaches B but not A and transnu·s s1onr a}ternaterminal problem.
bidden
B reaches both A and C. Rnge of 1nMACA:
3. Suppose that both A and C want to transmit to B then the fi0 1 CSMA senses the state of the channel only at the transmitter.
problem occurs : Uo1Ving · a. Lead to hidden node problem.
a A sends to B, C cannot receive A as it is not in the tr . Does not use carrier sensing.
range of A. anslllisaion 2.
b. Nodes start transmitting after a random backot'f.
b. Now, C wants to send to B, C senses a "free" medium (CS .
it cannot detect A. fails), 118 3. MACA uses RTS and CTS to overcome hidden node problems and exposed
lI ,::t-1·
node problems.
c. Thus, collision occurs at B, A cannot receive the colli •
d A is hidden for C. sion (CD fails). a. Node which only hears CTS (but no RTS), stop from transmitting
(hidden node).
b. Node which only hears RTS (but no CTS), is transmit (exposed
node).
I I 4.
c. RTS and CTS carry the expected duration of data transmission.
When there is a collision, it uses binary exponential backoff (BEB)
before retrying.
A B C where RTS stands for request to send
~ ?nfifidd~ ' pod~ ~ CTS stands for clear to send.
4. Such terminals like A and C are called hidden terminals. These tYJ)es of Packet transmission in MACA : The packet transmission in MACA is
terminals c,a use collision. shown in Fig. 2.10.1
5. Another ek ects is there known as exposed terminals which cause
unnecessary delay. N eigh~bo~r,1:1:_S,~ender R~~eiver Nei~ghbour
6. The situation is as follows :
' CTS , CTS
a. Suppose B sends something to A and C wants to send data to some DATA ',,
another terminal (not A or B) which is outside the interference ,,'
-------- ........
range of A and B.
b.
C senses the channel but finds it busy (due to B's transmission), so i!f~&;JO;K}!fef8~ 1 . ; ; ' ~.A11
C has to wait.
Avoidance of hidden terminal using MACA: MACA avoids the problem
c. But A is outside the radio range of C , therefore, waiting is not of hidden terminals as follows:
necessary. 1. Suppose A and C want to send to B.
2. A has already started the transmission, but is hidden for C, C also starts
d This is known t>.s C is "exposed" to B.
with its transmission, thereby, causing a collision at B.
Avoidance).
Explain the MACA (Multiple Access with Collision
addressed in How are hidden node and exposed node problems
MACA?
I 3. With MACA, A does not start its transmission at once, but sends a RTS
first.
4. B receives the RTS that contains the name of sender and receiver, as
well as the length of the future transmission.
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5.
.
. .
. Wireless Networ1oitg
This RTS is not beard by C, but tnggers an acknowledgem~
called cTS. nt frolll ll,
The CTS again contains the names of sender (A) and receiver (
T·:=
.
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standards : The WLAN technology is defined by the IEEE

6 user data, and the length of the future transmission. B)ofthe IE
soz.11 standards. There are currently four specifications in a family :
7. C beard this CTS and C is not allowed to send anything for th IEEE 802.ll :
1
indicated in the CTS toward B. e duration · a. Applied to wireless LAN's and provides 1 or 2 Mbps transmission.
8. A collision cannot occur at B during data transmission and th . b. It uses the 2.4 GHz ISM band. It includes infrared communication
terminal problem is solved. e hidden also.
It uses either frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) or direct
c. sequence spread spectrum (DSSS).
2, IEEE 802.lla:
a. It is an extension to 802.11 that applies to wireless LANs and provide
upto 54 Mbps in the 5 GHz band.
b. 802.lla uses an orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM)
encoding scheme.
c. The protocol also supports data rates of 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36 and 48
B C Mbps.
A
The 802.lla specifications is applied to wireless ATM gystems and is
l.t!J-~ d
used to access hubs.
Avoidance of exposed terminal problem using MACA : MACA avoid
the problem of exposed terminal as follows : 3. IEEE 802.llb:
l. With MACA, B has to transmit an RTS first containing the name of the a. It is also referred to as 802.11 high rate or Wi-Fi.
receiver (A) and the sender (B). b. This standard uses DSS and uses 2.4 GHz ISM band and provides
2. C does not react to this message as it is not the receiver, but A maximum data rate of 11 Mbps and with fall back to 5.5 Mbps.
acknowledges using a CTS which identifies B as the sender and A as the 4. IEEE802,llg:
receiver of the following data transmission.
a. It offers wireless transmission over relatively short distances at
3. C does not receive this CTS and concludes that A is outside the detection 20.54 Mbps in the 2.4 GHz band.
range. C can start its transmission assuming it will not cause a collision The 802. llg also uses the OFDM encoding scheme.
at(A).
b.
c. It uses the data rates of 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36 and 48 Mbps.
4. The problem with exposed terminals is solved without fixed access
patterns or a base station. d It provides compatibility with 802. llb equipment.
;9ue 2.12."I With neat sketch, explain architecture of 802.11 LAN

--.;:. ...i:.,._~
and explain its MAC logic. [ UPTU 2012-13, Marks 05 I

OR
Draw and define 802.11 protocol stack regarding the following
points:
i. Physical layer
C
ii. Mac sub layer protocol
Fig. 2.10~3. MA.CA can !!_Void !;."POSed terminals. @PTU 2013-14, 2014-15; Marks 06 I
iii. Frame structure
lgue 2.n. JDefine various IEEE 802.11 standards.
II
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70(IT-8)J l\{i\C JDanagement :
11- • This supports the association and re .
'A ns!!er ] 1. an access point. ·association of a station to ,
Protocol architecture of IEEE 802.11 :
1. IEEE 802.11 fits seamlessly into the other 802.x standards for wired
..
n.
It also controls synchronization r
respect to an access point and
battery power.
~;ammg .
of a station with
er management to save
LANs as shown in Fig. 2.12.1.
2. This is most common scenario where an IEEE 802.11 wireless LAN iiL MAC management also maintains th MAC
connected to a switched IEEE 802.3 ethernet via a bridge. infonnation base (MIB). e management
3. The higher layers (application, TCP, IP) look the same for wireless paY JDanagement : This is responsible for chann 1 1 .
nodes as for wired nodes. b- p}IY-MIB maintenance. e se ectionand
4. The upper part of the data link control layer, the logical link control
(LLC), covers the differences of the medium access control layers needed Station JDanagement: This is responsible for coordination fall
for the different media. c- management functions and additional higher layer functions~
5. In many of today's networks, no explicit LLC layer is visible. . slayers used in 802.11 are as follows:
variou
Mobile terminal Access point physical layer :
L The 802.11 physical layer (PHY) acts as an interface between the
a. MAC and the wireless media where the frames are transmitted
~_.s--+ and received.
Application Application
b. The PHY provides three functions:
TCP TCP
L The PHY layer provides an interface to exchange frames with
IP IP the upper MAC layer for transmission and reception of data.
LLC LLC The PHY uses carrier signal and spread spectrum modulation
ii.
802.11 MAC 802.3 MAC 802.3MAC to transmit data frames over the media.
802.11 PHY 802.3 PHY 802 .3PHY iii. The PHY provides a carrier sense indication back to the MAC
to verify activity on the media.
Three versions of PHY layer defined as follows:
6. The IEEE 802.11 standard only covers the physical layer PHY and 1. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) :
medium access layer MAC like the other 802.x LANs do.
a. FHSS allows the co-existence of multiple networks in the same
7. The physical layer is subdivided into the "physical layer convergence area by separating different networks using different hopping
protocol (PLCP)" and the "physical medium dependent sub-layer (PMD)".
sequences.
C)
LLC b. Data transmission over the media is controlled by FHSS PMD sub-
,-.l
A
"El layer.
MAC MAC managemant The 802.11 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) PHY uses
., C.
the 2.4 GHz radio frequency band, operating with 1 or 2Mbps data
PLCP
PHY managemer.t ls rate.
PMD j d. The frame consists of two basi~ parts namely the PLCP part
rn (preamble and header) and the payload part (pSDU).
Fig. 2.12. ~- Detailed IEEE"802.11 protocof'aaj,itecture and managemenq 1
e. PLCP part is transmitted at 1 M!Jit/sec and P8DU can transmit or
8~ Flg. 2.12.2 shows the IEEE 802.11 layers along and the protocol sub- 2 Mbit/sec.
layer and MAC, PHY and station management. 23
f. The frame of IEEE 802.11 FHSS is shown in Fig. 2.1 -
r-,
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16 12
..
80 4 16 _ _ b,~
Synchronization I SFD I PLW I PSF I HEC 1
80
Synchronization
16 8 8 16
I SFD ISignal IService ILength I HEC I

16 Variable bits
Payload
PLCP preamble PLCP h:;:;:;----. ~.._ --r-

!'.!!:: -12.3.J:fnnat ofIEEE 802.11 PHY frame ~ PLCP preamble PLCP header
Functions of frame : tlf.""£1;'4; ~ f E~]fm',.._.
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PLCP preamble: 1. Synchronization :
a. Synchronization : The PLCP preamble starts with b· a. The first 128 bits are used for synchronization, for gain setting, for
80 energy detection (for the CCA) and frequency offset compensation.
synchronization, which consists of alternate O's and l's (01010l it
bit pattern. pattern i~ used for synchronization of pote~t~ b. The synchronization field consists of strings of l's which are
receivers and signal detection by the CCA.
scrambled.
b. Start Frame Delimiter (SFD): The following 16 bits indicate th 2. Start Frame Delimiter (SFD) : This 16 bit field is used for
start of the frame and provide frame synchronization. The SFD _e synchronization at the beginning of a frame and consists of the pattern
16 bit binary pattern 0000110010111101 and it provides frame~ 1111001110100000.
PLCP Header: Signal:
3.
a. PLCP_POU Length Word (PLW) : The field specifies the length a Two values have been defined for the field to indicate the data rate
of the PSDL in octets and is used by the MAC to detect the end ofa of the payload. The binary value in this field is equal to the data
frame. rate multiplied by 100 kbiUs.
b. PLCP Signaling Field (PSF) : This 4 bit field indicates the data 4. Service : This field is reserved for future use.
rate of payload. All bits sets to zero (0000) indicate the lowest data
rate of 1 MbiUs. 5. Length : 16 bits are used for length indication of the payload in
microseconds. The MAC layer uses this field to determine the end of the
c. Header Error Check (HEC) : This field contains the results of a frame .
calculated frame check sequence from the sending station.
6. Header Error Check (HEC) :
2. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) :
a. Signal, service and length fields are protected by this checksum
a The spectrum is separated by code but not by frequency. using the ITU-T CRC-16 standard polynomial.
b. IEEE 802.11 DSSS PHY uses 2.4 GHz ISM band and offers both 1 b. The CRC-16 algorithm is represented by the following polynomial :
and 2 MbiUs data rates. G(x) = x 18 + x 12 + x 5 + x 1 •
c. The data transmission is control by the DSSS PMD sub-layer. 3. Infrared :
d The DSSS PMD takes the binary bits ofinformation from the PLCP a. The PHY layer based on infrared uses visible light at 850-950 nm.
protocol data unit (PPDU) and transforms them into RF signals by
using carrier modulation. b. It does not require LOS between the sender and receiver, but
should also work with diffuse light.
e.
The PDU frame consists of a PLCP preamble, PLCP header, and
MAC protocol data unit (MPDU). c. This allows for point-to-multipoint communication.
f. d The infrared PHY operation is restricted to indoor environments
The PLCP preamble and PLCP header are always transmitted st within the range of 10 m.
!Mbps, and MPDU can be sent at 1 Mbps or 2 Mbps.
Frame of IEEE 802.11 DSS : It is shown in Fig. 2.12.4. Frame of IEEE 802.11 PHY frame using infrared : It is shown in
Fig. 2.12.5.
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iiif
74(IT-8)J
More pdf : www.motivationbank.in r,i:obile Computing
Wireless Networking
::---
5773 slats 4 slots 3 slots 32 slots 16 slots 18 bit This waiting time is --__ 75(1T.0>.
contention period. D~f~: asYllchronous d a t a ~
Synchronization SFD Dats rate D,level Length CRC PSDU fdAC protocols : There are two b . lined as SJFs Plus tw&ervic, Within a
, nows : asic 80'2.11 MAC O slot times
'-- ,o PTotoco1a de.cr;c.

PLCP preamble PLCP header L DCF: """as
a. The basic 802.11 MAC P toco .
1!:!J:.lJ,2_.:_15. Formet ofIEEE 802.11,!'JIYJr~'!l~ iEiiiifrarod. ro l1Sth DC
2. MAC layer: b. In ~CF, stations deliver MAC e. FbasedonCSMA_
arbitrary length upto 2304 b service data units
a. Medium access control layer fulfills several functions such as : other transmission in pro l'tes, after detecting tha~MlhSDUa) of
i. Control medium access. gresa on the channel ere IS no
c. However, if two stations detect th ·
ii Supports roaming authentication and power conservation. a collision occurs. e channel free at the same tim
e,
ili. Exchange of data packets without delay. cl. The 802.11 defines a collision 'dan
iv. Provides asynchronous data service. the probability of such collisio:'t ce (CA) mechanism lo reduce
v. Support broadcast and multicast. 2, PCF:
vi. Time bounded service. a. In PCF, a point ~oordinator (PC), which r .
control, the medium access based on ilineqwre, access point
b. There are three basic access mechanisms that have been defined so that the point coordinator polls ~uiS:heme ID such a way
for 802.11. These are based on a version of CSMA/CA.
to the medium based on their reqwr·emenIs . lions lo grant access
c. The first two m ethods are summarized as distributed coordination
function (DCF) and point coordination function (PCF). b. In PC~, stations do not contend for the medium and the .
access 1s controlled centrally the access m bani . medium
cl. The MAC mechanis ms are also called distributed foundation wireless
medium access control <DFWMAC).
referred to as contention-fre~ channel .CC::,.
sm IS sometime,
e. For all access methods, several parameters for controlling the

waiting time before medium access are important.
l9ee2,13.J Write short note on bluetooth. Aho cfucu 88 the varioUJ
applications of bluetooth.
f. Fig. 2.12.6 shows the three different parameter s whose values
d epend on the PHY and are defined in relation to a slot time. ~ ~ er
g. These parameters also define the priorities of medium access. Bluetooth:
DIFS 1. Bluetooth is an open wireless technology standard for exchanging data
over short distances (using short wavelength radio transmission) from
DIFS PIFS fixed and mobile devices, cre~ting personal area networks (PANs) with
hlgh levels of security.
Medi um SIFS 2. It was formed by 5 companies in 1998.
busy Contention I Next frame
3. They are Ericsson, Intel, IBM, NOKIA and Toshiba.
Direct access if medium is free..? DIFS 4. The bluetooth specifications are developed and licensed by the bluetooth
~ 2.U,!:_Medlu_ m_,_cce
_ u_ a_n_d~lii
~~tet-
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Special Interest Group (SIG).
h. Short Inter-frame spacing (SJFS) 1 Tho shortest waiting time 5. Bluetooth SIG worked together to develop an integrated voice/data
for medium access (so the highest priority) is defined for short images.
co ntrol messages, such as acknowledgements of data packets. 6. Bluetooth is named after King Harold Gormsen who was born in !0th
I. PCF Inter-frame spacing (PIFS): A waiting time between DIFS
century in United Denmark and Norway.
a nd SWS (and thus a medium priority) is used for a time-bounded
service. PJFS is defined as SIFS plus one slot time. Features of bluetooth :
J. DCF Inte r-frame spacing (DIFS): This parameter denotes the 1. Robustness
longe•t w aiti ng time and has the lowest priority for medium access. 2. Low complexity
76(1T-8)J Wireless Networking 77(1T-8) J
Mobile Computing
3. Low power This means that the devices need not be facing each other, and it is also
2.
4. Low cost possible to carry out transfers when both the devices are in separate
Characteristics of bluetooth : rooms.
1. Bluetooth operates in unlicensed ISM band at 2.4 GHz (2400-2483.S 3. The fact that this technology requires no cables and wires i~ something
MHz). that has made it so popular.
2. The range of bluetooth device is power class dependent : 1 meter 4. The maximum range that it offers is 100 meters, but this range is not
10 meter, 100 meter. ' the same for all similar connections.
3. Devices connected using bluetooth frequency link forms a piconet. 5. It depends on the nature of the devices and the version that they operate
Classes of bluetooth : upon .
6. The processing power and battery power that it requires in order to
Class Maximum permitted Range (Approzimate) operate is very low.
powermW(dBm)
7. This makes it an ideal tool for so many electronic devices, as the technology
Class 1 100 mW (20 dBm) -lOOmeter can be implemented pretty much anywhere.
8. One major advantage is its simplicity of use. Anyone can figure out how
Class 2 2.5 mW (4 dBm) -10 meter
to set up a connection and sync two devices with ease.
Class3 lmW(0dBm) -1 meter 9. Moreover, the technology is completely free to use and requires no
charges to be paid to any service provider.
Applications ofbluetooth:
Disadvantages of bluetooth :
1. Wireless control and communication between a mobile phone and a
hands-free headset. 1. Though the tr~fe~ speeds are impressive at around 1 Mbps, certain
other technologies like infrared can offer speeds upto 4 Mbps.
2. Wireless communication between PC's input and output devices. For
example mouse, keyboard and printer. 2. Even though the security is good, it is even better on infrared.
3. Transfer of files between devices with OBEX. 3. This is because of the comparatively larger range ofbluetooth and al
the lack of a line of sight. , so
4. Replacement of traditional wired serial communication ·in the test
equipment, GPS receivers, medical equipment, barcode scanner and 4. Someone who knows how to hack such networks can do so eventually.
traffic control devices. 5- The battery usage during a sin_gle transfer is negligible, but there are
o. Dial-up internet access on personal computers or PDA's using a data- some people who leave the device switched on in their devices.
capable mobile phone as a modem.
\Q'fe 2.15. , Explain bluetooth architecture.
6. Wireless bridge between two industrial ethernet networks.
7. Allowing a DECT phone to ring and answer calls on behalf of a nearby ..._ . OR
- ..1run the architecture ofbluetooth t
cellphone. on piconet if bluetooth d . sys em. What will be the impact
Explain. eVIces are connected to mobile units ?
8. For low bandwidth applications where higher USB bandwidth is not
required and cable-free connection desired.
~ er J
Que_2.1~. , Discuss the advantages and limitations of bluetooth. Bluetooth architecture :
!UPTU 20u~12, 19 ! The architecture of a bluetooth device is described by the two terminology :
piconet and scatternet.
1. Piconet :
Answer
a. A piconet is a collection ofbluetooth devices connected in an adhoc
Advantages of bluetooth : fashion .
1. Bluetooth does not require a clear line of sight between the synced b. One device in the piconet act as master (M) and all other devices
devices. connected to the master act as slaves (S).
-.,
- w e Computing :--_ 79(IT-8)J
78(IT-8)J Wireless Networking
,....., ~ f If a devi~e ac~s as a slav_e 1n one nien~-·
in one piconet, - starts to
it simply~
c. Each piconet has exactly one master and upto seven simultaneous · synchromze with the hopp111g sequence of the piconet it wants to
join.
slaves, i.e., a master bluetooth device can communicate with upto
seven devices. After synchronization, it acts as a slave in the new piconet and no
d The master determines the hopping pattern in the piconet and the g. longer participates in the former piconet.
slaves has to synchronize to this pattern. Before leaving one piconet, a slave informs the current master that
h. it will be unavailable for a certain amount oftirne.
M = Master
·s S = Slave -loue2.· .16~I
7 What is bluetooth? Define technical specifications of
P = Parked
· h • Describe the bluetooth stack operation.
toot
s) M ® SB= Standby
blue ~==20::-:1-=-
2-~1s=,--:-:
M::--a-:
rk-s-:c~~
5
@ ~ s
OR
0
t oth ? What are the functions or different layers of
What isth prot ocol stack? Also, discuss the concept or bluetooth
blue
Fig. 2~ .l. SimpleJ!luetooth bluetoo
architecture. OR @Pru2014-15, Marks ~
e. Each piconet has a unique hopping pattern.
f. At any given time, data can be transferred between the master and What are the fu nct I•ons of different layers of bluetooth protocol
one other device, however, the device can switch roles and the stack?
slave can become the master at any time.
g. The master switches rapidly from one device to another in a round- Answer
robin fashion. Blu ; t: ;t h:Refer Q. 2.13, Page 75J, Unit-2.
2. Scatternet : Architecture ofbluetooth: Refer Q. 2.15, Page 77J, Unit-2.
a. Group of piconets form a scatternet.
Bluetooth protocol stack :
b. Scatternet consists of two piconets in which one device participates
in two different piconets. 1. Bluetooth is defined as a layered protocol architecture consisting of core
protocols, cable replacement protocols, telephony control protocols and
c. Both piconets use a different hopping sequence and it is always adapted protocols.
determined by the master of the piconet.
2. A simple bluetooth protocols stack is shown in Fig. 2.16.1.
Piconets (each with a capacity of< 1 Mbit/s)
M = Master
S = Slave
,,...._,
P = Parked
SB = Standby ®\ I
I
@/
,
~/ Audio
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llli.Jlae&th1€@!iW
d Collisicn occurs if two or more piconets use the same carrier Host controller
interface
frequency at the same time.
Baseband
e. If a device wanta to participate in more than one piconet, it has to
synchronize to the hopping sequence of the piconet it wants to take Radio
part in.
Fig. 2.16.1. Bluetootb protocol stack_.
Wireless Networking Jllputing 81 (IT.a) J
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~.,i,U• CO ,band 1ay., off,~ two dilr.,,ot 1yp,, "'"""• ' " " " ' -
3. Here,
f
. , Bas
onnection-oriented link and an asYnchronous connectionless 1,.L =
AT: Attention Sequence c. manager protoc~l (~) =.It provides link set-up and
OBEX : Object Exchange fbe Jjnk nt between devices including security functions and
TCS BIN: Telephony Control Protocol Specification-Binary s. ,,,,..,.8 na.gellle
eters
negotiation. LMP performs the following functions:
p · · dE ·
a.ra.Jll tication, llll'lng an ncrypt1on :
BNEP : Bluetooth Network Encapsulation Protocol a. . L
P AutheMPn has to control the exchange of random numbers and
SDP : Service Discovery Protocol L signed responses.
RFCOMM: Radio Frequency Communication
.. For Pairing, it. provides
t d link key which may be changed,
4. The· bluetooth protocol stack can be divided into a core specification, IL acce pted or reJec e .
which describes the protocols from physical layer to the data link control
together with management functions, and profile specifications. cryption, LMP sets the encryption mode (no encryption,
iii. F:~n~~to-point,
p • or broadcast), key size and random speed.
Core specifications of bluetooth comprise of the following layers : nization:
h
L Radio layer (Physical layer) : This layer includes specification of air
._.,. . Sync
Sync rohr om·zation is of major importance within a bluetooth
interface, i.e., frequencies, modulation and transmit power. L network.
Design issues : .
a The radio layer operates ii:J.· the unlicensed ISM band at 2.4 GHz. ii The clock offset is updated each time a packet • .
the master. IS received from
b. Power consumption is very low due to battery operated devices.
c. Frequency band (2400-2483.5 MHz), 83.5 MHz bandwidth. C.
Capability negotiation :Notonlytheversionof•h
. " e LMP can be
d Bluetooth uses frequency hopping/l'DD scheme at a rate of 1600 . d b ut als o infiormation
exchange . about the supported r,eatures sueh
as multi-slot packets, encryption, SCO links, voice encoding etc.
hops/sec to avoid narrow band interference.
d. Power control :
e. Within a piconet, all devices use the same hopping sequence. i. A bluetooth device can measure the received signal strength.
f. Transmitting power is uJ!to 100 mW and minimum is 1 mW. ii. Depending on this signal level the device can direct the sender
g. Range is between 10 m - 100 m. of the measured signal to increase or decrease its transmit
2. Baseband layer (MAC layer) : power.
a. It includes description of basic connection establishment, packet e. Link supervision : LMP has to control the activity of a link, it may
formats, timing and basic QoS parameters. set up new SCO links, or it may declare the failure of a link.
b. The functions of baseband layer are quite complex as it not only f. State and transmission mode change : Devices might switch
performs frequency hopping for interference mitigation and medium the master/slave role, detach themselves from a connection, or
access, but also defines physical links and many packet formats. change the operating mode.
c. It enables the physical radio frequency link between the bluetooth 4. Service Discovery Protocol (SDP) :
SDP is usoo to allow devices to discover what services each other support,
devices to form a piconet.
and what parameters to use services and the characteristics of the
d Bluetooth also defines 1 slot, 3 slot and 5 slot packets for higher services can be queried and after that, a connection between two or
data rates. more bluetooth devices may be established.
68(72) 54 0-2745 bits For example : When we connect a mobile phone to a bluetooth headset.
Iaccess code Ipacket he~erl payload
4 1 -r----l __ ---
8b~
SDP will be used to determine which bluetooth profiles are supported by
the headset (the headset profile, handfree profile) and the P~dotocallol
/ 4 64 (47"--~ 3 . tt h of them. Bes1 es
flow I ARQN ISEQN I HEC mul t1plexer settings are needed to connec o eac
st
these, some other terms are also described in protocol ack :
• f ·s the cable
a. RFCOMM: Radio frequency co~mun1c~~onsrt1usedtomake
e. A bluetooth packet (1 slot) baseband layer consists three fields: replacement protocol used to create virtual se pothr gh minimal
. t ansparent ou
access code, packet header, payload. replacement of cable techno1ogies r
modification of existing devices.
82 (IT-8) J
b.
AVCTP (Audio/Visual Control Transport P r ~

Wireless Ne...._-
•wor~
• ?,{obile Computing
stuetooth profiles :
1.
83(1T-8)J
Application designers and vendors can implement similar services in

is used by the remote control profile to transfer AV/C ·AVC"rp manY different ways using different components and protocols from the
over an L2CAP channel. COllllllands
bluetooth core standard.
c. BNEP (Bluetooth Network Encapsulation Protocol) : 2. To provide compatibility among the devices offering the same services,
i BNEP is used to transfer another protocol stack's dat . bluetooth specified many profiles in addition to the core protocols.
L2CAP channel. a VIa an 3, Without the profiles too many parameters in bluetooth would make
ii Its main purpose is the transmission of IP packet . interoperation between devices from different manufacturers almost
8
personal area networking profile. Ill the impossible.
d. Telephony control protocol : Telephony control protocol-h;h __ 4. Profiles represent default solutions for a certain usage model.
(TCP-BIN) is the bit oriented protocol that defines the call -._-y - ;,- They use a selection of protocols and parameter set to form a basis for
signaling for the establishment of voice and data calls ~:troJ
bluetooth devices. een interoperability.
6. Protocols can be seen as horizontal layers while profiles are vertical
e. Object Exchange Protocol (OBEX) : Session layer protocol£
the exchange of objects, providing a model for object and operati or slices.
. 7. The basic profiles have been specified: generic access, service discovery,
representation.
cordless telephony, intercom, serial port, headset, dial-up networking,
5. Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol Layer (L2C.AP) : fax, LAN access, generic object exchange, object push, file transfer and
a The bluetooth L2CAP layer provides connectionless and synchronization.
connection-oriented data services to upper layer protocol. 8. Additional profiles are: advanced audio distribution, PAN, audio video
b. It also supports reassembly of packets, and Quality of Service remote control, basic printing, basic imaging, extended service discovery,
(QoS) communication. hands-free and hardcopy cable replacement.
c. This layer does not provide any reliability and uses the baseband to 9. Each profile selects a set of protocols.
ensure reliability. 10. For example, the serial port profile needs RFCOMM, SDP, LMP, and
d L2CAP transmits and receives L2CAP data packets upto 64 kbit in L2CAP. Baseband and radio are always required.
length.
e. L2CAP provides three different types of local channels :
i. Connectionless : These unidirectional channels are typically
used for broadcast from master to its slaves.
ii. Connection-oriented : Each channel of this type is
bidirectional and supports QoS flow specifications for each
direction.
00
iii. Signaling : This type oflogical channel is used for exchanging
signaling messages between L2CAP entities. I Profiles I
@!'!/J!t~What is bluetooth? What are the functions of different
layer bluetooth protocol stack? Also, discuss the concept ofbluetooth ~ - Write short note on wireless multiple access protocol
profile. j UP.TU 2013·l1l M~ksO!] (WMAP).
~---.., .
~ swer ®Jm
Multiple access protocol :
Bluetooth: Refer Q. 2.13, Page 75J, Unit-2. 1. If many users share a channel and two or more users transmit packets
Functions of different layer of protocol stack : Refer Q. 2.1 6, simultaneously, collision may occur.
Page 79J, Unit-2.
111111111111,
11111
84(IT-8)J
Wireless Networlting
2. To avoid the collision, we need access protocol. ft{obile Computing
DJ:,._ -
3. There are various multiple access protocols used in Wirele
communications. 88 What are the characterist· - ~
ics required f
4. On the basis of characteristics, multiple access protocol are categorized • less ? or Tep over
as follows : ,itil"' OR
Multiple access protocol TCP over wireless works ?
JloW
Scheduled access
Random access •
[!eer]
TCP over wirel-:Ss :
Static I 7
§
assignment Demand Repeat random Reservation 1. TCP is the prunary transport protocol in the internet.
§
assignment access random access t is designed to provide reliable data transfer betw h
2- Iby a senes
. of wire
. d routers. een osts COnn...+.
- =a
SDMA
Polling Aloha · tr-Aloha
FDMA
Slotted aloha 3_ TCP is a connection-oriented and reliable transmission protocol.
TDMA
CSMA 4. It uses flow control to avoid data overflows on both sender and receiver
CDMA t Token passing ISMA PRMA side.
a. Scheduled access protocol: By adjusting each user's tranamitting TCP working:
time and frequency, it avoids simultaneously data transmission l.. When the application requires reliable transport of the packets, it may
between two or more users. use TCP.
b. Random access protocol :Although collision occurs because two 2_ TCP requires several packe~s over the wireless link.
or more users access a channel simultaneously, collision can he
reduced. 3. First TCP uses a three-way handshake to establish the connection.
4. At least one additional packe~is needed for transmission of the request
and requires three more packets to close the connection.
PART-2
5. It is explained with the help of Fig. 2.19.1.
T CP over Wireless, Wireless Applications, Data Broadcasting,
Mobile IP, WAP : Architecture, Protocol Stac/f., Client Server
Applicati.on Envircmment, Application.
TCP SYN
CONCEPT OUTLINE: PART-2
_. - < I
• TCP is designed to provide reliable data transfer between hosts
TC } Connection setup
connected by a series ofrouters. PACK
• Mobil e IP protocol allows location independent routing of IP HTTP request } Data transmission
da tagram's on the internet.
• Broadcast systems are classified as unidirectional distribution !>15snodata
systems.
• Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) provides internet services
for mobile and wireless devices.
Questions-Answers
T
._I:.
,GPRS: 500 ms )
..:!9.1:..E~ mple 'l'C_I' oonn~

Fi- 2~" I - . -
on~E.2"erhead.
.
Conneellon
release
6. Fig. 2.19.1 shows an example for the overhead introduced by using TCP
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type QuestiODB
over GPRS is a web scenario.
7. Web services are based on HTl'P which requires a reliable transport
system.
86(IT-8)J
Wireless Networking
"
~ obiie
CoJJlputing
~ e l losses: 87(IT-s)J
l, Signals carried by wireless med"
8. In the internet, TCP is used for this purpose. 11- interference from other signals anida are subject to sian:li
9. Before a HTI'P request can be transmitted the TCP connection has to
· fb"t hil ' .,,i...___ 1 .,... cant
Jll dification o 1 s w e frames arebe·:--'luent y, lOSses d
0 lllg transnu ue to
established. be
tted.
TCP performance is affected by the fr
10. This requires three messages. b- the link layer,
. because
d" TCP
k inherent!Yassumesa111
equent losses oce,,,.,.;ftn at
· ··-·"'15
11. If GPRS is used as wide area transport system, one-way delays of • to congestion an mvo es the congestion 06Ses oceur due
ms and more take place. 500 detecting any loss. control algorithms upon
12. The setup of a TCP connection already takes far more than a second. Lo"' bandwidth :
Characteristics of TCP over wireless : So Bandwidth of wireless links may be 1 ·hi
11- • • b--~ . ow, w ch can .
L Data rates : result m excessive w,ermg at the base station. sometimes
a The data rates of2.5G systems are 10-20 kbit/s uplink and 20-50 b. This could lead to packets being dropped at the b stati.
kbit/s downlinks, 3G and future 2.5G systems offer data rates &round tran5roitted back to back on the wireless link, hi h on, or
64 kbit/s uplink and 115-384 kbit/s downlink. in high observed round trip times. w c in tum resull8
b. Data rates are asymmetric as it is expected that users will download S. Signal fading : Fading typically occurs when a wireless host is mobile
more data compared to uploading.
'- Movement across cells : ·
c. In cellular networks, asymmetry does not exceed 3-6 times and in a. Mobility of a wireless host involves addressing connection handoff.
satellite systems asymmetry may reach a factor of 1000.
b. In a~dition to th~~ layer sta~ that has to be handed off, the~
d To support multiple users within a cell, a scheduler may have to station may mamtain connection state about the transport lay
repeatedly allocate and de-allocate resources for each user. which might need to be handed off. er
2. Latency:
5. Channel asymmetry :
a Wireless systems provide algorithms for error correction and a. Resolving channel contention is usually asymmetric.
protection, such as forward error correction (FEC), check summing
and interleaving etc. b. The sending entity gets more transmission time than the receiving
b. FEC and interleaving let the round trip time (RTT) grow to several entity.
hundred milliseconds upto some seconds. c. This could lead to TCP acknowledgements being queued for
transmission at the link layer of the receiving entity and sent back
c. The GPRS standard specifies an average delay of less than two
to back when channel access is permitted.
seconds for the transport class with the highest quality.
d This can lead to larger round trip times measured by the TCP
3. Jitter:
sender and to bursty traffic, which subsequently reduces the
a Wireless systems suffer large delay variation or delay spikes. throughput of the TCP connection.
b. Reasons for sudden increase in latency are link outages due to 6. Link latency : Wireless links may exhibit high latencies and when such
temporal loss of radio coverage, blocking due to high-priority traffic, delays are a signi£~ant fraction of the total round trip times observed_by
or handovers. TCP, the retransmission time outs of TCP are set to high values, which
4. Packet loss : subsequently affects TCP performance.
a Packets might be lost during handovers or due to corruption. §!~iii£} Write a short note on TCP congestion control,
b. The loss rates of2.5G/3G systems due to corruption are relatively
low.
is,u~ What are the factors affecting the performance of TCP?

~:
l. A
. ~A TCP connection starts off in the slow start phase. . . (cwndl-
2· The slow start algorithm uses a variable called congestion~~receiver
3 · · um of cwnd an
· The sender can only send the 1Illll11n . r flow controll.
A number of inherent characteristics of wireless media affect TCP advertised window which we call rw nd (for receive
performance including :
88(IT.8) J
Wireless Networ'·'
.
~ -v•iung Mobile Computing 89(IT-8)J
4.
. to reac h eqw'l"b
Slow start tnes .
I num bY operung · - "h
n;nn ·up ---....:::
t e Window ve
quickly. ry
5.
The sender initially sets cwnd to 1, and sending one segment. (111Ss .
the maximum segment size.) Performance of TCP over wireless network : Refer Q. 2.20,
18
6. Page 86.T, Unit-2.
For each ACK that it receives, the cwnd is increased by one segment. Different approaches for TCP improvement : The various models
7.
Increasing by one for every ACK results in exponP.ntial increase f proposed to improve TCP's performance over wireless networks are as follows :
cwnd over round trips. 0
8.
1. Indirect TCP :
TCP uses another variable ssthresh, the slow start threshold. a. With I-TCP a transport layer connection between a mobile host and
9. fixed host is established as two separate connections :
Conceptually, ssthresh indicates the right window size depending on
current network load.
i. One over the wireless link and
10. The slow start phase continues as long as cwnd is less than ssthresh. ii. The other over the wired link with a "mobile support router"
11. As soon as it crosses ssthresh, TCP goes into congestion avoidance. serving as the center point.
12. In congestion avoidance, for each ACK received, cwnd is increased by b. Packets from the sender are buffered at the mobile support router
Icwnd segments. until transmitted across the wireles s connection.
C. Ahandoffmechanism is proposed to handle the situation when the
13. This is approximately equivalent to increasing the cwnd by one segment
wireless host moves across different cells.
in one round trip (an additive increase), if every segment is acknowledged.
d A consequence ofusing I-TCP is that the TCP ACKs are not end-to-
14. The TCP sender assumes congestion in the network when it times out end thereby violating the end-to-end semantics of TCP.
waiting for an ACK ssthresh is set to max (2, min(cwndl. 2, rwnd))
segments, cwnd is set to one, and the system goes to slow start. e. Indirect TCP or I-TCP segments the connection with no changes to
the TCP protocol for hosts connected to the wired internet, millions
15. If a TCP receiver receives an out of order segment, it immediately sends of computers use (variants oO this protocol.
back a duplicate ACK (dupack) to the sender.
f. It uses an optimized TCP protocol for mobile hosts.
16. The fast retransmit algorithm uses these dupacks to make g.
retransmission decisions. Hosts in the fixed part of the net do not notice the characteristics of
the wireless part.
E
17. If the sender receives du packs, it assumes loss and retransmits the lost
segment without waiting for the retransmit timer to go off. Access point (foreign agent)
18. It also updates ssthresh.
=----.,i '-._ internet ,/ I=- I
19. Fast recovery keeps track of the number of du packs received and tries Wireless TCP _ _
to estimate the amount of outstanding data in the network. Mobile host
20. It inflates cwnd (by one segment) for each dupack received, thus
maintaining the flow of traffic. 2. Snooping TCP :
21. The sender comes out of fast recovery when the segment whose loss a. One of the drawbacks of I-TCP is the segmentation of the single
resulted in the duplicate ACKs is acknowledged. TCP connection into two TCP connections.
b. This loses the original end to end TCP semantic.
22. TCP then deflates the window by returning it to ssthresh, and enters
the congestion avoidance phase. c. Snooping TCP works transparently and hence does not lose end to
end semantics.
~ e 2.22. j Why does traditional TCP not perform well in wireless
d. The main function of the enhancement is buffering of packets
network ? Discuss different approaches for TCP Improvement. close to the mobile host to perform fast local retransmission.
IUPTU 2014-~, Marks 0~ e. Lost packets on the wireless link (both directions) will be
retransmitted immediately by the mobile host of foreign agent,
respectively (so called "local" retransmission) the foreign agent,
.........._____
90(1T-8)J
f.
therefore, "snoops" the packet
acknowledgements in both directions.

Wireless Networking
flow and recognizes
Data transfer to the mobile host in snooping TCP takes place as

" Mobile Computing
: :i. : - --
91 (IT-8) J
This preserves end to end semantics, preserves the sender timeout

estimate based on the whole round trip time, and handles mobility
follows : the Foreign Agent (FA) buffers data until it receives ACK of the host with minimal state transformation.
of the Mobile Host (MH), FA detects packet loss via duplicated
ACKs or time out and then fast retransmission possible, transparent
jli,&,!S] What kind of problem may arise, if TCP is implemented
for the fixed network.
over wireless networks ? Explain. IUPTU 2013-14, Marks 05 I
Local
sion Foreign
Correspondent
host IUPTU 2015-l(i, Marks 10 I
agent Wired
~ ,.s.-+ c internet
•. .. . J'ijlffj
. .
Mobile Snooping of ACKs Buffering of data The wired networks are relatively reliable as compared to the wireless links
host.+-+-------':"":-....._ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - and so TCP assumes congestion to be the main cause of any packet loss, and
End-to-end TCP connection invokes congestion control measures at the source. Wireless links (part of a
!Ei&~.3;Sng[pga'C~ heterogeneous network) bring some serious problems with them :
g. Data transfer from the mobile host takes place as FA detects 1. Bit Error Rate (BER) :
p~cket loss on the wireless link via sequence numbers, FA answers a Wireless hosts use radio transmission or infrared wave transmission
directly with a NACK to the MH. MH can now retransmit data for communication.
with only a very short delay.
b. The BER of wireless links is typically higher than that of wired
h. Problems with snooping TCP: networks.
i. Snooping TCP does not isolate the wireless link as good as c. Also the wireless environment changes quickly, and so the BER
I-TCP
also varies by a large amount.
ii. Snooping might be useless depending on encryption schemes. d The bit error rates of 10 or worse are common on wireless links.
3. Mobile TCP:
2. Bandwidth :
a. Mobile TCP (M-TCP) also uses a split connection based approach a. Wireless links offer very less bandwidth (2 Mbps) as compared to
but tries to preserve end to end semantics. M-TCP adopts a three the wired links (10-lO0Mbps).
level hierarchy.
b. Optimum use of available bandwidth is a major issue in
b. At the lowest level, mobile hosts communicate with mobile support heterogeneous networks that has to be taken care of.
stations in each cell, which are in turn controlled by a "supervisor
host". 3. Round Trip Time (RTT) :
a. The wireless media exhibits longer latencies than wired media in
c. The supervisor host is connected to the wired network and serves
as the point where the connection is split. the case of satellite networks.
b. It is almost the same as in wired networks since radio waves travel
d A TCP client exists at the supervisor host.
at the speed of light which is same as the transmission speeds in
e. The TCP client receives the segment from the TCP sender and wired media.
passes it to an M - TCP client to send it to the wireless device.
c. Since the bandwidth is lower in wireless networks a packet takes
f. Thus, between the sender and the supervisor host, standard TCP longer to get transmitted in wireless networks.
is used, while M-TCP is used between the supervisor host and the
d This affects overall throughput and increases interactive delays.
wireless device.
e. Diff~rent ~ersions of TCP pour data in the network depending on
g. M-TCP is designed to recover quickly from wireless losses due to the mcommg acknowledgements, which depends on R'I'I'.
disconnections and to eliminate serial timeouts.
f. Thus networks (especially WANs) with high bandwidth-delay
h. TCP on the supervisor host does not accept ACK packets it receives product are severely affected.
until the wireless device has acknowledged them.
___,./.__
-
92UT-8) J
4. Mobility :
a
Wireless Networking
?t{obile Computing
a.
b.
Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB)
Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB)
93 (IT-8) J
Addition of mobile devices introduces huge amount of indetel'IIlinate

mobility in rather a stationary network. Cyclic repetition of data :
b.
This tends to introduce some amount of instability in exist' 1. The sender of data does not know when a receiver starts to listen to the
network topology. illg
transmission.
c.
Wireless hosts may move from one cell to another during handolfs. 2. The transmission ofiroportant information such as traffic or weather
d conditions has to be repeated after certain amount oftiroe.
During this movement the data sent to the wireless host by the old
base station is lost, since the mobile host has moved out of range, 3. The cyclic repetition of data blocks sent through broadcast is called
e.
Similarly, data sent by mobile host to the old base station is also lost "broadcast disk".
as it is out ofrange of the old base station. 4. There are three different broadcast patterns :
5. Power consumption :
a. .Flatdisk
a Mobile host has limited power and smaller proc2ssing capacity as b. Skewed disk
compared to base stations, which tend to introduce inefficiency in Multi disk
the network. C.
5. The sender repeats the three data blocks A, B and Cina cycle.
b. Solutions that take power consumption into account have a 1
cut advantage over the otherwise designed solutions. c ear. 6. Using a flat disk, all blocks are repeated one after another.
7. Every block is transmitted for an equal amount of time.
Que~'., Explain data broadcasting. The average waiting time for receiving a block is same for A, B and C.
8.
1
Answ.er 5J ] 9. Multi-disks distribute blocks that are repeated more often than others
I
evenly over the cyclic pattern.
Data broadcasting :
10. This minimizes the delay if a user wants to access. For example, block A.
1. Broadcast systems are classified as unidirectional distribution systems. A B C A B C Flat disk
These are considered as asymmetric communication systems.
A A B C A A Skewed disk
2. The reason for being asymmetric is bandwidth limitations, differences
in transmission power and cost factors. A B A C A B Multi disk
3. Symmetrical communication system provides communication in both
directions.
j
:~ ue ~-~,6: Explain mobile IP. List the entities of mobile IP.
4. The channel characteristics such as bandwidth and delay from A to Bis

same as B to A.
5. For example, symmetrical communication system is the telephone line Mobile IP (or IP mobility) is standard communication protocol that is
in which the bandwidth is same for the subscriber and receiver. designed to allow mobile device users to move from one network to
6. Asymmetric communication system provides one way communication. another while maintaining a permanent IP address.
7. Examples are pagers, radio system etc., in which device or the user can 2. The mobile IP protocol was developed by the Mobile-IP Internet
only receive information. Engineering Task Force (IETF) working group.
8. A special case of asymmetrical communication systems are unidirectional 3. This protocol allows location-independent routing of IP datagram's on
broadcast system where high bandwidth exists from one sender to many the internet.
receivers.
4. Each mobile node is identified by its home address disregarding of its
9. For example, client/server environment. current location in the internet.
10. One important issue of unidirectional broadcasting is cyclic repetition of 5. While away from its home network, a mobile node is associated with a
data. Broadcast systems are classified into two categories : care-of-address which identifies its current location and its home address
is associated with the local end point of a tunnel to its home agent.
-
94(l'f-8)J
Wireless Networking Mobile Computing
95UT-8)J
6. Mobile IP Bpecifies how a mobile node registers with its home agent and 2. To make the size and the frequency of required routing updates as •mall
how the home agent routes datagram to the mobile node through the as possible.
tunnel.
3. To make it simple to implement mobile node software.
7. Mobile IP provides an efficient, scalable mechanism for roaming within
4. To avoid solutions that requires mobile nodes to use multiple addresses.
the internet.
8. Using mobile IP, nodes may change their point-of-attachment to the Features of 1Pv4 :
internet without changing their home IP address. 1. An IPv4 address is a 32-bit address that uniquely and universally define,
9. This allows them to maintain transport and higher layer connections the connection of a device to the internet.
while roaming. 2. IPv4 addresses are unique.
10. Node mobility is realized without the need to propagate host-specific 3. They are unique in the sense that each address defines one and only
routes throughout the internet routing fabric . one connection to the internet.
11. Mobile IP is a protocol which provides IP mobility to future devices. 4. Two devices on the internet can never have the same address at the
Entitles of mobile IP: Following are the important entities of mobile IP: same time.
COA~ 5. On the other hand, if a device operating at the network layer has m
'\ connections to the internet, it needs to have m addresses.
I 6. The IPv4 addresses are universal in the sensethst the addressing system
must be accepted by any host that wants to be connected to the internet.
, Foreign
I
~--
1
,network' ~ ue 2.27: List and define the entities of mobile IP and describe
' , data transfer from a mobile node to a fixed node and vice-versa.
®sW M2!!.il~
1. Mobile node (MN) : A system (node) that can change the point of J UPTU 2012-lS, M!lru Oo !
connection to the network without changing its IP address.
OR
2. Home agent (HA) : A system in the home network of the MN, typically
List the entities of mobile IP and describe data transfer from a mobile
a r c uter registers the location of the MN, tunnels IP datagrams to the
node to a f'ixed node and vice-versa. Why and where is encapsulation
COA.
3. Foreign agent (FA): A syste m in the current foreign network of the needed? J UPTU 20~13-14, Marks os j
MN, typically a router. It forwards the tunneled datagrams to the MN,
typically also the default router for the MN. ~ swer
4. Care-of-address (COA) : Address of the current tunnel end-point for
the MN (at FA or MN) actual location of the MN from an IP point of view, Entities of mobile IP: Refer Q. 2.25, Page 93J, Unit-2.
it can be chosen, for example, via DHCP. Working of mobile IP or packet delivery in mobile:
o. Correspondent node (CN): Communication partner. 1. As shown in Fig. 2.27 .1 CN (correspondent node) wsnts to transmit data
to MN (mobile node), the following steps occur:
Que 2.:!.tJ:·I What Is mobile IP ? Discuss the goals of mobile IP. Also,
a. CN wants to transmit an JP datagram to MN.
__
discuss the features of1Pv4. J UPTU 2011-12, Marks 10] b. The home address of MN is advertised and known to CN.
c. CN does not know whether MN is in its home network or
..., ._ J
'A nswer, somewhere else.
Mobile IP: Re fer Q. 2.25, Page 93J, Unit-2. d. Therefore, CN sends the packet to MN with MN's home address as
Goals of mobile IP : destination IP address in the JP header.
1. Mobile JP was developed as a means for transparently dealing with At the MN's home network, the incoming JP datagraDl is intercepted by
2.
problems of mobile users. the home agent.
11111
96(IT-8) J
Wireless Networking 97(IT-8)J
r,{obile Computing
... --- ........ -----...:::
-, - ii. If the COA is co-located
/ Home \.
____
...
\network/
.... ' \
\
Tu»Deling and encapsulation :
A tunnel establishes a vi"rtual pipe for data packets between a tunnel
/ I 3.
/ I
1 Foreign : a. entry and a tunnel endpoint.
--~~met __ .•./ \ network 1 . tunnel are forwarded inside the tunnel and
\ I b Packets entermg a
\ , .... __ ... , . leave the tunnel unchanged. . .
c
.
Tunneling, .
i.e., sending a packet through a tunnel 1s achieved by
· using encapsulation. . .
. . the mechanism of taking a packet consisting of
cl. Encapsulatd1on lS d data and putting it into the data part of a new
Fig. 2.27.1: Pac:ke t "deliv~ ~<l!!:~m-the mobile node. packet hea er an
3.
The home agent discovers that MN is in foreign network. packet.
4.
A care-of-address has been allocated to MN by this foreign network and e. The reverse operatl·on, taking a packet. out of the data part of
this is available to the home agent. another packet, is called de-capsulat10n. . .
5. t . and de-capsulation are the operations
The home agent encapsulates the entire datagram inside a new f Encapsula1on · h typically
t 1
. performed when a packet is transferred from a hig er pr~ oco
datagram, withMN's care-of-address as destination IP address and this
new datagram is retransmitted by the home agent. layer to a lower layer or from a lower to a higher layer respectively.
6.
At the foreign network the foreign agent intercepts the incoming IP
packet. ~!t2:!8• IDiscuss the wireless application protocol. Also, write
7. the applications ofWAP.
The foreign agent strips off the outer IP header, and delivers the original
datagram to MN.
8.
MN intends to respond to this message and sends a message to CN. Wireless Application Protocol (WAP):
9.
Since CN is fixed in this example, therefore it has a fixed IP address. 1. WAP provides internet services for mobile and wireless devices.
10.
MN sends the packet through the foreign agent directly to the static IP 2. The goal ofWAP is to bring the internet content such as web pages and
address of CN. telephone services to digital cellular phone and other wireless terminals
Function of mobile IP : such as laptops and PDA's.
1. Mobile agent discovery : 3. In 1997, Ericsson, Motorola, Nokia founded WAP forum to frame
standards and protocol specification.
a The process of detecting a mobility agent is quite similar to that by
internet nodes to detect routers running Internet Control Message 4. WAPintegrates a light weight web browser into hand-held devices called
Protocol (ICMP) messages according to Router Discovery (RFC MICRO browser with limited computing and memory capacity.
1256). 5. Several constraints in mobile wireless network in order to access internet
from mobile phone are :
b. The basic operation involves periodic broadcasts of advertisements
by the routers onto their directly attached sub-networks. a. Size and weight of mobile equipment (portable).
2. Registration : b. Restricted user interface (small keypad and displays, lower memory).
a. Having received a COA, the MN has to register with HA. c. Limited bandwidth and lower reliability due to high error data.
b. The main purpose of the registration is to inform the HA of the cl. Different WAP sets (different screen size and features) .
current location for correct forwarding of packets. e. Different wireless bearer network like GSM, CDMA, GPRS.
c. Registration can be done in two different ways depending on the f. Security and integrity of user data, protection of services.
location of the COA:
6. The basic objectives of the WAP is to bring diverse internet content (for
i. IftheCOAisatFA example, web pages, push services) and other data services (for example,
98(IT-8)J
I
Wireless Networking
stock quotes) to digital cellular phones and other wireless, mobile

terminals (for example, PDAs, laptops).
?,fobile Computing
5• WJJ'
- 99(1T-8)J
defines a set of ~tandard components that enable collllilunicat:
between mobile termmals and network servers ' including.·
•
tandard naming mode~ =. WWW-standard URui are used to
7. Moreover, a protocol suit should enable global wireless communicatio a. 1~d ti·fy WAP content on ongm servers.WWW ·standard,,,,..
en . al . . vl\18are
across different wireless network technologies, for example GSMn used to identify Joe resources ma device, for example, call control
CDPD, UMTS etc. ' ' functions.
8. The forum is embracing and extending existing standards and
Co tent typing : All WAP content is given a specific type consistent
technologies of the internet wherever possible and is creating
b, .: WWW typing. This allows WAP user agents to correctly process
framework for the development of contents and applications that scat : e content based on its type.
across a very wide range of wireless bearer networks and wirelese8
device types. dard content formats : WAP content formats are based on
C.
WAP applications : technology and include display markup, calendar
information, electronic business card objects, images and scripting
1. Handling information of all types.
language.
2. Access to e-mail and chat.
3. Weather information. cL Standard communication protocols: WAP communication
protocols enable the communication of browser requests from the
4. Information about currency rates. mobile terminal to the network web server.
5. Online music support ofWAP multimedia etc.
,Que ~.1 Discuss WAP model.

6. The WAP content types and protocols have been optimized for mass
market, hand-held wireless devices.
7. wAP utilizes proxy technology to connect between the wireless C:omain

[.Answe~ ·] and the WWW.
1. The WAP programming model as shown in Fig 2.29.1 is similar to the
8. The WAP proxy typically is comprised of the following functionality:
WWW programming model.
2. This provides several benefits to the application developer community, a. Protocol gateway : The protocol gateway translates requests
including a familiar programming model, a proven architecture, and from the WAP protocol stack (WSP, WTP, WTLS, and WDP) to the
the ability to leverage existing tools (for example web servers, XML WWW protocol stack (H'ITP and TCP/IP).
tools, etc.).
b. Content encoders and decoders: The content encoders translate
3. Optimizations and extensions have been made in order to match the WAP content into compact encoded formats to reduce the size of
characteristics of the wireless environment. data over the network.
4. Wherever possible, existing standards have been adopted or have been
used as the starting point for the WAP technology.
(1 i. IEEES00.11
ti Client
I Encoded
Request
Gateway
,.-
IRequest
I Origin Server ii.
~'e;~,.·
WAP applications IUPTU 2011-12, Marks 10 I
Encoders - \ 51 • .
and
Encoded
Response
II Decoders I IResponse
(content)
I IEEE 802.11 : Refer Q. 2.12, Page 69J, Unit-2.
WAP applications: Refer Q. 2.28, Page 97J, Unit-2.
II
100 (IT-8) J
Wireless Networki
ng
r,1obile
. Computing 101 UT-8) J
9'1e 2.31. JDiscuss the basic principle ofWAP protocol architecture. Wireless ~arkup language (~).: A lightweight markup
a. Janguage, s1;1111Jar to HTML, but optmuzed for USe in hand-held
Write down the applications ofWAP. IUPTU 2013-14, M ~ mobile termmals.
OR WML script : A lightweight scripting language, similar to JavaScript.

88
E:r:plain the architecture and protocol stack of Wireless Application b, . Ie
Wire telephony application
· · te ..... <WTA, WTAI) : Telephony
c. seTVJces
. and programmmg m uaces.
Protocol (WAP). IUPTU 2014-15, Mar~
t nt formats : A set of well-defined data formats, including
cL Con e phonebook records and calendar information.
jD}ages,
IUPTU 2015-16, Mar§]
. n protocol (WSP) :
. l ss sess10
\Virtl
1
e . 1 session protocol (WSP) provides the application layer of
. The WU:e ess nsistent interface for two session services .
WAPwithaco
Architecture/ Protocol stack ofWAP:
2. The first is a connection-oriented service that operates above the
transaction layer protocol WTP.
WAP
3. The second is a connectio~ess service that operates above a secure or
non-secure datagram seTVJce (WDP).
4. The wireless session protocols currently consist of services suited for

browsing applications (WSP/B).
5. WSP/B provides the following functionality :

Security layer (WTLS) a HTl'P/1.1 functionality and semantics in a compact over-the-air
encoding.
Transport layer (WDP)
b. Long-lived session state.
~ - -- I 1wm1 ll ~ ~ l i l l i f i l ™ ~ I c. Session suspend and resume with session migration.
-·~ ~ ~'and pro~ ! sta~""I
d A common facility for reliable and unreliable data push.
e. Protocol feature negotiation.
Wireless application environment (WAE):
Wireless transaction protocol (WTP) :
1. WAE is a general-purpose application environment based on a
combination of World Wide Web (WWW} and mobile telephony 1. WTP runs on top of a datagram service and provides as a light-weight
technologies. transaction-oriented protocol that is suitable for implementation in "thin'
clients (mobile stations).
2. The primary objective of the WAE effort is to establish an interoperable
environment that will allow operators and service providers to build 2. WTP operates efficiently over secure or non-secure wireless datagram
applications and services that can reach a wide variety of different networks and provides the following features :
wireless platforms in an efficient and useful manner.
a. Three classes of transaction service.
3. WAE includes a micro-browser environment containing the following
functionality : b. Unreliable one-way requests.
c. Reliable one-way requests.
d Reliable two-way request-reply transactions.
102 (IT-8) J
Wireless Network;. Mobile Computing
,
e. Asynchronous transactions. 103(IT-8J J
2.
The bearers offer differing levels of quality of service with respect to
Wireless transport layer security (WTLS) : throughput, error rate, and delays.
3.
1. WTLS is a security protocol based upon the industry-stand d The WAP protocols are designed to compensate for or tolerate these
varying levels of service.
layer security (TLS) protocol, formerly known as secure =c~l'llnsi>ort
(SSL). ets layer 4.
The list of supported bearers will change over time with new bearers
2. wrLS is intended for use with the WAP transport protocol being added as the wireless market evolves.
been optimized for use over narrow-band communication 1,~_and baa Other services and applications :
cuamieJs
3. wrLS provides the following features : · 1. The WAP layered architecture enables other services and applications
a. Data integrity: ~LS contains f~cili_ties to ensure that da to utilize the features of the WAP stack through a set of well-defined
interfaces.
between the ternunal and an application server is unchan ta Bent
uncorrupted. ged Rnd 2. External applications may access the session, tranaaction, security and
transport layers directly.
C. Authentication : wrLS contains facilities to establ' h
18
authenticity of the terminal and application server. the 3. This allows the WAP stack to be used for applications and services not
currently specified by WAP, but deemed to be valuable for the wireless
C. Denial-of-service protection: wr~ makes many typical d . market.
4.
of-service attacks harder to accomplish and protects the ~Illa!.
protocol layers. Pper
wrLS may also be used for secure communication between tel'lllinals

for example, for authentication of electronic business card exch1111ge_ '
I 4. For example, applications, such as electronic mail, calendar, phone book,
notepad, e.nd electronic commerce, or services, such as white and yellow
pages, may be developed to use the WAP protocols.
Wireless datagram protocol <WDP) :

f Application ofWAP: Refer Q. 2.28, Page 97J, Unit-2.
1. The transport layer protocol in the WAP architecture is referred to

the wireless datagram protocol (WDP). 88
VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

2. The WDP layer operates above the data capable bearer services supported
by the various network types. Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
3. As a general transport service, WDP offers a consistent service to the
upper layer protocols ofWAP and communicate transparently over one UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.
of the available bearer services.
4. Since, the WDP protocols provide a common interface to the upper layer Q. 1. Describe briefly about wireless networking and its types.
protocols the security, session and application layers are able to function mm; Refer Q. 2.1.
independently of the underlying wireless network.
Q. 2. Write a short note on :
Bearers: i. Cell splitting
1. The WAP protocols are designed to operate over a variety of different ii. Near and far problem
bearer services, including short message, circuit-switched data, and nL Hidden terminal problem
packet data. as Refer Q. 2.9.
104(IT-8) J Wireless Networking
Q. 3. What is bluetooth ? Define technical specification f

0
bluetooth. Describe the bluetooth stack operation.
ama; ReferQ. 2.16.
Q. 4. How TCP over wireless works ?

- ReferQ. 2.19.
Q. 5. Explain mobile IP.

- Refer Q. 2.25.
Q. 6. Discuss wireless application protoc~l architecture.

am; Refer Q. 2.31.
--
Adhoc Networks r,1:obile Computing 167 (IT-8) J
l
166(JT-8)J
ii- An adhoc network grew out of packet radio network.
iii It requires more battery power to maintain full connectivity between
[}>ART·l]
nodes.
Mhoc Network, Localization, MAC Issues, Routing Protocols The wireless range is smaller.
· .,,..c,vi n o_r:tination Si ' jv.
Becomes more vulnerable for intrusion.
-
v.
-
- consecutive packets associated with a given message may take different
L
LJl,~ Ufl,L':._ • ..,_ ..,r -•
vi.
coNCEPT OUTLINE :
PART-1
- routes to destination.
Adhoc network has limited computational power.
. An adhoc network is a peer-to-peer wireless network that

transmits from computer to computer without the use of a
,,;;. Restricted range and Jack of infrastructure together indicate the need
viii- for a multibop routing.
.
©
control base station.
Manet is a self-configuration wireless adhoc network of mobile
..
nodes.
Global state routing is based on link state routing.
DSDV is a proactive distance vector routing protocol.
I
Questions-Answers f P'.ig
= . IU
,..,.,.=-7.~1;7:Adh
~. .-oc -netw
- or~k.J
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
~-----
[Que 5.2.] Describe the classification of wireless adhoc network.
--- .j
Que 5.1. , What do you mean by adhoc networks ? What are the
characteristics of adhoc network ?
= - --
•'Answer ]
FoJlowing are the three types of wireless adhoc network:
1. Mobile Adhoc Network (MANETs)
2. Wireless Mesh Network (WMN)
IAnawer _ ,
1. In contrast to infrastructure based networks, in adhoc networks all 3. Wireless Sensor Network (WSN)
nodes are mobile and can be connected dynamically in an arbitrary 1. Mobile Adhoc Network (MANETs) :
a. A MANET is an autonomous collection of mobile users that
manner.
communicate over relatively bandwidth constrained wireless Jinks_
2. All nodes of these networks behave as routers and take part in discovery
and maintenance of routers to other nodes in the network. b. It is a self configuring network of mobile devices connected by
3. Ad.hoc networks are very useful in emergency search-and-rescue wireless Jinks.
operations, meetings or conventions in which persons wish to quickly c. Each device in a MANET is free to move independently in any
share information, and data acquisition operations in inhospitable terrain. direction and will therefore change its links to other devices
4. Adhoc networks are autonomous networks operating either in isolation frequently.
or as "stub networks" connecting to a fixed network. d Since the nodes are mobile, the network topology may change
5. They do not necessarily rely on existing infrastructure. rapidly and unpredictable over time.
e. The network is decentralized, where all network activity including
6. No "access point". Each node serves as a router and forwards packets discovering the topology and delivering messages must be executed
for other nodes in the network. by the nodes themselves, i.e., routing functionality wiJI be
7. Topology of the network continuously changes. incorporated into mobile nodes.
Characteristics of adhoc network :
i. An adhoc network comes up together when needed.
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Adhoc Networkt
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2. Wireless Mesh Network (WMN) :
a. A WMN is a communication network made up of radio nod 5.
organized in a mesh topology. es The MANET organization depends upon the location of the nodes, their
connectivity, their service discovery capability and their ability to search
b. WMN often consist of mesh clients, mesh routers and gateways, and route messages using nearest node or nearby nodes.
C. The mesh clients are often laptops, cell phone and other wireles D E
devices while mesh routers forward traffic to and from the gatewa/ F
which may connect to the internet. 8
Sensor node Router
d A WMN can be seen as a special type of wireless adhoc network. Derive node
e. A wireless mesh network often has a more planned configuration
and may be deployed to provide dynamic and cost effective
connectivity over a certain geographic area. Hand-held PC
node
f. Mesh networks may involve either fixed or mobile devices. Mobile node
g. An important possible application for wireless mesh networks is
VOiP. ' \
\
BI Base station Router
h. By using a quality of service scheme, the wireless mesh may support or gateway
local telephone calls to be routed through mesh.
s. Wireless Sensor Network (WSN):
a. WSN consists of spatially distributed autonomous sensor to Description:
cooperatively monitor physical motion or conditions such as, 1. Fig. 5.3.1 demonstrates the adhoc network formed by the nodes A, B, C,
i. temperature of wireless sensor network was motivated by D,E, FandG.
military applications such as battle field surveillance and are, 2. It shows that each mobile device or sensor functions as a node with J
ii. now used in many industrial and civilian application areas, switch or router.
including : 3. An important characteristic of adhoc network architecture is that its
1. industrial process monitoring and control, machine , organization can change due to movement of a device or sensor.
2. health monitoring environment and habitat monitoring 4. In other words, the adhoc networks are self-organizing.
3. health care application 5. The following points illustrate how MANETs are established and how
they recognize themselves. '
4. home automation and
a. The network organization will change if D and E move away from
5. traffic control. each other such that they reach out of the range ofwireless coverage.
b. Two new adhoc netwo~ks will then be formed by (i) A, C and D, (ii)
Que 5~ What do you understand by Mobile Adhoc Networks A, G, F and E. The deVJces on two networks can still connect to each
1
(MANET) ? Describe some real life scenarios where it can be used. other through the co=on node A
IUPTU 201~~15, Marks 1oj Real life scenario :
1. Consider a bluetooth-enabled mobile device, a bluetooth-enabled
I.
. r:•... J
MANET is a self configuration wireless adhoc network of mobile nodes.
2.
computer, and internet with Wi-Fi connection at home.
There is a bluetooth-enabled computer connected to TCP/IP internet
and also to client printer at office.
2. Each node has a router or a switch connected by the wireless connection. 3. When the user carrying the device moves from office to home and
3. The union of connections is in an arbitrary topology. handheld PDA mobile device reaches near the home computer, an adhoc
network is established between the mobile device at home and printer
II
4. Network can function independently or connect to internet 1Pv4 or
at office through intermediate nodes: Wi-Fi, internet and office computer.
1Pv6.
'
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172(IT-8)J
Adhoc Routing Protocols
b. The result is frequent changes in topology, so the snapshots available
are valid for very small time only.
Table Driven Source-Initiated
In adboc network, the routing tables must reflect these changes. On-Demand
¼
C.
Hybrid
Routing algorithms for wired networks will either react very slowly f l
d.
or with too many updates for this type of topology. GSR DSDV WRP r-.--.-.
'·
AODV DSR LMR ABR .---1--.
Examples of adhoc network :
1. The decentralized nature ofwireless adboc network makes them suitable
for a variety of applications.
r7
HSR
FSR
c!sR
••
TORA SSR
!fg. 5.6.LRouti~ ~
EIGRP ZRP
+
ZHLS
2. The rapid advents of mobile telephony, PDAs and the increasing of

diverse monitoring tools involving inexpensive wireless sensors have
~
protocols.
JExplain the proactive routing and reactive routing
brought a number of commercial applications of adhoc networks.
3. Following are the applications : ·A nswer
i Mobile adboc network (MANETs) 1_ P . ;aclive or table-driven routing protocol :
ii. Disaster Relief a. In a table-driven routing protocol, each node maintains one or
more table containing routing information to every other node in
iii. Home Networking the network.
iv. Conferencing b. All nodes update their tables so as to maintain a consistent and up-
v. Habitat Monitoring to-date view of the network.
vi. Warehouse Inventory Monitoring c. When the network topology changes, the node propagate update
message throughout the network in order to maintain consistent
vii. Personal Area Network
and up-to-date routing information about the whole network.
viii. Ships need to communicate with each other. d. The adhoc protocols, that follows the proactive routing protocol are
as follows :
~..!.:!:!!:...IWhy we need new routing protocols ? Write down the i Destination Sequence Distance Vector Routing Protocol
type of routing protocols. (DSDV)
~ sw~ J ii
iii
Wireless Routing Protocol (WRP)
Global State Routing (GSR)
(!/ In adhoc networks, nodes do not have a priori knowledge of topology of
network around them, they have to discover it. iv. Fisheye State Routing (FSR)
() The basic idea is that a new node (optionally) announces its presence v. Hierarchical State Routing (HSR)
and listens to broadcast announcements from its neighbours. vi. Zone-based Hierarchical Link State Routing
tJ The node learns about new near nodes and ways to reach them, and
may announce that it can also reach those nodes. 2.
vii. Clusterhead Gateway Switched Routing (CGSR)
Reactive routing protocol :
4. As time goes on, each node knows about all other nodes and one or
a. The on-demand routing protocols take a lazy approach to routing.
more ways how to reach them.
b. In contrast to table-driven routing protocols, all up-to-date routes
5. These routing protocols can be divided into three categories based on are not maintained at every node, instead the routes are created
when and how the routes are discovered : when required.
a. Pro•active routing or table driven protocols c. When a source wants to send to a destination, it invokes the route
b. Reactive routing or On demand routing protocols discovery mechanisms to find the path to the destinations.
c. Hybrid (Pro-active/reactive)
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The route remains valid till the destination is reachable or until the
d Difference b~tween adhoc network and other network: Refer Q. 5.5,
route is no longer needed.
There are some on-demand routing protocols as discussed below : page 17oJ, Urut-5.
e. The advantages of an adhoc network include :
i. Adhoc On-demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV)
l. Separation from central network administration.
ii Cluster Based Routing Protocol (CBRP)
_ Self-configuring nodes are also routers.
iii Dynamic Source Routing Protocol (DSR) 2
_ Self-healing through continuous re-configuration.
iv. Temporally Ordered Routing Protocol (TORA) 3
_ Scalability incorporates the addition of more nodes.
v. Associativity Based Routing (ABR) 4
Mobility allows adhoc networks created on the fly in any situation where
vi. Signal Stability Routing (SSR) 5
· there are multiple wireless devices.
~_! 5~ Compare table-driven and on-demand routing protocols. _ Flexible adhoc can be temporarily setup at anytime, in any place.
6
. 1.,ower getting-started costs due to decentralized administration.
7
tAnswer.J
Comparison of table-driven and on-demand routing protocols :
8
The nodes in adhoc network need not reply on any hardware and
· software. So, it can be connected and communicated quickly.
On-demand ~ e 5.101 Write a short note on GSR protocol

8.No. Table-driven
l. Attempts to maintain
consistent, up-to-date
information from each node
A route is built only when
required. ~-
~swer] , ...........
Global State Routing (GSR):
Global State Routing (GSR) is based on link state (LS) routing.
to every other node in the 1.
network. It takes the idea oflink state routing but improves it by avoiding flooding
2.
No periodic updates. Control of routing messages.
2. Constant propagation of
information is not propagated 3. In link state routing method, each node floods the link state information
routing information
unless there is a change in thP. directly into the whole network (global flooding) once a link change
periodically even when
topology change does not topology. between itself and its neighbours is detected.
occur. 4. For each destination node, the topology and table contain link state
Does not incur substantial traffic information as reported by the destination and time stamp of information.
3. Incurs substantial traffic and
and power consumption 5. If links change quickly at high-mobility, frequent global flooding will
power consumption, which is
compared to table-driven routing lead to huge control overhead (large amount of small packets) where
generally scarce in mobile
protocols. routing messages are generated on a link change as in link state protocols.
computer.
First packet latency is more as 6. GSR could be described as being based on link state routing, which has
4. First packet latency is less the advantage ofrouting accuracy, and the dissemination method used
compared to table-driven because
when compared with on- in Distributed Bellman-Ford (DBF) to avoid inefficient flooding like in
a route needs to be built.
demand protocols.
link state routing.
A route to every other node Not available.
5. 7. In GSR every node maintains:
in adhoc network is always a. A neighbour list: The neighbour list of a node contains the list of
available.
its neighbours.
b. A topology table : For each destination node, the topology table
5.9. JName the main differences between adhoc network and contains the link state information as reported by the destmahon
other network. What advantages do adhoc networks offer? Explain and the timestamp of the information.
in detail by giving suitable el<Jllllple. IUPTU 2013-14, Marks 10J
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j\1obile Computing 177 (IT-8) J
c. A next hop table : For each destination, th~ next h?P ~ble contains
the next hop to which the packets for this destmatton must be ~ e t w o r k nodes periodically broadcast their routing tables in order
3. to propaga~ topolo~ ~owledge throughout the network. A part from
forwarded .
this perio~c !ransnuss1on, a stati~n (node) also transmits its routing
d. A distance table: The distance table contains the shortest distance table if a significant change occurs m topology.
to each destination node.
The propagation of routing table's results in large overhead. To solve
8. Initially, each node learns about its neighbours by examining each 4
· this problem, two types of updates are defined:
received packet and then builds up its neighbour list.
a. Full dump update
9. On receiving a link state message from its neighbours, every node
updates the link state information in its topology table. b. Incremental update
10. Link state packets with larger sequence numbers replace the older ones 5 In full dump update, stations (nodes) transmit full routing table. Since
with smaller sequence numbers. So, every node learns the entire · routing table is large, a full update typically involves more than one
network topology. packet broadcast.
Advantages ofGSR: 6_ Incremen~al updat~s are ~ransmitting_between full dumps and convey
only that information which was earned over a single packet. Here a
1. GSR reduces the control overhead as it avoids flooding for disconnects/ unique sequence number is also assigned by the transmitter after
reconnects and updates are time triggered than event triggered.
updation. In a network of a slowly changing topology, full dump are
2. The routing accuracy ofGSR is superior to the traditional DBF. rarely used, since the incremental dumps are able to convey the slow
Disadvantages of GSR : topologies changes.
1. Its main disadvantage is large size of the routing message. Advantages of DSDV:
2. Entire topology table is broadcasted with each update considerable 1. It is suitable for creating adhoc network with small number of nodes.
amountofbandwidthisconsumed. ' 2. Since no formal specification of this algorithm is present, so there is no
commercial implementation of this algorithm.
~~J!I] Write short note on destination sequenced distance Disadvantages ofDSDV:
vector routing (DSDV). j."VPT~ -201 i?1}a;+i'4afJt~.1()1 1. DSDV requires a regular update of its routing tables, which uses up
battery power and a small amount of bandwidth even when the network
is idle.
Destination sequence distance vector routing (DSDV) : DSDV is the 2. DSDV is not suitable for highly dynamic networks.
extension to Bellman-Ford routing algorithm. Th.:s routing protocol was
developed in 1994 by C. Perkins and it is a proactive distance vector routing Examples of DSDV in operation:
protocol. This protocol guarantees loop freeness. 1. Consider MH4 in Fig. 5.11.1. Table 5.11.1 shows a possible structure of
InDSDV: the forwarding table which is maintained at MH,.
1. Each node maintains a routing table that contains the information 2. Suppose the address of each mobile host is represented as ~ -Suppose
regarding all possible routes within a network, the number of hops of further that all sequence numbers are denoted as SNNN_MH; where
each route and the sequence of each node. MH; specifies the computer that created the sequence number and
2. SNNN is a sequence number value.
This sequence number assigned by the destination node of the route,
shows how old the route is. The lower the sequence number, the older 3. Also suppose that there are entries for all other mobile hosts with
the route is. When a node A needs to select a route to node B it checks sequence numbers SNNN_MH., before MH 1 moves away from MR,..
its routing table. If more than one such route is found, the newer one is 4. The install time field helps to determine when to delete the stale routes.
used and if more than one route shares the same sequence number 5.
than the shortest route is chosen. With this protocol, the deletion of stale routes, rarely occur since the
detection of link breakages should propagate through the adhoc network
immediately.
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r,iobile Computing 179 (IT-8) J
(3. 8~ ~
f"isbeY
= el~
e State Routing <FSR) :
.
FSR is an 1I11provement of GSR (both are based on the link state protocol).
l. The large size of update messages in GSR wastes a considerable amount
2. of network bandwidth.
MH, I
-- This technique ".'as used to reduce the size of information required to

I
~-
:,~~
I 3
---- ________________________',
I · represent graphical data.
: 4. The eye of a fish captures with high detail of the pixels near the focal
point.
5_ The detail decreases as the distaoce from the focal point increases.
[F~s:ii1? Movement_~ r ~ g£,_i@i
:]'sne!'!ii:!Q 6 In routing, the Fisheye approach translates to maintain the
Structure of the MH. forwarding table : · accurate distance and path quality information about the immediate
Table 5.11.1. neighbourhood of a node , with progressively less detail a s the
distance increases.
Destination Next Hop Sequence Install Flags Metric Stable Data 6 Here nodes maintain a link state table based on the up-to-<late information
Number · received from neighbouring nodes, and periodically exchange it with
their local neighbours only.
MH, MH, S406_MH, TOOl_MH, 2 Ptrl_MH,
MH, MH, S128_MH, TOOl_MH, 1 Ptrl_MH, 7. In FSR, every up-to-date message does not contain information about
MH, MH, S564_MH, TOOl_MH, 2 Ptrl_MH, all nodes in the network. Here the information about closer node is
MH, MH, S710_MH, TOOl_MH, 0 Ptrl_MH, exchanged more frequently than it is done about farther nodes, thus
MH, MH, S392_MH, T002_MH, 2 reducing the update message size.
MH, Ptrl_MH,
MH, S076_MH, TOOl_MH, 1 Ptrl_MH,
MH, MH, S128_Mll, T002_MH, 2 8. The centre node has most up-to-date information about all the nodes in
Ptrl_MH,
MH, MH, S050_MH, T002_MH, 3 the inner circle and the accuracy of information decreases as the distance
Ptrl_MH,
from node increases.
Now suppose that MR. moves into the general vicinity of MB, and 9. This procedure of dividing network into different scope levels is done at
MH.,. and away from others especially (MH2 ). The new internal each node meaning that it is independent on the central entity.
forwarding tables at MB. then appears as shown in Table 5.11.2.
Table 5.11.2. 10. Even if a node does not have accurate information about far away
D estination Next Hop Sequence nodes, the packets will he routed correctly because the route information
Install Flags Metric Stable Data becomes more and more accurate as the packet gets closer to the
Number destination.
MH, MH, S516_MH, 11. When network size grows large, the update message could consume
TOOl_MH, M 3
MH, S238_MH, TOOI _MH, Ptrl_MH, considerable amount of bandwidth, which depends on the update period.
MH, S674_MH, 1 Ptrl_MH,
TOOI_MH,
MH, MH, S820_MH, 2 Ptrl_Mff, 12. In order to reduce the size of update messages without seriously affecting
MH, TOOI _MH, 0
MH, S502_MH, T002_MH, Ptrl__MH, routing accuracy, FSR uses the Fisheye technique.
MH, MH, S186_MH, 2 Ptrl_MH,
MH, TOOI_MH, 1 13. Fig. 5.12.1 illustrates the application of Fisheye in a mobile, wireless
MH. S238_MH, T002_MH, Ptrl_MH, network.
MH. MH, S160_MH, T002 MH,
2 Ptrl_MH,
3 Ptrl MIi, 14. The number of levels and the radius of each scope will depend on the
size of the network.
@ue ;tiD Explain Fisheye state routing. Also, give the advantages
and disadvantages. 15. The reduction of routing update overhead is obtained by using different
exchange periods for different entries in routing table.
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180(IT-8)J --...:: ?Jobile Computing 181 (IT-8) J
=---- information when needed. FSRfunctionality is similar to link state 88 it
maintains a full topology map at each node.
The topology labels are send to local neighbours only. Sequence numbers
2. are used for entry replacements and for loop free routing
The Fisheye scope mes~ag~ updat~ scheme is highly accurate for
3. . er scope node as entnes m the routmg table corresponding to nodes
~hin the smallest scope are send to the neighbours may blur due to
:nger exchange interval but there is no need to find the destination
firstly.
tages of FSR :
,l\dv;;R is suitable for large and highly networked environment.
~: It is robust to host mobility.
3. Reduce routing and update traffic.
isadvantages ofFSR: .
D Routing table storage 1s complex.
l. FSR does not provide any kind of security.
2.
I PART·2 I
00,~ lJ Dynamic Source Routing (DSR), Adhoc on Demand Distance
16. More precisely, entries corresponding to nodes within the smaller scope Vector Routing (AOVD), Temporary Ordered Routing Algorithm
-- ------
are propagated to the neighbours with the highest frequency. (TORA), QOS in Adhoc Networks Applications.
)!
Tl' Hop
CONCEPT OUTLINE: PART-2
TT
0 : (1) Hop
~:;~\,3) :
; (5: 1, 4) 2
• Dynamic source routing is a source routed on-demand routing
protocol in ad.hoc networks.
2
'-
1 : (0, 2, 3 )
1 3 : (1, 4) 0 • AODV minimizes the number of broadcasts by creating routes
2 : (5, 1, 4)
0 4 : (5, 2, 3) on-demand as opposed to DSDV.
3 : (1, 4) 1l - - - - - - 3I 5 : (2, 4) 2 • TORA is a source initiated on-demand routing algorithm.
I
4 : (5, 2, 3)
2 I I TI' • Static routing is simply the process of manually entering routes
5 : (2, 4) I I ) Hop into a device's routing table via a configuration file that is loaded
2 I I O ; (1
2 when the routing device start up.
f":\ l : (0,2, 3) 2 Dynamic routing protocols are supported by software applications
--------- 4 2 : (5, 1, 4) 1 running on the routing device which dynamically learn network
'-, ,' 3 : (1,4) 1 destination and how to get to them.
'' ,, 4 : (5, 2, 3) 0
© 5 :(2,4)
Questlons-AnsWers
Fig. 5.12.2. Message reduction using Fisheye.
Long ,l\nswer Type and Medium AnsWer Type Questions
Protocol operation :
1. Fisheye state routing is a table-driven or proactive routing protocol. It is
based on link state routing and able to immediately providing route
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- 182 (IT-8) J
!9ue5.1!.] Explain source routing.
Adhoc Netw0 r~ bil
e Computing 183(IT-8) J
OR ~ teristic of Manet:
Explain the following terms : cbarac ssofpat hdi scoveryand path mam . te nancem
. DSRroutingprotocols
.
i. Global State Routing (GSR) Theproce
follows :
ii. Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) are as ute discovery :
iii. Destination Sequence Distance Vector routing (DSDV) 1. Ro Route discovery allows any host to dynamically discover the route
@trV 2014-15, M a r ~ a. to any destination in the adhoc network.
b. When a source node wants to send a packet to a destination, it

!Amwer looks up its route cache to determine ifit already contains a route
Global state routing: Refer Q.5.10, Page 175J, Unit-5. to the destination.
c. Ifit finds that an unexpired route to the destination exists, then it
Dynamic source routing :
uses this route to send the packet.
1. Dynamic source routing is a source routed on-demand routing protocol
in adhoc networks. d. Ifit does not have a valid route, then it sends a route request packet
by broadcasting it to the neighbours.
2. It uses source routing, which is a technique in which the sender of a
packet determines the complete sequence of nodes through which the e. The route request (RREQ) packet contains the source address,
node has travel. request id and a route record in which the sequence of hops
traversed by the request packet before reaching the destination
3. Thus the source nodes stores the whole path to the destination, source are noted down as shown in Fig. 5.14.1.
stores path with every message, so nodes on the path simply chop off
themselves and send the message to the next node.
4. So, the nodes do not need to exchange the routing table information
periodically and thus reduces the bandwidth.
5. Each mobile node participating in the protocol maintains a "route cache"
which contains the list of routes that a node has learnt.
6. Whenever the node finds a new route it adds the new route in its
"routing cache".
7.
Each node also maintains a sequence counter "request id" to uniquely
identify the requests generated by the mobile host.
8.
The pair<source address, request id> uniquely identifies any request in f. Each intermediate node checks whether it knows a route to the
the adhoc network.
destination.
9. The protocol does not need transmissions between hosts to work in g. It does not append its address to the route record of the packet and
bidirection.
forwards the packet to its neighbours.
10. Th~ main phases in the protocol are route discovery process and route h. To limit the number of route requests propagated, a node processes
mamtenance process.
the route request packet only ifit has not already seen the packet
Destination sequence distance vector routing • Re.,.er Q 5 11 and its address is not present in the route record of the packet.
Page 176.J, Unit-5. • " · · '
.. i. A route reply (RREP) is generated when either the destination or
an intermediate node with current information about the destination
19iae5.14.] What are the characteristic of MANET? Explain the
receives the route request packet.
process of path discovery an!f path maintenance in DSR routing j. If the route reply is generated by the destination then it places the
protocols. [ UPTU 2012-13, Marks 10 ! route record from route request packet into the route reply packet.
k. On the other hand, if the node generating the route reply is an
intermediate node then it appends its cached route to destination to .
I -
184 (IT-8) J Adhoc Net,, Mobile Computing
185CIT-8JJ
the route record of route request packet and puts that into
2. AODV mi.nimires the number of broadcasts by creating routes on-<lemam
route reply packet as shown in Fig. 5.14.2. as opposed to DSDV that maintains the list of all the routes.
1 · To send the route reply packet, the responding node must hav AODV is designed to improve upon the performance characteristics of
route to the source. If it has a route to the source in its route~• 3.
DSDV in the creation and maintenance of routes.
it can use that route. , The primarY objectives of AODV protocol are :
4.
To broadcast discovery packets only when necessary.
a.
b.
To distinguish between local connectivity management
(neighbourhood detection) and general topology maintenance.
c. To disseminate information about changes in local connectivity to
those neighbouring mobile nodes that are likely to need I.he
information.
<1,4,6> 5_ AODV deals with routing table.
!J,l:..l~ ~pagation of i:oute !;?Pl~ b the !!JU 6. Every node has a routing table.
2. Route maintenance : 7. When a node
the source knows a route to the destination, 1•t sends a route reply to
node.
a. Route maintenance is the procedure of monitoring the correct
operation ofroute in use. 8. Its entries are :
b. The host that uses the route does this maintenance. a. Destination IP address
c. DSR uses two type of packets for route maintenance : b. Prefix size
i. Route error packet c. Destination sequence number
ii. Acknowledgements d NexthopIPaddress
e. Lifetime (expiration or detection time of the route)
d When a node encounters a fatal transmission problem at its data
link layer, it generates a Route Error Packet (RERR). f. Hop count (Number of hops to reach the destination)
e. When a node receives a route error packet, it removes the hop in g. Network interface
error from its routing cache. h. Routing states (for example, RREQ for route request, RREP for
f. All routes that contain the hop in error are truncated at that point. route reply and RERR for route error)
Acknowledgement packets are used to verify the correct operation Adv,mtages of AODV:
of the route links.
1. Loop free routing.
h. This also includes passive acknowledgements in which a node hears
2. Optional multicast.
th1, next hop forwarding the packet along the route.
3. Reduced control overhead.
S?e 5,115. ] Describe any two of the following : Disadvantages of AODV:
L DSDV 1. Delay caused by route discovery process.
IL DSR 2. Bidirectional connection needed in order to detect a unidirectional
ilL AODV / UPTU 2018-14, Marks 1fil link.
[Qufl,&~8d Describe the working of AODV routing protocols in
MANETs. Describe how routing table will be maintained in AODV
DSDV: Refer Q. 6.11, Page 176.J, Unit-5. routing protocoL @Q ZOIZ.13, Marks@
DSR: Refer Q. 6.13, Page 182.J, Unit-5.
AODV:
l. AODV routing is an improvement on the DSDV algorithm.
. .
~
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-
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~ er]
The path discovery and path maintenance of AODV is done as follows :
Path discovery :
1. AODV uses a broadcast route discovery mechanism. Path discovery
process is initiated when a node requires to communicate with a node
for which it has no route by broadcasting a route request (RREQ) packet
containing the source address, source sequence number, broadcast ID
destination address, destination sequence number, hop count to it~
neighbours.
2. Hop count is initially Oand is incremented by each node as it forwards
the RREQ towards the destination.
_- - - + Represents transmission ofRREQ
3. An intermediate node upon receiving a RREQ first checks that RF..EQ

was received over a bidirectional link.
,~f~ i,>-,r'-,
'
1
4. Ifit has then it checks ifit has already processed a similar RREQ packet
and ifit has then the RREQ packet is discarded. r,,/·
BI
f ' / , ......
,,''I I ,,,,
5. Otherwise, the node checks ifit has a route entry for the destination. If , I ,' ,
it has a routing table entry for the destination then it replies to the />' I
I
IC"
,,_{
source only if the destination sequence number in RREQ is greater I
.,' , '
',
,t'•'
than the destination sequence number in its route table otherwise it
rebroadcasts the RREQ packet.
6. Reverse path is established as the RREQ traverses towards the
destination.
+--- Represents links on reverse path
7. The destination or the intermediate node responds to RREQ packet
with a route reply (RREP) packet having similar fields as that ofRREQ
packet, RREP travels back to the source using the reverse paths. Reverse path setup in AODV:
Route request in AODV:

/ i's'',+--o'',
(~) \
'" ' ,/
,' ,<
¾,«-~,,__(''
',A /
JG,_
) ,C
-\..- -----·«
,H
- N
~_)Represents a node that has received RREQ for D from S
Node C receives RREQ from G and H but does not forward it again,
because node C has already forwarded RREQ once.
...
More pdf : www.motivationbank.in I
•worka :r,fobile Computing 1890T-8) J
1ss(IT-8) J Adhoc Ne'--
Forward links are setup when RREP travels along the reverse path.
,....-----.... Represents a link on the forward path
l~~E' • © Datadeliv:~~:
_/-\_ ,,>-~~--------·
'B) J-
/1,,._ ,-/\ ·~r-1
I (' _/- --,_:-\. I$~
9,--.,G~ ii.__ ,. . _
\ , 1 B, (c~ (~~- ,~
- ',, I
, - / \ /'-'--.. / ,J~.._n>--@
,-s~----.,-i, ·-~ . ___,_ < -yG< .. - l -
--/--\ /'-- ......,!:' •--~~1~-~i'-
.... _ ,_,
-1...
(A,/
--,
J-\
'B, IC,._
- / - - ·-----
-
,I .......
G
/ \ --,,
-- .... ----7M
J , . _ _ , __
'--~
·• l!'!«-·U eJ;:j
Routing table entries is used to forward data packet. Route is not
----...., HI --,
--
included in packet header.
,__
'--"---,-i~ '~-~nL ig.ie5.17·. ~ Write short note on Temporally Ordered Routing
-0
Node D does not forward RREQ, because node Dis the intended target Algorithm (TORA). !
UPTU 2011-12, Mazka 10 j
of the RREQ. OR
Route reply in AODV: Describe route discovery and route maintenance mechaniBJD of
,s,._ __ •E:.. - • !UPTU 2014-15, 2015-16; Marks 10 !
~l,or'\/_/~~-~J•
AODV and TORA.
,~ s:wer .• .J
AODV: Refer Q . 5 .16, Page 185.J, Unit-5.
'C)4-..._,G' \
(~, /- ;>- 'y- ,,;~ TORA:
--...,H __/ ,K, 1. The TORA is a source initiated on-demand routing algorithm.
,_...._________,I' - EP 2. It is a highly adaptive, efficient and scalable distributed routing algorithm
,_,
- - - - Represents links
. on pa th taken by RR
AODV: based on the concept of link reversal.
+
Forwardpao thsetup1n
3. This protocol is mainly designed to minimize the reaction to topology
changes.
~ ,-[s;,.. __ 'lE;.__
, ..------..~ 4. TORA is proposed for highly dynamic mobile, multihop wireless
_/1
}l. ,- L networks .
,- /- ',,_, F~- , .-- M,
--< '-~,
1 B, ,,,,,,, ,,,,,,.-- --, J '- 5. TORA finds multiple routes from a source node to a destination node .
r'c,____ 6. The main feature of TORA is that the control messages are localized to
(A'
'-'-....,
• ('
,_H ~
_;,t-
-- /-
,_I I
7 G~
-----
,_,
•K
•,~~
N 7-
8.
a very small s et of nodes n~ar the occurrence of a topological change.
To this, the nodes maintain routing information about aqjacent nodes.
Each node has a quintuple associated with it : Logical time of a link
failure , a reference indicator bit, a propagation ordering parameter, the
unique ID of the node that defined new reference level.
........-
~ -
-
9
190(IT-S)J
_
Adhoc Networks
In this protocol a logically separate copy of TORA is run for each

destination node of the network.
-
l'dobile Computing
/;:;'\(l\ri,\.
7) (0,1)
191 (IT-8) J
10. The protocol has mainlY three phases :

a. Route discovery or route creation
b. Route maintenance
c. Route erasure
11. These three types of packets used in the protocol are :
a. QRY packets, used for creating routes.
b. Update (UDP) packets, used for both creating and maintaining
routes. Fig. 5.17.2~ffe~ t of each node u?.fates as a result of UDP message.
c. CLR packets, used for erasing routes. T - in this way a directed acyclic graph is constructed fr~ ce to
the destination. Fig. 5.17.1 and 5.17.2 illustrates a route creation
The TORA protocol has mainly three phases :
process in TORA.
1. Route discovery or Route creation : j. As shown in Fig. 5.17.1, node 5does not propagate QRYfromnode
a. Route discovery is initiated only when a node having no route to 3 as it has already seen and propagated QRY message from node 2.
the destination requires a route. k. In Fig. 5.17.2, the source (i .e., node 1) may have received a UDP
b. Route creation is done using QRY and UDP packets. each from node 2 or node 3 but since node 4 gives it lesser height,
c. A query packet consists of a Destination_ID. it retains that height.
d An UDP packet consists ofDestination_ID and the height of the
2. Route maintenance :
node. ~en a node moves the DAG route is broken and route maintenance
e. The route creation algorithm starts with the height (propagation a.
1s needed to re-establish a DAG for the same destination.
ordering parameter) of destination set to O and all other node's
When the last down stream link of a node fails, it generates a new
height set to NULL. b.
~~-) / 7 c.
reference level.
T~is resu_lts in the propagation of that reference level by
ne1ghbourmg nodes as shown in Fig. 5.17.3.
SourceQ:~ Links are reversed to reflect the change in adapting to the new
(-, -)
d
reference level.
This has the same effect as reversing the direction of one or more
e.
links when a node has no down stream links.
3. Route erasure :
a. In the route erasure phase, TORA floods a broadcast clear packet
Fig.,_~ 11:.!: 1:'.roya,¥,!~(fil oft~e QRY, packet through the net\';'._o.&~- (CLR) throughout the network to erase invalid routes.
The source broadcast a QRY packet with the destination node's id b. In TO RA there is a potential for oscillations to occur, especially
init. when multiple sets of coordinating nodes are concurrently detecting
f. A node with a non-NULL height responds with a UDP packet that partitions, erasing routes and building new routes based on each
has its height in it. other.
g. A nodt: receiving a UDP packet sets its height to one more than c. Because TORA uses internodal coordination, its instability probfom
that of the node that generated the UDP. is similar to the •count-to-infinity" problem in distance vector routing
protocols, except that such oscillations are temporary and route
h. A node with higher height is considered up stream and a node with
lower height down stream. convergence will ultimately occur.
!!I
.
......--
Adhoc Networks bile ColllPuting
192(1T-8) J ---:::: ?,{o 193 !IT-8) J
. and dynamic routing :
5t11tlC • •
tic rout1Ilg.
StB Static routwg· is . 1y the process of manuall
· simp .
1. device's routing table via a configuration file [~n~nng routes into a
18
routing device start up. t loaded when the
(0,0) .As an alternative, these routes can be entered by
......
8 2. vvho configures the routes manually. anetworkadministrator
Destination Since these manually configured, routes do not change afte
3. -"gured (unless a human changes them) they call , r_ they are
cOI.U-' . . . are ed static' rouws.
tatic routing 1s the simplest form of routmg· but it•18
4 S . • · 1.. a manual process
______.,.....__._.,,..__<'II~ . Static routing IS appropnate w=n !°u have very few devices to confi .
5. and vvhen you know the routes will probably never cbange. gure
I.fig. 5.17.3..l?oute @!1--!Ptenance_&t~OM. 6 Static routing also does ~ot handle failures in external networks well
· because any route that 1s confi~ manually must be updated to
~t:5~8,1.JExp~ hybrid routing protocols. reconfigured manually to fix or repair any lost connectivity.
J)ynaDlic routing :
1.
tl!-
Hybrid routing protocols combines the advantages of both table-driven
1. DynaJlliC routing pro_tocols ~e sup~rted by software applications
running on the routmg device which dynamically learn network
and on-demand routing. destinations and how to get to them and also advertise those definitions
2. In this the distance vector routing (DVR) works by sharing its knowledge to other routers.
of entire network with its neighbours and link state routing (LSR) tell _ This advertisement function all~ws all the routers to learn about all
every router on the network about its closest neighbours so it is the 2
the destination networks that enst.
combination of both DVR and LSR.
A router using dynamic routing will learn the routes to all networks
3. Hybrid routing protocols use distance vectors for more accurate metrics 3.
that are directly connected to the device.
to determine the best paths to destination networks and report routing
4. The router will learn routes from other routers that ruo the same
information only when there is a change in the topology of the network.
routing protocol (RIP, RIP2, BGP etc.).
4. Hybrid routing allows for rapid convergence but requires less processing
5. Each router will then sort through its list of routers and select one or
power and memory as compared to link state routing.
more best routes for each network destination the router knows.
Some examples of hybrid routing protocols are :
6. Dynamic routing protoccls will then distribute this 'best route'
a EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol), developed information to other routers running the same routing protocol,
by CISCO. thereby extending the information on what network exist and can be
b. ZRP (Zone Routing Protocol). reached.
7. This gives dynamic routing protocols the ability to adapt to logical
if,;e;p;Jp~JExplain with example: network topology changes, equipment failure or network outages on
i. Proactive routing and reactive routing protocols the fly.
ii. State and dynamic routing Source routing: Refer Q. 5.13, Page 182.J, Unit-5
Write down the key issues, objectives and criteria of
iii. Source routing IUPTU 2012·13, Marks'lo,j
QOS routing. ~ U 2015-16, Marks~
IUPTU 2015-16, Mark!i 02,!
[&i(1r~ijjj e::,.
11..:'n
fver :·
i l. l
Issues ~f QOS routing : Issues of QoS routing in adhoc networks :
Proactive routing and reactive routing protocols : Refer Q. 5.7,
:age 173.J, Unit-5.
"
'1111'\,
,.....
1111
194 (IT-8) J More pdf : www.motivationbank.in Adhoc Netw zdobile CoJJlputing
1. Dynamic varying network topology ()ther aspects should also be taken . . l95 UT-8) J
2. Imprecise state information
i. constraints due to a shared medi:1collBl~ration8Uch 8
JJlobile and the topology may chan' YDa!nic topology / bandWidth
3. Scarce resources uJJlited batteries. ge and J>Ower COil!UJn1: ..MNs are
~•wn due to
4. Absence of communication infrastructure or wiJ'ed networks there are two
3. . • ·
Frov1s1orung d approaches to .
5. Lack of centralized control
P . . an. network
. traffic enirin .
-..-eenng. obtain QoS .· an over
6. Power limitations over provis1orung consists of the netw
7. Heterogeneous nodes and networks
4· ....... unt of resources such that the n tworkk operator offenng
· ah
....- 0 · Ii· e or can uge
deJJlanding app cations. accommodate all the
8. Error prone shared radio channel
JnStead, network traffic engineering cl•··"' .
9. Hidden terminal problem 5. h din t aoowes ongoing .
treats t em accor g o a set of established rul es. connections and
10. Insecure medium Two proposals belonging to this class has be d
Objectives and criteria of QoS routing : 6· Integrated Service (IntServ) and Differentia: insid~ the IETF :
. t· . ce (Dif!Berv)
1. To meet QoS requirements of end users. 1ntServ 1s a reserva 10n onented method wh ·
7· QoS parameters they need. ere UBers request for the
2. To optimize network resource usage.
3. To gracefully degrade network performance under heavy load. . The resource reservation.protocol (RSVP) has bee n proposed by IETF to
8 set up resource reservations for IntServ.
4. Difficulties arise because node mobility can cause frequent network
topology changes. _ Opposite to IntServ, DiflServ is a reservation-less method.
9
5. Channels can have high error rates, the jitter rate is high and several _ Using Diff~erv, service providers offe~ a set of differentiated classes of
10 QoS to their customers to support vanous types of applications.
different applications can be sharing the use of the communication
medium. I( ll. JPv6 traffic class octet is used to mark a packet to receive a particular
Criteria of QoS routing classification : QoS class.
1. Routing information update mechanism such as proactive/table-driven, 12. In general, the specific aspects of MANETs make the wire-based QoS
reactive/on-demand and hybrid. ' models not appropriate for MANETs.
13. Over-provisioning, for instance, may not be possible because resources
2. Proactive table based routing scheme : It requires each node of the
network to maintain tables to store routing information. are scarce.
14. IntServ/RSVP may require unaffordable storage and processing for MNs,
3. Reactive on-demand source based routing : Routes are created when
necessary. Route will be maintained until it is no longer needed. and signaling overhead.
15. DiflServ on the other hand, is a light weight overhead mod£! that may
4. Use of information for routing such as information of past history,
be more suitable for MANETs.
prediction.
16. However, DiffeServ organization in customers and service providers
5. State maintenance such as local, global.
does not fit the distributed nature ofMANETs.
~ e 5.21. j How can we obtain quality of service on MANET?
Oi .~ t,~-t;_.,~
OR - '"'·, ti
VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
Explain the mechanisms to address quality of services issues in
Following,~ sti(!nB are very important, These questioff!
IUPTU 2015-16, Marks 10]
-
MANET. '!'4Y beasJ,ed in your SESSIONALS as well as
e;ii;i!"·',•, "-'~
,~ .,!~
I UNIVERSITY EXAMJNATION,
-
1. For obtaining QoS (Quality of Service) on a MANET, it is not sufficient
to provide a basic routing functionality. Q. 1. What do you mean by adhoc network?
196.::....::_(.:__I_T_-8_:_)_J_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __A_dh_oc Netw
-=-
Mm Refer Q. 5.1.
Q. 2. Explain the routing protocols and their types.

mm; Refer Q. 5.6 and 5.7.
Q. 3. Write a short note on following :

a. GSR
b. DSDV
mm; a. GSR: Refer Q. 5.10.
b. DSDV: Refer Q. 5.11.
Q. 4. Explain the following :

a. DSR
b. AODV
c. TORA
mm; a. DSR : Refer Q. 5.13.
b. AODV : Refer Q. 5.15.
c. TORA : Refer Q. 5.17.
Q. 5. What are the key issues, objectives and criteria of QOS

routing?
mm; Refer Q. 5.20.

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More pdf : www.motivationbank.

More pdf : www.motivationbank.in

1. Easy to set up : · d networks , as is

\ , -, IDescribe the basic transmission

Mobile Computing 63(IT-8) J

1. Radio transmission can interfere with other senders.

2. Electrical devices can destroy data transmission via radio. 2. Home

The access mechanism used in an ethemet is called carrier sense multipl

standards : The WLAN technology is defined by the IEEE

;9ue 2.12."I With neat sketch, explain architecture of 802.11 LAN

and explain its MAC logic. [ UPTU 2012-13, Marks 05 I

I SFD ISignal IService ILength I HEC I

PLCP preamble PLCP h:;:;:;----. ~.._ --r-

'-- ,o PTotoco1a de.cr;c.

e. For all access methods, several parameters for controlling the

AVCTP (Audio/Visual Control Transport P r ~

Application designers and vendors can implement similar services in

CONCEPT OUTLINE: PART-2

..:!9.1:..E~ mple 'l'C_I' oonn~

is,u~ What are the factors affecting the performance of TCP?

acknowledgements in both directions.

flow and recognizes

Data transfer to the mobile host in snooping TCP takes place as

This preserves end to end semantics, preserves the sender timeout

Addition of mobile devices introduces huge amount of indetel'IIlinate

4. The channel characteristics such as bandwidth and delay from A to Bis

stock quotes) to digital cellular phones and other wireless, mobile

,Que ~.1 Discuss WAP model.

7. wAP utilizes proxy technology to connect between the wireless C:omain

OR WML script : A lightweight scripting language, similar to JavaScript.

4. The wireless session protocols currently consist of services suited for

5. WSP/B provides the following functionality :

wrLS may also be used for secure communication between tel'lllinals

Wireless datagram protocol <WDP) :

1. The transport layer protocol in the WAP architecture is referred to

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Q. 3. What is bluetooth ? Define technical specification f

Q. 4. How TCP over wireless works ?

Q. 5. Explain mobile IP.

Q. 6. Discuss wireless application protoc~l architecture.

. An adhoc network is a peer-to-peer wireless network that

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

2. The rapid advents of mobile telephony, PDAs and the increasing of

More pdf : www.motivationbank.in Adhoc Networks

On-demand ~ e 5.101 Write a short note on GSR protocol

-- This technique ".'as used to reduce the size of information required to

b. When a source node wants to send a packet to a destination, it

r,lobile Computing 187(IT-8)J

3. An intermediate node upon receiving a RREQ first checks that RF..EQ

Route request in AODV:

,s,._ __ •E:.. - • !UPTU 2014-15, 2015-16; Marks 10 !

In this protocol a logically separate copy of TORA is run for each

10. The protocol has mainlY three phases :

194 (IT-8) J More pdf : www.motivationbank.in Adhoc Netw zdobile CoJJlputing

Q. 2. Explain the routing protocols and their types.

Q. 3. Write a short note on following :

Q. 4. Explain the following :

Q. 5. What are the key issues, objectives and criteria of QOS