GULU UNIVERSITY

P.O. Box 166 TEL: +256-471 432518

Gulu, Uganda FAX: +256-471 432094

www.gu.ac.ug

FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE & ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF BIOSYSTEMS ENGINEERING

DESIGN AND SIMMULATION OF A SOLAR PV AND WIND HYBRID ENERGY

SYSTEM FOR RURAL GULU DISTRICT

Engola Ivan

19/U/1612/GSB/PS

Engineering Design Project Report

2023

Supervisor: Eng. Dr. Ebangu Orari Benedict

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of

Bachelor of Science in Biosystems Engineering

 DECLARATION

I declare that this Final Year Report is my own work except where indicated in the text. This

study was conducted during my time at Gulu University between February 21 st and May 29th

2023. All that is contained herein is original.

Submitted by:

Engola Ivan

SIGNATURE: ……………………………………………

DATE: ……………………………………………………..

2
 APPROVAL

This is to certify that Engola Ivan who was under my supervision made this final year report

during his time in Gulu University. I hereby approve this final year report for submission to

the department of Biosystems Engineering, Gulu University in partial fulfilment for the

award of a bachelor’s degree in Biosystems Engineering.

Approved By:

SUPERVISOR: Eng Dr. Ebangu Orari Benedict

……………………………… …………………………………

SIGNATURE DATE

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Special Thanks goes to my Excellent Support System: Mr Paul Ndiramira, Ms Naula

Damalie, Dr Elvis and Ms Najjemba Jaliah who have given me a reason to keep striding

forward on the straight and narrow.

I would also like to thank my Energy Storage System for the past four years: Olara Denis,

Sean Ongaya, Aide Valentine, Karungi Susan, Fongwa Vanessa, Ayiko Herbert, Kihumuro

Kenneth and Maikah Bazil for their continual generosity and indispensable friendship.

Lastly, I would love to thank my Supervisor, Eng. Dr Ebangu Orari Benedict for the

knowledge and skills he shared with me in a witty and thoughtful manner.

4
 DEDICATION

This final year report is dedicated to Mr Jerry Dugdale and Mrs Elspeth Dugdale and all at

Serve Direct for their unwavering support over the past 13 years. I can never repay you for

the kindness you have shown me, especially in the last 5 years. You have watched me make

several mistakes in my life and still helped me grow in spite of them. I thank the Lord for you

and I pray you continue to prosper financially and spiritually.

5
 ABSTRACT

Most households in rural areas in Gulu District are not connected to the national electricity

grid and opt for standalone solar PV and wind turbine renewable energy systems which are

expensive and unreliable. Solar PV and wind hybrid energy system with a 100% renewable

energy fraction is the most promising alternative to meet the energy demand of rural

households. The study utilized the Hybrid Optimization Model for Electric Renewable

(HOMER) software to design and simulate the PV and wind hybrid energy system for a

model 3 bedroomed house in Gulu District with an energy demand of 11.12 kWh/day. The

results of the simulation found that optimal system consisted of a 5.32 kW Solar PV, 9.0 kW

wind turbine, 31 kWh battery capacity and a 2.2 kW converter. The total annual electrical

energy production of the system was 15,164 kWh/yr with solar PV contributing 62.1% and

Wind Turbine generating 37.9%. The proposed hybrid system had a Levelized Cost of energy

(LCOE) of 0.177 $/kWh with a Net Present Cost (NPC) and Initial Capital Cost (ICC) of

$9276 and $5942 respectively. The LCOE of the national electricity grid, standalone solar PV

and wind power systems were 0.185 $/kWh, 0.201 $/kWh and 0.736 $/kWh, respectively

Therefore, a solar PV and wind hybrid energy system was found to be cheaper than the

national electricity grid and standalone solar PV and wind power systems in rural areas in

Gulu District.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents

DECLARATION......................................................................................................................ii
APPROVAL............................................................................................................................iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS....................................................................................................iv
DEDICATION..........................................................................................................................v
ABSTRACT.............................................................................................................................vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS......................................................................................................vii
TABLE OF FIGURES............................................................................................................ix
LIST OF TABLES...................................................................................................................x
LIST OF NOTATIONS..........................................................................................................xi
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................1
1.1. Background.....................................................................................................................1
1.2. The Study Location.........................................................................................................2
1.3. Problem Statement..........................................................................................................3
1.4. Justification.....................................................................................................................3
1.5. Objectives........................................................................................................................4
1.5.1. Main Objective.......................................................................................................4
1.5.2. Specific Objectives.................................................................................................4
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW...............................................................................5
2.1. Design of System components........................................................................................5
2.1.1. Mathematical modelling of Solar Panels.................................................................5
2.1.2. Mathematical Modelling of Wind Turbines...........................................................10
2.1.3. Mathematical Modelling of Batteries.....................................................................12
2.1.4. Mathematical modelling of Charge Controllers.....................................................13
2.1.5. Mathematical modelling of Converters..................................................................14
2.2.0. Operation of a Solar PV and Wind Hybrid System...................................................15
2.3. Cases Studies on Simulations........................................................................................16
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY........................................................................................18
3.1. Design of the Solar PV-Wind Hybrid Energy System..................................................18
3.1.1. Review of Climatic Data........................................................................................18
3.1.2. Electric Energy Demand........................................................................................21
3.1.3. Design and Selection of System Components.......................................................23

7
 3.2. Simulation of the Hybrid System..................................................................................28
3.2.1. System Inputs.........................................................................................................28
3.2.2. System Schematic..................................................................................................30
3.3. Economic Analysis........................................................................................................31
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS.................................................................34
4.1. Manual Design Calculations Results............................................................................34
4.2. Economic Analysis of the Hybrid System....................................................................35
4.2.1. Economic Analysis of Optimal Solution................................................................35
4.2.2. Comparison of the Hybrid System with the National Grid....................................37
4.3. Performance of System Components............................................................................38
4.3.1. Solar PV Performance............................................................................................38
4.3.2. Wind Turbine Performance....................................................................................38
4.3.3. Battery Performance...............................................................................................39
4.3.4. Converter Performance..........................................................................................41
4.4. Excess Energy Management.........................................................................................42
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS........................................45
5.1. Conclusion.....................................................................................................................45
5.2. Recommendations.........................................................................................................45
References...............................................................................................................................46

8
 TABLE OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Map of Gulu District showing all rural areas.............................................................2

Figure 2: Equivalent circuit of a Photovoltaic cell.....................................................................7

Figure 3: I-V and P-V characteristics curve...............................................................................9

Figure 4: I-V Characteristic Curve of a PV Cell with Different Losses....................................9

Figure 5: Bar Graph showing Monthly averages of GHI data and the Clearness Index for

Gulu District.............................................................................................................................19

Figure 6: The Monthly average wind speeds in Gulu District.................................................20

Figure 7: Floor Plan of a model 3 bedroom house...................................................................21

Figure 8: A graph showing the energy demand for a typical household over a 24 hour period.

..................................................................................................................................................22

Figure 9: System Architecture of Hybrid Power System.........................................................30

Figure 10: Graph of cumulative Cash Flow of the Current System and the Proposed System

of the Project Lifetime.............................................................................................................36

Figure 11: The hourly distribution of power production for solar PV per day........................38

Figure 12: Summary of the Simulation Result for Solar PV...................................................38

Figure 13: Hourly Performance of the Wind Turbine within a Year.......................................39

Figure 14: Graph showing the monthly energy contribution of the Solar PV and Wind

Turbine (G3).............................................................................................................................43

Figure 15: Graph showing the occurrence of Excess energy in kW versus days of the year.. 43

9
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Table showing the monthly average of GHI and Clearness Index for Gulu District.18

Table 2: Table showing the monthly average wind speeds in Gulu District...........................20

Table 3: Table showing the Energy consumption of each appliance within a 24hour period. 22

Table 4: Technical and economic specification for the components of proposed hybrid energy

system.......................................................................................................................................29

Table 5: Optimization Table for System architecture showing category winners...................35

Table 6: Table showing a summary of the economic analysis of the proposed system...........36

Table 7: Summary of Simulation Results for Wind Turbine...................................................39

Table 8: Electrical Energy Production.....................................................................................42

Table 9: Electrical Energy Balance..........................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

10
 LIST OF NOTATIONS

AC Alternating Current

COE Cost of Energy

DC Direct Current

HAWT Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine

ICC Initial Capital Cost

LCOE Levelized Cost of Energy

MPPT Multiple Power Point Tracking

NPC Net Present Cost

O&M Operation and Maintenance Cost

PMW Pulse Width Module

PV Photovoltaic

11
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background

Gulu District, located in Northern Uganda, suffers from a significant energy deficit,

with approximately 95% of households lacking access to electricity (Oyedepo, 2013). The

current energy supply is primarily based on fossil fuels, which contribute to greenhouse gas

emissions and other negative environmental impacts (Ministry of Energy and Mineral

Development, 2017). Additionally, the existing centralized power grid is often unreliable,

with frequent power outages that affect the community's economic and social activities.

There is a growing admiration for renewable energy sources as a substitute to unreliable,

expensive and environmentally unfriendly conventional energy sources including,

hydroelectricity and biomass (Nebey, 2021). The current renewable energy technologies, that

is Solar PV and wind turbine, have unique characteristics and generate energy in different

weather conditions. However, standalone solar PV and wind power systems have limitations

and intermittency issues, which can be addressed by combining them in a hybrid system. The

development of solar PV and wind hybrid energy system provides a sustainable and reliable

source of electricity for households while reducing dependence on fossil fuels. However, the

design and simulation of such a system tailored to the unique energy demands and resource

availability in Gulu District have not yet been explored. Therefore, there is a need for a

comprehensive study to design, optimize and simulate a standalone PV/wind hybrid energy

system for Gulu District to provide a sustainable and reliable source of electricity for the

community while reducing dependence on fossil fuels.

1
 1.2. The Study Location

The study targeted rural areas of Gulu District in Northern Uganda. Gulu District has

an altitude of 1100m above sea level and has geographical coordinates defined as: latitude 2 o

46.34’ N and longitude 32o 17.28’ E. Like the majority of rural areas in the country, the major

economic activities undertaken in rural areas of Gulu District include, but not limited to,

small-scale agriculture and stone quarrying. Most rural areas in Gulu District are

characterized by sparse population distribution. Many households are located next to or

surrounded by open land, which stretches to at least 5 acres, reserved for agriculture.

Figure 1: Map of Gulu District showing all rural areas.

2
 1.3. Problem Statement

In spite of the abundant renewable energy resources in Uganda, the vast majority of

the population still have no access to electricity or power. Only 40% of the population have

access to electricity owing to the limited grid (World Bank, 2020). The extension of the

transmission lines to certain rural communities is challenging due to geographical and

economic constraints. The high electricity tariffs and connection charges are some of the

primary reasons for the low consumption of grid electricity (International Energy Agency,

2020). In a bid to attain reliable electricity, some rural populace in Uganda have adopted a

number of renewable energy technologies, particularly wind turbines, solar PV modules.

However, the adopted standalone solar PV and wind turbine renewable energy systems not

only have low efficiencies but are also affected by weather conditions and temperature

fluctuations. Furthermore, the standalone systems often collapse under load fluctuations.

From this perspective, a hybrid energy system is better suited to handle larger load variations

and it is far more reliable than standalone systems.

1.4. Justification

Hybrid energy systems are the most cost effective mean of electricity generation for rural

remote areas compared to standalone solar PV and wind power systems (Bahta, 2013).

Whereas the solar PV works only during the day, wind turbines can generate power both day

and night provided the wind energy resources are available in sufficient quantities. A solar

PV and wind hybrid renewable energy system harnesses more useful energy from solar

irradiation and wind resources to meet the energy demand of households in rural areas than

standalone systems. This is because they can complement each other to generate reliable

electricity all year round. As such, the study of the design and simulation of a solar PV and

wind hybrid energy system for Gulu District is justified by the need to meet energy demand

3
in rural areas in Gulu District with an all-year-round reliable and cost effective power supply

system.

1.5. Objectives

1.5.1. Main Objective

The main objective of this study is to design and simulate a solar PV and wind hybrid

energy system to increase availability of reliable and cost-effective power supply to

households in rural areas in Gulu District

1.5.2. Specific Objectives

1. To design the solar PV and wind hybrid renewable energy system using the weather

conditions of Gulu District.

2. To simulate the performance of a solar PV and wind hybrid renewable energy system.

3. To evaluate the economic feasibility of the system.

4
 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

Solar photovoltaic (PV) and wind power are two of the most popular sources of

renewable energy (Østergaard, Duic, Noorollahi, Mikulcic & Kalogirou, 2020). The design

and optimization of such hybrid renewable energy systems can be achieved through manual

design procedures as well as different software applications. Over 200,000 engineers and

researchers worldwide have used the HOMER Pro Software to produce economic feasibility

studies, system design, engineering insight, and energy cost savings (Homer Energy LLC,

2021). This literature review aims to provide an overview of the current state of knowledge

on the design parameters of solar and wind system components and the simulation solar PV

and wind hybrid renewable energy power system using Homer Pro software.

2.1. Design of System components

2.1.1. Mathematical modelling of Solar Panels

Solar panels are used to capture the sun's energy and convert it into electricity.

According to Engin (2013), a solar PV module is composed of several p-n diodes (solar cells)

connected in series and parallel to obtain the desired current and voltage output levels.

Similarly, Bahta (2013) asserts that PV solar cells are made from silicon and form the

fundamental building blocks of a solar panel. This implies that the electricity generation

capability of a solar panel is not only dependent on the sunlight intensity of the location but

also the size of the PV cells and their conversion efficiency. An individual PV solar cell can

produce about 1W power and a voltage ranging from 0.5V to 0.6V and must be connected in

series with other PV cells to form a PV module for a sufficient output voltage (Swapnil,

Sandhu & Tiwari, 2009). Notably, PV systems are usually designed to function at multiples

of 12V (Atluri, Hananya & Navothna, 2018). As such, modules are connected together to

form arrays which may be connected in series to produce higher voltages or in parallel for

higher currents.

5
 In recent years, there has been significant advances in solar panel technology,

resulting in increased efficiency and decreased costs (Kharchenko, Gusarov & Bolshev,

2019). The efficiency of a solar panel is determined by the quality of the materials used, the

design of the panel as well as the angle and orientation at which it is installed (Atluri,

Hananya & Navothna, 2018). It is worth noting that solar panels should be installed at an

angle that is equal to the latitude of the location for maximum sunlight reception throughout

the day. Another important consideration when installing solar panels is shading (Iskandar,

Zainal & Sambasri, 2018). Even a small amount of shading can significantly reduce the

efficiency of a solar panel. Therefore, it is important to install solar panels in an area that

receives maximum sunlight, with minimal shading from trees or other obstructions.

When modelling solar panels, it is important to take into consideration the two distinct

parameters specified by the manufacturer, that is, the short circuit current and open circuit

voltage. Furthermore, solar panels have I-V and P-V characteristic curves with three

fundamental factors to consider such as short-circuit current, the open circuit voltage and the

maximum power point. According to Patel (2005), the I-V characteristic curve of PV cells

shows that the diode current, shunt resistance, shunt leakage current and the current generated

are connected in parallel and are also in series through the internal resistance developed in the

circuit when the system is in operation. It is worth noting that the yield efficiency of a PV

panel is greatly affected by a small change in the internal resistance developed in the cell

(Iskandar et al. 2019). Furthermore, the output voltage of the system is not affected by the

shunt resistance.

6
Figure 2: Equivalent circuit of a Photovoltaic cell

From the equivalent circuit diagram above, the different parameters of a photovoltaic

cell can be surmised in the following mathematically expression (Bernal-Agustín, Dufo-

López, 2009):

I =I S−I D−I SH ………………………………………………………………… (2-1)

Where I is the PV output current, ID is the Diode current, ISH is the Shunt-leakage current and

IS is the solar generated current.

Alternatively, Iskandar, Zainal and Sambasri (2018) posit that the output current of

the cell can be determined using these equations:

[ ]
Q . V oc
V oc
I =I D −I o e K .T
−1 − …………………………………………………… (2-2)
RSH

Where Io is the Reverse saturation current of diode [A], Q is the Electron charge [C], K is

Boltzmann's constant [J/k], VD is the Voltage of the diode [V], T is the Cell junction point

temperature [k] and VOC is the Cell open circuit voltage [V]

V oc
During operation of the PV cell, the shunt current ( ) is negligible since it is so
R SH

small compared to the solar generated and diode currents. In such a model, the temperature

variations of the cell are considered to be constant. Moreover, the open circuit voltage and the

diode current can be obtained from equation 1 and 2, respectively (Bahta, 2013):

7
 V OC =V + I . R SH ………………………………………………………..……..… (2-3)

[ ]
QV D

I D =I o e KT
−1 ………………………………………………………..…….… (2-4)

When the open circuit voltage is set to zero, the short circuit current of the PV cell is

determined. In this instance, the magnitudes of the short circuit and solar generated currents

do not change. Since, the diode saturation current (Io) varies with change in temperature, it

can be determined using the following equation (Iskandar et al. 2019):

I
SC
I= Q .V oc ……………………………………………………………….…….… (2-
e −1

5)

When the short current of the module is known, the cell current can be obtained at any

solar irradiance using the equation (Iskandar, Zainal & Sambasri, 2018):

I SC = ( GG ) I
o
SC , Go …………………………………………………………..…….… (2-6)

Where ISC is the short circuit current [A], G is the Solar irradiance [W/m 2] ISC,Go is the Short

circuit current at standard test condition [A] and G O is the Solar irradiance at standard test

condition [1000W/m2].

When the output current is set to zero, the open circuit voltage is determined

(Kharchenko, Gusarov & Bolshev, 2019).

AKT IS
V oc = log [( ¿ )+1]¿ ………………………………………………………… (2-
Q Io

7)

The parameter used to measure the efficiency of a PV cell is referred to as the Fill

factor (Rajan & Fernandez, 2019). This implies that the most efficient PV must have the

highest fill factor, short circuit current and open circuit voltage. The fill factor is influenced

by the design and technology of the solar panel (Gelma, 2011). Any change in the fill factor

cause a significant change in the yield power.in other words, a decrease in fill factor reduces

8
the maximum current or maximum voltage of the system. The output power of PV can be

obtained from using the following equation:

Pmp=I mp ×V mp ……………………………………………….………………… (2-8)

V 0 c × I sc
FF= …………………………………………………….………………… (2-
P mp

9)

Where Vmp is the PV maximum potential voltage, І mp is the PV panels maximum current, Ρ mp

is the PV panel’s maximum power and FF is the Fill factor.

The PV power output can also be determined using the inputs such as, incident solar

radiation data, and the environmental temperature at the site of interest, and the PV module

data supplied by the manufacturers using the following equations (Iskandar et al. 2019):

V mp=V mp .ref × Pv , oc ( T c −T c , ref )………………………………..………….… (2-10)

I mp=I mp .ref × I sc , ref ( T c −T c ,ref )………………………………...………..… (2-11)

Where Vmp.ref is the Potential voltage at standard condition, Ρ V, OC is the Open circuit

temperature coefficient, Іmp,ref is the PV panels maximum current at standard conditions, І sc,ref

is the PV panels short circuit current at standard condition and Τ C is the Cell operational

temperature while ΤC,ref is the Cell temperature at standard conditions.

Graphical illustration of a typical PV module showing its I-V and P-V characteristics curve

(figure 3) and I-V Characteristic Curve of a PV Cell with different losses (figure 4) resulting

from uniform soiling (series losses and shunt losses) and non-uniform shadings of the solar

PV system (mismatch losses).

9
 Figure 3: I-V and P-V characteristics curve Figure 4: I-V Characteristic Curve of a PV Cell

(Bahta, 2013). with Different Losses (Bahta, 2013).

It is important to determine the optimal power generation characteristics when

designing a PV array. This is done using the following equation:

P pv =η g N A m Gt ……………………………………………………………..… (2-12)

Where Ρpv is the Solar PV power output, ηg is the Generator efficiency, Αm is the Area of

single module, Gt is the Global radiation and N is the number of modules assembled in the

system.

The solar photovoltaic generator efficiency (η) can be calculated using the following equation

(Atluri, Hananya & Navothna, 2018):

η g=η r × η pt [ 1−β t ( T c −T r ) ]……………………………………………..… (2-13)

Where ηr is the Reference efficiency, ηpt is the tracking system efficiency, Τ c is the PV cell

temperature, Τr is the PV cell reference temperature (K), βt is the Temperature coefficient

efficiency ranging from for silicon cells (K).

Bahta (2013) asserts that the PV cell temperature can be determined using the following

equations:

10
 T c =T a+ Gt
( )
τα
U1
……………………………………………………………..… (2-14)

( )
τα
U1
=
NOCT −20
800
…………………………………………………………...…..… (2-

15)

Where Τa is the Site ambient temperature (K), U 1 is the Overall heat loss (W/m 2) τ is the

photovoltaic transmittance coefficient and α is the photovoltaic absorbance coefficient while

ηpt, βt, NOCT, Αm are parameters of the module type provided by the solar module

manufacturers.

2.1.2. Mathematical Modelling of Wind Turbines

Wind turbines are another important component of standalone renewable energy

systems (Khaing, Lwin, & Lwin, 2019). Like solar panels, the efficiency of wind turbines is

determined by the quality of the materials used, as well as the design of the turbine

(Kharchenko, Gusarov & Bolshev, 2019). One of the key factors affecting the efficiency of

wind turbines is the height at which they are installed. Wind turbines should be installed at a

height that is equal to or greater than the height of surrounding obstructions, such as trees or

buildings (Gebrehiwot, Mondal, Ringler & Gebremeskel, 2019). This allows the turbine to

capture maximum wind energy. Besides, the strength of wind that is available at the location

should be considered prior to installing a wind turbine. Wind speed and direction can vary

significantly depending on the location, and it is important to choose a location with

sufficient wind resources to generate the desired amount of electricity (Khaing, Lwin, &

Lwin, 2019).

The quantity of power generated from a wind turbine increases from the minimum

wind speed (cut-in speed) to the maximum wind speed (cut-off speed) where the speed or

power control mechanism stop the turbine from producing power (Rajan, R. & Fernandez,

2019). This is achieved either by a pitch control mechanism or a stall regulation mechanism

11
depending on the design of the wind turbine. The current wind turbine technologies are

identifiable by their aerodynamic drag and lift forces (Gajewski & Pie´nkowski, 2021). The

wind turbines that use the aerodynamic lift force are categorized into horizontal axis and

vertical axis machines. The output power of a wind turbine is a function of its power

coefficient provided that the air density, swept area and wind speed are assumed constant

(Patel, 2005). Mostofi and Shayeghi (2012) asserts that wind turbines are often characterized

by their power coefficient (Cp) – Tip speed ratio (TSR) characteristic and the TSR is

calculated using the formula below.

ωR
TSR= ……………………………………………………………………..… (2-16)
v

Where ω is the mechanical angular speed, R is the turbine radius and v is the wind speed.

According to Hosseinalizadeh et al. (2016), the quantification of the energy generated

by a wind energy conversion device is determined by the equation:

1 3
P= × C p × ρ × A × v ……………………………………………………..… (2-17)
2

Where P is the energy generated in W, C p is the dimensionless power coefficient of the wind

turbine, ρ is the air density in kg/m3, A represents the swept area of the rotor blade measured

in m2, and v is the wind velocity at a specified anemometer height measured in m/s.

The power coefficient is maximum at the optimum tip speed ratio (TSR opt). This

implies that the wind turbine will operate at its optimum efficiency and capture the maximum

available power in the wind. However, the Betz limit asserts that the rotor efficiency has a

theoretical maximum of 59.3% (Oladigbolu, Ramli & Al-Turki, 2019). The power coefficient

conforms to Betz limits and it can be calculated from the equation (Zhang, Yang & Liu,

2021):

maximum power extracted

C p= …………………………………………..… (2-18)
power available∈the wind

12
 The variations of the mechanical efficiency (due to the gearbox) and the generator

efficiency (to cater for generator losses) also affects the quantity of electrical power produced

(Gebrehiwot et al. 2019), which brings the final equation for the electrical power (Pel)

generated by the wind turbine to:

1 3
Pel = ×C p × ρ× A × v × ηm × η g………………………………………… (2-19)
2

2.1.3. Mathematical Modelling of Batteries

There are several types of batteries that can be used in standalone renewable energy

systems, including lead-acid, lithium-ion, and nickel-cadmium batteries (Østergaard et al.

2020). Each type of battery has its own advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of

battery will depend on the specific needs of the system. One of the key factors affecting the

performance of batteries is temperature (Oladigbolu, Ramli & Al-Turki, 2019). Batteries

operate most efficiently at moderate temperatures, typically between 20 and 30 degrees

Celsius (Mostofi & Shayeghi, 2012).

According to Kanase-Patil et al. (2011), the size of the battery bank for a hybrid

renewable energy system depends not only on the required energy consumption but also the

maximum discharge rate and the minimum temperature at which they will be used. The

commonly used batteries in renewable energy systems, particularly solar PV, are deep cycle

motive type (Gebrehiwot et al. 2019). This is because they operate within specified limits,

withstand several charge and discharge cycles, and exist in low self-discharge rate. The

battery capacity is determined from the equation (Mostofi & Shayeghi, 2012):

W
BC=2 × F × ……….…………………………………………………..… (2-20)
V batt

Where BC is the battery capacity, F is the factor for reserve, W is the Daily energy and Vbatt is

the System DC voltage.

13
 The Battery Storage System is the most sensitive among all the components used in

the design of energy systems (Oladigbolu, Ramli & Al-Turki, 2019). At any instant,

depending on whether power is being drawn or supplied to the battery, its state of charge

alternates between t and t – 1. Kanase-Patil et al. (2011) deduced that the available electric

power in the battery storage system can be determined through the mathematical model:

E Batt (t)=E Batt (t−1)+ E EE (t)× ηCC ×ηCHG …………………………..… (2-21)

Where EBatt (t) is the stored energy, EEE (t) is the excess energy resulting from all the systems,

ηCC is the charge controller efficiency, and η CHG is the efficiency associated with battery

charging.

2.1.4. Mathematical modelling of Charge Controllers

Charge controllers are used to regulate the flow of electricity between the solar

panels, wind turbines, and batteries. According to Oladigbolu, Ramli and Al-Turki (2019),

charge controllers are essential components of standalone renewable energy systems, as they

prevent the batteries from overcharging or discharging. There are two types of charge

controllers: PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) and MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracking).

PWM controllers are less expensive but less efficient than MPPT controllers (Gebrehiwot et

al. 2019). MPPT controllers can increase the efficiency of the system by up to 30%, as they

can optimize the power output of the solar panels or wind turbines (Assaf & Shabani, 2019).

To size the charge controller, the first step involves calculating the number of solar PV panels

in series and the number of strings. The charging current of the charge controller is therefore

obtained from the equation (Zhang, Yang & Liu, 2021):

I CC=I SC × N S × 1.3…………………………...……………………………..… (2-22)

Where ICC is the charging current, NS is the number of strings of solar PV and 1.3 is the factor

of safety.

14
2.1.5. Mathematical modelling of Converters

For hybrid energy systems, bi-directional DC/AC or AC/DC are used. This implies

that the converter works as both a rectifier and an inverter. Inverters are used to convert the

DC electricity produced by the solar panels and wind turbines into AC electricity that can be

used to power household appliances (Østergaard et al. 2020). There are two types of

inverters: pure sine wave inverters and modified sine wave inverters. Pure sine wave inverters

are more expensive than modified sine wave inverters, but they produce a cleaner, more

stable output that is better for sensitive electronics such as computers and televisions (Riahi

& Shafie-khah, 2020). In order to calculate the size of an inverter, it is important to determine

the total energy load that are likely to function at the same time (Mostofi & Shayeghi, 2012).

E PVG−¿(t )=E PVG (t ) ×η INV …………………………...……………………..… (2-23)

E BAT −INV (t )=
[ η INV × η DCHG]
E BAT (t−1)−E LOAD (t )
……………………………...……………..… (2-24)

Where EPVG-IN(t) is the Energy output from inverter, E PVG(t) is the Energy output from PV

generator, E BAT-INV(t) is the Energy output from battery, E LOAD(t) is the Energy consumed by

the load side and E BAT(t-1) is Energy stored in battery at t-1 ( all in kWh) while η INV and η DCHG

are the Inverter efficiency and Battery discharging efficiency, respectively.

On the other hand, the rectifier converts the excess AC power from the wind

generator to DC to charge the battery and can be modelled using the following equations 2-25

and 2-26 (Zhang, Yang & Liu, 2021).

E REC −OUT(t )=E REC −¿(t ) × η REC ……………………………………………… (2-25)

E REC −¿(t )=E SUR− AC(t )……………………………………………………..… (2-26)

At any instant, the surplus AC power can be determined using the equation (Belmili,

Haddadi, Bacha & Fayçal, 2014):

E SUR− AC =EWEG (t )−E LOAD (t )……………………………………………..… (2-27)

15
Where EREC-OUT(t) is the Energy output per hour from rectifier, E REC-IN(t) is the Energy input per

hour to rectifier, ESUR-AC(t) is the Excess energy from AC sources, E WEG(t) is the Energy

generated per hour by wind generator and ELOAD(t) is the Hourly energy consumed by the load

side (all in kWh) and ηREC is the Rectifier efficiency.

2.2.0. Operation of a Solar PV and Wind Hybrid System

Solar PV and wind hybrid energy system consists of PV arrays and wind turbines that

generate energy for the load (Belmili, Haddadi, Bacha & Fayçal, 2014). The installed battery

stores excess energy, which is used to supply the load when the generated energy is not

sufficient for the load (Mostofi & Shayeghi, 2012). The charge controllers are used to prevent

over-discharge and excessive discharge (Shiroudi et al. 2012). This implies that the charge

controllers keep battery voltage within specific voltage window by disconnecting the PV

array and wind generator from the system when the current generated is greater than that

required by the load and when the DC bus voltage increases above V max-off. They are re-

connected when DC bus voltage decreases below Vmax-on (Gebrehiwot et al. 2019). Similarly,

the charge controller protects the battery against excessive discharging by disconnecting the

load when the current generated by the PV array and wind generator is less than that required

by the load and when the DC bus voltage falls below V min-off (Zhang, Yang & Liu, 2021). The

load is re-connected when DC bus voltage increases above V min-on. The inverter converts

generated energy from DC to AC for an AC load (Gebrehiwot et al. 2019).

2.3. Cases Studies on Simulations

Nandi and Gosh (2010) explored the economics of using a solar PV and wind hybrid

power system at Sitakunda in Bangladesh for a community with a typical load of

169kWh/day. The study showed that the system had the potential to mitigate about 25t CO 2 /

year and is economically feasible for communities over 17km from the grid. On the other

16
hand, Gelma (2011) designed and simulated a solar PV and wind hybrid energy system to

meet the electricity demand for an elementary school, health clinic and a model community

of a hundred households. The optimal result obtained consisted of a solar PV, wind turbine,

diesel generator and battery. The configuration had a renewable fraction of 84% and a total

NPC of $103,914 and COE of 0.302 $/kWh.

Tshering and Urmee (2012) evaluated the various combinations of an off-grid hybrid

energy system to supply power for lighting and communication services in four different

rural villages in the Kingdom of Bhutan. The most cost effective results after the optimization

of hybrid energy generating units were solar PV for Gasa and Lunana, diesel generator and

PV for Getena areas and a wind turbine for the Yangtse site. On the other hand, Elhassan, et

al. (2012) described the design and simulation of an effective hybrid renewable energy

system for households in Khartoum. The authors concluded that the cost of PV/wind hybrid

renewable energy system for a group of 10 to 25 households was cheaper than that of a

PV/battery system for individual households.

In a study conducted by Laidi et al. (2012), a solar PV/wind/battery hybrid system

was designed and optimized using Homer Pro software. The system was modelled based on

the energy demand of a rural area in Sahara region in Algeria. The study evaluated the effect

of different design parameters, such as PV and wind turbine capacity, battery size, and tilt

angle, on the system's performance. The results showed that the optimal configuration for the

system was a combination of a 1.4 kW wind turbine, a 1 kW PV array, and a 125 Ah battery

storage capacity. The study reported a COE of 0.533 US$/kWh and annual Green House Gas

(GHG) reduction of 7.46 tons.

Shiroudi et al. (2012) used Homer Pro software to optimize a hybrid renewable

energy system for a portable Police Station in Teleghan – Iran. The system included a 0.8 kW

wind turbine, a 0.8kW PV array, 2.5 kW inverter, and 8 batteries (200 Ah and 12 V). The

17
study evaluated the system's performance under different weather conditions and found that

the system could provide a reliable power supply for the station. The COE was 1.655

US$/kWh while the net present costs and initial capital required were US$ 24623 and US$

22998, respectively. On the other hand, Ma, Yang and Lu (2014) conducted a feasibility

study on a stand-alone hybrid renewable energy system on an island with a daily load of 250

kWh/day using HOMER Pro software. The optimal system configuration comprised of 145

kW PV array, 2 units of 10.4 kW Wind turbine and a battery bank of 706 kWh with 6 units of

30 kW converter.

Each of the studies used in this literature review is unique in their own way. The

studies were conducted in different regions around the world with varying climatic and

environmental conditions. The optimal configuration of the hybrid renewable energy system

in each study is undeniably different. The energy demands of the load being served by the

hybrid renewable energy system were also different in each study. Some studies focused on

residential buildings, while others considered commercial buildings or rural communities.

The energy demands of these different loads vary widely, which means that the optimal

system configuration is also different. The differences between these studies highlight the

importance of conducting location-specific and load-specific analyses when designing hybrid

renewable energy systems. It is essential to take into account the local energy resources, load

requirements, and economic conditions to determine the optimal configuration of the system.

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

3.1. Design of the Solar PV-Wind Hybrid Energy System

18
3.1.1. Review of Climatic Data

In order to design a solar PV/wind hybrid renewable system, the study considered all

the factors that affect the various components of the system: wind speed and solar Global

Horizontal Irradiance (GHI) of the local area.

3.1.1.1. Global Horizontal Irradiance Data

The solar radiation resource for Gulu District was obtained from the National Aeronautics

and Space Administrative (NASA) Prediction of Worldwide Energy Resource (POWER)

database at cellMidpointLatitude 2.75 and cellMidpointLongitude 32.25. This provided

monthly averages for global horizon radiation over a 22-year period between July 1983 and

Jun 2005.

Table 1: Table showing the monthly average of GHI and Clearness Index for Gulu

District

Month Clearness Index Daily Radiation (kWh/m2/day)

Jan 0.633 6.18
Feb 0.632 6.44
Mar 0.583 6.1
Apr 0.553 5.71
May 0.551 5.45
Jun 0.529 5.08
Jul 0.519 5.03
Aug 0.527 5.31
Sep 0.572 5.92
Oct 0.552 5.64
Nov 0.568 5.58
Dec 0.615 5.89

19
Figure 5: Bar Graph showing Monthly averages of GHI data and the Clearness Index for

Gulu District

From the Figure 5, the monthly average solar source potential is highest in the

February with a value of 6.440 kWh/m2/day and a clearness index of 0.632. On the other

hand, July has the lowest daily radiation with a value of 5.030 kWh/m 2/day and the lowest

clearness index of 0.519 of all the months. January has the highest clearness index and the

second highest daily radiation value. Furthermore, the annual average of the daily radiation is

5.690 kWh/m2/day. Moreover, the clearness index varies 0.519 to 0.633, which is high

enough for most solar panels to generate considerable power all year round. Based on the

graph, it is clear that the solar resource in Gulu District is abundant enough to provide

substantial amount of electricity from solar PV panels.

3.1.1.2. Wind Resource Data

The Wind resources for Gulu District was obtained from the National Aeronautics and

Space Administrative (NASA) Prediction of Worldwide Energy Resource (POWER)

database at cellMidpointLatitude 2.75 and cellMidpointLongitude 32.25. This provided

monthly averages for global horizon radiation over a 22-year period between July 1983 and

Jun 2005. The monthly average wind speed from the database was measured at anemometer

20
height of 10m above the earth’s surface over a 29-year period from January 1984 to

December 2013 (Belmili, Haddadi, Bacha & Fayçal, 2014).

Table 2: Table showing the monthly average wind speeds in Gulu District

Month Average Wind Speed (m/s)

Jan 5.42
Feb 5.37
Mar 4.78
Apr 3.94
May 3.04
Jun 2.67
Jul 2.55
Aug 2.62
Sep 2.87
Oct 3.17
Nov 4.35
Dec 5.37

Figure 6: The Monthly average wind speeds in Gulu District.

From the graph, it is evident that the wind resource in Gulu District varies seasonally.

Between the months of November to April, the monthly average wind speeds are typically

higher compared to that of May to October. The lowest monthly average wind speed is

2.55m/s and it occurs in the month of July. The highest monthly average wind speed is

5.42m/s and it occurs in the month of January. The annual average wind speed in the site

21
location is 3.85m/s. Since most HAWT have a cut-in speed of 3m/s, Gulu District has a

promising wind resource for wind power generation.

3.1.2. Electric Energy Demand

For simulation of small-scale energy systems, it is important to construct electric load

profiles for domestic use. However, such an undertaking is often complex since energy usage

at a household level is closely linked to lifestyle-related factors (Dorji, Urmee & Jennings,

2012). This implies that the actual energy usage patterns are subjective and difficult to

determine with precision. The electric energy demand of the household was therefore

estimated using the appliance usage method (Diemuodeke et al., 2019). The study considered

a 3 bedroomed house with 15 LED bulbs, a television, digital decoder, refrigerator, electric

fan and an electric stove and miscellaneous (phones and laptops).

Figure 7: Floor Plan of a model 3 bedroom house

The calculation of the energy consumed by each electrical appliance in the model 3

bedroomed house followed the equation (Diemuodeke et al., 2019):

EC =P× Q× t ………………………………………………………………...… (3-1)

22
Where EC is the Energy consumed by the load (Wh/day), P is the Power rating (w), Q is the

Number of appliance used and t is the hours used (h).

Table 3: Table showing the Energy consumption of each appliance within a 24 hour period.

Appliance Power rating Quantity Total Back Up Total Energy

(W) Power (W) Time (h) Demand (Wh)
Television 120 1 120 8 960

Digital Decoder 40 1 40 8 320

Refrigerator 150 1 150 18 2700

LED bulbs 10 15 150 6 900

Electric fan 50 1 50 3 150

Electric stove 1500 1 1500 4 6000

Miscellaneous 30 1 30 3 90

Total 2040 11120

From table 3, the model three bedroomed house was found to have an electric energy

demand of 11.12 kWh/day and a total instantaneous power value of 2.04 kW.

Figure 8: A graph showing the energy demand for a typical household over a 24 hour period.

23
 From figure 9, it is evident that the load profile varies throughout the course of the

day. The peak energy demand occurs between 06pm and 08pm when the sun is setting. This

inadvertently implies that the system to be designed must include an energy storage system or

another source of power to satisfy the load demand.

3.1.3. Design and Selection of System Components

When sizing the hybrid renewable energy system, a number of assumptions need to be

made. Factors that affect the efficiency of the whole system such as meteorological

uncertainty, the performance of charge and discharge cycles of the battery, Charger efficiency

and losses in cables and connections should be put into consideration (Krishan & Sathans,

2018).

3.1.3.1. Design and Selection of Solar PV Panels

For the design of the solar panel, the following general assumptions were made

include: battery efficiency, ηb = 0.9, inverter efficiency, ηv = 0.95 and controller efficiency, η c

= 0.9, average sunshine hours of the project location (H) is 10 hours. The power losses in the

system in cables, attachments and development currents are considered to be 30% (Belmili,

Haddadi, Bacha & Fayçal, 2014).

The Power required from solar PV, PPV, will be calculated from the equation;

Total Energy Requirement × 1.3

P Pv= …………………………...……...………...
systemefficiency × Sunshine hours

…. (3-2)

The number of solar panels, NPV, can be calculated from the formula:

P pv
N Pv = …………………………...…………………………………………... (3-3)
Pmax

Where Pmax is the maximum power rating of the chosen solar panel.

The total power required from the solar PV panels was determined by equation 3-2 as

follows:

24
 Total Energy Requirement × 1.3 11120 ×1.3
P Pv= = =1878.6Wh /day
systemefficiency × Sunshine hours 0.9× 0.95 ×0.9 ×10
Since a 400W solar panel is readily available on the local market, it was used to calculate the

number of solar panels required for the model three bedroomed house.

P pv 1878.6
N Pv = = =4.7 ≈ 5 panels
Pmax 400

From the above information, the appropriate panel make for the system was chosen. The

Panel is an M10 PERC Series 400W monocrystalline solar panel from Ocean Solar Co. Ltd.

The monocrystalline solar module was chosen not only for its impeccable aesthetics and

longevity but also for its higher power output and higher efficiency compared to Amorphous

Silicon and Polycrystalline silicon types. The manufacturer’s specifications of the solar panel

is summarized in the table below.

Module Type AOX-54M10HC400W (monocrystalline)

Maximum Power (Pmax/W) 400Wp
Voltage at Maximum Power (Vmp/V) 30.42V
Current at Maximum Power (Imp/A) 13.15A
Open Circuit Voltage (Voc/V) 36.98V
Short Circuit Current (Isc/A) 13.78A
Module Efficiency (%) 20.50%
Dimension 1755×1038×35mm

3.1.3.2. Design and Selection of a Wind turbine

The design parameters of a Wind turbine includes: Swept area, Power and power

coefficient, Tip Speed Ratio, blade chord, number of blades, solidity and initial angle of

attack.

The power extracted by the wind turbine, PW, was determined using the equation consistent

with the study by Oğuz & Özsoy (2017):

1 3
Pw = ηρA V …………………………………………………………………..… (3-2)
2

25
In the design of the wind turbine, a Horizontal Axis Wind turbine type with three blades was

considered because it has low cut-in speeds, high power coefficient, great stability and easy

curling (Patel, 2005). The following general assumptions were made; the HAWT has a

coefficient of performance, η = 0.4, capacity factor (Cp) = 0.3, transmission losses for rotor, φ

= 0.9, generator losses, ϕ = 0.9, hub height = 30m, number of operational hours per year, t =

8760h and the density of air was 1.225kg/m3. The average wind speed for the design of the

wind turbine at a hub height of 30m was calculated using the power law profile equation

(Daif, Daif, Belhamel, Haddadi & Louche, 2007):

( )
∝
h
V =V o ………………………………………………………………..…..… (3-3)
ho

Where V is wind speed at height, V 0 is the wind speed at hub height, h 0 and ∝ is the Friction

coefficient.

Since the annual average wind speed in the Gulu District at an anemometer height of

10m is too low (3.85m/s), the hub height has to be increased to about 30m above the ground.

The coefficient of friction for rural areas in Gulu District was taken as 0.2 since the land

scape is composed of mostly tall crops, shrubs and hedges (Oğuz & Özsoy, 2017). The design

wind velocity, V, is determined using the power law profile equation and the rotor radius and

Actual capacity rating of the HAWT is calculated.

( )
0.2
30
V =3.85 =4.8 m/¿s
10

The swept area of the wind turbine was determined using the following equations (Bernal-

Agustín, Dufo-López, 2009):

1 3
Power Density of wind turbine , WPD= ρ V …………………......….………. (3-4)
2

1 3 2
WPD= × 1.225 ×4.8 =67.74 W /m
2

26
 Actual Power Density , APD=WPD × η ×φ × ϕ….………………………..… (3-5)
2
APD=67.74 × 0.4 ×0.9 × 0.9=21.95 W /m

Annual Useful Energy Density , AUED= APD × t .. ………………………...….. (3-6)

2
AUED= APD × t=21.95× 8760=192,282 Wh /m

Pload ×365
Swept Area , A= …………………………….……………………...… (3-7)
AUED

Pload × 365 14306 ×365 2

A= = =27.16 m
AUED 192282

Since the swept area of a Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine is equal to the area of a circle,

therefore, the rotor radius was determined using the equation:

R=
√ A
π
. ………………………………………………………………….……..… (3-

8)

R=
√ 27.16
π
=2.94 m

After obtaining the rotor radius of the turbine, the actual capacity of the turbine was

calculated by dividing the outcome of the equation 3-2 by the capacity factor of the turbine.

The capacity of the turbine P=0.5× 1.225 × π × 2.942 × 4.83 × 0.4=0.736 kW

P R 0.736
Actual power rating of the turbine, P AR= = =2.45 ≈ 3 kW
Cp 0.3

The wind turbine to be selected should have the potential to contribute a significant

renewable fraction depending on the wind speed sources in the site location. Furthermore,

factors like the turbine rating, service time, cut-in speed, hub height and power curve were

put into consideration. The selected turbine was an Elege-A1 3kW wind turbine from Elege

Electronic Technology Co. Ltd. The choice of the wind turbine is consistent with the study by

27
Khaing, Lwin and Lwin (2019) that posits that the cut-in wind speed and the rated wind

speed for HAWT should be about 0.7 and 1.5 times the design wind speed, respectively.

3.1.3.3. Design and Selection of Converter

The Converter capacity, Pcon, was determined by the equation (Belmili, Haddadi, Bacha &

Fayçal, 2014):

total power required per day × factor of safety

Pcon= …………….………… (3-9)
converter efficiency

2040 ×1.25
Pcon= =2.83 kW
0.9

The selected converter needs to maintain flow of energy between AC and DC power system

components. The rated power of the inverter should always be larger than the peak load. As

such, a Leonics S-218Cp 3kW converter was chosen.

3.1.3.4. Design and Selection of Charge Controller

To protect the battery storage against over charge and deep discharge, the charge

controller component was included in the design process. The charge controller to be selected

must be able to handle the short-circuit current of the chosen solar panel. The solar panel

chosen has a short circuit current of 13.78A and a factor of safety of 1.3, therefore, the charge

controller capacity, CC, will be determine by the following equation:

C C =I sc × N pv ×factor of safety ………………………………………...…. (3-10)

C C =13.78 ×9 ×1.3=161.2 A

3.1.3.5. Design and Selection of Battery

To determine the battery capacity and number of batteries required, the depth of

discharge was taken as 80% and days of autonomy (back up days) as 2days.

Battery Capacity, BC, was determined using the equation (Oğuz & Özsoy, 2017):

28
 Total Energy Demand
BC = ……….………..……
Battery Voltage × Depth of Discharge × battery efficiency

(3-11)

11120
BC = =¿ 1363Ah
12× 0.8 ×0.85

required battery capacity × back up days

Number of batteries, N B=
Required Battery Ah

1363× 2
N B= =10.48 ≈ 11batteries
260

A Lead Acid Battery from the Rolls/Surrette 4000 Series was chosen for the study. The

battery has a nominal voltage of 12 V and an amperage of 260 Ah.

29
 3.2. Simulation of the Hybrid System

In this study, HOMER Pro software was chosen for the simulation of the hybrid

energy system. HOMER Pro is an efficient energy system design tool for modelling both off-

grid and grid-tied micro-power systems. The simulation phase involved the modelling of the

hourly performance of each component of the energy system to establish their technical and

economic capabilities throughout the year. The optimization phase of HOMER Pro utilized

energy balance calculations to rank all the possible system combinations needed to meet the

electrical load specified (Nebey, 2021). No sensitivity variables were included during the

simulation process. The energy system that satisfy the electrical load and has the lowest NPC

and COE was chosen.

3.2.1. System Inputs

HOMER Pro requires that the daily electric load demand input of 11.12kWh for a

household include an hourly electrical energy consumption. The loads were assumed to be

synthetic in nature; hence, only one month’s load profile was specified. Day-to-day

variability of 10% and time-step variability of 20% were specified to account for the

fluctuations of the load during the course of the day and year.

The electrical components used to simulate the hybrid renewable energy system, that

is solar PV, wind turbines, battery energy storage, converter and control input systems, were

obtained from the HOMER Pro Library and adjustments in the design specifications were

made when deemed necessary. However, the technical and economic characteristics of these

components were based on a thorough market survey online and through consultations within

the local market. The charge controller was not included as an independent component but as

an in-built part of the wind turbine and solar PV. The software considered the system to use

either Load Following or Cycle Charging dispatch strategy.

30
Table 4: Technical and economic specification for the components of designed hybrid energy

system

DESCRIPTION SPECIFICATION
PV MODULES (type and material) Mono-crystalline (PV)
Nominal power 400Wp
Voltage in maximum power point 30.42V
Short circuit current 13.78
Current at maximum power point 13.15
Module efficiency STC 20.5%
Capital cost $98
US$ Replacement cost $98
Operating and maintenance cost $5
Lifetime 30 years
WIND TURBINE Elege-A1 3kW (HAWT)
Rated Voltage 120V - 380V
Rotor diameter 6.4m
Blades 3 blades (aluminium alloy)
Start-up wind speed 3m/s (rated wind speed is 10m/s)
Rated power 350rpm
Generator type 3 phase permanent magnet AC
asynchronous generator
Capital cost $ 350
Replacement cost $350
Operating and maintenance cost $5
Lifetime 25 years
BATTERY BANK Rolls/Surrette 4000 Series (SurrS-260)
Nominal voltage 12 V
Maximum capacity 260Ah
Round trip efficiency 80%
Minimum state of charge (SOC) 40%
Maximum charge Current 80A
Capital cost $350
Replacement cost $350
Life expectancy 14 years
CONVERTER Leonics S-218Cp 3kw (Leon3)
Nominal 3kW
Max input voltage 240
Max input current 80A
Peak inverter efficiency 95%
AC Input frequency 49.8–50.2 Hz
Capital cost $200
Replacement cost $150
Lifetime 10 years

31
3.2.2. System Schematic

The architecture of the PV and wind hybrid renewable energy system for rural areas

in Gulu District consists of the electric load, PV system (PV), wind system (HAWT), battery

bank (Surr-260) and system converter (Leon3). The PV and HAWT component are the

central power generation components in this model. The PV component generates electrical

power while converter operates in the DC-AC mode. Similarly, the HAWT component

generates electrical power which is fed to the AC bus to supply the load. The battery bank

stores the excess energy through the AC-DC mode of the converter and satisfies the load

during times of deficit through the DC-AC mode of the converter. Through these, HOMER

Pro determined the optimal sizing of components to meet the energy demand for rural areas

in Gulu District.

Electric Load PV

HAWT

Leon3 SurrS-260

AC DC

Figure 9: System Architecture of Hybrid Power System.

32
 3.3. Economic Analysis

3.3.1. Software Economic Variables

For HOMER Pro to present the results of the simulation process, a number of

variables have to be specified within the economic input window. The economic input

parameters include: nominal discount rate, expected Inflation rate, project lifetime, system

fixed capital cost, system fixed operation and maintenance cost and capacity shortage

penalty. The nominal discount rate was set to 8% whereas the capital shortage penalty was set

to zero. The capital costs and operation and maintenance costs were considered as fixed

values. The annual real interest rate was taken as 5.9% and the expected inflation rate was set

to 2%. The solar PV and wind hybrid energy system was designed to last for 25 years while

generating enough power to meet the energy demand. The currency used in this design and

simulation was the US Dollars ($). Through these, the NPC and the LCOE of different

system configurations were obtained and the most cost-effective system in each category

selected.

33
3.3.1. Approximate National Grid Electricity Calculations

In this study, the target households are in rural areas within Gulu District. The

national grid is currently restricted to the areas within the urban setting. However, it is

important to compare the economics of the solar PV and wind hybrid energy system with that

of the national grid as supplied by UMEME for Cost Benefit Analysis.

If the same 3 bedroom house was connected to the grid, it could have to spend bills for

consuming electricity. The total cost of electricity if the model house was connected to the

grid can be calculated using the formula below (Fahim, Yassin, Da Silva & Amin, 2022):

Total Expenditure on Grid =ED × CU × L……………………………….…. (3-12)

Where COE is the cost of energy for the grid ($), E D is the daily Electricity Demand

(kWh), CU is the unit cost of electricity ($/kWh) and L is the project lifetime (months).

For low voltage single phase supplied at 240 volts for domestic consumers, the

Quarter two tariffs 2023 are presented below as approved by Electricity Regulatory

Authority.

Time of Use Cost (Ush/kWh)

First 15 kWh in a month 250
Units between 16-80 kWh 805
Units between 81-150 kWh 412
Units above 150kW kWh 805

From the table above, the Total Expenditure on grid electricity supplied by UMEME

for the lifetime of the project can be calculated using a modified version of equation 4-1 as

shown below:

TEG=L ∑ CU B i………………………………………………………………… (3-

13)

Where B is the number of units (kWh) and i = 1, 2, 3...

TEG=12 ×25 [ ( 15 ×250 ) + ( 64 ×805 ) + ( 69 × 412 ) +(185.6× 805) ]

34
 TEG = Ush. 69,931,800 ≈ $18,757.81

According Homer Energy LLC (2021), the LCOE or the unit cost of electricity can be

calculated from the equation;

Total Cost of Energy 18757.81

LCOE= = ≈ 0.185 $/kWh
Energy Consumption per year 25 ×11.12× 365

With the total expenditure on grid electricity for the project lifetime and the unit cost of

electricity, the economic analysis of the designed solar PV and wind hybrid energy system

was conducted.

35
 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The design and simulation of a solar PV-wind hybrid system incorporates the analysis

of meteorological data of the site location preceded by the manual design of the system

components. The design specifications obtained are used as guidelines in the selection of the

locally available system components in the market place. Among other factors, the choice of

the system components is largely dependent on its efficiency, lifetime, initial capital cost and

operational cost. The simulation process results into the optimization of the system

components to meet the electricity needs with minimal capacity shortage. However, the

hourly performance of each component for each time-step reveals the possibility of

occurrence on excess energy in the system. This section will cover

4.1. Manual Design Calculations Results

The manual design calculations suggests that the energy demand of 11.12 kWh can be

met with 1.9 kW solar PV, 3 kW turbine and 11 units of 12V, 260Ah batteries. The manual

calculations has several drawbacks since it is based on rough assumptions. The manual

calculation does not take into account the open circuit current, panel efficiency and other

critical variables which change with temperature and weather conditions. Similarly, the

general characteristics of wind turbine obtained through the manual design process may

deviate from that available in the market. It is important to check the manual calculations

with a software for accurate system component sizing of hybrid energy systems. Furthermore,

renewable energy systems involve intricate and interdependent components and software

tools allow for sophisticated modelling taking into account the various factors such as energy

generation, consumption, losses and system interactions. Consequently, HOMER Pro

software streamlines the design and optimization processes to generate accurate optimal

solutions that should be implemented.

36
 4.2. Economic Analysis of the Hybrid System

4.2.1. Economic Analysis of Optimal Solution

During the simulation and optimization stages, HOMER Pro calculates the results for

each hybrid energy system including the Net Present Cost, the Levelized Cost of Energy, the

Initial Capital Cost, renewable fraction, and operation and maintenance cost. The

optimization results are grouped into ‘categorized’ and ‘overall’ sections. The latter shows all

the feasible system configurations whereas the former displays only the category winners

based on their Net Present Costs. It is worth noting that the feasible solutions are ranked in

ascending order of the Net Present Cost from top to bottom. Although HOMER considers the

minimum Net Present Cost as the best indicator of the least costly system configuration, the

Levelized Cost of Energy is the best criterion for choosing the best plan to implement. The

cost of Energy refers to the average cost per kWh of each plan to supply the load demand.

In the model 3 bedroom house with an estimated energy demand of 11.12kW in Gulu

District, there are three possible system configurations involving solar PV and Wind power

with a renewable fraction (RF) of 100%. It can be a standalone solar PV system, a standalone

wind power system or a solar PV and wind hybrid energy system. HOMER Pro simulated

2,248 solutions of which 1036 were feasible and the remaining 1,212 were infeasible due to

the capacity shortage constraint. The results of HOMER Pro show that the overall cost

effective system configuration is the Solar PV and wind hybrid energy system using a cycle

charging strategy. The system had a NPC of $9,276 and a LCOE of $0.177 per year.

Table 5: Optimization Table for System architecture showing category winners.

Architecture Cost
HAWT PV Battery Converter NPC LCOE O&M ICC RF
(Units) (kW) (units) (kW) ($) ($/kWh) ($) ($) (%)
3 5.32 10 2.20 9276 0.177 257.91 5942 100
_ 6.46 10 3.5 1055 0.201 412.59 5223 100
7
28 _ 47 5.23 3859 0.736 938.95 26459 100
8

37
 From the above table, the electric demand of 11.12 kWh is met with 5.32 kW Solar

PV, 9.0 kW wind turbine and 10 batteries of 12V, 260Ah. The same energy demand can be

met with a standalone solar system of 6.46 kW PV and 10 units of 12V, 260Ah batteries or a

standalone wind power system consisting of 28 pieces of 3kW HAWT and 47 units of12V,

260Ah batteries. Both standalone energy systems have greater financial implications

compared to the solar PV and wind hybrid energy system. When the standalone solar PV

system is considered as the base system, the simulation results show that the proposed

system, solar PV and wind hybrid energy system, is cheaper with a simple payback period of

7.21 years.

Table 6: Table showing a summary of the economic analysis of the proposed system against

the base system.

Simulation Result Value

Simple payback: 7.21 yr
Return on Investment: 17.5 %
Internal Rate of Return: 18.3 %
Net Present Value: $1,281
Capital Investment: $718.70
Annualized Savings: $154.68

The cumulative cash flow of the solar PV and wind hybrid energy system is presented

in the figure below.

38
Figure 10: Graph of cumulative Cash Flow of the hybrid system 25 years.

From the cumulative cash flow above, the capital expenditure for the whole system at

the point of implementation is $5942. The battery is replaced on the 11 th and 23nd year of the

project while the converter is replaced on the 19 th year. The operation and maintenance cost

of the system is $257.91 per year. The salvage value of the system is about $4000 at the end

of the project lifetime.

4.2.2. Comparison of the Hybrid System with the National Grid

Table 7: The comparison of the proposed hybrid system with the National Grid.

Category Hybrid System National Grid

NPC ($) 9276 18,757.81

LCOE ($/kWh) 0.177 0.185

O&M ($) 257.91 _

The NPC for the national grid electricity table 7 does not include the monthly charges

levied on the average consumer for operation and maintenance of the grid and tax. The value

obtained is not fixed and it is subject to changes due to inflation, quarter tariff changes and

other political and economic factors. Furthermore, the value obtained does not put into

account the cost of grid extension, connection fees and other costs incurred due to power

39
irregularities. The total profit realized by choosing a solar PV and wind hybrid energy system

over a utility grid connection throughout the whole project life is $ 9481.81. Furthermore, the

LCOE of a solar PV and wind hybrid energy system is lower than that of the national grid

electricity. From this perspective, it is evident that the solar PV and wind hybrid energy

system is a cheaper alternative to meeting the rural electric demand in Gulu District than the

national grid.

40
 4.3. Performance of System Components

4.3.1. Solar PV Performance

The PV component has a nominal capacity of 5.32 kW and an annual energy

production is 9,416 kWh/yr. Peak energy production hours occur between 11am to 4pm for

most days of the year, where the solar panel generate up to 6kW. However, there is little

energy production on some days of the year especially around day 210.

Figure 11: The hourly distribution of power production for solar PV per day

Simulation Result Value

Rated Capacity 5.32 kW
Capital Cost $1,304
Specific Yield 1,769 kWh/kW
PV Penetration 232 %
Total Production 9,416 kW
Maintenance Cost 66.5 $/yr
LCOE 0.0178 $/kWh
Figure 12: Summary of the Simulation Result for Solar PV

The solar panel is expected to work for about 10 hours per day. It has an actual total

production of 9,416 kW per year. The expected total production is 19,418kW. This can be

attributed to seasonal variations and low clearness index on some days.

4.3.2. Wind Turbine Performance

Power output from the Generic wind turbine system, rated at 9.00 kW, is 5,748

kWh/yr. Unlike the solar panel, the wind turbine is designed to work for 8760 hours a day.

However, given the low wind speeds in Gulu District, the Generic Wind turbine used for the

simulation attained maximum power production between day 1 and day 100 and between day

41
330 and day 365. It is worth noting that the turbine generated moderate amounts of power in

short bursts between day 120 and day 300.

Table 8: Summary of Simulation Results for Wind Turbine

Quantity 3
Rated Capacity 9.00 kW
Wind Turbine Total Production 5,748 kWh/yr
Capital Cost $1,050
Wind Turbine Lifetime 20.0 years
Hours of Operation 5,703 hrs/yr
Maintenance Cost 15.0 $/yr

Figure 13: Hourly Performance of the Wind Turbine within a Year

Table 7 below, shows that the three wind turbines only operate for 65.1% of the

expected 8760 hours. Consequently, the wind turbines produce far much less power than

anticipated.

4.3.3. Battery Performance

The 12V Rolls/Surrette storage system's nominal capacity is 260Ah. The annual

throughput is 1,490 kWh/yr. Since the manufacturers’ expected life of the battery is 14 years,

the battery system is not functioning optimally. This is because the primary AC load drains

the battery more than it draws directly from the solar PV and wind turbine. The high annual

throughput of the battery contributes to the significant reduction in its lifetime. Thus, the

battery needs to be replaced twice during the project lifetime.

42
Table 9: Simulation results for Battery Performance.

Simulation Results Values

Rated Capacity 260Ah, 12V
Annual Throughput 1,490 kWh/yr
Losses 333 kWh/yr
Expected Life 11.4 yr
Capital Costs $3,500
Autonomy 40.4 hr

Figure 14: Graph showing the hourly performance of Battery in a year.

From the graph, the battery is nearly 100% charged all the time between day 300 to

day 365 and between day 1 and day 90. Between day 90 and day 300, the battery only

reaches complete charge at between midday and 6pm. This is because the wind resource and

solar irradiation reduce during this period, which is the wet season. Around day 145, 175 and

215, the battery charge drops to 40%, which is unable to supply the load. As such, almost all

the energy generated during such days are used to supply the load. It is notable that the

battery is fully charged between 8am and 6pm for most days. This is because of the

complementary effect of the solar PV and wind energy component of the hybrid system

during these hours. On the days where the battery is at maximum charge for 24 hours (such as

day 30) shows that the wind turbine is supplying the load with maximum efficiency even in

the absence of contribution of the solar PV at night.

43
4.3.4. Converter Performance

Table 10: Simulation results for Converter Performance

Simulation Result Value

Capacity 2.20 kW
Mean Output 0.269 kW
Minimum Output 0 kW
Maximum Output 2.00 kW
Capacity Factor 12.2 %
Hours of Operation 6,187 hrs/yr
Energy Out 2,354 kWh/yr
Energy In 2,453 kWh/yr
Losses 98.1 kWh/yr
.

Figure 15: Graph showing the hourly performance of the converter in a year.

According the figure 15, the converter only attains the maximum output of 2 kW at

about 6pm each day, which is consistent with the load profile used for the simulation.

Between midnight to 4am each morning, the load demand is too low and it can be met

directly by the wind power supply. This explains why the performance of converter is close

to zero.

44
 4.4. Excess Energy Management

The biggest challenge with designing a hybrid renewable energy system is the need to

deal with the excess energy generated. Excess energy is defined as the surplus electrical

energy that must be curtailed or dumped because it cannot be used to serve the current load or

charge the available battery storage unit. Excess energy cannot be absolutely eliminated in a

standalone energy system without under-sizing the system or increasing its capacity shortage

percentage. However, excess energy can be minimized by incorporating a Thermal Load

Controller in the system or dissipating it in a dump load, which is a bank of light bulbs or a

simple resistive heater. The excess energy management options that are currently available

for rural areas include: battery charging and water pumping. It is imperative to study the

distribution of average energy production for each month prior to developing an effective

excess energy management plan.

Table 11: Electrical Energy Production Table 12: Electrical Energy Balance

Production kWh/yr Percentage Quantity kWh/yr Percentage

Solar PV 9,416 62.1 Excess Electricity 10,668 70.35
Wind Turbine 5,748 37.9 AC Primary Load 4,056 26.75
Unmet Electricity Load 3.07 0.0756
Total 15,164 100 Capacity Shortage 4.06 0.0999

From the tables 8, Solar PV and Wind turbine produce up to 9,416 kWh/yr and 5,748

kWh/yr, respectively. However, the model building has an AC Primary Load of 4,056

kWh/yr and no DC Primary Load and Deferrable Load. This implies that only 26.75% of the

energy produced each year is used to meet the energy demand of the model house. The unmet

electricity load and capacity shortage are negligible since they are very close to 0%.

45
 HAWT

Figure 16: Graph showing the monthly energy contribution of the Solar PV and HAWT.

Figure 17: Graph showing the occurrence of Excess energy in kW versus days of the year.

From figure 16 and 17, it can be observed that energy production is highest between

December and March with the wind turbine producing more than half of the monthly total

energy. The highest month with regards to power production is January with over 2 MWh.

Between the months of April to November, the solar contribution is much higher than that of

the wind turbine but the overall energy production is low. Overall, Solar PV contributes about

62.1% while HAWT contributes 37.9% all year round. The highest distribution of excess

energy occurs between the month of December and March, which denote the dry season in

46
Gulu District; thus, opening an opportunity for it to be utilized for irrigation to bolster

agricultural production.

With the continual extension of the utility grid, there is a possibility of grid

integration with the proposed solar PV and wind hybrid energy system. It is worth noting the

introduction of the utility grid will not obliterate the use of the solar PV and wind hybrid

energy system since its LCOE is lower than the unit cost of grid electricity. Furthermore, the

integration of the system with the electricity grid will present an opportunity to sell the excess

energy generated and improve the Net Present Value of the hybrid energy system.

47
 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1. Conclusion

In this study, HOMER Pro software was used to determine the optimal sizing of the

solar PV and wind hybrid energy configuration. A comprehensive economic analysis of the

configuration was performed to evaluate the feasibility and cost-effectiveness of the hybrid

energy system. The simulation of the energy system for a model house with an energy

demand of 11kWh/day revealed that a solar PV and Wind hybrid energy system of 5.32 kW

solar PV, 9 kW Wind turbine and 31 kWh battery is more cost-effective and more reliable

than a standalone solar PV and Wind power system. The Levelized Cost of energy (LCOE) of

the solar PV and wind hybrid renewable system is 0.177 $/kWh, whereas the Net Present

Cost (NPC), Initial Capital Cost (ICC) and Operation Cost are $9276, $5942 and $257.91,

respectively. The results of the simulation shows that this system has a total annual electrical

energy production of 15,164 kWh/yr, with solar PV contributing 62.1% and Wind Turbine

generating 37.9%. On the other hand, the LCOE of the national electricity grid, standalone

solar PV and wind power systems are 0.185 $/kWh, 0.201 $/kWh and 0.736 $/kWh,

respectively. Thus, ta solar PV and wind hybrid energy system is cheaper than the standalone

solar PV and wind power systems and the national electricity grid.

5.2. Recommendations

In this study, the simulation was done using the HOMER Pro in-built dispatch

strategies. I did not formulate a customized dispatch strategy due to time constraint. I

recommend that the load following strategy and cycle charging strategy be replaced with

another dispatch strategy in further research.

In this study, I focused on the economic analysis of the hybrid energy system and did

not venture into the sensitivity analysis. I recommend that the sensitivity analysis be

conducted on the hybrid energy system in further research.

48
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