Note 02 DC Circuit Analysis

The simplest circuits to understand and analyze are those that carry direct current (DC). In this note we
continue our study of DC circuits with the topics of DC voltage and current sources, the idea of an
equivalent circuit, and various techniques of analyzing DC circuits.

Voltage and Current Sources load resistor are at the same potential. In this state the
We have already encountered an example of an source behaves electrically as if it were shorted by a
energy source (battery) in Note 01. Any energy source connecting wire. Though it might seem trivial at this
supplies a voltage and a current, of course. It is useful, stage the idea of a zeroed voltage source will, in fact,
however, to describe a source specifically as a voltage prove useful in our study of Thévenin equivalent
or current source if we place a special meaning on the circuits later in this note.
terms. It is also useful to distinguish between ideal
voltage and current sources and their real (that is, real
V
world) counterparts.
I
The Voltage Source r
By an ideal voltage source (Figure 2-1) we shall mean V ε V = ε − rI
an energy source that is capable of delivering a con-
stant voltage across a load regardless of the current ε
drawn by the load.
€ I
(a) (b)
Figure 2-2. Beyond a certain current a real voltage source (a)
+ +
delivers a voltage V = ε – rI across a load (approximately),
V V where ε is the source’s intrinsic emf and r its internal
– –
resistance.
Figure 2-1. Circuit symbols for an ideal voltage source.

We have already seen in Note 01 that a cell or a 0

battery is a more-or-less ideal voltage source so long
as the current drawn from it is small. As the current
Figure 2-3. If the output of a voltage source is zero then the
drawn rises, however, beyond a certain point, the cell
source can be “replaced” by a shorting wire with no change
begins to behave non-ideally, that is, the voltage ap-
occurring in its electrical behavior.
pearing across its terminals decreases. This behavior
is attributed (at least approximately) to the existence
of an effective internal resistance r in series with the
battery’s emf. Thus in these notes (where we deem it The Current Source
important) we shall represent a real voltage source by A current source is another special case of an energy
the elements drawn in Figure 2-2a. An ideal voltage source. By ideal current source (Figure 2-4) we shall
source would be one whose internal resistance is zero. mean an energy source that is capable of delivering a
r can be measured experimentally. The results of a constant current to a load regardless of the voltage
method for finding r of a real voltage source are developed across the load.
sketched in Figure 2-2b. (We shall take up this topic
again in Example Problem 2-8.) If the terminal voltage
V is plotted vs the output current I beyond the point
where the source behaves non-ideally, then the value I I
of r is (–1) times the slope of the graph.
Even a “dead” or a “zeroed” voltage source is of
some small interest. In Figure 2-3 a dead voltage Figure 2-4. Circuit Symbols for an ideal current source.
source is shown connected to a load resistor. Since the
source is dead then both sides of the source and the

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Note 02
A real current source is much less common than a real
voltage source. A real current source can be made
from a voltage source and a large series resistor or it
can be constructed from a circuit employing a tran-
sistor or an IC chip. If you encounter a real current
source in this course at all it will likely be in the form
of a special power supply.
As you might expect the behavior of a real current
source is not exactly ideal either. The current deliver-
ed by a real current source decreases as the voltage
developed across the load increases beyond a certain
point. This means that a real current source behaves
like an ideal source element in parallel with an inter-
nal resistance (Figure 2-5). An ideal current source
would be one whose internal resistance is infinite.
I r
V
I0 Ri V I = I0 −
€ Ri
Figure 2-5. A real current source behaves (approximately)
like € € source with an internal parallel
an ideal €current
€ €
resistance.
Note finally from Figure 2-6 that a current source with
an output of zero can be replaced by an open circuit
with no change in electrical behavior. “Zeroed”
current and voltage sources are in a sense comple-
mentary.
0
Figure 2-6. A zeroed current source is one which can be
“replaced” by an open circuit with no change in electrical
behavior.
Let us consider a chemical cell as a real source
element.
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Example Problem 2-1
An Example of an Internal Resistance
If a D cell develops 1.5V across its terminals when
unloaded but only 1.3V when connected to a 100 Ω
load, what is the internal resistance of the D cell?
Solution:
The fact that the D cell’s terminal voltage drops from
1.5 V (effectively the cell’s emf) to 1.3 V when the load
resistor is connected means that the cell has an inter-
nal resistance r. The circuit is shown in Figure 2-7.
I
R = 100 Ω
ε = 1.5 V
€
Figure 2-7. A real D cell connected to a load resistor.
We can solve this problem a couple of ways. When R
is connected the current I flowing must be
ΔVR 1.3 (V )
I= = = 0.013 A .
R 100 (Ω)
The voltage drop across r is ∆Vr = 1.5 – 1.3 = 0.2 V.
€ ΔVr 0.2 (V )
Therefore r= = = 15.4 Ω .
I 0.013 (A)
The D cell has an internal resistance of 15.4 Ω.
€
Circuit analysis is essentially the activity of solving for
all unknown circuit parameters. The unknowns might
be the currents that flow in the various branches of
the circuit, the voltages that exist between the various
nodes of the circuit, the effective resistances between
the various nodes and/or combinations of these.
Kirchoff’s rules are useful in solving for these
unknowns. In the next section we consider the
statements of Kirchoff’s rules and apply them to a
number of examples.
 Note 02

Kirchoff’s Rules In symbols,

Consider the multibranch circuit drawn in Figure 2-8.
Suppose that all the circuit parameters are known ∑ ΔV = 0
i around a closed loop 1 …[2-1]
except for the currents I1, I2, and I3. You cannot solve i
for these currents by means of resistor reductions
because of the existence of the voltage sources in the Kirchoff’s Current Rule
two branches of the circuit. (Convince yourself of Kirchoff’s current rule (abbreviated KCR) is commonly
this.) To solve this problem you need to apply€ stated in these words:
Kirchoff’s rules.
A good first step in problems of this kind is to num- The sum of the currents flowing into a node is zero.
ber the nodes and to redraw the circuit to make it as
recognizeable as possible (Figure 2-8b). You can num-
ber the nodes any way you like.
In symbols, ∑I n = 0 into a node 2 … [2-2]
n

Note the phrase into a node. The currents indicated in

I1 Figures 2 are shown flowing into node 2. We assumed
1 2
these directions and they are completely arbitrary. If
4Ω I2 €
in the subsequent analysis we find that the numerical
I3
2Ω value of a current is negative then the actual direction
3V 2Ω of the current is opposite to the direction assumed.

5 4 3
2V
Example Problem 2-2
Figure 2-8a. An example of a multibranch circuit.
Applying Kirchoff’s Rules

I1 I3 Solve for the currents I1, I2 and I3 in Figures 2-8 using

1 2 3 Kirchoff’s rules.
4Ω 2Ω Solution:
3V 2Ω I2 2V To apply Kirchoff’s rules correctly we must observe
the signs of the various voltage changes and current
directions consistently. Applying KVR around the
5 4 4 loop shown in Figure 2-8b defined by the nodes 5-1-2-
Figure 2-8b. Figure 2-8a redrawn to make it more 4-5, we get
recognizeable
+3 − 4I1+ 2I2 = 0 . …[2-3]

NOTE: We are using here the terms branch, loop and (The first voltage change we encounter is across the 3
node. A branch is a physical section of a circuit com- V battery which is +ve, the change across the 4 Ω
prising wire, voltage source, resistors, and so on. A € in the branch 1-2 is negative, and so on).
resistor
node is a point where two or more branches meet. A Applying KVR around the loop defined by the nodes
loop is an imaginary closed path that we traverse in 2-3-4-2 (moving clockwise), we get
the task of calculating potential changes. The path
defined by the nodes 1-2-4-5-1 in Figure 2-8 is a loop. +2I3 + 2 − 2I2 = 0 . …[2-4]
The path marked by the nodes 2-4 is a branch (and of (The first voltage change is that across the 2Ω resistor
course the nodes are numbered). which is +ve, and so forth.)
Applying KCR to node 2 we get
Kirchoff’s Voltage Rule €
Kirchoff’s voltage rule (abbreviated KVR) is commonly
stated in these words:
1
It can be shown that KVR around a closed loop follows from the
fact that the electric field within the conductor forming the loop is a
The sum of voltage changes around a closed loop, or
conservative field.
path, is zero. 2
It can be shown that KCR is a consequence of charge
conservation.

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 Note 02

I1+ I2 + I3 = 0 . …[2-5] imaginary current I1’, I2’ and I3’ (we use a prime to
remind us that these are not in general the true cur-
We can now solve the three simultaneous equations rents). For example, the true current flowing through
(eqs[2-3] through [2-5]) in the usual way. The results the top 3Ω resistor is I1’ – I2’ (or the reverse). Three
are € currents would mean ordinarily that we would need
4 1 9 to solve three simultaneous equations. But one of the
I1 = A, I2 = A, I3 = − A.
5 10 10 loop currents we know already, I1’ = 3 A, making
only two equations actually necessary in this example.
One of the currents (I3) turns out to be negative. This
means that I3’s true direction is opposite to the
€ direction we assumed. To check the consistency of
these results we can find the total potential change ➁
around 1-2-4-5-1 (starting from node 1): 3Ω I2' 2Ω

I1'
4 1 4Ω
− x4 + x2 + 3 = 0 . 3A
5 10 ① 3Ω ➂
I3' 12 V
This is zero as required by KVR.
Figure 2-9. An example of a multibranch circuit to illus-
trate the method of loop or mesh currents.
€
We now continue with three methods that are based
on Kirchoff’s Rules: the methods of Loop currents, node
voltages and superposition. WARNINGS: Make sure that when you move around
a loop you go continuously in the same clockwise or
The Method of Loop Currents counterclockwise direction. Take the current that is
The method of loop currents (also called m e s h flowing in the direction you travel as positive. Avoid
currents) is an advance on the basic Kirchoff’s rules. applying KVR to the loop containing a current source
As we have seen in the basic application of Kirchoff’s as the voltage across a current source is usually not
rules we assign a true current to each branch of a known. 3
circuit and then apply KVR and KCR. The solutions of Applying KVR to loops “2” and “3” keeping the
the resulting simultaneous equations are the “true” warnings in mind we get
currents—the currents that are actually flowing.
But in the method of loop currents we assign an −4I2'+4I3'−3I2'+3I1'−2I2'= 0 …[2-6]
imaginary current, numbered as usual, to each loop. In
a branch of the circuit that is shared by a number of and −3I3'+3I1'−4I3'+4I2'−12 = 0 . …[2-7]
loops more than one loop current will be “flowing”.
We must find the true currents from the solutions of € Substituting I1’ = 3A into eq[2-6] and [2-7] we can
the simultaneous equations; they are, in general, the solve them in the usual way. The results are:
sum or the difference of adjacent loop currents. Used €
carefully this method is superior to the usual method 51 63
I1'= 3 A, I2'= A, I3'= A.
in that we need apply only KVR and we need solve a 47 329
fewer number of equations. Let us consider an
example. Having the loop currents, we can now solve for the
true currents. If we take the true (unprimed) current
€ I1 = I1’ = 3 A, I2 as the current through the 2Ω resistor,
Example Problem 2-3 I3 the current through the upper 3Ω resistor, I4 the
The Method of Loop Currents current through the 4Ω resistor and I5 the current
through the lower 3Ω resistor we have
Solve for the currents in each branch of the circuit in
Figure 2-9 by the method of loop currents. I2 = I2'= 1.08 A, I3 = I1'−I2'= 1.92 A ,
Solution:
We begin by naming the three loops “1”, “2” and “3” 3
as shown. To each of these loops we assign an A current source is conventionally labelled with the value of
€ current it is able to sustain through itself.

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 Note 02
I4 = I3'−I2'= −0.90 A, I5 = I1'−I3'= 2.82 A . Solution:
Following the recipe we obtain these equations for
Note that the current through the 4Ω resistor is nega- nodes 2 and 3:
tive; this means that it is actually flowing to the left.
€ V1− V 2 V 3 − V 2 0 − V 2
+ + =0 …[2-8]
3 4 6
0 − V 3 V1− V 3 V 2 − V 3
Method of Node Voltages 4 and + + = 0. …[2-9]
The method of node voltages also goes by the name of 4 1 4
nodal analysis. The method is another variation on €
Kirchoff’s rules and has the advantage in some in- Note V1 = 3V is obvious. Substituting V1 = 3V results
stances in requiring only KCR. The method consists of in two equations in two unknowns. The results are:
first choosing an arbitrary (but convenient) node to €
serve as a “zero” voltage reference. The voltages at all 36 40
V1 = 3 V, V 2 = V, V 3 = V.
the other nodes are then assigned and referenced to 17 17
this zero voltage. KCR is then applied to each node
and the equations resulting are solved in the usual CHALLENGE: How would you solve this problem
way. In applying this method you may wish to follow any other way?
this four step “recipe”: €
1 Choose a reference node whose voltage can be set
to zero. This node is arbitrary though it is usually Method of Superposition
best to choose the node that is connected directly The method of superposition is also a variation of
to the negative side of the voltage source. Kirchoff’s rules, or at the very least, involves Kirch-
2 Assign voltages V1 , V2 , etc. to the various nodes. off’s rules. Voltages and currents obey a “principle of
3 Apply KCR to the various nodes to derive the superposition” which can be stated as follows:
simultaneous equations.
4 Solve the equations. The current in any branch of a circuit equals the sum of
the currents produced in that branch by each individual
Let us consider an example. independent source with all others zeroed.

The voltage at any node of a circuit equals the sum of the

Example Problem 2-4 voltages produced at that node by each individual
The Method of Node Voltages independent source with all others zeroed.

Solve for the voltages indicated in the circuit in Figure Let us consider an example.
2-10 by the method of node voltages.
Example Problem 2-5
The Method of Superposition
V1 2Ω V2
Solve for the current I1 in the circuit in Figure 2-11a
using the method of superposition.
1Ω
2Ω 4Ω Solution:
3V
This method requires that the sources be zeroed.
4Ω Recall that zeroing a voltage source amounts to re-
V3 placing the source with a short circuit (Figure 2-3) and
0 zeroing a current source amounts to replacing the
source with an open circuit (Figure 2-6). The circuit of
6Ω Figure 2-11a with the sources zeroed results in the
Figure 2-10. A multi-branch circuit for nodal analysis. circuits in Figures 2-11b and c. From Figure 2-11b we
get
4
4
This method lends itself well to computer adaptation. It is used
I1' = A,
in the program Spice and others.
3

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€
Note 02

1Ω 1Ω Thevenin’s Theorem
Thévenin’s theorem can be stated in these words: 5
+
1Ω Any two terminal network is composed of an ideal
4V
– voltage source VTH and a series resistor RTH.
2A I1
The theorem states, in effect, that the circuit in Figure
zero zero
current source (a) 2-12a is equivalent to the one in Figure 2-12b.
voltage source
1Ω 1Ω 1Ω P 1Ω

+ network
4V 1Ω 1Ω
– I1' I1' composed of A
2A unknown
voltage and/or
(b) (c) current sources,
resistors etc. B
Figure 2-11. The process of zeroing the current and voltage
sources in (a) results in (b) and (c) respectively. (a)

by applying Ohm’s law, and from Figure 2-11c we get

A A
+ R TH
2 RN
I1'' = A, – VTH IN
3
B B
by applying the method of node voltages to node P. (b) (c)
The total current is the sum of the two currents:
€ Figure 2-12. According to the theorems the circuit in (a) is
I1 = I1' + I1'' = 2A. electrically the same as the Thévenin equivalent in (b) and
the Norton equivalent in (c).

Clearly, the methods of loop currents, node voltages

and superposition
€ are quite equivalent. You should
try to master all of these methods as each has its own
advantages in particular situations.
Equivalent Circuits
Thus far we have considered techniques for analyzing
circuits whose circuit diagram or internal structure is
known. Sometimes, we are forced to deal with a
circuit whose internal structure is not known. Such a
circuit is often called a “black box”. Fortunately, in
these cases we can usually extract information about
the circuit using the Thévenin and Norton theorems.
These theorems (which are really statements given
without proof) enable us to express a network in
terms of equivalent sources and resistors. The
theorems are useful even when the network’s circuit
diagram is known, for they represent one more way
of reducing a circuit’s compexity. You must
remember, however, that they are applicable only to
networks consisting of linear elements (like voltage
sources and resistors).
VTH and R TH may be found as follows:
1 Calculate (or measure with a suitable instrument)
the open circuit voltage VOC . Then VTH = VOC .
The method of finding R TH depends on whether the
circuit diagram is known or not. If unknown then
2a Short the output and measure the short-circuit
current ISC with a suitable instrument. Then R TH
= VTH/ISC .
If the circuit diagram is known then
2b Zero the voltage and/or current sources and
from the result calculate the effective resistance
R AB between the output terminals AB. Then R TH
= R AB.
5
In some places in the documentation for this course you will
find RTH and V TH written Req and V eq.

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 Note 02

Norton’s Theorem
Norton’s theorem can be stated in these words: r
ε
ε r
Any two terminal network is equivalent to an ideal r
current source IN and a parallel resistor R N .
€ 2-13. Thevenin and Norton equivalents of a real
Figure
The meaning of the theorem is sketched in Figures 2- energy source (Figure 2-2a). €
€ €
12a and c. I N and R N may be found as follows:
1 Calculate (or measure with a suitable instrument)
the short circuit current ISC . Then IN = ISC .
Let us now consider a more complex example.
As in the case of Thévenin’s theorem, the method of
finding RN depends on whether the circuit diagram is
known or not. If known or unknown Example Problem 2-7
2a Calculate (or measure with a suitable instrument) Thévenin and Norton Theorems: An Example with
the open circuit voltage, i.e., V TH. Then R N = Voltage and Current Sources.
VTH/ISC .
Find the Thévenin and Norton equivalents of the two
If the circuit diagram is known, the option is to terminal network shown within the dashed outline of
2b Zero the voltage and/or current sources and from Figure 2-14a.
the result calculate the effective resistance R AB
between the output terminals AB. Then R N = RAB.
1Ω P 1Ω
It follows from this and the previous section that R N =
R TH. A
It should be emphasized here that the theorems are + ① + ➁ +
most useful when the circuit is a complicated one or 4V Vo VTH
– – –
when the circuit diagram is unknown. These cases we 2A
explore in Example Problems 2-7 and 2-8. But first, a I B
simple equivalent. (a)
zero sources short output
1Ω 1Ω 1Ω P 1Ω
Example Problem 2-6 A
A Simple Equivalent R TH = 2Ω IN
B IN – 2 2A
Draw the Thevenin and Norton equivalents of the real
energy source of Figure 2-2a. (b) (d)

Solution:
The open-circuit voltage of Figure 2-2a is automatical-
2Ω A A
ly VOC = VTH = ε. +
Zeroing the voltage source and calculating the effec- 6V 2Ω
– 3A
tive resistance between the output terminals we get

B B
RTH = r = RN . (c) (e)

Now shorting the output and calculating the short Figure 2-14. The Thévenin and Norton equivalent circuits of
circuit current we have (a) are shown in (c) and (e), respectively.
€
ε
ISC = IN = . Solution:
r The steps involved in finding the Thévenin equivalent
are sketched in Figures 2-14a, b and c, for the Norton
Thus the equivalents are as drawn in Figure 2-13.
equivalent in Figures 2-14a, d and e.
€
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Note 02

Thévenin Equivalent
Applying KCR to point P in Figure 2-14a when AB is Example Problem 2-8
open we get Finding a Thévenin Equivalent Experimentally

I + 2 = 0, so that I = −2 A. Explain how the Thévenin equivalent of an active DC

Applying KVR around loops “1” and “2” we get
€ +4 + (2)1− V0 = 0
and V0 + 0 − VTH = 0 .
Solving€these equations we get
VTH = 6V .
€ follow this procedure in Experiment 01.
Now zeroing the sources of Figure 2-14a we get the
circuit in Figure 2-14b. Thus
€
RTH = 2Ω .
Thus the Thévenin equivalent is as given in Figure 2-
14c.
€ Figure 2-15. A setup for finding the Thévenin equivalent of a
Norton Equivalent
By short-circuiting the output of Figure 2-14a we get
the circuit in Figure 2-14d. The short circuit current is
the Norton current IN. Therefore applying KCR to
node P we see that the current delivered by the
battery is IN – 2. Applying KVR around the loop (the
periphery of Figure 2-14d) we get
black box might be found experimentally.
Solution:
This is done using a voltmeter with a large internal
resistance (DMM) and a variable resistor (Figure 2-15).
With RL disconnected (or of very large value) use the
voltmeter to measure the open-circuit voltage, V TH.
Connect the load resistor and vary it until the output
voltage Vo read on the meter drops to 1/2 VTH. The
corresponding value of R L then equals R TH. You will
DC
Black V DMM
RL
Box
DC black box experimentally.
The procedure just described applies equally well to
any kind of “active” black box—from a battery to a
power supply. It does not work for a passive element
like a d’Arsonval meter movement. 6

4 − (IN − 2)1− ( IN )1 = 0 .
Practice Problems
From which IN = 3 A.
From the Thévenin equivalent R N = RTH = 2Ω. The
€ equivalent is as shown in Figure 2-14e.
Norton

Note that you can derive the Thévenin equivalent

from the Norton equivalent and vice versa. For
example, in Figure 2-14c you can find the Norton
current by calculating the current when AB is shorted.
Conversely, the Thévenin voltage is the voltage bet-
ween A and B across the 2 Ω resistor in Figure 2-14e.
You should keep both approaches in mind when
solving problems of this kind; you can often find a
Norton equivalent easier by first solving for the
Thévenin equivalent and vice versa.

6
A method of doing this is described in Experiment 01, “DC
Circuits and Measurements”.

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